1254:, can have devastating effects on animals. It primarily affects herbivores such as cattle, sheep, and goats, but a wide range of mammals, birds, and even humans can also be susceptible. Infection typically occurs through the ingestion of spores in contaminated soil or plants. Once inside the host, the spores transform into active bacteria, producing lethal toxins that lead to severe symptoms. Infected animals often exhibit high fever, rapid breathing, and convulsions, and they may succumb to the disease within hours to days. The presence of anthrax can pose significant challenges to livestock management and wildlife conservation efforts, making it a critical concern for both animal health and public health, as it can occasionally be transmitted to humans through contact with infected animals or contaminated products. Infected animals may stagger, have difficulty breathing, tremble, and finally collapse and die within a few hours.
673:
1924:
the KGB. In addition to the medical problems the outbreak caused, it also prompted
Western countries to be more suspicious of a covert Soviet bioweapons program and to increase their surveillance of suspected sites. In 1986, the US government was allowed to investigate the incident, and concluded the exposure was from aerosol anthrax from a military weapons facility. In 1992, President Yeltsin admitted he was "absolutely certain" that "rumors" about the Soviet Union violating the 1972 Bioweapons Treaty were true. The Soviet Union, like the US and UK, had agreed to submit information to the UN about their bioweapons programs, but omitted known facilities and never acknowledged their weapons program.
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enough to prevent resurfacing of spores requires much manpower and expensive tools. Carcasses have been soaked in formaldehyde to kill spores, though this has environmental contamination issues. Block burning of vegetation in large areas enclosing an anthrax outbreak has been tried; this, while environmentally destructive, causes healthy animals to move away from an area with carcasses in search of fresh grass. Some wildlife workers have experimented with covering fresh anthrax carcasses with shadecloth and heavy objects. This prevents some scavengers from opening the carcasses, thus allowing the putrefactive bacteria within the carcass to kill the vegetative
458:
705:
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1051:) and serious adverse reactions occur in about 1% of recipients. The American product, BioThrax, is licensed by the FDA and was formerly administered in a six-dose primary series at 0, 2, 4 weeks and 6, 12, 18 months, with annual boosters to maintain immunity. In 2008, the FDA approved omitting the week-2 dose, resulting in the currently recommended five-dose series. This five-dose series is available to military personnel, scientists who work with anthrax and members of the public who do jobs which cause them to be at-risk. New second-generation vaccines currently being researched include
652:, edema factor, and protective antigen. The three are not toxic by themselves, but their combination is incredibly lethal to humans. Protective antigen combines with these other two factors to form lethal toxin and edema toxin, respectively. These toxins are the primary agents of tissue destruction, bleeding, and death of the host. If antibiotics are administered too late, even if the antibiotics eradicate the bacteria, some hosts still die of toxemia because the toxins produced by the bacilli remain in their systems at lethal dose levels.
886:
972:, rubber apron, and rubber boots with no perforations are used when handling the body. No skin, especially if it has any wounds or scratches, should be exposed. Disposable personal protective equipment is preferable, but if not available, decontamination can be achieved by autoclaving. Used disposable equipment is burned and/or buried after use. All contaminated bedding or clothing is isolated in double plastic bags and treated as biohazard waste. Respiratory equipment capable of filtering small particles, such the US
466:
965:
to ascertain if anthrax is the cause of death. The body should be sealed in an airtight body bag and incinerated to prevent the transmission of anthrax spores. Microscopic visualization of the encapsulated bacilli, usually in very large numbers, in a blood smear stained with polychrome methylene blue (McFadyean stain) is fully diagnostic, though the culture of the organism is still the gold standard for diagnosis. Full isolation of the body is important to prevent possible contamination of others.
749:
gastrointestinal anthrax due to the thawing of reindeer corpses from 75 years before contact. Anthrax spores traveled though groundwater used for drinking and caused tens of people to be hospitalized, largely children. Occupational exposure to infected animals or their products (such as skin, wool, and meat) is the usual pathway of exposure for humans. Workers exposed to dead animals and animal products are at the highest risk, especially in countries where anthrax is more common. Anthrax in
450:
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32:
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vegetation; the vegetation has been hypothesized to cause wounds within the gastrointestinal tract, permitting entry of the bacterial spores into the tissues. Once ingested or placed in an open wound, the bacteria begin multiplying inside the animal or human and typically kill the host within a few days or weeks. The spores germinate at the site of entry into the tissues and then spread by the circulation to the lymphatics, where the bacteria multiply.
1287:. The woman apparently inhaled anthrax, in spore form, from the hide of the drum. She became critically ill, but with gastrointestinal anthrax rather than inhaled anthrax, which made her unique in American medical history. The building where the infection took place was cleaned and reopened to the public and the woman recovered. The New Hampshire state epidemiologist, Jodie Dionne-Odom, stated "It is a mystery. We really don't know why it happened."
1668:), peracetic acid, ozone gas, hypochlorous acid, sodium persulfate, and liquid bleach products containing sodium hypochlorite. Nonoxidizing agents shown to be effective for anthrax decontamination include methyl bromide, formaldehyde, and metam sodium. These agents destroy bacterial spores. All of the aforementioned anthrax decontamination technologies have been demonstrated to be effective in laboratory tests conducted by the US EPA or others.
104:
1524:
737:
554:, causing bloody fluid to accumulate in the chest cavity, thereby causing shortness of breath. The second (pneumonia) stage occurs when the infection spreads from the lymph nodes to the lungs. Symptoms of the second stage develop suddenly within hours or days after the first stage. Symptoms include high fever, extreme shortness of breath, shock, and rapid death within 48 hours in fatal cases.
648:). Damage caused by the anthrax spores and bacilli to the central chest cavity can cause chest pain and difficulty breathing. Once in the lymph nodes, the spores germinate into active bacilli that multiply and eventually burst the macrophages, releasing many more bacilli into the bloodstream to be transferred to the entire body. Once in the bloodstream, these bacilli release three proteins:
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1099:
1103:
1102:
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1104:
1480:. The animals of one group were twice injected with an anthrax vaccine prepared by Pasteur, at an interval of 15 days; the control group was left unvaccinated. Thirty days after the first injection, both groups were injected with a culture of live anthrax bacteria. All the animals in the unvaccinated group died, while all of the animals in the vaccinated group survived.
628:, but anthrax vegetative bacteria that escape the body via oozing blood or opening the carcass may form hardy spores. These vegetative bacteria are not contagious. One spore forms per vegetative bacterium. The triggers for spore formation are not known, but oxygen tension and lack of nutrients may play roles. Once formed, these spores are very hard to eradicate.
1101:
307:, which often appear in infectious animal products. Contact is by breathing or eating or through an area of broken skin. It does not typically spread directly between people. Risk factors include people who work with animals or animal products, and military personnel. Diagnosis can be confirmed by finding antibodies or the toxin in the blood or by
349:
respiratory anthrax has a mortality of 50 to 80%, even with treatment. Until the 20th century anthrax infections killed hundreds of thousands of people and animals each year. In herbivorous animals infection occurs when they eat or breathe in the spores while grazing. Animals may become infected by killing and/or eating infected animals.
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body, its mass of anthrax bacilli becomes a potential source of infection to others and special precautions should be used to prevent further contamination. Pulmonary anthrax, if left untreated, is almost always fatal. Historically, pulmonary anthrax was called woolsorters' disease because it was an occupational hazard for
1083:(USPS) installed biodetection systems (BDSs) in their large-scale mail processing facilities. BDS response plans were formulated by the USPS in conjunction with local responders including fire, police, hospitals, and public health. Employees of these facilities have been educated about anthrax, response actions, and
1105:
1294:. The case involved a maker of traditional African-style drums who was working with a goat hide purchased from a dealer in New York City which had been previously cleared by Customs. While the hide was being scraped, a spider bite led to the spores entering the bloodstream. His son also became infected.
1923:
story, Soviet medical and legal journals published articles about an outbreak in livestock that caused gastrointestinal anthrax in people having consumed infected meat, and cutaneous anthrax in people having come into contact with the animals. All medical and public health records were confiscated by
1723:
showed decontamination to be possible, but time-consuming and costly. Clearing the Senate Office
Building of anthrax spores cost $ 27 million, according to the Government Accountability Office. Cleaning the Brentwood postal facility in Washington cost $ 130 million and took 26 months. Since
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Precautions are taken to avoid contact with the skin and any fluids exuded through natural body openings of a deceased body that is suspected of harboring anthrax. The body should be put in strict quarantine. A blood sample is collected and sealed in a container and analyzed in an approved laboratory
756:
Many workers who deal with wool and animal hides are routinely exposed to low levels of anthrax spores, but most exposure levels are not sufficient to produce infection. A lethal infection is reported to result from inhalation of about 10,000–20,000 spores, though this dose varies among host species.
728:
Anthrax can enter the human body through the intestines (gastrointestinal), lungs (pulmonary), or skin (cutaneous), and causes distinct clinical symptoms based on its site of entry. Anthrax does not usually spread from an infected human to an uninfected human. If the disease is fatal to the person's
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in 1876 when he took a blood sample from an infected cow, isolated the bacteria, and put them into a mouse. The bacterium normally rests in spore form in the soil, and can survive for decades in this state. Herbivores are often infected while grazing, especially when eating rough, irritant, or spiky
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Despite signing the 1972 agreement to end bioweapon production, the government of the Soviet Union had an active bioweapons program that included the production of hundreds of tons of anthrax after this period. On 2 April 1979, some of the over one million people living in
Sverdlovsk (now called
813:
fragments forming a heptameric ring-shaped structure named a prepore. Once in this shape, the complex can competitively bind up to three EFs or LFs, forming a resistant complex. Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs next, providing the newly formed toxic complex access to the interior of the host
546:
Over the next day or so, shortness of breath, cough, and chest pain become more common, and complaints not involving the chest such as nausea, vomiting, altered mental status, sweats, and headache develop in one-third or more of people. Upper respiratory tract symptoms occur in only a quarter of
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Inhalation anthrax usually develops within a week after exposure, but may take up to 2 months. During the first few days of illness, most people have fever, chills, and fatigue. These symptoms may be accompanied by cough, shortness of breath, chest pain, and nausea or vomiting, making inhalation
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Cleanup of anthrax-contaminated areas on ranches and in the wild is much more problematic. Carcasses may be burned, though often 3 days are needed to burn a large carcass and this is not feasible in areas with little wood. Carcasses may also be buried, though the burying of large animals deeply
1278:
Gastrointestinal anthrax is exceedingly rare in the United States, with only two cases on record. The first case was reported in 1942, according to the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. During December 2009, the New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services confirmed a case of
623:
The production of two powerful exotoxins and lethal toxin by the bacteria causes death. Veterinarians can often tell a possible anthrax-induced death by its sudden occurrence and the dark, nonclotting blood that oozes from the body orifices. Most anthrax bacteria inside the body after death are
499:
or most other lesions, cutaneous anthrax infections normally do not cause pain. Nearby lymph nodes may become infected, reddened, swollen, and painful. A scab forms over the lesion soon, and falls off in a few weeks. Complete recovery may take longer. Cutaneous anthrax is typically caused when
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ulcer (beginning as an irritating and itchy skin lesion or blister that is dark and usually concentrated as a black dot, somewhat resembling bread mold) at the site of infection. In general, cutaneous infections form within the site of spore penetration two to five days after exposure. Unlike
748:
The spores of anthrax are able to survive in harsh conditions for decades or even centuries. Such spores can be found on all continents, including
Antarctica. Disturbed grave sites of infected animals have been known to cause infection after 70 years. In one such event, a young boy died from
348:
and North
America. Globally, at least 2,000 cases occur a year, with about two cases a year in the United States. Skin infections represent more than 95% of cases. Without treatment the risk of death from skin anthrax is 23.7%. For intestinal infection the risk of death is 25 to 75%, while
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from a biological weapons complex located near there. At least 94 people were infected, of whom at least 68 died. One victim died four days after the release, 10 over an eight-day period at the peak of the deaths, and the last six weeks later. Extensive cleanup, vaccinations, and medical
1360:. In a groundbreaking series of experiments, he uncovered the lifecycle and means of transmission of anthrax. His experiments not only helped create an understanding of anthrax but also helped elucidate the role of microbes in causing illness at a time when debates still took place over
1118:
soap and water. Wastewater is treated with bleach or another antimicrobial agent. Effective decontamination of articles can be accomplished by boiling them in water for 30 minutes or longer. Chlorine bleach is ineffective in destroying spores and vegetative cells on surfaces, though
1113:
Anthrax cannot be spread from person to person, except in the rare case of skin exudates from cutaneous anthrax. However, a person's clothing and body may be contaminated with anthrax spores. Effective decontamination of people can be accomplished by a thorough wash-down with
1483:
After this apparent triumph, which was widely reported in the local, national, and international press, Pasteur made strenuous efforts to export the vaccine beyond France. He used his celebrity status to establish
Pasteur Institutes across Europe and Asia, and his nephew,
733:. Today, this form of infection is extremely rare in industrialized nations. Cutaneous anthrax is the most common form of transmission but also the least dangerous of the three transmissions. Gastrointestinal anthrax is likely fatal if left untreated, but very rare.
