1082:
also transported from Beale AFB for purification, storage, and disposal. Trichothecenes
Mycotoxin is a toxin that can be extracted from Wheat Stem Rust and Rice Blast and can kill or incapacitate depending on the concentration used. The "red mold disease" of wheat and barley in Japan is prevalent in the region that faces the Pacific Ocean. Toxic trichothecenes, including nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, and monoace tylnivalenol (fusarenon- X) from Fusarium nivale, can be isolated from moldy grains. In the suburbs of Tokyo, an illness similar to "red mold disease" was described in an outbreak of a food borne disease, as a result of the consumption of Fusarium- infected rice. Ingestion of moldy grains that are contaminated with trichothecenes has been associated with mycotoxicosis.
547:, and Aboriginal people in Australia's North as a more likely source for the introduction of smallpox. She notes that while these fishermen are generally referred to as 'Macassans', referring to the port of Macassar on the island of Sulawesi from which most of the fishermen originated, "some travelled from islands as distant as New Guinea". She noted that there is little disagreement that the smallpox epidemic of the 1860s was contracted from Macassan fishermen and spread through the Aboriginal population by Aborigines fleeing outbreaks and also via their traditional social, kinship and trading networks. She argued that the 1789β90 epidemic followed the same pattern.
563:
islands and from parts of
Sulawesi other than the port of Macassar. Warren concluded that the British were "the most likely candidates to have released smallpox" near Sydney Cove in 1789. Warren proposed that the British had no choice as they were confronted with dire circumstances when, among other factors, they ran out of ammunition for their muskets; he also used Aboriginal oral tradition and archaeological records from indigenous gravesites to analyse the cause and effect of the spread of smallpox in 1789.
502:] the Indians by means of Blankets that may fall in their hands, taking care however not to get the disease myself. As it is pity to oppose good men against them, I wish we could make use of the Spaniard's Method, and hunt them with English Dogs. Supported by Rangers, and some Light Horse, who would I think effectively extirpate or remove that Vermine." After receiving Bouquet's response, Amherst wrote back to him, stating that "You will Do well to try to Innoculate [
1406:, may produce a wide variety of live agents and toxins that are difficult to detect and counter; and new chemical warfare agents and mixtures of chemical weapons and biowarfare agents are being developed . . . Countries are using the natural overlap between weapons and civilian applications of chemical and biological materials to conceal chemical weapon and bioweapon production." By 2011, 165 countries had officially joined the BWC and pledged to disavow biological weapons.
1222:, the first deputy director of Biopreparat defected in 1992. Pathogens developed by the organization would be used in open-air trials. It is known that Vozrozhdeniye Island, located in the Aral Sea, was used as a testing site. In 1971, such testing led to the accidental aerosol release of smallpox over the Aral Sea and a subsequent smallpox epidemic.
2285:
years before Ecuyer's trickery, notably during
Pizarro's conquest of South America in the 16th century. As a whole, the analysis of the various 'pre-microbiological" attempts at biological warfare illustrate the difficulty of differentiating attempted biological attack from naturally occurring epidemics.
2314:
In retrospect, it is difficult to evaluate the tactical success of
Captain Ecuyer's biological attack because smallpox may have been transmitted after other contacts with colonists, as had previously happened in New England and the South. Although scabs from smallpox patients are thought to be of low
2284:
However, in the light of contemporary knowledge, it remains doubtful whether his hopes were fulfilled, given the fact that the transmission of smallpox through this kind of vector is much less efficient than respiratory transmission, and that Native
Americans had been in contact with smallpox >200
863:
on prisoners, and produced biological weapons for combat use. Although the
Japanese effort lacked the technological sophistication of the American or British programs, it far outstripped them in its widespread application and indiscriminate brutality. Biological weapons were used against both Chinese
757:
began lobbying the
British government to establish a research program into the research and development of biological weapons to effectively deter the Germans from launching a biological attack. Banting proposed a number of innovative schemes for the dissemination of pathogens, including aerial-spray
739:
of 1925 prohibited the use of chemical weapons and biological weapons among signatory states in international armed conflicts, but said nothing about experimentation, production, storage, or transfer; later treaties did cover these aspects. Twentieth-century advances in microbiology enabled the first
570:
which took a drastic toll on an
Aboriginal population without immunological resistance. With regard to how smallpox might have reached the Sydney region, Carmody said: "There is absolutely no evidence to support any of the theories and some of them are fanciful and far-fetched." Warren argued against
1108:. The original weaponized form used the M114 bursting bomblet in M33 cluster bombs. While the specific form of the biological bomb was classified until some years after the Korean War, in the various exhibits of biological weapons that Korea alleged were dropped on their country nothing resembled an
1248:
inspection team to having produced 19,000 liters of concentrated botulinum toxin, of which approximately 10,000 L were loaded into military weapons; the 19,000 liters have never been fully accounted for. This is approximately three times the amount needed to kill the entire current human population
1081:
From
January 1962, Rocky Mountain Arsenal "grew, purified and biodemilitarized" plant pathogen Wheat Stem Rust (Agent TX), Puccinia graminis, var. tritici, for the Air Force biological anti-crop program. TX-treated grain was grown at the Arsenal from 1962β1968 in Sections 23β26. Unprocessed TX was
1004:
The United States initiated its weaponization efforts with disease vectors in 1953, focused on Plague-fleas, EEE-mosquitoes, and yellow fever β mosquitoes (OJ-AP). However, US medical scientists in occupied Japan undertook extensive research on insect vectors, with the assistance of former Unit 731
542:
was the source of the epidemic as "smallpox had not occurred in any members of the First Fleet"; the only possible source of infection from the Fleet being exposure to variolous matter imported for the purposes of inoculation against smallpox. Campbell argued that, while there has been considerable
495:
to spread smallpox amongst
Natives. Amherst wrote to Bouquet that: "Could it not be contrived to send the small pox among the disaffected tribes of Indians? We must on this occasion use every stratagem in our power to reduce them." Bouquet replied in a latter, writing that "I will try to inocculate
345:
who had died of plague, as weapons. It has been speculated that this operation may have been responsible for the advent of the Black Death in Europe. At the time, the attackers thought that the stench was enough to kill them, though it was the disease that was deadly. (However in recent years, some
296:
Biologicals were extensively used in many parts of Africa from the sixteenth century AD, most of the time in the form of poisoned arrows, or powder spread on the war front as well as poisoning of horses and water supply of the enemy forces. In Borgu, there were specific mixtures to kill, hypnotize,
301:
as a weapon of war. Several accounts can give an idea of the efficiency of the biologicals. For example, Mockley-Ferryman in 1892 commented on the Dahomean invasion of Borgu, stating that "their (Borgawa) poisoned arrows enabled them to hold their own with the forces of Dahomey notwithstanding the
1202:
was signed by the US, UK, USSR and other nations, as a ban on "development, production and stockpiling of microbes or their poisonous products except in amounts necessary for protective and peaceful research" in 1972. The convention bound its signatories to a far more stringent set of regulations
562:
In 2013, Warren reviewed the issue and argued that smallpox did not spread across Australia before 1824 and showed that there was no smallpox at Macassar that could have caused the outbreak at Sydney. Warren, however, did not address the issue of persons who joined the Macassan fleet from other
797:
in Scotland, during a series of extensive tests, was contaminated with anthrax for the next 48 years. Although Britain never offensively used the biological weapons it developed, its program was the first to successfully weaponize a variety of deadly pathogens and bring them into industrial
550:
These claims are controversial as it is argued that any smallpox virus brought to New South Wales probably would have been sterilised by heat and humidity encountered during the voyage of the First Fleet from England and incapable of biological warfare. However, in 2007, Christopher Warren
297:
make the enemy bold, and to act as an antidote against the poison of the enemy as well. The creation of biologicals was reserved for a specific and professional class of medicine-men. In South Sudan, the people of the Koalit Hills kept their country free of Arab invasions by using
748:
In the interwar period, little research was done in biological warfare in both Britain and the United States at first. In the United Kingdom the preoccupation was mainly in withstanding the anticipated conventional bombing attacks that would be unleashed in the event of war with
508:] the Indians by means of Blankets, as well as to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execrable Race. I should be very glad your Scheme for Hunting them Down by Dogs could take Effect, but England is at too great a Distance to think of that at present."
2657:"Towards more consistent estimates of Aboriginal de-population in the early colonial Australia" by Jack Carmody and Boyd Hunter, presented to Asia-Pacific Economic & Business History conference in Hamilton (University of Waikato) 13β15 February 2014. Text online here
948:, was granted immunity from war crimes prosecution in exchange for providing information to the United States on the Unit's activities. Allegations were made that a "chemical section" of a US clandestine unit hidden within Yokosuka naval base was operational during the
463:, the trader turned militia commander who had come up with the plan, sent an invoice to the British colonial authorities in North America indicating that the purpose of giving the blankets was "to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians." The invoice was approved by General
1061:
In addition to the use of bursting bomblets for creating biological aerosols, the Chemical Corps started investigating aerosol-generating bomblets in the 1950s. The E99 was the first workable design, but was too complex to be manufactured. By the late 1950s the 4.5"
535:, or perhaps convicts or soldiers... deliberately spread smallpox among aborigines", and in 2000, John Lambert argued that "strong circumstantial evidence suggests the smallpox epidemic which ravaged Aborigines in 1789, may have resulted from deliberate infection."
543:
speculation about a hypothetical exposure to the First Fleet's variolous matter, there was no evidence that Aboriginal people were ever actually exposed to it. She pointed to regular contact between fishing fleets from the Indonesia archipelago, where smallpox was
551:
demonstrated that any smallpox which might have been carried onboard the First Fleet may have been still viable upon landing in Australia. Since them, some scholars have argued that smallpox in Australia was deliberately spread by the inhabitants of the British
280:
established commercial and political connections between the Eastern and Western areas of the world, through the most mobile army ever seen. The armies, composed of the most rapidly moving travelers who had ever moved between the steppes of East Asia (where
1015:
then initiated a crash program to weaponize anthrax (N) in the E61 1/2-lb hour-glass bomblet. Though the program was successful in meeting its development goals, the lack of validation on the infectivity of anthrax stalled standardization. The
1203:
than had been envisioned by the 1925 Geneva Protocols. By 1996, 137 countries had signed the treaty; however it is believed that since the signing of the Convention the number of countries capable of producing such weapons has increased.
1237:, but resulted in at least 809 recorded deaths of insurgents. It also caused considerable distress to the local population. The Rhodesians also experimented with several other pathogens and toxins for use in their counterinsurgency.
479:
as outbreaks happened on their own every dozen or so years and the delegates were met again later and seemingly had not contracted smallpox. Trade and combat also provided ample opportunity for transmission of the disease.
390:; rather, they stuck their arrows into the ground in front of them. This allowed them to nock the arrows faster and the dirt and soil was likely to stick to the arrowheads, thus making the wounds much more likely to become
302:
latter's muskets." The same scenario happened to Portuguese raiders in Senegambia when they were defeated by Mali's Gambian forces, and to John Hawkins in Sierra Leone where he lost a number of his men to poisoned arrows.
528:, though this possibility has only been raised by historians from the 1980s onwards, when Noel Butlin suggested "there are some possibilities that... disease could have been used deliberately as an exterminating agent."
937:. They hoped that it would kill tens of thousands of U.S. civilians and thereby dissuade America from attacking Japan. The plan was set to launch on September 22, 1945, at night, but it never came into fruition due to
1066:
was developed; a B-47 bomber with a SUU-24/A dispenser could infect 50% or more of the population of a 16-square-mile (41 km) area with tularemia with the E120. The E120 was later superseded by dry-type agents.
346:
scholarship and research has cast doubt on the use of trebuchets to hurl corpses due to factors such as the size of trebuchets and how close they would have to be constructed due to the hilly landscape in Caffa.)
575:. However, in a 2014 joint paper on historic Aboriginal demography, Carmody and the Australian National University's Boyd Hunter argued that the recorded behavior of the epidemic ruled out smallpox and indicated
1190:
for the military were destroyed in accordance with Nixon's executive order to end the offensive program. The CIA maintained its collection of biologicals well into 1975 when it became the subject of the senate
2960:
809:
When the United States entered the war, mounting British pressure for the creation of a similar research program for an Allied pooling of resources led to the creation of a large industrial complex at
1047:
918:'s 9th Technical Research Institute, left an account of the activities at the Institute which was published in "The Truth About the Army Noborito Institute". Ban included an account of his trip to
285:
was and remains endemic among small rodents), managed to keep the chain of infection without a break until they reached, and infected, peoples and rodents who had never encountered it. The ensuing
1078:
and later triangular bomblets for wider coverage due to improved glide angles over Magnus-lift spherical bomblets. Weapons of this type were in advanced development by the time the program ended.
459:, two blankets and a handkerchief enclosed in small metal boxes that had been exposed to smallpox, in an attempt to spread the disease to the besieging Native warriors in order to end the siege.
1035:
missile warhead and could produce 50% infection over a 7-square-mile (18 km) area. Although tularemia is treatable by antibiotics, treatment does not shorten the course of the disease. US
2909:
1533:
Maves, Ryan C.; Berjohn, Catherine M. (2020). "Zoonotic Infections and Biowarfare Agents in Critical Care: Anthrax, Plague, and Tularemia". In Jorge Hidalgo; Laila Woc-Colburn (eds.).
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by hurling clay pots filled with live scorpions at them. Like Scythian archers, Roman soldiers dipped their swords into excrements and cadavers too β victims were commonly infected by
183:
archers dipped their arrow tips into decomposing cadavers of humans and snakes or in blood mixed with manure, supposedly making them contaminated with dangerous bacterial agents like
1171:
in November 1969, which stopped production of biological weapons in the United States and allowed only scientific research of lethal biological agents and defensive measures such as
922:
in 1941 to participate in the testing of poisons on Chinese prisoners. His testimony tied the Noborito Institute to the infamous Unit 731, which participated in biomedical research.
1027:
Around 1950 the Chemical Corps also initiated a program to weaponize tularemia (UL). Shortly after the E61/N failed to make standardization, tularemia was standardized in the 3.4"
1229:, the Rhodesian government resorted to use chemical and biological warfare agents. Watercourses at several sites inside the Mozambique border were deliberately contaminated with
944:
When the war ended, the US Army quietly enlisted certain members of Noborito in its efforts against the communist camp in the early years of the Cold War. The head of Unit 731,
2315:
infectivity as a result of binding of the virus in fibrin metric, and transmission by fomites has been considered inefficient compared with respiratory droplet transmission.
2661:
1445:
1315:(1990β91), although an Iraqi military BW program was covertly maintained in defiance of international agreements until it was apparently abandoned during 1995 and 1996.
724:
and also tried to ruin wheat harvests with a destructive fungus. Also, Germany itself became a victim of similar attacks β horses bound for Germany were infected with
3612:
2961:"CIA review of "Rikugun Noborito Kenkyujo no shinjitsu [The Truth About the Army Noborito Research Institute]" By Ban Shigeo. Tokyo: Fuyo Shobo Shuppan, 2001"
2619:
2591:
For more detailed discussion of the chickenpox theory, as developed by Carmody and G. E. Ford, and by the archaeologist Barry Wright. (See Knowledge's article on
1420:
1249:
by inhalation, although in practice it would be impossible to distribute it so efficiently, and, unless it is protected from oxygen, it deteriorates in storage.
2964:
2674:
1327:
and American media outlets which contained intentionally prepared anthrax spores; the attack sickened at least 22 people of whom five died. The identity of the
3454:
Working Group on Civilian Biodefense (February 28, 2001), "Consensus Statement: Botulinum Toxin as a Biological Weapon, Medical and Public Health Management",
2503:
Finzsch, Norbert (2008). "Extirpate or remove that vermine: genocide, biological warfare and settler imperialism in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries".
1923:
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the accused, such as Major General Kiyashi Kawashima, testified that as early as 1941 some 40 members of Unit 731 air-dropped plague-contaminated fleas on
1093:
3162:
1159:
In mid-1969, the UK and the Warsaw Pact, separately, introduced proposals to the UN to ban biological weapons, which would lead to the signing of the
3245:
907:
Many of these operations were ineffective due to inefficient delivery systems, using disease-bearing insects rather than dispersing the agent as a
2825:"Scientists and the history of biological weapons: A brief historical overview of the development of biological weapons in the twentieth century"
2807:
1949:
268:
There are numerous other instances of the use of plant toxins, venoms, and other poisonous substances to create biological weapons in antiquity.