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1270:
The last fatal case of natural inhalational anthrax in the United States occurred in
California in 1976, when a home weaver died after working with infected wool imported from Pakistan. To minimize the chance of spreading the disease, the body was transported to
360:
prohibited the "development, production and stockpiling" of biological weapons. It has since been used in bioterrorism. Likely delivery methods of weaponized anthrax include aerial dispersal or dispersal through livestock; notable bioterrorism uses include the
1911:
governments suspected the Soviet Union had developed a sex-specific weapon. The government blamed the outbreak on the consumption of anthrax-tainted meat, and ordered the confiscation of all uninspected meat that entered the city. They also ordered all
704:
473:
Cutaneous anthrax, also known as hide-porter's disease, is when anthrax occurs on the skin. It is the most common (>90% of cases) and least dangerous form (low mortality with treatment, 23.7% mortality without). Cutaneous anthrax presents as a
1375:
Although Koch arguably made the greatest theoretical contribution to understanding anthrax, other researchers were more concerned with the practical questions of how to prevent the disease. In
Britain, where anthrax affected workers in the wool,
631:
The infection of herbivores (and occasionally humans) by inhalation normally begins with inhaled spores being transported through the air passages into the tiny air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs. The spores are then picked up by scavenger cells
1123:
is effective. Burning clothing is very effective in destroying spores. After decontamination, there is no need to immunize, treat, or isolate contacts of persons ill with anthrax unless they were also exposed to the same source of infection.
1100:
273:, inhalation, or intestinal absorption. Symptom onset occurs between one day and more than two months after the infection is contracted. The skin form presents with a small blister with surrounding swelling that often turns into a painless
1625:
bioweapons trials. A variation of Vollum, known as "Vollum 1B", was used during the 1960s in the US and UK bioweapon programs. Vollum 1B is widely believed to have been isolated from
William A. Boyles, a 46-year-old scientist at the
525:
in Afghanistan. Injected anthrax may have symptoms similar to cutaneous anthrax, with the exception of black areas, and may also cause infection deep into the muscle and spread faster. This can make it harder to recognise and treat.
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Early antibiotic treatment of anthrax is essential; delay significantly lessens chances for survival. Treatment for anthrax infection and other bacterial infections includes large doses of intravenous and oral antibiotics, such as
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569:
can occur. Lesions have been found in the intestines and in the mouth and throat. After the bacterium invades the gastrointestinal system, it spreads to the bloodstream and throughout the body, while continuing to make toxins.
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spores are affected by the material with which the spores are associated, environmental factors such as temperature and humidity, and microbiological factors such as the spore species, anthracis strain, and test methods used.
565:(GI) infection is most often caused by consuming anthrax-infected meat and is characterized by diarrhea, potentially with blood, abdominal pains, acute inflammation of the intestinal tract, and loss of appetite. Occasional
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4552:
1819:. The pellets would be eaten by cattle, which would in turn be eaten by the human population and as such severally disrupt the German war effort. In the same year, bioweapons tests were carried out on the uninhabited
520:
areas of Scotland, resulting in 14 deaths. It was the first documented non-occupational human anthrax outbreak in the UK since 1960. The source of the anthrax is believed to have been dilution of the heroin with
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6284:
6269:
1181:(brand name ABthrax) intended for emergency treatment of inhaled anthrax. On 14 December 2012, the US Food and Drug Administration approved raxibacumab injection to treat inhalational anthrax. Raxibacumab is a
1788:
during the 1930s; some of this testing involved intentional infection of prisoners of war, thousands of whom died. Anthrax, designated at the time as Agent N, was also investigated by the Allies in the 1940s.
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1087:
medication. Because of the time delay inherent in getting final verification that anthrax has been used, prophylactic antibiotic treatment of possibly exposed personnel must be started as soon as possible.
948:" appearance, and are not hemolytic on 5% sheep blood agar. The bacteria are not motile, susceptible to penicillin, and produce a wide zone of lecithinase on egg yolk agar. Confirmatory testing to identify
1715:
Using the catalyst method, complete destruction of all anthrax spores can be achieved in under 30 minutes. A standard catalyst-free spray destroys fewer than half the spores in the same amount of time.
1683:
has emerged as the preferred biocide against anthrax-contaminated sites, having been employed in the treatment of numerous government buildings over the past decade. Its chief drawback is the need for
4460:
2005:
Anthrax is especially rare in dogs and cats, as is evidenced by a single reported case in the United States in 2001. Anthrax outbreaks occur in some wild animal populations with some regularity.
317:
is recommended for people at high risk of infection. Immunizing animals against anthrax is recommended in areas where previous infections have occurred. A two-month course of antibiotics such as
980:-approved high-efficiency respirator, is worn. By addressing Anthrax from a One Health perspective, we can reduce the risks of transmission and better protect both human and animal populations.
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cell. The acidified environment within the endosome triggers the heptamer to release the LF and/or EF into the cytosol. It is unknown how exactly the complex results in the death of the cell.
1955:
of Vermont. As a result, 22 were infected and five died. Only a few grams of material were used in these attacks and in August 2008, the US Department of Justice announced they believed that
1411:
Departmental Committee of Inquiry, established in 1913 to address the continuing problem of industrial anthrax. His work in this capacity, much of it collaboration with the factory inspector
1827:, with Porton Down scientists studying the effect of anthrax on the island's population of sheep. Ultimately, five million pellets were created, though plans to drop them over Germany using
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1318:
In November 2008, a drum maker in the United Kingdom who worked with untreated animal skins died from anthrax. In December 2009, an outbreak of anthrax occurred among heroin addicts in the
1511:
became available in 1954. This was a cell-free vaccine instead of the live-cell Pasteur-style vaccine used for veterinary purposes. An improved cell-free vaccine became available in 1970.
6576:
1907:
Nearly all of the night-shift workers of a ceramics plant directly across the street from the biological facility (compound 19) became infected, and most died. Since most were men, some
1739:
is said to have been decontaminated with a mixture of formaldehyde and seawater by the Ministry of Defence. It is not clear whether similar treatments had been applied to US test sites.
4631:
2995:
1161:
treatment is crucial to prevent possible death. Many attempts have been made to develop new drugs against anthrax, but existing drugs are effective if treatment is started soon enough.
952:
includes gamma bacteriophage testing, indirect hemagglutination, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect antibodies. The best confirmatory precipitation test for anthrax is the
6025:
3281:
Pimental RA, Christensen KA, Krantz BA, Collier RJ (September 2004). "Anthrax toxin complexes: heptameric protective antigen can bind lethal factor and edema factor simultaneously".
3412:
1075:
Preventive antibiotics are recommended in those who have been exposed. Early detection of sources of anthrax infection can allow preventive measures to be taken. In response to the
2016:
can thaw the permafrost, releasing anthrax spores in the carcasses. In 2016, an anthrax outbreak in reindeer was linked to a 75-year-old carcass that defrosted during a heat wave.
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4526:
3910:
Vaccine, Institute of Medicine (US) Committee to Assess the Safety and Efficacy of the Anthrax; Joellenbeck, Lois M.; Zwanziger, Lee L.; Durch, Jane S.; Strom, Brian L. (2002),
5327:
422:
Anthrax was historically known by a wide variety of names, indicating its symptoms, location, and groups considered most vulnerable to infection. They include Siberian plague,
857:
or programmed cell death. Interleukin 1 beta is another cytokine that also regulates inflammation and apoptosis. The overproduction of TNF-alpha and IL1B ultimately leads to
1496:. Ultimately, the vaccine was unsuccessful in the challenging climate of rural Australia, and it was soon superseded by a more robust version developed by local researchers
2803:
1407:
who settled in Bradford with his family as a child, carried out important research for the local Anthrax Investigation Board. Eurich also made valuable contributions to a
841:(a type of phagocytic cell) by the process just described so they cannot phagocytose bacteria. Throughout history, lethal factor was presumed to cause macrophages to make
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1719:
Cleanups at a Senate Office Building, several contaminated postal facilities, and other US government and private office buildings, a collaborative effort headed by the
1652:
Anthrax spores can survive for very long periods of time in the environment after release. Chemical methods for cleaning anthrax-contaminated sites or materials may use
1396:, first made the link between the mysterious and deadly "woolsorter's disease" and anthrax, showing in 1878 that they were one and the same. In the early 20th century,
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surrounded by vivid red skin has long been recognised as typical of the disease. The first recorded use of the word "anthrax" in English is in a 1398 translation of
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1445:
and elsewhere during the 19th century. Horses, cattle, and sheep were particularly vulnerable, and national funds were set aside to investigate the production of a
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1416:
1970:
at its major distribution centers to actively scan for anthrax being transported through the mail. As of 2020, no positive alerts by these systems have occurred.
1947:
in the United States, delivered by mailing postal letters containing the spores. The letters were sent to several news media offices and two Democratic senators:
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5233:
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1916:
to be shot and people not have contact with sick animals. Also, a voluntary evacuation and anthrax vaccination program was established for people from 18 to 55.
1453:
was charged with the production of a vaccine, following his successful work in developing methods that helped to protect the important wine and silk industries.
1412:
5084:"Review of Decontamination Techniques for the Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis and Other Spore-Forming Bacteria Associated with Building or Outdoor Materials"
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people, and muscle pains are rare. Altered mental status or shortness of breath generally brings people to healthcare and marks the fulminant phase of illness.
4258:
Holty JE, Bravata DM, Liu H, Olshen RA, McDonald KM, Owens DK (February 2006). "Systematic review: a century of inhalational anthrax cases from 1900 to 2005".
3731:
1850:
government used anthrax against cattle and humans during its campaign against rebels. The Soviet Union created and stored 100 to 200 tons of anthrax spores at
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phase of inhalational anthrax nearly always die, with one case study showing a death rate of 97%. Anthrax meningoencephalitis is also nearly always fatal.
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factor (EF), and lethal factor (LF). PA plus LF produces lethal toxin, and PA plus EF produces edema toxin. These toxins cause death and tissue swelling (
4871:
Stark J (2012). "Anthrax and Australia in a Global Context: The International Exchange of Theories and Practices with Britain and France, c. 1850–1920".
1021:
5943:
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Akbayram S, Doğan M, Akgün C, Peker E, Bektaş MS, Kaya A, et al. (2010). "Clinical findings in children with cutaneous anthrax in eastern Turkey".
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1997:
at its hottest setting (at least 400 °F (204 °C)) used for at least 5 minutes should destroy all anthrax spores in a common postal envelope.
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2012:
contains around 1.5 million anthrax-infected reindeer carcasses, and the spores may survive in the permafrost for 105 years. A risk exists that
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1239:
Gastrointestinal anthrax infections can be treated, but usually result in fatality rates of 25% to 60%, depending upon how soon treatment commences.
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5744:
Meselson M, Guillemin J, Hugh-Jones M, Langmuir A, Popova I, Shelokov A, Yampolskaya O (November 1994). "The Sverdlovsk anthrax outbreak of 1979".
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personnel are no longer routinely vaccinated against anthrax prior to active service in places where biological attacks are considered a threat.
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cells and preventing sporulation. This method also has drawbacks, as scavengers such as hyenas are capable of infiltrating almost any exclosure.
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5039:
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2289:
42:
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5167:"Systematic evaluation of the efficacy of chlorine dioxide in decontamination of building interior surfaces contaminated with anthrax spores"
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were given by Maret in 1752 and Fournier in 1769. Before that, anthrax had been described only in historical accounts. The German scientist
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spp. are quite large in size (3 to 4 μm long), they may grow in long chains, and they stain Gram-positive. To confirm the organism is
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species grow well on 5% sheep blood agar and other routine culture media. Polymyxin-lysozyme-EDTA-thallous acetate can be used to isolate
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337:. The type and number of antibiotics used depend on the type of infection. Antitoxin is recommended for those with widespread infection.
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ordered the dismantling of US biowarfare programs in 1969 and the destruction of all existing stockpiles of bioweapons. In 1978–79, the
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Vaccines against anthrax for use in livestock and humans have had a prominent place in the history of medicine. The French scientist
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removes calmodulin from stimulating calcium-triggered signaling, thus inhibiting the immune response. To be specific, LF inactivates
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investigated the source and the possibility that it was contracted from an African drum recently used by the woman taking part in a
1242:
Injection anthrax is the rarest form of anthrax, and has only been seen to have occurred in a group of heroin injecting drug users.
504:
spores enter through cuts on the skin. This form is found most commonly when humans handle infected animals and/or animal products.
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World Health Organization; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; World Organisation for Animal Health (2019).
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form of anthrax suitable for biological warfare requires extensive practical knowledge, training, and highly advanced equipment.
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areas of Scotland, resulting in 14 deaths. The source of the anthrax is believed to have been dilution of the heroin with
125:
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1232:
Before 2001, fatality rates for inhalation anthrax were 90%; since then, they have fallen to 45%. People that progress to the
1189:. In March 2016, FDA approved a second anthrax treatment using a monoclonal antibody which neutralizes the toxins produced by
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and death. However, recent evidence indicates anthrax also targets endothelial cells that line serious cavities such as the
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1959:, a senior biodefense researcher employed by the United States government, was responsible. These events also spawned many
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in the United States, has received the most news coverage of any anthrax outbreak. The Ames strain contains two virulence
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and converted into a spray. The spray formula is applied to an infested area and is followed by another spray containing
1210:
649:
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1978:
In response to the postal anthrax attacks and hoaxes, the United States Postal Service sterilized some mail using gamma
1617:, is much more dangerous. The Vollum (also incorrectly referred to as Vellum) strain was isolated in 1935 from a cow in
1157:. FDA-approved agents include ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, and penicillin. In possible cases of pulmonary anthrax, early
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4371:
3368:
Metcalfe N (October 2004). "The history of woolsorters' disease: a Yorkshire beginning with an international future?".
3148:"Untersuchungen über Bakterien: V. Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des
423:
340:
A rare disease, human anthrax is most common in Africa and central and southern Asia. It also occurs more regularly in
5225:
3790:
3617:
2865:
1361:
1017:
in the late 1930s and in the US and UK in the 1950s. The current FDA-approved US vaccine was formulated in the 1960s.
7553:
6934:
6884:
6644:
6637:
6541:
3962:
2989:
2645:
2471:
2437:
2326:
76:
3723:
6453:
4185:
2198:"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention expert panel meetings on prevention and treatment of anthrax in adults"
928:
from contaminated specimens, and bicarbonate agar is used as an identification method to induce capsule formation.
7158:
7138:
7106:
7087:
6531:
4906:
1209:
Cutaneous anthrax is rarely fatal if treated, because the infection area is limited to the skin, preventing the
550:
It infects the lymph nodes in the chest first, rather than the lungs themselves, a condition called hemorrhagic
7754:
6501:
6222:
1433:
944:
colonies are medium-large, gray, flat, and irregular with swirling projections, often referred to as having a "
769:, which protects the bacterium from phagocytosis by host neutrophils; and the tripartite protein toxin, called
281:. The intestinal form presents with diarrhea (which may contain blood), abdominal pains, nausea, and vomiting.
4022:
1356:(now Wolsztyn, Poland). His pioneering work in the late 19th century was one of the first demonstrations that
1352:, a German physician and scientist, first identified the bacterium that caused the anthrax disease in 1875 in
7769:
7061:
6868:
6845:
6458:
5939:
5378:
Bisher, Jamie, "During World War I, Terrorists Schemed to Use Anthrax in the Cause of Finnish Independence",
3724:"Safety and Health Topics | Anthrax – Control and Prevention | Occupational Safety and Health Administration"
2981:
2508:
1892:
interventions managed to save about 30 of the victims. Extensive cover-ups and destruction of records by the
1861:
1839:
983:
The prevention of anthrax from the environmental sources like air, water, & soil is disinfection used by
357:
6873:
5143:
4929:
3776:
Taking a multisectoral, one health approach: a tripartite guide to addressing zoonotic diseases in countries
932:
spp. usually grow within 24 hours of incubation at 35 °C, in ambient air (room temperature) or in 5% CO
753:
grazing on open range where they mix with wild animals still occasionally occurs in the U.S. and elsewhere.
7696:
7370:
6979:
4244:
4216:
4211:
2013:
1174:
1080:
679:
562:
540:
7199:
7078:
6551:
2619:
2595:
1967:
1665:
1457:
1056:
4916:", National Immunization Program, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, January 2006. (PPT format)
3859:
1835:
and the subsequent Allied liberation of France. All pellets were destroyed using incinerators in 1945.
457:
7356:
6506:
6414:
5887:
The Anthrax Letters: A Bioterrorism Expert Investigates the Attacks That Shocked America – Case Closed?
5254:"The Anthrax Cleanup of Capitol Hill." Documentary by Xin Wang produced by the EPA Alumni Association.
5024:"The Anthrax Cleanup of Capitol Hill." Documentary by Xin Wang produced by the EPA Alumni Association.
2590:
1932:
In theory, anthrax spores can be cultivated with minimal special equipment and a first-year collegiate
7749:
7111:
6614:
5266:
5036:
4955:
1397:
1339:
910:
5650:
5537:
2281:
1461:
765:
The lethality of the anthrax disease is due to the bacterium's two principal virulence factors: the
7744:
7591:
7585:
7292:
7152:
6998:
6683:
6478:
6314:
4999:
4952:
The Pentagon's Brain: An Uncensored History of DARPA, America's Top Secret Military Research Agency
3948:
3817:
2196:
Hendricks KA, Wright ME, Shadomy SV, Bradley JS, Morrow MG, Pavia AT, et al. (February 2014).
1904:
reported in 1999 that a combined Russian and United States team investigated the accident in 1992.
1709:
1508:
1052:
984:
366:
58:
20:
5681:
4052:
3821:
3003:
For the attacks of 2001, CFR was only 45%, while before this time CFRs for IA were >85% (p. 37)
2388:
1753:
785:), respectively. To enter the cells, the edema and lethal factors use another protein produced by
7542:
7253:
7048:
6743:
6231:
5965:
4969:
2813:. A report on behalf of the National Anthrax Outbreak Control Team. December 2011. Archived from
2424:
1888:
1877:
1838:
Weaponized anthrax was part of the US stockpile prior to 1972, when the United States signed the
1804:
5610:
5597:
2682:
The Making of Modern Anthrax, 1875–1920: Uniting Local, National and Global Histories of Disease
873:, lymph vessels, and blood vessels, causing vascular leakage of fluid and cells, and ultimately
658:
615:, facultative anaerobe bacterium about 1 by 9 μm in size. It was shown to cause disease by
7648:
7441:
7100:
7055:
7004:
6619:
2507:. National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases. 26 August 2009. Archived from
1357:
988:
404:
6365:
6278:
6065:"A review of anthrax in Canada and implications for research on the disease in northern bison"
5913:
4482:
Suffin SC, Carnes WH, Kaufmann AF (September 1978). "Inhalation anthrax in a home craftsman".
2461:
1310:
river, died of anthrax and 6 people have been hospitalized with light, skin-related symptoms.
7669:
7662:
7501:
7311:
7247:
7022:
6804:
6799:
6769:
6468:
6407:
5498:
5286:
5255:
5025:
4832:
4826:
4601:
2316:
1777:
1748:
1170:
353:
6039:
5940:"Cepheid, Northrop Grumman Enter into Agreement for the Purchase of Anthrax Test Cartridges"
5460:
4351:
4271:
4112:
3988:
1031:(Russia) varieties. All currently used anthrax vaccines show considerable local and general
936:. If bicarbonate agar is used for identification, then the medium must be incubated in 5% CO
7675:
7654:
7322:
7261:
7041:
7034:
6463:
5753:
5565:
5178:
5095:
4708:
3045:
Frankel AE, Kuo SR, Dostal D, Watson L, Duesbery NS, Cheng CP, et al. (January 2009).
1944:
1884:
1855:
1797:
1773:
1587:
1291:
1076:
362:
6863:
3225:
Liu H, Bergman NH, Thomason B, Shallom S, Hazen A, Crossno J, et al. (January 2004).
3015:
2895:
2695:
2248:
8:
7217:
7177:
7027:
6930:
6708:
6303:
6240:
5500:
Weapons of mass destruction: an encyclopedia of worldwide policy, technology, and history
4907:
Anthrax and Anthrax Vaccine – Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases
4204:
1956:
1501:
1182:
805:
dissociates into the extracellular medium, playing no further role in the toxic cycle. PA
789:
called protective antigen, which binds to two surface receptors on the host cell. A cell
711:
278:
146:
5757:
5560:
5182:
5099:
4162:
4135:
3147:
2843:
714:: If present, a Gram-negative bacterial species would appear pink. (The other cells are
7515:
7398:
6473:
6430:
6130:
6105:
5885:
5715:
5199:
5166:
5116:
5083:
4888:
4795:
4778:
4763:
4738:
4422:
4363:
4283:
3665:
3640:
3452:
3436:"Acidophilic and thermophilic Bacillus strains from geothermally heated antarctic soil"
3435:
3342:
3317:
3202:
3185:
3120:
3095:
3071:
3046:
2780:
2561:
2222:
2197:
1832:
1824:
1801:
1769:
1201:
drugs, and for prevention when alternative therapies are not available or appropriate.