3278:
1141:, causing an outbreak of typhoid among the inhabitants. Egyptian troops later claimed to have captured disguised Haganah soldiers near wells in
3200:
3171:
1112:. There were ceramic containers that had some similarity to Japanese weapons used against the Chinese in World War II, developed by Unit 731.
1074:
powder, and can be disseminated as aerosols using gas expulsion devices instead of a burster or complex sprayer. The Chemical Corps developed
955:
Some of the Unit 731 personnel were imprisoned by the Soviets, and may have been a potential source of information on Japanese weaponization.
1001:
in 1952. The programme was cancelled in 1956, when the British government unilaterally renounced the use of biological and chemical weapons.
952:, and then worked on unspecified projects inside the United States from 1955 to 1959, before returning to Japan to enter the private sector.
967:
era by the US, UK and USSR, and probably other major nations as well, although it is generally believed that such weapons were never used.
475:
from 1763 to 1764. It is not clear whether the smallpox was a result of the Fort Pitt incident or the virus was already present among the
2662:
https://www.smh.com.au/business/the-economy/maybe-the-colonialists-didnt-outnumber-our-aboriginal-population-swiftly-20151224-gluntd.html
3360:
Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the Worldβ Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it
2592:
566:
Prior to the publication of Warren's article (2013), a professor of physiology John Carmody argued that the epidemic was an outbreak of
2605:
1394:
are considered, with varying degrees of certainty, to have some biologicalwarfare capability. According to the same 2008 report by the
2470:
983:
3762:
3037:
1450:
1415:
1199:
1160:
1054:
3223:
637:
made some early attempts at anti-agriculture biological warfare. Those attempts were made by special sabotage group headed by
3753:
3713:
Maskiell, Michelle; Mayor, Adrienne (2001). "Killer Khilats: Legends of Poisoned Robes of Honour in India. Parts 1 & 2".
3704:
3655:
3069:
2882:
2380:
2355:
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1987:
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was also unsatisfied with the operational qualities of the M114/US bursting bomblet and labeled it an interim item until the
440:
293:
and roughly a third of the population of Europe and in the next decades, changing the course of Asian and European history.
1782:
Akinwumi, Olayemi (1995). "BIOLOGICALLY-BASED WARFARE IN THE PRE-COLONIAL BORGU SOCIETY OF NIGERIA AND REPUBLIC OF BENIN".
1439:
531:
In 1997, scholar David Day claimed there "remains considerable circumstantial evidence to suggest that officers other than
525:
925:
During the final months of World War II, Japan planned to utilize plague as a biological weapon against U.S. civilians in
56:, sophisticated bacteriological and virological techniques allowed the production of significant stockpiles of weaponized
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2783:
1395:
1355:
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attackers used catapults to throw dead (but not plague-infected) bodies and 2000 carriage-loads of dung over the walls.
2623:
2184:
934:
696:, that produced glanders which was used to infect livestock in ports and inland collection points including, at least,
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262:
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soldiers and civilians in several military campaigns. Three veterans of Unit 731 testified in a 1989 interview to the
3637:
3367:
3022:
2763:
2443:
2209:
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1043:. There were also many unpublicized tests carried out in public places with bio-agent simulants during the Cold War.
844:
468:
451:. During a parley in the middle of the siege on June 24, Captain Simeon Ecuyer gave representatives of the besieging
1435:
877:
227:
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population to measles, of which many of them died. London wrote another science fiction tale the following year, "
1256:
1168:
2395:
Foley, Dennis (2001). "Repossession of our Spirit: Traditional Owners of Northern Sydney". Also Davis, Jack, in
2791:
2736:
1691:
1342:
Suspicions of an ongoing Iraqi biological warfare program were not substantiated in the wake of the March 2003
3111:
3315:"The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea (first chapter on line)"
3181:
3159:
1154:
3084:
1259:
eight countries were generally reported as having undeclared offensive biological warfare programs in 1995:
1179:. The biological munition stockpiles were destroyed, and approximately 2,200 researchers became redundant.
3545:
Adherence To and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments
2646:
2225:
Ranlet, P (2000). "The British, the Indians, and smallpox: what actually happened at Fort Pitt in 1763?".
3800:
3298:"Wartime Lies? Two historians contend that the United States engaged in germ warfare nearly 50 years ago"
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1183:
1122:
897:
123:
when ingested, there is no evidence that they poisoned enemy wells with the fungus, as has been claimed.
471:. A reported outbreak that began the spring before left as many as one hundred Native Americans dead in
2144:
1801:
Archibald, R. G. (1927-03-25). "The Tsetse Fly-Belt Area in the Nuba Mountains Province of the Sudan".
407:
The last known incident of using plague corpses for biological warfare may have occurred in 1710, when
2804:
1958:
1609:
Sathua, Kshirod; Flora, S. J. S. (1 January 2020). "Chapter 2 - Bacterial biological warfare agents".
1323:
On September 18, 2001, and for a few days thereafter, several letters were received by members of the
3347:
998:
614:
3197:
1728:
Greek Fire, Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World
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Greek Fire, Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World
107:
The earliest documented incident of the intention to use biological weapons is possibly recorded in
2002:
1513:
Greek Fire, Poison Arrows, and Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World
1214:, despite having signed the convention. The United States had no solid proof of this program until
448:
3490:
Clostridium botulinum toxin development in refrigerated reduced oxygen packaged Atlantic croaker (
1291:. Five countries had admitted to having had offensive weapon or development programs in the past:
317:. Bodies would be tied along with cannonballs and shot towards the city area. In 1346, during the
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185:
84:
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3246:"Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Chapter 34 TRICHOTHECENE MYCOTOXINS p.659"
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1311:. Offensive BW programs in Iraq were dismantled by Coalition Forces and the UN after the first
1145:, whom they executed for allegedly attempting another attack. Israel denies these allegations.
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517:
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the United States had only weaponized one agent, brucellosis ("Agent US"), which is caused by
3379:
Leitenberg, M. (2001). "Biological Weapons in the Twentieth Century: A Review and Analysis".
1709:"Honey culture in Byzantium: an outline of textual, iconographic and archaeological evidence"
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also accused the United States of spreading human and animal disease on their island nation.
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carrying the bubonic plague. A film showing this operation was seen by the imperial princes
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1924:"Catapulting corpses? A famous case of medieval biological warfare probably never happened"
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689:
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3525:. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. August 1993. pp. 63β65. OTA-ISC-559
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8:
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toxins, although the war was over before these weapons could be of much operational use.
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3745:
Plague, The Mysterious Past and Terrifying Future of the World's Most Dangerous Disease
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Chemical and biological warfare : a comprehensive survey for the concerned citizen
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2020:
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Chemical and biological warfare : a comprehensive survey for the concerned citizen
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The CB Battlefield Legacy: Understanding the Potential Problem of Clustered CB Weapons
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continued research and production of offensive biological weapons in a program called
1085:
Although there is no evidence that biological weapons were used by the United States,
817:. The biological and chemical weapons developed during that period were tested at the
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Flora, S.J.S. (2020). "Biological warfare agents: History and modern-day relevance".
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The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea,
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309:, victims of the bubonic plague were used for biological attacks, often by flinging
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The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea
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Invisible Invaders: Smallpox and Other Diseases in Aboriginal Australia 1780 β 1880
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Our Original Aggression: Aboriginal Populations of Southeastern Australia 1788β1850
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South Africa and weapons of mass destruction Β§ Biological and chemical weapons
1233:. These biological attacks had little overall impact on the fighting capability of
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148:
108:
43:
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poisoned the wells of besieged enemy cities in about 130 BC. In about AD 198, the
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were driven into enemy lands, causing an epidemic. Although the Assyrians knew of
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and couriers, the German General Staff supplied small teams of saboteurs in the
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971:
638:
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412:
361:
318:
290:
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152:
3726:
2701:"Anthrax Sabotage in Finland or Baron Von Rosen's Sugar-coated Anthrax Weapon"
2516:
1666:
11.5β6. Herodian 3.9.3β8 and Dio Cassius 68.31β75 and Epitome 75.10 and 76.10.