1064:
914:
862:
603:
265:
178:
132:
6914:
6448:
6399:
5800:
4495:
4304:
4086:
3468:
3251:
3226:
2351:
853:
whose primary role is to regulate immune cells, as well as to induce inflammation and
512:
In December 2009, an outbreak of anthrax occurred among injecting heroin users in the
7759:
7687:
7418:
7242:
7212:
6784:
6658:
6624:
6325:
6135:
6086:
6081:
6064:
5892:
5804:
5769:
5721:
5632:
5622:
5504:
5439:
5349:
5204:
5121:
4934:
4892:
4836:
4688:
4499:
4414:
4355:
4275:
4167:
3780:
3670:
3582:
3506:
3474:
3385:
3347:
3298:
3256:
3207:
3125:
3076:
2985:
2804:"An Outbreak of Anthrax Among Drug Users in Scotland, December 2009 to December 2010"
2772:
2768:
2733:
2641:
2553:
2548:
2531:
2467:
2433:
2322:
2227:
1610:
1599:
1575:
1385:
885:
874:
870:
822:
766:
392:
308:
289:
270:
206:
196:
120:
6308:
5383:
5000:"Sandia decon formulation, best known as an anthrax killer, takes on household mold"
4426:
2784:
2149:
7729:
7639:
6794:
6586:
6125:
6117:
6076:
5796:
5761:
5614:
5194:
5186:
5111:
5103:
4880:
4790:
4758:
4750:
4491:
4406:
4367:
4347:
4287:
4267:
4193:
4157:
4147:
3660:
3652:
3447:
3377:
3337:
3329:
3290:
3246:
3238:
3197:
3115:
3107:
3066:
3058:
2764:
2565:
2543:
2217:
2209:
2044:
1989:
A scientific experiment performed by a high school student, later published in the
1901:
1701:
1680:
1614:
1428:
1010:
1000:
715:
637:
6376:
6154:"40 now hospitalised after anthrax outbreak in Yamal, more than half are children"
6106:"Thawing of permafrost may disturb historic cattle burial grounds in East Siberia"
3242:
329:
after exposure can also prevent infection. If infection occurs, treatment is with
7412:
7126:
6953:
6840:
6604:
6599:
6496:
6319:
6245:
6212:
6046:
5433:
5273:
5262:
5056:
5043:
5032:
4913:
4884:
4661:
3943:
3884:
3760:
2635:
2600:
1828:
1820:
1736:
1653:
1622:
1573:, created by the Soviet bioweapons program in the 1980s, was later called by the
1535:
1493:
1389:
1134:
1024:
587:
345:
341:
314:
216:
50:
5993:
5853:
5618:
4152:
3911:
3541:
2079:
1772:
weapon. Its first modern incidence occurred when Nordic rebels, supplied by the
7570:
6779:
6764:
6759:
6728:
6698:
5400:
4947:
4334:
Holty JE, Bravata DM, Liu H, Olshen RA, McDonald KM, Owens DK (February 2006).
3936:
3753:
3656:
3574:
3333:
3294:
1960:
1661:
1404:
1032:
953:
866:
695:
388:
6330:
4336:"Systematic review: a century of inhalational anthrax cases from 1900 to 2005"
4294:
3111:
2116:
1780:
in Finland in 1916. Anthrax was first tested as a biological warfare agent by
465:
277:
with a black center. The inhalation form presents with fever, chest pain, and
7723:
7116:
6969:
6718:
6713:
6693:
6688:
6207:
6173:"Siberian Child Dies After Climate Change Thaws an Anthrax-Infected Reindeer"
4925:
3510:
3499:"Siberian Child Dies After Climate Change Thaws an Anthrax-Infected Reindeer"
2586:
1952:
1897:
1843:
1812:
1606:
1595:
1564:
1450:
1303:
1225:. Without treatment, up to 20% of cutaneous skin infection cases progress to
1198:
1194:
1138:
1115:
1006:
830:
770:
730:
612:
551:
318:
6293:
5765:
5107:
4394:
4335:
3381:
1638:, who died in 1951 after being accidentally infected with the Vollum strain.
7548:
7233:
6434:
6139:
6090:
5808:
5636:
5208:
5125:
4754:
4418:
4359:
4279:
4171:
3843:
Mikesell P, Ivins BE, Ristroph JD, Vodkin MH, Dreier TM, Leppla SH (1983).
3774:
3674:
3641:"Lethal factor of anthrax toxin binds monomeric form of protective antigen"
3613:
3586:
3389:
3351:
3302:
3260:
3211:
3129:
3080:
2776:
2614:
2557:
2231:
2213:
1933:
1887:), about 1,370 kilometres (850 mi) east of Moscow, were exposed to an
1865:
1816:
1757:
1679:
A bleach solution for treating hard surfaces has been approved by the EPA.
1631:
1567:
virulence plasmid and not the polyglutamic acid capsule expressing plasmid.
1146:
1120:
1028:
1014:
969:
858:
449:
356:. It has been used in biowarfare and bioterrorism since 1914. In 1975, the
322:
54:
6121:
6015:
5773:
1368:. Koch went on to study the mechanisms of other diseases and won the 1905
1275:
in a sealed plastic body bag within a sealed metal container for autopsy.
1197:
is approved to treat inhalational anthrax in conjunction with appropriate
583:
7702:
7477:
7447:
6678:
6609:
6360:
5190:
5165:
Rastogi VK, Ryan SP, Wallace L, Smith LS, Shah SS, Martin GB (May 2010).
4503:
4410:
1979:
1948:
1793:
1705:
1618:
1583:
1485:
1408:
1381:
1365:
1349:
1284:
1222:
1178:
1158:
1142:
1084:
741:
736:
645:
641:
616:
566:
479:
326:
293:
220:
186:
1468:
to demonstrate his concept of vaccination. He prepared two groups of 25
624:
outcompeted and destroyed by anaerobic bacteria within minutes to hours
7630:
7615:
7604:
7467:
7348:
7276:
7121:
7095:
6921:
6673:
6382:
3763:. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 30 April 2009.
2009:
1570:
1226:
1154:
1150:
1040:
898:
838:
834:
826:
818:
633:
591:
330:
274:
202:
6387:
6261:
7575:
7482:
7339:
7302:
7147:
6925:
6917:
6824:
6809:
6733:
6371:
6336:
5435:
Clouds of Secrecy: The Army's Germ Warfare Tests Over Populated Areas
1913:
1785:
1657:
1563:, is an attenuated strain used as a vaccine, which contains only the
1489:
1327:
1233:
854:
842:
750:
536:
522:
399:
people with a cutaneous anthrax infection develop. The central black
334:
304:
261:
238:
231:
6577:
United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases
3473:. Internet Archive. Berkeley : University of California Press.
2432:(4th ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization. pp. 20, 36.
991:
mixed with effective microorganisms for the contaminated waterways.
426:, charbon, splenic fever, malignant edema, woolsorter's disease and
103:
7507:
7431:
7388:
7281:
6988:
6958:
6774:
6723:
6668:
6020:
5743:
5686:
Infectious Diseases: Causes, Types, Prevention, Treatment and Facts
4101:
2968:
1920:
1851:
1847:
1781:
1693:
1635:
1591:
1393:
1353:
1323:
1060:
1044:
1036:
850:
790:
517:
491:
430:
191:
Working with animals; travelers, postal workers, military personnel
6341:
5530:"Traditional Medical Practitioners Seek International Recognition"
3434:
Hudson, J. Andrew; Daniel, Roy M.; Morgan, Hugh W. (August 1989).
2732:. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003. Archived from
7521:
6944:
4085:. Occupational Safety & Health Administration. Archived from
3316:
Sweeney DA, Hicks CW, Cui X, Li Y, Eichacker PQ (December 2011).
3186:"The role of the lymphatic system in the pathogenesis of anthrax"
3062:
2844:"Anthrax: In Scotland, six heroin users die of anthrax poisoning"
1994:
1937:
1685:
1556:
1446:
1401:
1377:
1319:
1218:
774:
691:
513:
159:
5220:
5218:
3909:
3280:
893:
Various techniques may be used for the direct identification of
6738:
6663:
6288:
6273:
6226:
5824:"U.Va. Researchers Find Anthrax Can Grow and Reproduce in Soil"
3227:"Formation and composition of the Bacillus anthracis endospore"
2974:
USAMRIID's Medical Management of Biological Casualties Handbook
2532:"A national register of historic and contemporary anthrax foci"
1983:
1697:
1579:"the most virulent and vicious strain of anthrax known to man".
1442:
945:
687:
683:
496:
487:
400:
396:
112:
1943:
Concentrated anthrax spores were used for bioterrorism in the
6819:
6814:
6703:
6629:
6526:
5215:
5139:
4299:
4297:
2654:
from the original on 27 August 2016 – via Google Books.
2579:
2195:
1492:
in 1888 to try to introduce the vaccine to combat anthrax in
1469:
1214:
1048:
782:
778:
483:
382:
4602:"Anthrax Is Found in 2 Connecticut Residents, One a Drummer"
1594:, which separately encode for a three-protein toxin, called
1456:
In May 1881, Pasteur – in collaboration with his assistants
6522:
Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism
6063:
Dragon DC, Elkin BT, Nishi JS, Ellsworth TR (August 1999).
4133:
3842:
1908:
1808:
1473:
1307:
1063:) to protect American troops against the use of anthrax in
889:
Possible edema and necrosis in a case of injection anthrax.
846:
475:
5320:"Anthrax Expert Faces Fine for Burning Infected Carcasses"
3322:
American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine
2942:
Anthrax – Chapter 4 – 2020 Yellow Book | Travelers' Health
6062:
5461:"Saddam's germ war plot is traced back to one Oxford cow"
3224:
1893:
1724:
then, newer and less costly methods have been developed.
1477:
1372:
for his discovery of the bacterium causing tuberculosis.
825:. Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP into
490:). The black eschar often shows up as a large, painless,
4212:"FDA approves raxibacumab to treat inhalational anthrax"
4134:
Doganay M, Dinc G, Kutmanova A, Baillie L (March 2023).
3405:"Crossrail work stopped after human bones found on site"
1290:
In 2007 two cases of cutaneous anthrax were reported in
6562:
National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center
6429:
5164:
3572:
2754:
968:
Protective, impermeable clothing and equipment such as
5590:
5588:
4632:"Croatia: Anthrax found in dead cattle in nature park"
4136:"Human Anthrax: Update of the Diagnosis and Treatment"
3044:
1020:
Currently administered human anthrax vaccines include
1013:
in 1881. Human anthrax vaccines were developed by the
636:) in the lungs and transported through small vessels (
5914:"U.S. officials declare researcher is anthrax killer"
4333:
4257:
4083:"How should I decontaminate during response actions?"
3638:
3470:
Anthrax : the investigation of a deadly outbreak
1966:
Due to these events, the US Postal Service installed
1871:
1858:; they were abandoned in 1992 and destroyed in 2002.
1764:, holding a model vial of supposed weaponized anthrax
974:
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
6251:
6097:
5140:"Using Bleach to Destroy Anthrax and Other Microbes"
4812:
Death in a Small Package: A Short History of Anthrax
4481:
4186:"HGSI asks for FDA approval of anthrax drug ABthrax"
395:
etymology, because of the characteristic black skin
5585:
4519:"Drummer's anthrax case spurs a public health hunt"
4245:"FDA approves new treatment for inhalation anthrax"
3752:National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory
3645:
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
3283:
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
3183:
1831:bombers in 1944 were scrapped after the success of
1762:
presentation to the United Nations Security Council
1302:In July 2022, dozens of cattle in a nature park in
1059:. In the 20th century the use of a modern product (
690:with inhalational anthrax; featured are rod-shaped
543:. This is often described as the prodromal period.
344:than elsewhere on the continent and is uncommon in
6537:European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
5884:
5787:Sternbach G (May 2003). "The history of anthrax".
5596:
4016:
4014:
3433:
1692:To speed the process, trace amounts of a nontoxic
303:Anthrax is spread by contact with the bacterium's
6517:Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention
5598:"Anthrax: The Investigation of a Deadly Outbreak"
3548:(4th ed.), World Health Organization, 2008,
3315:
1279:gastrointestinal anthrax in an adult female. The
7721:
6016:"Seventeen-year-old devises anthrax deactivator"
4970:"Army harvested victims' blood to boost anthrax"
4709:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905"
3639:Chvyrkova I, Zhang XC, Terzyan S (August 2007).
3141:
3139:
1807:which called for animal feed pellets containing
1776:, used anthrax with unknown results against the
897:in clinical material. Firstly, specimens may be
710:Gram-positive anthrax bacteria (purple rods) in
6851:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540
6567:National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity
6103:
5482:"UK planned to wipe out Germany with anthrax".
4682:
4575:"PROMED: Anthrax, Human – USA: (New Hampshire)"
4549:"PROMED: Anthrax, Human – USA: (New Hampshire)"
4011:
3581:. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing.
3184:Hughes R, May AJ, Widdicombe JG (August 1956).
2667:Bartholomaeus Anglicus' De Proprietatibus Rerum
2658:
2633:
2523:
1437:Louis Pasteur inoculating sheep against anthrax
16:Infection caused by Bacillus anthracis bacteria
6053:, 30 October 2001. Retrieved 17 February 2007.
4541:
3916:The Anthrax Vaccine: Is It Safe? Does It Work?
3616:. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
2418:
2416:
2414:
2383:
2381:
2379:
2377:
1555:The Sterne strain of anthrax, named after the
1464:and others – performed a public experiment at
1177:(BLA, permission to market) for its new drug,
6900:
6572:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs
6557:India's Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
6415:
5057:"Remediating Indoor and Outdoor Environments"
3690:Review of Medical Microbiology and Immunology
3276:
3274:
3272:
3270:
3136:
2935:
2933:
2931:
2929:
2927:
2925:
2923:
2921:
2144:
2142:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2105:
1815:to be dropped by air over the countryside of
1664:, Sandia Foam, chlorine dioxide (used in the
1262:Globally, at least 2,000 cases occur a year.
833:. The complexation of adenylate cyclase with
39:The examples and perspective in this article
5739:
5737:
4814:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
4242:
3836:
3705:Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology
3573:Chambers J, Yarrarapu SN, Mathai JK (2023).
3096:"Bacillus anthracis Physiology and Genetics"
2321:. Gideon Informatics Inc. 2016. p. 12.
2074:
2072:
2070:
2039:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2029:
1896:continued from 1979 until Russian President
1696:composed of iron and tetroamido macrocyclic
1441:Anthrax posed a major economic challenge in
723:
428:
153:: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain
6056:
5496:
4849:
2718:
2529:
2466:. Cambridge University Press. p. 897.
2459:
2411:
2374:
2243:
2241:
409:
6907:
6893:
6512:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
6422:
6408:
5709:
5707:
5081:
4864:
4803:
4516:
4510:
4475:
3614:"Molecular Basis for Anthrax Intoxication"
3402:
3267:
3177:
3020:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
2918:
2673:
2664:
2311:
2309:
2307:
2191:
2189:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2177:
2175:
2139:
2102:
1689:processes to have the reactant on demand.
286:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
102:
6527:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
6129:
6080:
5786:
5734:
5594:
5198:
5115:
4794:
4762:
4161:
4151:
4053:"How People Are Infected | Anthrax | CDC"
3664:
3466:
3451:
3341:
3250:
3201:
3190:British Journal of Experimental Pathology
3119:
3070:
2841:
2547:
2276:
2274:
2272:
2270:
2221:
2067:
2026:
140:: small blister with surrounding swelling
77:Learn how and when to remove this message
6216:) is being considered for deletion. See
5992:. USPS. 12 February 2002. Archived from
4020:
3687:
3367:
2967:
2422:
2238:
1900:admitted this anthrax accident in 1992.
1752:
1432:
1164:
1095:
884:
735:
582:
464:
456:
448:
7184:Cutaneous Streptococcus iniae infection
5704:
5158:
4352:10.7326/0003-4819-144-4-200602210-00009
4272:10.7326/0003-4819-144-4-200602210-00009
4251:
3309:
3093:
2726:"Anthrax Q & A: Signs and Symptoms"
2480:from the original on 10 September 2017.
2335:from the original on 10 September 2017.
2304:
2172:
1973:
1936:education. To make large amounts of an
1927:
1628:US Army Biological Warfare Laboratories
1621:. This same strain was used during the
1250:Anthrax, a bacterial disease caused by
7740:Bacterium-related cutaneous conditions
7722:
5821:
5713:
5661:from the original on 17 September 2008
5609:(16). University of California Press:
5527:
5517:from the original on 22 February 2017.
5471:from the original on 25 December 2005.
5171:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
5088:Environmental Science & Technology
4855:
4828:Deadly Diseases and Epidemics, Anthrax
4824:
4599:
4581:from the original on 27 September 2011
4555:from the original on 27 September 2011
4392:
3702:
3001:from the original on 9 February 2015.
2906:from the original on 16 September 2020
2449:from the original on 30 November 2016.
2267:
1986:formula supplied by Sipco Industries.
1642:
909:, rapid diagnostic techniques such as
793:then cleaves PA into two fragments: PA
535:anthrax difficult to distinguish from
300:as the bacterium that causes anthrax.
6888:
6790:Biological warfare in popular culture
6403:
5942:. Security Products. 16 August 2007.
5458:
5360:from the original on 26 December 2016
5330:from the original on 26 December 2016
5317:
5303:from the original on 2 February 2016.
5006:from the original on 5 September 2008
4980:from the original on 29 December 2009
4967:
4870:
4831:. Chelesa House Publishers. pp.
4809:
4676:
4612:from the original on 24 November 2020
4529:from the original on 14 December 2013
4224:from the original on 17 December 2012
4200:from the original on 18 October 2014.
4063:from the original on 26 December 2016
4033:from the original on 26 December 2016
3734:from the original on 22 December 2019
3718:
3716:
3714:
3620:from the original on 26 December 2016
3605:
3568:
3566:
3536:
3534:
3532:
3492:
3490:
3363:
3361:
3026:from the original on 11 February 2015
2837:
2835:
2798:
2796:
2794:
2679:
2637:Wool Economy in the Ancient Near East
2495:
2493:
2491:
2489:
2487:
2399:from the original on 26 December 2016
1742:
1514:
1388:industries, it was viewed with fear.
1370:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
978:Mine Safety and Health Administration
439:
288:, the first clinical descriptions of
7318:Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome
6170:
6028:from the original on 7 October 2014.
5978:from the original on 9 October 2022.
5911:
5882:
5834:from the original on 21 October 2012
5692:from the original on 24 October 2008
5679:
5558:
5431:
5413:from the original on 31 October 2023
5142:. Society for Applied Microbiology.
5063:from the original on 13 October 2013
4930:"Selling the Threat of Bioterrorism"
4858:The Private Science of Louis Pasteur
4683:Madigan M, Martinko J, eds. (2005).
4551:. Promedmail.org. 26 December 2009.
4463:from the original on 25 October 2023
3999:from the original on 25 January 2023
3811:
3793:from the original on 14 October 2023
3496:
3415:from the original on 25 October 2023
3145:
2876:from the original on 25 January 2023
2854:from the original on 2 January 2016.
2706:from the original on 21 January 2018
2346:
2344:
2342:
2080:"Basic Information What is anthrax?"
2008:Russian researchers estimate arctic
1811:infected with anthrax spores of the
1518:
1422:
1358:diseases could be caused by microbes
1185:that neutralizes toxins produced by
311:of a sample from the infected site.
25:
7735:Biological anti-agriculture weapons
6183:from the original on 17 August 2016
5651:"Plague war: The 1979 anthrax leak"
4976:. UCLA Dept. of Epidemiology site.
4749:(2386): 735–36. 22 September 1906.
4374:from the original on 28 August 2020
3611:
3517:from the original on 17 August 2016
3218:
2896:"Injection Anthrax | Anthrax | CDC"
2730:Emergency Preparedness and Response
1768:Anthrax spores have been used as a
809:then oligomerizes with six other PA
557:
13:
6160:from the original on 30 July 2016.
5920:from the original on 8 August 2008
5497:Croddy EA, Wirtz JJ, eds. (2005).
5291:Vol. 57 – No. 36, 17 October 2003"
4672:from the original on 7 March 2016.
4662:"Man who breathed in anthrax dies"
4638:. Associated Press. 16 July 2022.
4109:"CDC Anthrax Q & A: Treatment"
3989:"Vaccine to Prevent Anthrax | CDC"
3963:"11 December 2008 Approval Letter"
3711:
3593:from the original on 28 April 2022
3563:
3529:
3487:
3453:10.1111/j.1574-6968.1989.tb03486.x
3403:Bloomfield, Ruth (12 April 2012).
3358:
3172:from the original on 18 July 2011.
3159:Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen
3094:Koehler, Theresa (3 August 2009).
2961:
2832:
2791:
2612:
2484:
1872:Sverdlovsk incident (2 April 1979)
598:, the cause of the anthrax disease
14:
7781:
7554:Clostridial necrotizing enteritis
6542:Global Health Security Initiative
6220:to help reach a consensus. ›
6199:
5946:from the original on 16 July 2011
5789:The Journal of Emergency Medicine
5682:"Anthrax – From Russia with Love"
5236:from the original on 29 June 2011
5082:Wood JP, Adrion AC (April 2019).
4779:"Industrial Infection by Anthrax"
4642:from the original on 22 July 2022
4577:. Promedmail.org. 18 April 2010.
4433:from the original on 17 July 2020
3969:from the original on 29 June 2017
3814:"Life and Times of Louis Pasteur"
3552:from the original on 18 June 2022
2684:. London: Pickering & Chatto.
2339:
1982:and treatment with a proprietary
1784:of the Japanese Kwantung Army in
1313:
6454:1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack
6164:
6146:
6104:Revich BA, Podolnaya MA (2011).
6082:10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00872.x
6032:
6008:
5982:
5958:
5932:
5905:
5876:
5854:"Anthrax as a biological weapon"
5846:
5815:
5780:
5673:
5643:
5573:from the original on 17 May 2021
5552:
5521:
5490:
5475:
5452:
5425:
5393:
5372:
5342:
5146:from the original on 17 May 2008
4789:(2759): 1338. 15 November 1913.
4739:"John Henry Bell, M.D., M.R.C.S"
4719:from the original on 23 May 2020
4687:(11th ed.). Prentice Hall.
4315:from the original on 11 May 2016
4023:"Military to Halt Anthrax Shots"
3965:. Food and Drug Administration.
3891:from the original on 5 July 2008
3845:"Plasmids, Pasteur, and Anthrax"
2949:from the original on 6 June 2020
2842:McNeil Jr DG (12 January 2010).
2769:10.1111/j.1525-1470.2010.01214.x
2549:10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00868.x
2362:from the original on 11 May 2016
2255:from the original on 11 May 2016
2160:from the original on 11 May 2016
2127:from the original on 11 May 2016
2090:from the original on 17 May 2016
2055:from the original on 11 May 2016
2000:
1609:, developed but never used as a
1522:
1265:
1127:
703:
671:
657:
269:. Infection typically occurs by
30:
7159:Group B streptococcal infection
7107:Group A streptococcal infection
6532:Defense Threat Reduction Agency
6069:Journal of Applied Microbiology
5864:from the original on 5 May 2016
5830:. University of Virginia site.
5603:New England Journal of Medicine
5311:
5279:
5248:
5226:"Pesticide Disposal Goes Green"
5132:
5075:
5049:
5018:
4992:
4961:
4941:
4919:
4899:
4818:
4771:
4731:
4701:
4685:Brock Biology of Microorganisms
4654:
4624:
4593:
4567:
4517:Schweitzer S (4 January 2010).
4445:
4386:
4327:
4236:
4178:
4127:
4075:
4045:
4021:Schrader E (23 December 2003).
3981:
3955:
3929:
3918:, National Academies Press (US)
3903:
3877:
3805:
3766:
3746:
3696:
3681:
3632:
3460:
3427:
3396:
3087:
3038:
3008:
2888:
2866:"Anthrax – Symptoms and causes"
2858:
2748:
2688:
2627:
2606:
2572:
2536:Journal of Applied Microbiology
2453:
2292:from the original on 7 May 2016
1792:In 1942, British scientists at
1721:Environmental Protection Agency
1671:Decontamination techniques for
1647:
1392:, a doctor born & based in
1257:
1221:from entering and destroying a
1077:anthrax attacks of October 2001
469:Anthrax skin lesion on the face
461:Anthrax skin lesion on the neck
391:word for coal, possibly having
367:1993 by the Aum Shinrikyo group
6502:Caribbean Public Health Agency
5720:. New York: Delta Publishing.
5534:Southern African News Features
4243:News Release (21 March 2016).
2634:Breniquet C, Michel C (2014).
2530:Cherkasskiy BL (August 1999).
1070:
1009:developed the first effective
260:is an infection caused by the
169:1 day to 2 months post contact
1:
6846:Biological Weapons Convention
6459:1989 California medfly attack
6233:Anthrax in humans and animals
6205:
5801:10.1016/S0736-4679(03)00079-9
5528:Martin D (16 November 2001).