856:
668:
in stables of Russian horses in 1916. Anthrax was also supplied to the German
3794:
3085:"Quarterly Report Rocky Mountain Arsenal Archive July 1 β September 30, 1962"
2836:
2101:
2044:
1822:
1399:
1324:
1292:
1253:
1164:
893:
865:
709:
657:
634:
484:
460:
330:
277:
3467:
2270:
2253:
1409:
487:, who was leading a relief attempt towards Fort Pitt, wrote to his superior
222:
and instructed his sailors to throw them onto the decks of enemy ships. The
3548:, Washington, DC: US Department of State; 2005. Accessed November 18, 2008.
3475:
3400:
3392:
2854:
2279:
2238:
2109:
2062:
2036:
1894:
1876:
1535:
Highly Infectious Diseases in Critical Care: A Comprehensive Clinical Guide
1328:
1207:
1172:
1138:
1063:
1028:
750:
725:
721:
588:
556:
552:
472:
342:
334:
223:
1039:
were used as consenting test subjects for tularemia in a program known as
365:
3561:
Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapons and Missiles: Status and Trends
2093:
1379:
1332:
1280:
1211:
1090:
975:
945:
826:
786:
770:
766:
618:
610:
598:
539:
464:
456:
419:(Tallinn) (although this is disputed). However, during the 1785 siege of
306:
286:
196:
3422:
Legvold, R. (2012). "The Soviet Biological Weapons Program: A History".
2557:
Warren, Christopher (2013). "Smallpox at Sydney Cove β Who, When, Why".
1421:
United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction Β§ Biological weapons
836:
However, the most notorious program of the period was run by the secret
825:. Soon there were facilities for the mass production of anthrax spores,
3685:
3664:
Knollenberg, Bernhard (1954β1955). "General Amherst and Germ Warfare".
3502:
2647:
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14443058.2013.849750#preview
2078:"The History of Biological Weapons Use: What We Know and What We Don't"
1142:
1101:
1097:
949:
930:
908:
576:
567:
357:, the attackers catapulted decomposing animals into the besieged area.
298:
203:
131:
57:
3643:
2459:. Melbourne University Press. Foreword & pp. 55, 61, 73β74, 181.
2347:
1863:
Wheelis M. (2002), "Biological warfare at the 1346 siege of Caffa.",
1176:
1109:
979:
926:
852:
778:
713:
705:
673:
661:
593:
391:
322:
258:
180:
176:
172:
112:
91:
73:
3677:
3453:
1708:
720:. In Argentina, German agents also employed glanders in the port of
3057:
2987:
Murderous Medicine: Nazi Doctors, Human Experimentation, and Typhus
2373:
War Made New: Weapons, Warriors, and the Making of the Modern World
2329:
A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724β1774
1430:
1312:
1241:
987:
964:
840:
830:
790:
677:
538:
Judy Campbell argued in 2002 that it is highly improbable that the
314:
211:
207:
120:
80:
69:
2344:
Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents, Second Edition
415:
troops by flinging plague-infected corpses over the city walls of
3519:
Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks
3442:
Dirty War: Rhodesia and Chemical Biological Warfare, 1975 to 1980
3112:
Chapter 6 β An Overview of Emerging Missile State Countermeasures
3000:"Weapons of Mass Destruction: Plague as Biological Weapons Agent"
1230:
1130:
919:
901:
869:
848:
692:
established a secret lab in the basement of his sister's home in
665:
606:
544:
420:
373:
369:
326:
247:
142:
65:
39:
740:
pure-culture biological agents to be developed by World War II.
2141:
American Indian Chronology: Chronologies of the American Mosaic
1391:
1383:
1375:
1308:
1300:
1296:
1288:
1272:
1182:
Special munitions for the United States Special Forces and the
1071:
881:
664:. In Finland, saboteurs mounted on reindeer placed ampoules of
476:
452:
387:
338:
313:
such as infected corpses and excrement over castle walls using
310:
168:
164:
156:
32:
3784:
Dirty War: Rhodesia and Chemical Biological Warfare, 1975β1980
896:
during a screening made by mastermind Shiro Ishii. During the
2721:
Croddy, Eric; Perez-Armendariz, Clarissa; Hart, John (2002).
1676:
Croddy, Eric; Perez-Armendariz, Clarissa; Hart, John (2002).
1387:
1367:
1359:
1351:
1284:
1276:
1260:
1234:
1086:
990:
416:
383:
239:
235:
136:
127:
116:
95:
28:
3213:, pp. 25β29, JulyβDecember 2006, accessed November 16, 2008.
963:
Considerable research into BW was undertaken throughout the
2875:
Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II
2872:
1371:
1363:
1268:
1264:
1115:
1096:
of large-scale field testing of BW against them during the
885:
822:
254:
24:
3692:
2720:
1675:
1331:
remains unknown, although in 2008 authorities stated that
1148:
3591:"26 Countries' WMD Programs; A Global History of WMD Use"
2805:"A History of Fort Detrick, Maryland", 4th Edition: 2000.
2538:
Mear, C. "The origin of the smallpox in Sydney in 1789".
1410:
List of historical biological weapons programs by country
605:"' (1909), described a punitive European expedition to a
504:
498:
2471:"Could First Fleet smallpox infect Aborigines? β A note"
46:, animals, or plants (living or dead) in a weapon system
2780:
Betrayal of Trust: The Collapse of Global Public Health
1777:
1775:
1773:
1354:'s biological warfare program. In 2008, according to a
793:
toxins had been effectively weaponized. In particular,
758:
attacks and germs distributed through the mail system.
617:" (1910), in which the Western nations wipe out all of
19:, the use of biological agents took three major forms:
2911:
Japan triggered bubonic plague outbreak, doctor claims
1537:. Springer International Publishing. pp. 97β118.
859:. This unit did research on BW, conducted often fatal
765:
finally established a biological weapons programme at
147:
spears and arrows were tipped with poison. During the
3348:
NTI: Country Overviews: Israel: Biological Chronology
3023:"Where To Find The World's Most 'Wicked Bugs': Fleas"
904:. These operations caused epidemic plague outbreaks.
2397:
Aborigines of the West: Their Past and Their Present
1770:
1515:, The Overlook Press, Peter Mayer Publishers, Inc.,
680:, which was employed against livestock destined for
2556:
1794:
806:, had begun their own biological-weapons programs.
591:had made thinking about "germ warfare" part of the
3160:Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare
2540:Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society
1829:
289:may have killed up to 25 million total, including
163:poisoned the water supply of the besieged town of
49:Use of biologically inoculated fabrics and persons
2202:Blood and Land: The Story of Native North America
337:more than a century earlier), used the bodies of
3792:
3663:
2423:Claiming a Continent: a new history of Australia
2254:"History of biological warfare and bioterrorism"
1835:
1749:
993:. Trial tests at sea were carried out including
868:that they contaminated the Horustein river with
3696:Plague Wars: a true story of biological warfare
3488:Rheinhart, Courtney Elizabeth (30 April 2007).
3144:American Experience biological weapons timeline
3101:
3053:
3051:
3035:
2868:
2866:
2864:
2399:ed. Berndt, RM and CH (1980), UWA Press, Perth.
2341:
2302:. Government Printing Office. 2007. p. 3.
1137:bacteria into the water supply for the city of
970:In Britain, the 1950s saw the weaponization of
3447:
3058:Stephen Lyon Endicott; Edward Hageman (1998),
2929:
2786:), Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 340-41, (
1803:Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology
427:forces flung diseased clothing into the city.
257:as guided biological weapons was described in
3712:
3289:
587:By the turn of the 20th century, advances in
3748:, Simon & Schuster, Inc., New York, NY,
3741:
3557:
3496:(Masters thesis). Virginia Tech University.
3276:
3048:
2861:
2331:. University of Nebraska Press. p. 195.
1906:
1743:
1532:
3510:
3456:Journal of the American Medical Association
3170:: Chapter 20 β Use of Biological Weapons, (
3020:
2751:
2714:
2667:
2251:
1651:Tomorrow's Weapons: Chemical and Biological
1611:Handbook on Biological Warfare Preparedness
1608:
1570:Handbook on Biological Warfare Preparedness
743:
119:, a parasitic fungus of rye which produces
111:texts of 1500β1200 BC, in which victims of
3642:
3378:
3216:
3180:, Textbooks of Military Medicine, PDF via
2935:
2758:. Discovery Publishing House. p. 36.