4860:. Princeton University Press.
4600:Kaplan T (6 September 2007).
4496:10.1016/S0046-8177(78)80140-3
4453:"Anthrax | FAQs | Texas DSHS"
4395:"Anthrax meningoencephalitis"
3952:; 2005 Mar–Apr; 25(2):143–49.
3779:. World Health Organization.
3546:Anthrax in Humans and Animals
3243:10.1128/JB.186.1.164-178.2004
2982:US Government Printing Office
2426:Anthrax in humans and animals
2019:
1991:Journal of Medical Toxicology
1889:accidental release of anthrax
1840:Biological Weapons Convention
959:
915:immunofluorescence microscopy
644:in the central chest cavity (
358:Biological Weapons Convention
354:developed anthrax as a weapon
7697:Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
5822:Barney J (17 October 2012).
5350:"Britain's 'Anthrax Island'"
4968:Shane S (23 December 2001).
4885:10.5401/healthhist.14.2.0001
4217:Food and Drug Administration
3812:Cohn DV (11 February 1996).
3497:Luhn, Alec (8 August 2016).
3047:"Pathophysiology of anthrax"
2202:Emerging Infectious Diseases
2014:global warming in the Arctic
1344:
1204:
1175:biologic license application
1091:
1081:United States Postal Service
1057:recombinant subunit vaccines
880:
767:poly-D-glutamic acid capsule
760:
680:scanning electron micrograph
541:community-acquired pneumonia
507:
377:The English name comes from
372:
243:20–80% die without treatment
7:
7765:Zoonotic bacterial diseases
6552:Laboratory Response Network
6248:", 23 July 1881, p. 57
5619:10.1056/NEJM200010193431615
5486:. Glasgow. 14 October 2001.
5401:"DOD Technical Information"
5384:Anthrax Sabotage in Finland
4340:Annals of Internal Medicine
4260:Annals of Internal Medicine
4153:10.3390/diagnostics13061056
2620:Online Etymology Dictionary
2463:Clinical Infectious Disease
1968:biohazard detection systems
1666:Hart Senate Office Building
1458:Jean-Joseph Henri Toussaint
994:
773:, consisting of protective
578:
417:On the Properties of Things
53:, discuss the issue on the
10:
7786:
6507:Center for Health Security
5438:. Rowman and Littlefield.
5382:, August 2003, pp. 17–22.
3657:10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.06.124
3467:Guillemin, Jeanne (1999).
3334:10.1164/rccm.201102-0209CI
3295:10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.07.105
3016:"Gastrointestinal Anthrax"
2580:
1875:
1746:
1598:, and a polyglutamic acid
1426:
1337:
1333:
1297:
1245:
998:
601:
383:
296:was the first to identify
18:
7686:
7638:
7629:
7602:
7568:
7532:
7491:
7475:
7466:
7429:
7386:
7338:
7301:
7290:
7275:
7231:
7198:
7169:
7137:
7112:Streptococcal pharyngitis
7086:
7077:
7015:
6987:
6978:
6967:
6952:
6943:
6859:
6833:
6752:
6615:Burkholderia pseudomallei
6585:
6487:
6441:
6351:
6255:
5561:"Anthrax buried for good"
5318:Broad WJ (1 March 2002).
5272:30 September 2018 at the
5042:30 September 2018 at the
4956:Little, Brown and Company
4393:Lanska DJ (August 2002).
3935:Splino M, et al. (2005),
3885:"Robert Koch (1843–1910)"
3440:FEMS Microbiology Letters
3112:10.1016/j.mam.2009.07.004
2389:"How People Are Infected"
1735:The experimental site at
1632:Camp (later Fort) Detrick
1509:human vaccine for anthrax
1398:Friederich Wilhelm Eurich
1340:List of anthrax outbreaks
1053:recombinant live vaccines
911:polymerase chain reaction
724:Exposure and transmission
482:that eventually forms an
247:
237:
226:
212:
195:
185:
173:
165:
131:
119:
115:characteristic of anthrax
111:A skin lesion with black
110:
101:
96:
7592:Pseudomembranous colitis
7586:Clostridioides difficile
6218:templates for discussion
6171:Luhn A (8 August 2016).
5912:Bohn K (6 August 2008).
5559:Pala C (22 March 2003).
5503:. ABC-CLIO. p. 21.
5276:(see p. 3). 12 May 2015.
5046:(see p. 8). 12 May 2015.
4715:. The Nobel Foundation.
4305:"Types of Anthrax | CDC"
3949:Annals of Saudi Medicine
3858:: 320–22. Archived from
3818:University of Louisville
2251:. CDC. 14 January 2016.
1710:tert-butyl hydroperoxide
1586:, which was used in the
1109:Anthrax, and antibiotics
985:effective microorganisms
573:
529:
453:Skin lesion from anthrax
251:>2,000 cases per year
21:Anthrax (disambiguation)
7543:Clostridium perfringens
7254:Urinary tract infection
6744:Viral hemorrhagic fever
5766:10.1126/science.7973702
5108:10.1021/acs.est.8b05274
4783:British Medical Journal
4743:British Medical Journal
3816:. School of Dentistry,
3612:Gao M (27 April 2006).
3231:Journal of Bacteriology
3051:Frontiers in Bioscience
2596:A Greek–English Lexicon
1993:, suggested a domestic
1878:Sverdlovsk anthrax leak
1805:military operation plan
1800:, an ultimately unused
1306:, a flood plain by the
1217:factor, and protective
849:(IL1B). TNF-alpha is a
444:
411:De proprietatibus rerum
352:Several countries have
205:or toxin in the blood,
7649:Ureaplasma urealyticum
7442:Listeria monocytogenes
7146:bacitracin resistant,
7005:Pneumococcal infection
6770:Psychochemical weapons
6620:Chlamydophila psittaci
6246:Earthworms and Anthrax
5891:. SkyhorsePublishing.
4912:24 August 2012 at the
4755:10.1136/bmj.2.2386.735
3942:2 January 2016 at the
2460:Schlossberg D (2008).
2318:Anthrax: Global Status
2214:10.3201/eid2002.130687
1765:
1438:
1417:Anthrax Prevention Act
1415:, led directly to the
1362:spontaneous generation
1159:antibiotic prophylaxis
1110:
890:
745:
740:Inhalational anthrax,
731:people who sorted wool
599:
470:
462:
454:
431:la maladie de Bradford
429:
410:
405:Bartholomaeus Anglicus
284:According to the U.S.
7755:Occupational diseases
7670:Mycoplasma pneumoniae
7663:Mycoplasma genitalium
7502:Clostridium botulinum
7248:Enterococcus faecalis
7023:Viridans streptococci
6864:Wiktionary definition
6805:Entomological warfare
6684:Legionnaires' disease
6469:Wood Green ricin plot
6122:10.3402/gha.v4i0.8482
6040:Can Dogs Get Anthrax?
5990:"Latest Facts Update"
5261:12 March 2021 at the
5031:12 March 2021 at the
3382:10.1093/occmed/kqh115
3370:Occupational Medicine
2757:Pediatric Dermatology
2665:de Trevisa J (1398).
2587:Liddell, Henry George
1778:Imperial Russian Army
1756:
1749:Anthrax weaponization
1436:
1427:Further information:
1413:G. Elmhirst Duckering
1171:Human Genome Sciences
1165:Monoclonal antibodies
1108:
888:
739:
586:
486:with a black center (
468:
460:
452:
271:contact with the skin
145:: fever, chest pain,
7770:Respiratory diseases
7676:Mycoplasma pneumonia
7655:Ureaplasma infection
7365:novobiocin resistant
7323:Toxic shock syndrome
7262:Enterococcus faecium
6634:Equine encephalitis
6464:2001 anthrax attacks
6110:Global Health Action
6045:6 April 2012 at the
6024:. 23 February 2006.
5828:U. Va. Health System
5595:Guillemin J (2000).
5566:The Washington Times
5191:10.1128/AEM.02668-09
4411:10.1212/wnl.59.3.327
4311:. 19 November 2020.
3995:. 18 November 2020.
3759:31 July 2017 at the
2395:. 1 September 2015.
2156:. 1 September 2015.
2123:. 1 September 2015.
2086:. 1 September 2015.
1974:Decontaminating mail
1951:of South Dakota and
1945:2001 anthrax attacks
1928:Anthrax bioterrorism
1885:Ekaterinburg, Russia
1856:Vozrozhdeniya Island
1798:Operation Vegetarian
1774:German General Staff
1588:2001 anthrax attacks
1536:adding missing items
1292:Danbury, Connecticut
1027:(United States) and
363:2001 anthrax attacks
59:create a new article
51:improve this article
41:may not represent a
19:For other uses, see
7608:(non-spore forming)
7218:Streptococcus bovis
7178:Streptococcus iniae
6926:Infectious diseases
6709:Salmonella enterica
6241:Scientific American
6236:– Textbook from WHO
5860:. 10 October 2001.
5758:1994Sci...266.1202M
5688:. MedicineNet.com.
5183:2010ApEnM..76.3343R
5100:2019EnST...53.4045W
4668:. 2 November 2008.
4636:The Washington Post
4089:on 26 December 2016
3912:"Executive Summary"
3688:Levinson W (2010).
3575:"Anthrax Infection"
3542:"Anthrax in humans"
3318:"Anthrax infection"
2902:. 28 January 2019.
2696:"Cutaneous Anthrax"
2511:on 26 December 2016
2423:Turnbull P (2008).
1813:Vollum-14578 strain
1643:Society and culture
1559:-born immunologist
1502:John McGarvie Smith
1449:. French scientist
1183:monoclonal antibody
1067:was controversial.
987:thru spraying, and
712:cerebrospinal fluid
365:and an incident in
315:Anthrax vaccination
279:shortness of breath
217:Anthrax vaccination
147:shortness of breath
7516:Clostridium tetani
7399:Bacillus anthracis
7016:optochin resistant
6931:Bacterial diseases
6810:Infectious disease
6547:Health Threat Unit
6479:2013 ricin letters
6474:2003 ricin letters
6431:Biological warfare
6352:External resources
5324:The New York Times
4873:Health and History
4606:The New York Times
4457:www.dshs.texas.gov
4059:. 9 January 2019.
3937:"Anthrax vaccines"
3703:Forbes BA (2002).
3150:Bacillus anthracis
3022:. 23 August 2013.
2848:The New York Times
2820:on 20 October 2013
2352:"Types of Anthrax"
1833:Operation Overlord
1825:Scottish Highlands
1796:began research on
1770:biological warfare
1766:
1743:Biological warfare
1700:are combined with
1673:Bacillus anthracis
1534:; you can help by
1515:Engineered strains
1439:
1252:Bacillus anthracis
1111:
1065:biological warfare
913:-based assays and
891:
877:and septic shock.
863:pericardial cavity
847:interleukin 1 beta
817:Edema factor is a
746:
665:Bacillus anthracis
609:Bacillus anthracis
604:Bacillus anthracis
600:
596:Bacillus anthracis
471:
463:
455:
440:Signs and symptoms
424:Cumberland disease
298:Bacillus anthracis
266:Bacillus anthracis
179:Bacillus anthracis
126:Infectious disease
7717:
7716:
7713:
7712:
7688:Anaeroplasmatales
7625:
7624:
7564:
7563:
7462:
7461:
7458:
7457:
7382:
7381:
7271:
7270:
7227:
7226:
7194:
7193:
7073:
7072:
6882:
6881:
6869:Wikimedia Commons
6834:International law
6785:Biological hazard
6659:Foodborne illness
6655:
6647:
6640:
6625:Coxiella burnetii
6587:Biological agents
6397:
6396:
5898:978-1-60239-715-6
5752:(5188): 1202–08.
5727:978-0-385-33496-9
5714:Alibek K (1999).
5628:978-0-520-22917-4
5510:978-1-85109-490-5
5445:978-0-8226-3001-2
5177:(10): 3343–3e51.
5002:. 26 April 2007.
4935:Los Angeles Times
4856:Geison G (2014).