1862:
1706:
1669:
1129:reports raised suspicion that the Israeli
3501:
3487:
3481:
3077:
2844:
2822:
2606:"Chickenpox blamed for Aboriginal deaths"
2269:
2052:
1973:
1971:
1884:
1800:
1542:
573:Smallpox at Sydney Cove β Who, When, Why?
3583:
3279:"Did the US wage germ warfare in Korea?"
3192:
3190:
2370:
2326:
2179:. Harvard University Press. p. 97.
2021:"Biological Warfare in the 17th Century"
1781:
1451:Rhodesia and weapons of mass destruction
1416:United States biological weapons program
1045:
1031:. This was intended for delivery by the
397:
3628:Endicott, Stephen and Edward Hagerman,
3551:
3421:
3238:
2772:
2502:
2320:
1941:
1909:Biological Weapons limiting the threat.
1730:, Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Duckworth,
1491:. Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Duckworth.
1200:Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention
1161:Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention
1149:Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention
1055:Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention
1053:, developed before the U.S. signed the
652:, and in the then-neutral countries of
242:, Iraq) repulsed the Roman army led by
3793:
3352:
2955:
2953:
2951:
2949:
2947:
2873:Peter Williams; David Wallace (1989),
2425:. Angus & Robertson, Sydney, p63f.
2224:
2218:
1977:
1968:
571:the chickenpox theory at endnote 3 of
271:
3693:Mangold, Tom; Goldberg, Jeff (1999),
3614:Medical Aspects of Biological Warfare
3295:
3224:"TX Anticrop Agent & Project 112"
3187:
2299:Medical Aspects of Biological Warfare
2174:
2168:
2138:
2127:Native Americans of the Pontiac's War
2121:
2119:
2075:
2018:
1921:
1839:Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500-1800
1753:Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500-1800
1725:
1567:
1486:
1463:Biological warfare in popular culture
3666:Mississippi Valley Historical Review
3358:Alibek, K. and S. Handelman (2000).
3114:, p. 14, accessed November 12, 2008.
2199:
1440:Iraq and weapons of mass destruction
855:and commanded by Lieutenant General
491:to discuss the possibility of using
3569:U.S. Congressional Research Service
3125:"Hidden history of US germ testing"
2944:
2681:. Federation of American Scientists
2342:D. Hank Ellison (August 24, 2007).
2335:
2258:Clinical Microbiology and Infection
1947:
1396:U.S. Congressional Research Service
1356:U.S. Congressional Research Service
798:production. Other nations, notably
761:With the onset of hostilities, the
13:
3775:
3558:Paul K. Kerr (February 20, 2008).
2468:
2139:White, Phillip M. (June 2, 2011).
2116:
1836:John K. Thornton (November 2002).
1750:John K. Thornton (November 2002).
1653:, New York, New York: McGraw-Hill.
1619:10.1016/B978-0-12-812026-2.00002-5
1578:10.1016/b978-0-12-812026-2.00001-3
935:Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night
872:near the Soviet troops during the
624:
511:
263:Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise
14:
3817:
3632:Indiana University Press (1998).
3444:. Solihull: Helion & Company.
2940:, HarperCollins, pp. 220β221
2019:Carus, W. Seth (September 2016).
1928:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
1426:Soviet biological weapons program
1335:was likely the perpetrator. (See
1225:During the closing stages of the
1163:in 1972. United States President
1024:could deliver a superior weapon.
958:
773:. The research was championed by
609:island deliberately exposing the
469:Commander-in-Chief, North America
265:in the chapter On Naval Warfare.
3605:
3381:Critical Reviews in Microbiology
3036:Russell Working (June 5, 2001).
2675:"Biowarfare Against Agriculture"
2537:
1436:Iraqi biological weapons program
1100:(1950β1953). At the time of the
914:Ban Shigeo, a technician at the
878:Imperial Japanese Army Air Force
430:
3537:
3434:
3415:
3372:
3341:
3330:
3307:
3270:
3151:
3135:
3117:
3029:
3014:
2992:
2979:
2916:
2903:
2890:
2816:
2797:
2745:
2693:
2651:
2637:
2612:
2598:
2585:
2550:
2531:
2496:
2462:
2449:
2428:
2415:
2402:
2389:
2364:
2290:
2252:Barras V, Greub G (June 2014).
2245:
2193:
2151:
2132:
2069:
2012:
1995:
1922:Field, Matt (August 10, 2023).
1915:
1900:
1856:
1784:Transafrican Journal of History
1719:
1318:
1257:Office of Technology Assessment
1064:E120 spraying spherical bomblet
1029:M143 bursting spherical bomblet
813:in 1942 under the direction of
769:, headed by the microbiologist
582:
522:smallpox outbreaks in Australia
130:epic poems about the legendary
3277:Julian Ryall (June 10, 2010).
3021:Amy Stewart (April 25, 2011).
2831:. 7 Spec No (Spec No): S45β9.
1951:Biological warfare before 1914
1815:10.1080/00034983.1927.11684517
1700:
1656:
1643:
1602:
1561:
1526:
1505:
1480:
1070:Dry-type biologicals resemble
1:
3184:, accessed November 12, 2008.
3182:Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base
2644:Journal of Australian Studies
2559:Journal of Australian Studies
2327:McConnel, Michael N. (1997).
2076:Carus, W. Seth (2015-08-01).
1468:
1155:Biological Weapons Convention
753:. As tensions increased, Sir
3786:, Helion & Company, 2017
3064:, Indiana University Press,
2727:. Copernicus Books. p.
2571:10.1080/14443058.2013.849750
2505:Journal of Genocide Research
2375:. Gotham. pp. 245β250.
2371:Max Boot (August 16, 2007).
2025:Emerging Infectious Diseases
1682:. Copernicus Books. p.
1473:
1346:. Later that year, however,
524:were a deliberate result of
179:, during the 4th century BC
102:
23:Deliberate contamination of
7:
3337:Typhoid- Biological Weapons
3296:Regis, Ed (June 27, 1999),
2936:Barenblatt, Daniel (2004),
2755:Biological Agents, Volume 2
1707:Germanidou, Sophia (2018).
1544:10.1007/978-3-030-33803-9_6
1456:
1350:was persuaded to terminate
898:Khabarovsk War Crime Trials
884:with ceramic bombs full of
732:operatives in Switzerland.
382:usually did not draw their
10:
3822:
3611:Dembek, Zygmunt (editor),
2803:Covert, Norman M. (2000),
2436:Brokers of Cultural Change
2204:. Penguin UK. p. 73.
2145:Greenwood Publishing Group
1907:Lederberg J., ed. (2001),
1152:
621:with a biological attack.
493:smallpox-infested blankets
439:, in June 1763 a group of
329:Forces (subjugated by the
218:had clay pots filled with
202:In a naval battle against
3727:10.1080/00155870120037920
2517:10.1080/14623520802065446
2481:: 152β164. Archived from
2412:. Allen & Unwin, Syd.
1978:Hobbes, Nicholas (2003),
1842:. Routledge. p. 44.
1613:. Academic Press: 13β31.
1511:Mayor, Andrienne (2003),
1005:staff, as early as 1946.
615:The Unparalleled Invasion
402:
261:written sources, such as
3025:. National Public Radio.
2837:10.1038/sj.embor.7400689
2434:Lambert, J. T. (2000).
2175:Jones, David S. (2004).
1726:Mayor, Adrienne (2003),
1649:Rothschild J.H. (1964),
1344:invasion of that country
984:equine encephalomyelitis
744:Interwar period and WWII
325:, Crimea) the attacking
85:Viral hemorrhagic fevers
3492:Micropogonias undulatus
3468:10.1001/jama.285.8.1059
3038:"The trial of Unit 731"
2455:Campbell, Judy (2002).
2271:10.1111/1469-0691.12706
2200:King, J. C. H. (2016).
2177:Rationalizing Epidemics
1244:, Iraq admitted to the
1240:After the 1991 Persian
1127:International Red Cross
1123:1947β1949 Palestine war
1076:Flettner rotor bomblets
1051:E120 biological bomblet
1037:conscientious objectors
1018:United States Air Force
601:, in his short story '"
483:A month later, Colonel
186:Clostridium perfringens
171:) with the toxic plant
17:Before the 20th century
3393:10.1080/20014091096774
2938:A Plague upon Humanity
2924:A Plague upon Humanity
2037:10.3201/eid2209.152073
1877:10.3201/eid0809.010536
1218:defected in 1989, and
1058:
874:Battle of Khalkhin Gol
838:Imperial Japanese Army
819:Dugway Proving Grounds
811:Fort Detrick, Maryland
518:Aboriginal Australians
35:or contagious material
3742:Orent, Wendy (2004),
3699:, Macmillan, London,
3648:Biowarfare In America
3571:. p. 14. RL30699
3440:Cross, Glenn (2017).
2823:Guillemin, J (2006).
2408:Butlin, Noel (1983).
1133:militia had released
1049:
694:Chevy Chase, Maryland
526:European colonisation
398:17th and 18th century
3210:Army Chemical Review
3002:. GlobalSecurity.org
2752:S.k. Prasad (2009).
2227:Pennsylvania History
2161:, 541β42; Jennings,
2094:10.1089/hs.2014.0092
2003:"Biological Warfare"
1337:2001 anthrax attacks
941:on August 15, 1945.
690:Anton Casimir Dilger
686:intelligence officer
360:In 1422, during the
353:in 1340, during the
3761:Pala, Christopher,
3650:, Illuminet Press,
2922:Daniel Barenblatt,
2421:Day, David (1996).
2350:. pp. 87β100.
1980:Essential Militaria
1404:genetic engineering
1398:, "Developments in
1041:Operation Whitecoat
718:Covington, Kentucky
489:Sir Jeffery Amherst
437:Pontiac's Rebellion
272:Post-classical ages
161:Amphictionic League
155:, in about 590 BC,
54:In the 20th century
3801:Biological warfare
3771:(12 January 2003).
3768:The New York Times
3319:The New York Times
3302:The New York Times
3203:2012-10-19 at the
3165:2012-08-26 at the
3157:Eitzen, Edward M.
3147:, 15 December 2006
3131:, 13 February 2006
2898:Unit 731 testimony
2810:2012-01-21 at the
2620:"Welcome to CAEPR"
2475:Aboriginal History
1982:, Atlantic Books,
1572:. Elsevier: 1β11.
1227:Rhodesian Bush War
1216:Vladimir Pasechnik
1059:
1010:United States Army
995:Operation Cauldron
763:Ministry of Supply
643:diplomatic pouches
520:have claimed that
467:, then serving as
380:English Longbowmen
355:Hundred Years' War
192:Clostridium tetani
64:Bacterial agents:
3755:978-0-7432-3685-0
3721:: 23β45, 163β82.
3706:978-0-333-71614-4
3657:978-1-881532-21-7
3595:usiraq.procon.org
3071:978-0-253-33472-5
2884:978-0-02-935301-1
2778:Garrett, Laurie.
2382:978-1-59240-315-8
2357:978-0-8493-1434-6
2309:978-0-16-087238-9
2163:Empire of Fortune
1989:978-1-84354-229-2
1964:on March 26, 2009
1849:978-1-135-36584-4
1763:978-1-135-36584-4
1737:978-1-58567-348-3
1662:Cornelius Nepos,
1554:978-3-030-33802-2
1498:978-1-58567-348-3
1431:Japanese Unit 731
1252:According to the
1220:Kanatjan Alibekov
939:Japan's surrender
890:Tsuneyoshi Takeda
861:human experiments
775:Winston Churchill
755:Frederick Banting
633:(1914β1918), the
244:Septimius Severus
44:biological toxins
3813:
3763:"Anthrax Island"
3758:
3738:
3709:
3689:
3660:
3623:Borden Institute
3599:
3598:
3587:
3581:
3580:
3578:
3576:
3566:
3555:
3549:
3541:
3535:
3534:
3532:
3530:
3524:
3514:
3508:
3507:
3505:
3485:
3479:
3478:
3451:
3445:
3438:
3432:
3431:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3376:
3370:
3356:
3350:
3345:
3339:
3334:
3328:
3327:
3326:
3325:
3311:
3305:
3304:
3293:
3287:
3286:
3274:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3257:
3251:. Archived from
3250:
3242:
3236:
3235:
3233:
3231:
3220:
3214:
3194:
3185:
3177:Borden Institute
3155:
3149:
3148:
3139:
3133:
3132:
3121:
3115:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3094:
3089:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3055:
3046:
3045:
3033:
3027:
3026:
3018:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3007:
2996:
2990:
2985:Naomi Baumslag,
2983:
2977:
2976:
2974:
2972:
2967:on June 13, 2007
2963:. Archived from
2957:
2942:
2941:
2933:
2927:
2920:
2914:
2907:
2901:
2894:
2888:
2887:
2870:
2859:
2858:
2848:
2820:
2814:
2801:
2795:
2776:
2770:
2769:
2749:
2743:
2742:
2718:
2712:
2711:
2709:
2708:
2697:
2691:
2690:
2688:
2686:
2671:
2665:
2655:
2649:
2641:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2631:
2622:. Archived from
2616:
2610:
2609:
2602:
2596:
2593:The History Wars
2589:
2583:
2582:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2535:
2529:
2528:
2500:
2494:
2493:
2491:
2490:
2466:
2460:
2453:
2447:
2432:
2426:
2419:
2413:
2406:
2400:
2393:
2387:
2386:
2368:
2362:
2361:
2339:
2333:
2332:
2324:
2318:
2317:
2294:
2288:
2287:
2273:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2172:
2166:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2136:
2130:
2123:
2114:
2113:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2056:
2031:(9): 1663β1664.
2016:
2010:
2009:
1999:
1993:
1992:
1975:
1966:
1965:
1963:
1957:, archived from
1956:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1888:
1865:Emerg Infect Dis
1860:
1854:
1853:
1833:
1827:
1826:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1779:
1768:
1767:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1704:
1698:
1697:
1673:
1667:
1660:
1654:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1565:
1559:
1558:
1546:
1530:
1524:
1509:
1503:
1502:
1487:Mayor A (2003).
1484:
1193:Church Committee
1188:Big Five Weapons
1135:Salmonella typhi
1121:During the 1948
684:service. German
670:military attachΓ©
650:Duchy of Finland
447:to British-held
441:Native Americans
411:forces attacked
366:Karlstein Castle
349:At the siege of
341:warriors of the
228:Manius Aquillius
149:First Sacred War
3821:
3820:
3816:
3815:
3814:
3812:
3811:
3810:
3791:
3790:
3789:
3778:
3776:Further reading
3756:
3707:
3678:10.2307/1897495
3658:
3608:
3603:
3602:
3589:
3588:
3584:
3574:
3572:
3564:
3556:
3552:
3542:
3538:
3528:
3526:
3522:
3516:
3515:
3511:
3486:
3482:
3452:
3448:
3439:
3435:
3424:Foreign Affairs
3420:
3416:
3377:
3373:
3357:
3353:
3346:
3342:
3335:
3331:
3323:
3321:
3313:
3312:
3308:
3294:
3290:
3275:
3271:
3261:
3259:
3255:
3248:
3244:
3243:
3239:
3229:
3227:
3222:
3221:
3217:
3205:Wayback Machine
3195:
3188:
3167:Wayback Machine
3156:
3152:
3141:
3140:
3136:
3123:
3122:
3118:
3108:Countermeasures
3106:
3102:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3083:
3082:
3078:
3072:
3056:
3049:
3042:The Japan Times
3034:
3030:
3019:
3015:
3005:
3003:
2998:
2997:
2993:
2984:
2980:
2970:
2968:
2959:
2958:
2945:
2934:
2930:
2921:
2917:
2908:
2904:
2900:, 1996, p.64-66
2895:
2891:
2885:
2871:
2862:
2821:
2817:
2812:Wayback Machine
2802:
2798:
2777:
2773:
2766:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2719:
2715:
2706:
2704:
2699:
2698:
2694:
2684:
2682:
2673:
2672:
2668:
2656:
2652:
2642:
2638:
2629:
2627:
2618:
2617:
2613:
2604:
2603:
2599:
2590:
2586:
2555:
2551:
2536:
2532:
2501:
2497:
2488:
2486:
2467:
2463:
2454:
2450:
2433:
2429:
2420:
2416:
2407:
2403:
2394:
2390:
2383:
2369:
2365:
2358:
2340:
2336:
2325:
2321:
2310:
2296:
2295:
2291:
2250:
2246:
2223:
2219:
2212:
2198:
2194:
2187:
2173:
2169:
2159:Crucible of War
2156:
2152:
2137:
2133:
2124:
2117:
2082:Health Security
2074:
2070:
2017:
2013:
2007:EMedicineHealth
2001:
2000:
1996:
1990:
1976:
1969:
1961:
1954:
1948:Wheelis, Mark,
1946:
1942:
1932:
1930:
1920:
1916:
1905:
1901:
1861:
1857:
1850:
1834:
1830:
1799:
1795:
1780:
1771:
1764:
1748:
1744:
1738:
1724:
1720:
1705:
1701:
1694:
1674:
1670:
1661:
1657:
1648:
1644:
1629:
1607:
1603:
1588:
1566:
1562:
1555:
1531:
1527:
1510:
1506:
1499:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1459:
1412:
1348:Muammar Gaddafi
1321:
1169:executive order
1157:
1151:
1033:MGM-29 Sergeant
961:
894:Takahito Mikasa
876:. In 1940, the
815:George W. Merck
795:Gruinard Island
746:
737:Geneva Protocol
712:, and probably
688:and US citizen
631:First World War
627:
625:First World War
585:
514:
512:New South Wales
477:Delaware people
433:
405:
400:
274:
220:venomous snakes
175:. According to
105:
12:
11:
5:
3819:
3809:
3808:
3803:
3788:
3787:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3773:
3772:
3759:
3754:
3739:
3710:
3705:
3690:
3672:(3): 489β494.