4842:978-0-7910-7302-5
4825:Decker J (2003).
4694:978-0-13-144329-7
4027:Los Angeles Times
3786:978-92-4-151493-4
3480:978-0-520-22204-5
2613:Harper, Douglas.
1862:American military
1611:biological weapon
1605:Nonetheless, the
1576:Los Angeles Times
1552:
1551:
1423:First vaccination
1106:
875:hypovolemic shock
871:peritoneal cavity
823:adenylate cyclase
716:white blood cells
611:is a rod-shaped,
594:of the bacterium
567:vomiting of blood
290:cutaneous anthrax
255:
254:
207:microbial culture
197:Diagnostic method
143:Inhalational form
91:Medical condition
87:
86:
79:
61:, as appropriate.
7777:
7750:Health disasters
7640:Mycoplasmataceae
7636:
7635:
7616:Finegoldia magna
7489:
7488:
7473:
7472:
7371:S. saprophyticus
7299:
7298:
7288:
7287:
7084:
7083:
6985:
6984:
6976:
6975:
6965:
6964:
6950:
6949:
6909:
6902:
6895:
6886:
6885:
6795:Ethnic bioweapon
6753:Related concepts
6719:Salmonella typhi
6650:
6643:
6635:
6442:Modern incidents
6424:
6417:
6410:
6401:
6400:
6253:
6252:
6193:
6192:
6190:
6188:
6168:
6162:
6161:
6150:
6144:
6143:
6133:
6101:
6095:
6094:
6084:
6060:
6054:
6036:
6030:
6029:
6012:
6006:
6005:
6003:
6001:
5986:
5980:
5979:
5977:
5970:
5962:
5956:
5955:
5953:
5951:
5936:
5930:
5929:
5927:
5925:
5909:
5903:
5902:
5890:
5883:Cole LA (2009).
5880:
5874:
5873:
5871:
5869:
5850:
5844:
5843:
5841:
5839:
5819:
5813:
5812:
5784:
5778:
5777:
5741:
5732:
5731:
5711:
5702:
5701:
5699:
5697:
5677:
5671:
5670:
5668:
5666:
5647:
5641:
5640:
5600:
5592:
5583:
5582:
5580:
5578:
5556:
5550:
5549:
5547:
5545:
5536:. Archived from
5525:
5519:
5518:
5494:
5488:
5487:
5479:
5473:
5472:
5456:
5450:
5449:
5432:Cole LA (1990).
5429:
5423:
5422:
5420:
5418:
5412:
5405:
5397:
5391:
5390:25 October 2009.
5380:Military History
5376:
5370:
5369:
5367:
5365:
5356:. 25 July 2001.
5346:
5340:
5339:
5337:
5335:
5315:
5309:
5308:
5304:
5302:
5295:
5283:
5277:
5252:
5246:
5245:
5243:
5241:
5222:
5213:
5212:
5202:
5162:
5156:
5155:
5153:
5151:
5136:
5130:
5129:
5119:
5079:
5073:
5072:
5070:
5068:
5053:
5047:
5022:
5016:
5015:
5013:
5011:
4996:
4990:
4989:
4987:
4985:
4965:
4959:
4945:
4939:
4923:
4917:
4903:
4897:
4896:
4868:
4862:
4861:
4853:
4847:
4846:
4822:
4816:
4815:
4810:Jones S (2010).
4807:
4801:
4800:
4798:
4775:
4769:
4768:
4766:
4735:
4729:
4728:
4726:
4724:
4705:
4699:
4698:
4680:
4674:
4673:
4658:
4652:
4651:
4649:
4647:
4628:
4622:
4621:
4619:
4617:
4597:
4591:
4590:
4588:
4586:
4571:
4565:
4564:
4562:
4560:
4545:
4539:
4538:
4536:
4534:
4523:The Boston Globe
4514:
4508:
4507:
4479:
4473:
4472:
4470:
4468:
4449:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4438:
4390:
4384:
4383:
4381:
4379:
4331:
4325:
4324:
4322:
4320:
4301:
4292:
4291:
4255:
4249:
4248:
4240:
4234:
4233:
4231:
4229:
4208:
4202:
4201:
4194:Associated Press
4182:
4176:
4175:
4165:
4155:
4131:
4125:
4124:
4122:
4120:
4111:. Archived from
4105:
4099:
4098:
4096:
4094:
4079:
4073:
4072:
4070:
4068:
4049:
4043:
4042:
4040:
4038:
4018:
4009:
4008:
4006:
4004:
3985:
3979:
3978:
3976:
3974:
3959:
3953:
3933:
3927:
3926:
3925:
3923:
3907:
3901:
3900:
3898:
3896:
3881:
3875:
3874:
3872:
3870:
3865:on 8 August 2017
3864:
3849:
3840:
3834:
3833:
3831:
3829:
3820:. Archived from
3809:
3803:
3802:
3800:
3798:
3770:
3764:
3750:
3744:
3743:
3741:
3739:
3720:
3709:
3708:
3707:(11th ed.).
3700:
3694:
3693:
3692:(11th ed.).
3685:
3679:
3678:
3668:
3636:
3630:
3629:
3627:
3625:
3609:
3603:
3602:
3600:
3598:
3570:
3561:
3560:
3559:
3557:
3538:
3527:
3526:
3524:
3522:
3494:
3485:
3484:
3464:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3431:
3425:
3424:
3422:
3420:
3409:Evening Standard
3400:
3394:
3393:
3365:
3356:
3355:
3345:
3313:
3307:
3306:
3278:
3265:
3264:
3254:
3222:
3216:
3215:
3205:
3181:
3175:
3173:
3171:
3156:
3143:
3134:
3133:
3123:
3100:Mol. Aspects Med
3091:
3085:
3084:
3074:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3031:
3012:
3006:
3005:
3000:
2980:(7th ed.).
2979:
2965:
2959:
2958:
2956:
2954:
2937:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2911:
2892:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2881:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2839:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2825:
2819:
2808:
2800:
2789:
2788:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2741:
2722:
2716:
2715:
2713:
2711:
2702:. 21 July 2014.
2692:
2686:
2685:
2680:Stark J (2013).
2677:
2671:
2670:
2662:
2656:
2655:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2610:
2604:
2583:
2582:
2576:
2570:
2569:
2551:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2516:
2497:
2482:
2481:
2457:
2451:
2450:
2448:
2431:
2420:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2404:
2385:
2372:
2371:
2369:
2367:
2358:. 21 July 2024.
2348:
2337:
2336:
2313:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2288:. 17 June 2015.
2278:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2260:
2245:
2236:
2235:
2225:
2193:
2170:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2146:
2137:
2136:
2134:
2132:
2117:"Who Is at Risk"
2113:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2076:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2051:. 23 July 2014.
2041:
1902:Jeanne Guillemin
1702:sodium carbonate
1681:Chlorine dioxide
1654:oxidizing agents
1615:Second World War
1547:
1544:
1526:
1525:
1519:
1429:Anthrax vaccines
1330:in Afghanistan.
1135:fluoroquinolones
1107:
1001:Anthrax vaccines
989:bokashi mudballs
707:
694:(yellow) and an
675:
661:
563:Gastrointestinal
558:Gastrointestinal
434:
413:
386:
385:
106:
94:
93:
82:
75:
71:
68:
62:
34:
33:
26:
7785:
7784:
7780:
7779:
7778:
7776:
7775:
7774:
7745:Bovine diseases
7720:
7719:
7718:
7709:
7682:
7621:
7598:
7560:
7528:
7454:
7425:
7413:Bacillus cereus
7378:
7334:
7279:
7267:
7223:
7190:
7165:
7133:
7127:Rheumatic fever
7069:
7011:
6956:
6954:Lactobacillales
6939:
6913:
6883:
6878:
6855:
6841:Geneva Protocol
6829:
6800:Decontamination
6748:
6605:Botulinum toxin
6600:Avian influenza
6581:
6497:Australia Group
6489:
6483:
6437:
6428:
6398:
6393:
6392:
6347:
6346:
6264:
6221:
6202:
6197:
6196:
6186:
6184:
6169:
6165:
6152:
6151:
6147:
6102:
6098:
6061:
6057:
6047:Wayback Machine
6037:
6033:
6014:
6013:
6009:
5999:
5997:
5988:
5987:
5983:
5975:
5968:
5964:
5963:
5959:
5949:
5947:
5938:
5937:
5933:
5923:
5921:
5910:
5906:
5899:
5881:
5877:
5867:
5865:
5852:
5851:
5847:
5837:
5835:
5820:
5816:
5785:
5781:
5742:
5735:
5728:
5712:
5705:
5695:
5693:
5678:
5674:
5664:
5662:
5649:
5648:
5644:
5629:
5593:
5586:
5576:
5574:
5557:
5553:
5543:
5541:
5526:
5522:
5511:
5495:
5491:
5481:
5480:
5476:
5457:
5453:
5446:
5430:
5426:
5416:
5414:
5410:
5403:
5399:
5398:
5394:
5377:
5373:
5363:
5361:
5348:
5347:
5343:
5333:
5331:
5316:
5312:
5306:
5300:
5293:
5285:
5284:
5280:
5274:Wayback Machine
5263:Wayback Machine
5253:
5249:
5239:
5237:
5224:
5223:
5216:
5163:
5159:
5149:
5147:
5138:
5137:
5133:
5080:
5076:
5066:
5064:
5055:
5054:
5050:
5044:Wayback Machine
5033:Wayback Machine
5023:
5019:
5009:
5007:
4998:
4997:
4993:
4983:
4981:
4966:
4962:
4948:Jacobsen, Annie
4946:
4942:
4924:
4920:
4914:Wayback Machine
4904:
4900:
4869:
4865:
4854:
4850:
4843:
4823:
4819:
4808:
4804:
4777:
4776:
4772:
4737:
4736:
4732:
4722:
4720:
4713:The Nobel Prize
4707:
4706:
4702:
4695:
4681:
4677:
4660:
4659:
4655:
4645:
4643:
4630:
4629:
4625:
4615:
4613:
4598:
4594:
4584:
4582:
4573:
4572:
4568:
4558:
4556:
4547:
4546:
4542:
4532:
4530:
4515:
4511:
4484:Human Pathology
4480:
4476:
4466:
4464:
4451:
4450:
4446:
4436:
4434:
4391:
4387:
4377:
4375:
4332:
4328:
4318:
4316:
4303:
4302:
4295:
4256:
4252:
4241:
4237:
4227:
4225:
4210:
4209:
4205:
4196:. 21 May 2009.
4184:
4183:
4179:
4132:
4128:
4118:
4116:
4107:
4106:
4102:
4092:
4090:
4081:
4080:
4076:
4066:
4064:
4051:
4050:
4046:
4036:
4034:
4019:
4012:
4002:
4000:
3987:
3986:
3982:
3972:
3970:
3961:
3960:
3956:
3944:Wayback Machine
3934:
3930:
3921:
3919:
3908:
3904:
3894:
3892:
3883:
3882:
3878:
3868:
3866:
3862:
3847:
3841:
3837:
3827:
3825:
3824:on 8 April 2008
3810:
3806:
3796:
3794:
3787:
3771:
3767:
3761:Wayback Machine
3751:
3747:
3737:
3735:
3722:
3721:
3712:
3701:
3697:
3686:
3682:
3637:
3633:
3623:
3621:
3610:
3606:
3596:
3594:
3571:
3564:
3555:
3553:
3540:
3539:
3530:
3520:
3518:
3495:
3488:
3481:
3465:
3461:
3432:
3428:
3418:
3416:
3401:
3397:
3366:
3359:
3328:(12): 1333–41.
3314:
3310:
3279:
3268:
3223:
3219:
3182:
3178:
3169:
3154:
3146:Koch R (1876).
3144:
3137:
3092:
3088:
3057:(12): 4516–24.