3661:
3656:
3640:
3626:
3619:Washington, DC
3607:
3604:
3601:
3600:
3582:
3550:
3536:
3509:
3480:
3462:(8): 1059β70,
3446:
3433:
3414:
3387:(4): 267β320.
3371:
3351:
3340:
3329:
3306:
3288:
3269:
3237:
3215:
3196:Kirby, Reid. "
3186:
3150:
3134:
3116:
3100:
3076:
3070:
3047:
3028:
3013:
2991:
2978:
2943:
2928:
2915:
2902:
2889:
2883:
2877:, Free Press,
2860:
2815:
2796:
2771:
2764:
2744:
2737:
2713:
2703:. Geocities.ws
2692:
2666:
2650:
2636:
2611:
2597:
2584:
2549:
2530:
2511:(2): 215β232.
2495:
2461:
2448:
2427:
2414:
2401:
2388:
2381:
2363:
2356:
2334:
2319:
2308:
2289:
2264:(6): 497β502.
2244:
2233:(3): 427β441.
2217:
2210:
2192:
2186:978-0674013056
2185:
2167:
2150:
2131:
2115:
2088:(4): 219β255.
2068:
2011:
1994:
1988:
1967:
1940:
1914:
1899:
1855:
1848:
1828:
1793:
1769:
1762:
1742:
1736:
1718:
1699:
1692:
1668:
1655:
1642:
1627:
1601:
1586:
1560:
1553:
1525:
1504:
1497:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1466:
1465:
1458:
1455:
1454:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1411:
1408:
1320:
1317:
1305:United Kingdom
1246:United Nations
1153:Main article:
1150:
1147:
1094:accused the US
1022:Chemical Corps
1013:Chemical Corps
960:
959:Postwar period
957:
745:
742:
639:Rudolf Nadolny
626:
623:
603:Yah! Yah! Yah!
584:
581:
545:always present
513:
510:
432:
429:
404:
401:
399:
396:
319:siege of Caffa
283:bubonic plague
273:
270:
104:
101:
100:
99:
88:
79:Viral agents:
77:
51:
50:
47:
36:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3818:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3798:
3796:
3785:
3782:Glenn Cross,
3781:
3780:
3770:
3769:
3764:
3760:
3757:
3751:
3747:
3746:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3711:
3708:
3702:
3698:
3697:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3662:
3659:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3639:
3638:0-253-33472-1
3635:
3631:
3627:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3615:
3610:
3609:
3606:Other sources
3596:
3592:
3586:
3570:
3563:
3562:
3554:
3547:
3546:
3540:
3521:
3520:
3513:
3504:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3484:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3450:
3443:
3437:
3430:(6): 184β185.
3429:
3425:
3418:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3375:
3369:
3368:0-385-33496-6
3365:
3361:
3355:
3349:
3344:
3338:
3333:
3320:
3316:
3310:
3303:
3299:
3292:
3284:
3283:The Telegraph
3280:
3273:
3258:on 4 May 2012
3254:
3247:
3241:
3225:
3219:
3212:
3211:
3206:
3202:
3199:
3193:
3191:
3183:
3179:
3178:
3173:
3169:
3168:
3164:
3161:
3154:
3146:
3145:
3138:
3130:
3126:
3120:
3113:
3109:
3104:
3086:
3080:
3073:
3067:
3063:
3062:
3054:
3052:
3043:
3039:
3032:
3024:
3017:
3001:
2995:
2989:, 2005, p.207
2988:
2982:
2966:
2962:
2956:
2954:
2952:
2950:
2948:
2939:
2932:
2926:, 2004, p.32.
2925:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2906:
2899:
2893:
2886:
2880:
2876:
2869:
2867:
2865:
2856:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2819:
2813:
2809:
2806:
2800:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2775:
2767:
2765:9788183563819
2761:
2757:
2756:
2748:
2740:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2725:
2717:
2702:
2696:
2680:
2676:
2670:
2663:
2659:
2654:
2648:
2645:
2640:
2626:on 2017-02-02
2625:
2621:
2615:
2608:. 2013-08-07.
2607:
2601:
2594:
2588:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2553:
2545:
2541:
2534:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2499:
2485:on 2016-03-05
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2465:
2458:
2452:
2445:
2444:0-646-36577-0
2441:
2437:
2431:
2424:
2418:
2411:
2405:
2398:
2392:
2384:
2378:
2374:
2367:
2359:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2338:
2330:
2323:
2316:
2311:
2305:
2301:
2300:
2293:
2286:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2248:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2221:
2213:
2211:9781846148088
2207:
2203:
2196:
2188:
2182:
2178:
2171:
2164:
2160:
2154:
2147:. p. 44.
2146:
2142:
2135:
2128:
2122:
2120:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2072:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2015:
2008:
2004:
1998:
1991:
1985:
1981:
1974:
1972:
1960:
1953:
1952:
1944:
1929:
1925:
1918:
1910:
1903:
1896:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1859:
1851:
1845:
1841:
1840:
1832:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1765:
1759:
1756:. Routledge.
1755:
1754:
1746:
1739:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1714:
1710:
1703:
1695:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1680:
1672:
1665:
1659:
1652:
1646:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1628:9780128120262
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1605:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1587:9780128120262
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1564:
1556:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1536:
1529:
1522:
1521:1-58567-348-X
1518:
1514:
1508:
1500:
1494:
1490:
1483:
1479:
1464:
1461:
1460:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1413:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1400:biotechnology
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1340:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1325:U.S. Congress
1316:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1293:United States
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1255:
1254:U.S. Congress
1250:
1247:
1243:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1223:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1201:
1196:
1194:
1189:
1185:
1180:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1165:Richard Nixon
1162:
1156:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1117:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1106:Brucella suis
1103:
1099:
1095:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1068:
1065:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1014:
1011:
1006:
1002:
1000:
996:
992:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
968:
966:
956:
953:
951:
947:
942:
940:
936:
932:
928:
923:
921:
917:
916:Japanese Army
912:
910:
905:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
866:Asahi Shimbun
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
839:
834:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
807:
805:
801:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
759:
756:
752:
741:
738:
733:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
710:New York City
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
658:United States
655:
651:
648:
644:
640:
636:
635:German Empire
632:
622:
620:
616:
612:
608:
607:South Pacific
604:
600:
596:
595:
590:
580:
578:
574:
569:
564:
560:
558:
554:
548:
546:
541:
536:
534:
529:
527:
523:
519:
509:
507:
506:
501:
500:
494:
490:
486:
485:Henry Bouquet
481:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
461:William Trent
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
431:North America
428:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
395:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
358:
356:
352:
351:Thun-l'ΓvΓͺque
347:
344:
340:
336:
332:
331:Mongol empire
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
303:
300:
294:
292:
288:
284:
279:
278:Mongol Empire
269:
266:
264:
260:
256:
251:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
200:
198:
194:
193:
188:
187:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
144:
139:
138:
133:
129:
126:According to
124:
122:
118:
114:
110:
97:
93:
89:
86:
82:
78:
75:
71:
67:
63:
62:
61:
59:
55:
48:
45:
41:
37:
34:
30:
26:
22:
21:
20:
18:
3783:
3766:
3744:
3718:
3714:
3695:
3669:
3665:
3647:
3629:
3613:
3594:
3585:
3573:. Retrieved
3560:
3553:
3544:
3539:
3527:. Retrieved
3518:
3512:
3493:
3489:
3483:
3459:
3455:
3449:
3441:
3436:
3427:
3423:
3417:
3384:
3380:
3374:
3359:
3354:
3343:
3332:
3322:, retrieved
3318:
3309:
3301:
3291:
3282:
3272:
3260:. Retrieved
3253:the original
3240:
3228:. Retrieved
3226:. 2011-07-09
3218:
3208:
3175:
3158:
3153:
3143:
3137:
3128:
3119:
3107:
3103:
3091:. Retrieved
3079:
3060:
3041:
3031:
3016:
3006:December 21,
3004:. Retrieved
2994:
2986:
2981:
2969:. Retrieved
2965:the original
2937:
2931:
2923:
2918:
2910:
2905:
2897:
2892:
2874:
2828:
2818:
2799:
2784:Google Books
2779:
2774:
2754:
2747:
2723:
2716:
2705:. Retrieved
2695:
2683:. Retrieved
2678:
2669:
2653:
2643:
2639:
2628:. Retrieved
2624:the original
2614:
2600:
2587:
2562:
2558:
2552:
2543:
2539:
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1959:the original
1950:
1943:
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1927:
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1902:
1871:(9): 971β5,
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1534:
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1523:, pp 100β101
1512:
1507:
1488:
1482:
1402:, including
1341:
1329:bioterrorist
1322:
1319:21st century
1251:
1239:
1224:
1208:Soviet Union
1205:
1197:
1181:
1173:immunization
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1110:M114 bomblet
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726:Burkholderia
722:Buenos Aires
698:Newport News
628:
592:
589:microbiology
586:
583:20th century
572:
565:
561:
557:Port Jackson
553:penal colony
549:
537:
530:
515:
503:
497:
482:
473:Ohio Country
455:, including
434:
406:
378:
359:
348:
343:Golden Horde
335:Genghis Khan
304:
299:tsetse flies
295:
275:
267:
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204:King Eumenes
201:
190:
184:
141:
135:
125:
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53:
52:
16:
15:
3503:10919/32440
2685:15 February
2660:. See also
2469:Warren, C.
1911:, MIT Press
1380:North Korea
1333:Bruce Ivins
1281:North Korea
1212:Biopreparat
1091:North Korea
976:brucellosis
946:Shiro Ishii
857:ShirΕ Ishii
847:, based at
843:during the
827:brucellosis
787:brucellosis
771:Paul Fildes
767:Porton Down
629:During the
599:Jack London
540:First Fleet
465:Thomas Gage
457:Turtleheart
307:Middle Ages
305:During the
287:Black Death
253:The use of
250:as result.
210:in 184 BC,
197:snake venom
3795:Categories
3644:Keith, Jim
3529:9 December
3324:2010-04-26
2896:Hal Gold,
2792:0198526830
2738:0387950761
2707:2022-04-02
2630:2014-01-14
2546:(1): 1β22.
2489:2017-09-09
2157:Anderson,
2125:Crawford,
1933:August 10,
1790:: 123β130.
1693:0387950761
1469:References
1438:(see also
1167:signed an
1102:Korean War
1098:Korean War
982:and later
950:Korean War
931:California
909:bioaerosol
611:Polynesian
577:chickenpox
568:chickenpox
496: [
226:commander
132:Trojan War
58:bio-agents
3806:Bioethics
3575:10 August
3362:. Delta.
3174:: p. 6),
2579:143644513
2565:: 68β86.
2525:143790015
2446:, p. 245.
2348:CRC Press
2165:, 447n26.
2129:, 245β250
2102:2326-5094
2045:1080-6040
1823:0003-4983
1637:211799543
1596:211745903
1474:Citations
1177:biosafety
999:Stornoway
980:tularemia
933:, during
927:San Diego
853:Manchuria
779:tularemia
777:and soon
714:St. Louis
706:Baltimore
676:, as was
674:Bucharest
662:Argentina
594:zeitgeist
559:in 1789.
453:Delawares
449:Fort Pitt
323:Feodossia
315:catapults
259:Byzantine
177:Herodotus
173:hellebore
113:tularemia
103:Antiquity
92:Botulinum
74:Tularemia
33:poisonous
3735:36729031
3715:Folklore
3646:(1999),
3476:11209178
3409:33988479
3401:11791799
3230:July 19,
3201:Archived
3163:Archived
3129:BBC News
2855:16819450
2829:EMBO Rep
2808:Archived
2280:24894605
2239:17216901
2110:26221997
2063:27533653
1895:12194776
1713:Academia
1664:Hannibal
1457:See also
1358:report,
1313:Gulf War
1242:Gulf War
1186:and the
988:vaccinia
965:Cold War
841:Unit 731
831:botulism
791:botulism
678:glanders
641:. Using
425:Tunisian
421:La Calle
392:infected
234:city of
232:Parthian
216:Carthage
212:Hannibal
208:Pergamon
181:Scythian
159:and the
140:and the
121:ergotism
90:Toxins:
81:Smallpox
70:Brucella
40:microbes
3686:1897495
3625:(2007).
3262:26 June
3093:26 June
2971:26 June
2846:1490304
2679:fas.org
2054:4994373
1886:2732530
1231:cholera
1131:Haganah
991:viruses
920:Nanking
911:cloud.
902:Changde
880:bombed
870:typhoid
849:Pingfan
783:anthrax
751:Germany
702:Norfolk
666:anthrax
654:Romania
647:Russian
533:Phillip
435:During
413:Swedish
409:Russian
386:from a
374:Hussite
370:Bohemia
311:fomites
248:tetanus
143:Odyssey
128:Homer's
109:Hittite
66:Anthrax
38:Use of
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1392:Taiwan
1384:Russia
1376:Israel
1309:Canada
1307:, and
1303:, the
1301:France
1297:Russia
1289:Taiwan
1273:Israel
1072:talcum
972:plague
882:Ningbo
829:, and
800:France
789:, and
730:French
708:, and
682:Allied
660:, and
656:, the
403:Europe
388:quiver
384:arrows
339:Mongol
333:under
327:Tartar
238:(near
195:, and
169:Delphi
167:(near
165:Kirrha
157:Athens
153:Greece
134:, the
98:, etc.
87:, etc.
76:, etc.
3731:S2CID
3682:JSTOR
3565:(PDF)
3523:(PDF)
3405:S2CID
3256:(PDF)
3249:(PDF)
3088:(PDF)
2575:S2CID
2521:S2CID
1962:(PDF)
1955:(PDF)
1633:S2CID
1592:S2CID
1388:Syria
1368:Egypt
1360:China
1352:Libya
1285:Syria
1277:Libya
1261:China
1235:ZANLA
1087:China
886:fleas
804:Japan
619:China
516:Many
445:siege
443:laid
417:Reval
362:siege
321:(now
291:China
240:Mosul
236:Hatra
224:Roman
137:Iliad
117:ergot
96:Ricin
31:with
29:water
3750:ISBN
3701:ISBN
3652:ISBN
3634:ISBN
3577:2012
3531:2008
3472:PMID
3397:PMID
3364:ISBN
3264:2012
3232:2012
3095:2012
3066:ISBN
3008:2014
2973:2012
2879:ISBN
2851:PMID
2788:ISBN
2760:ISBN
2733:ISBN
2687:2020
2440:ISBN
2377:ISBN
2352:ISBN
2304:ISBN
2276:PMID
2235:PMID
2206:ISBN
2181:ISBN
2106:PMID
2098:ISSN
2059:PMID
2041:ISSN
1984:ISBN
1935:2023
1891:PMID
1844:ISBN
1819:ISSN
1758:ISBN
1732:ISBN
1688:ISBN
1623:ISBN
1582:ISBN
1549:ISBN
1517:ISBN
1493:ISBN
1390:and
1372:Iran
1364:Cuba
1287:and
1269:Iraq
1265:Iran
1206:The
1198:The
1175:and
1143:Gaza
1139:Acre
1116:Cuba
1089:and
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892:and
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716:and
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