3043:
3039:
3029:
3027:
3014:
3013:
3009:
2998:
2992:
2977:
2966:
2962:
2952:
2950:
2939:
2938:
2919:
2909:
2907:
2894:
2893:
2889:
2879:
2877:
2864:
2863:
2859:
2840:
2833:
2823:
2821:
2817:
2806:
2802:
2801:
2792:
2753:
2749:
2739:
2737:
2736:on 5 April 2007
2724:
2723:
2719:
2709:
2707:
2694:
2693:
2689:
2678:
2674:
2663:
2659:
2648:
2640:. Oxbow Books.
2632:
2628:
2611:
2607:
2601:Perseus Project
2577:
2573:
2528:
2524:
2514:
2512:
2499:
2498:
2485:
2474:
2458:
2454:
2446:
2440:
2429:
2421:
2412:
2402:
2400:
2387:
2386:
2375:
2365:
2363:
2350:
2349:
2340:
2329:
2315:
2314:
2305:
2295:
2293:
2280:
2279:
2268:
2258:
2256:
2247:
2246:
2239:
2194:
2173:
2163:
2161:
2148:
2147:
2140:
2130:
2128:
2115:
2114:
2103:
2093:
2091:
2078:
2077:
2068:
2058:
2056:
2043:
2042:
2027:
2022:
2003:
1976:
1934:microbiological
1930:
1919:To support the
1880:
1874:
1829:Royal Air Force
1821:Gruinard Island
1751:
1745:
1737:Gruinard Island
1650:
1645:
1548:
1542:
1539:
1523:
1517:
1494:New South Wales
1488:, travelled to
1466:Pouilly-le-Fort
1431:
1425:
1390:John Henry Bell
1347:
1342:
1336:
1316:
1300:
1268:
1260:
1248:
1207:
1167:
1130:
1096:
1094:
1073:
1025:subunit vaccine
1003:
997:
962:
939:
935:
883:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
763:
726:
719:
708:
699:
678:Color-enhanced
676:
667:
662:
606:
588:Photomicrograph
581:
576:
560:
532:
510:
447:
442:
375:
346:Northern Europe
342:Southern Europe
154:
151:Intestinal form
149:
141:
92:
83:
72:
66:
63:
48:
35:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7783:
7773:
7772:
7767:
7762:
7757:
7752:
7747:
7742:
7737:
7732:
7715:
7714:
7711:
7710:
7708:
7707:
7706:
7705:
7692:
7690:
7684:
7683:
7681:
7680:
7679:
7678:
7666:
7659:
7658:
7657:
7644:
7642:
7633:
7627:
7626:
7623:
7622:
7620:
7619:
7611:
7609:
7600:
7599:
7597:
7596:
7595:
7594:
7581:
7579:
7571:Clostridioides
7566:
7565:
7562:
7561:
7559:
7558:
7557:
7556:
7551:
7538:
7536:
7530:
7529:
7527:
7526:
7525:
7524:
7512:
7511:
7510:
7497:
7495:
7486:
7470:
7464:
7463:
7460:
7459:
7456:
7455:
7453:
7452:
7451:
7450:
7437:
7435:
7427:
7426:
7424:
7423:
7422:
7421:
7419:Food poisoning
7409:
7408:
7407:
7394:
7392:
7384:
7383:
7380:
7379:
7377:
7376:
7375:
7374:
7362:
7361:
7360:
7357:S. epidermidis
7344:
7342:
7336:
7335:
7333:
7332:
7331:
7330:
7325:
7320:
7307:
7305:
7296:
7293:Staphylococcus
7285:
7273:
7272:
7269:
7268:
7266:
7265:
7258:
7257:
7256:
7239:
7237:
7229:
7228:
7225:
7224:
7222:
7221:
7210:
7204:
7202:
7196:
7195:
7192:
7191:
7189:
7188:
7187:
7186:
7173:
7171:
7167:
7166:
7164:
7163:
7162:
7161:
7143:
7141:
7135:
7134:
7132:
7131:
7130:
7129:
7124:
7119:
7114:
7109:
7092:
7090:
7081:
7075:
7074:
7071:
7070:
7068:
7067:
7059:
7052:
7045:
7038:
7031:
7019:
7017:
7013:
7012:
7010:
7009:
7008:
7007:
6994:
6992:
6982:
6973:
6962:
6947:
6941:
6940:
6938:
6937:
6928:
6912:
6911:
6904:
6897:
6889:
6880:
6879:
6877:
6876:
6871:
6866:
6860:
6857:
6856:
6854:
6853:
6848:
6843:
6837:
6835:
6831:
6830:
6828:
6827:
6822:
6817:
6812:
6807:
6802:
6797:
6792:
6787:
6782:
6780:Biocontainment
6777:
6772:
6767:
6765:Anthrax hoaxes
6762:
6760:Agro-terrorism
6756:
6754:
6750:
6749:
6747:
6746:
6741:
6736:
6731:
6729:Staphylococcus
6726:
6721:
6716:
6711:
6706:
6701:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6681:
6676:
6671:
6666:
6661:
6656:
6648:
6641:
6632:
6627:
6622:
6617:
6612:
6607:
6602:
6597:
6591:
6589:
6583:
6582:
6580:
6579:
6574:
6569:
6564:
6559:
6554:
6549:
6544:
6539:
6534:
6529:
6524:
6519:
6514:
6509:
6504:
6499:
6493:
6491:
6485:
6484:
6482:
6481:
6476:
6471:
6466:
6461:
6456:
6451:
6445:
6443:
6439:
6438:
6427:
6426:
6419:
6412:
6404:
6395:
6394:
6391:
6390:
6379:
6368:
6356:
6355:
6353:
6349:
6348:
6345:
6344:
6333:
6322:
6311:
6296:
6281:
6265:
6260:
6259:
6257:
6256:Classification
6250:
6249:
6237:
6229:
6201:
6200:External links
6198:
6195:
6194:
6163:
6145:
6096:
6055:
6031:
6007:
5981:
5966:"USPS BDS FAQ"
5957:
5931:
5904:
5897:
5875:
5845:
5814:
5779:
5733:
5726:
5703:
5672:
5642:
5627:
5584:
5551:
5540:on 11 May 2013
5520:
5509:
5489:
5474:
5451:
5444:
5424:
5392:
5371:
5341:
5310:
5278:
5247:
5214:
5157:
5131:
5094:(8): 4045–62.
5074:
5048:
5017:
4991:
4960:
4940:
4938:, 1 July 2007.
4926:Willman, David
4918:
4898:
4863:
4848:
4841:
4817:
4802:
4770:
4730:
4700:
4693:
4675:
4653:
4623:
4592:
4566:
4540:
4509:
4474:
4444:
4385:
4326:
4293:
4250:
4235:
4203:
4177:
4126:
4100:
4074:
4044:
4010:
3980:
3954:
3928:
3902:
3876:
3835:
3804:
3785:
3765:
3745:
3710:
3695:
3680:
3631:
3604:
3562:
3528:
3486:
3479:
3459:
3426:
3395:
3357:
3308:
3266:
3217:
3176:
3165:(2): 277–310.
3135:
3086:
3037:
3007:
2990:
2960:
2917:
2887:
2857:
2831:
2790:
2747:
2717:
2687:
2672:
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2605:
2571:
2522:
2483:
2472:
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2410:
2373:
2338:
2327:
2303:
2266:
2237:
2171:
2138:
2101:
2066:
2024:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2002:
1999:
1975:
1972:
1961:anthrax hoaxes
1929:
1926:
1876:Main article:
1873:
1870:
1747:Main article:
1744:
1741:
1662:ethylene oxide
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1640:
1639:
1603:
1580:
1568:
1550:
1549:
1529:
1527:
1516:
1513:
1476:, and several
1424:
1421:
1405:bacteriologist
1346:
1343:
1335:
1332:
1315:
1314:United Kingdom
1312:
1299:
1296:
1267:
1264:
1259:
1256:
1247:
1244:
1206:
1203:
1166:
1163:
1129:
1126:
1093:
1090:
1072:
1069:
1033:reactogenicity
999:Main article:
996:
993:
961:
958:
937:
933:
882:
879:
867:pleural cavity
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
762:
759:
725:
722:
721:
720:
709:
702:
700:
684:splenic tissue
677:
670:
668:
663:
656:
602:Main article:
580:
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531:
528:
509:
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446:
443:
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438:
374:
371:
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214:
210:
209:
199:
193:
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182:
175:
171:
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167:
163:
162:
156:Injection form
135:
129:
128:
123:
117:
116:
108:
107:
99:
98:
90:
85:
84:
45:of the subject
43:worldwide view
38:
36:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7782:
7771:
7768:
7766:
7763:
7761:
7758:
7756:
7753:
7751:
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7725:
7704:
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7685:
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7520:
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7518:
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7513:
7509:
7506:
7505:
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7498:
7496:
7494:
7490:
7487:
7484:
7480:
7479:
7474:
7471:
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7465:
7449:
7446:
7445:
7444:
7443:
7439:
7438:
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7428:
7420:
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7410:
7406:
7403:
7402:
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7400:
7396:
7395:
7393:
7391:
7390:
7385:
7373:
7372:
7368:
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7366:
7363:
7359:
7358:
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7353:
7352:
7350:
7346:
7345:
7343:
7341:
7337:
7329:
7326:
7324:
7321:
7319:
7316:
7315:
7314:
7313:
7309:
7308:
7306:
7304:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7294:
7289:
7286:
7283:
7278:
7274:
7264:
7263:
7259:
7255:
7252:
7251:
7250:
7249:
7244:
7241:
7240:
7238:
7236:
7235:
7230:
7220:
7219:
7214:
7211:
7209:
7206:
7205:
7203:
7201:
7197:
7185:
7182:
7181:
7180:
7179:
7175:
7174:
7172:
7168:
7160:
7157:
7156:
7155:
7154:
7153:S. agalactiae
7149:
7145:
7144:
7142:
7140:
7136:
7128:
7125:
7123:
7120:
7118:
7117:Scarlet fever
7115:
7113:
7110:
7108:
7105:
7104:
7103:
7102:
7098:susceptible:
7097:
7094:
7093:
7091:
7089:
7085:
7082:
7080:
7076:
7066:
7064:
7060:
7058:
7057:
7053:
7051:
7050:
7046:
7044:
7043:
7039:
7037:
7036:
7032:
7030:
7029:
7024:
7021:
7020:
7018:
7014:
7006:
7003:
7002:
7001:
7000:
6999:S. pneumoniae
6996:
6995:
6993:
6990:
6986:
6983:
6981:
6977:
6974:
6972:
6971:
6970:Streptococcus
6966:
6963:
6960:
6955:
6951:
6948:
6946:
6942:
6936:
6932:
6929:
6927:
6923:
6919:
6916:
6915:
6910:
6905:
6903:
6898:
6896:
6891:
6890:
6887:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6861:
6858:
6852:
6849:
6847:
6844:
6842:
6839:
6838:
6836:
6832:
6826:
6823:
6821:
6818:
6816:
6813:
6811:
6808:
6806:
6803:
6801:
6798:
6796:
6793:
6791:
6788:
6786:
6783:
6781:
6778:
6776:
6773:
6771:
6768:
6766:
6763:
6761:
6758:
6757:
6755:
6751:
6745:
6742:
6740:
6737:
6735:
6732:
6730:
6727:
6725:
6722:
6720:
6717:
6715:
6714:Salmonellosis
6712:
6710:
6707:
6705:
6702:
6700:
6697:
6695:
6692:
6690:
6689:Marburg virus
6687:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6677:
6675:
6672:
6670:
6667:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6657:
6653:
6649:
6646:
6642:
6639:
6633:
6631:
6628:
6626:
6623:
6621:
6618:
6616:
6613:
6611:
6608:
6606:
6603:
6601:
6598:
6596:
6593:
6592:
6590:
6588:
6584:
6578:
6575:
6573:
6570:
6568:
6565:
6563:
6560:
6558:
6555:
6553:
6550:
6548:
6545:
6543:
6540:
6538:
6535:
6533:
6530:
6528:
6525:
6523:
6520:
6518:
6515:
6513:
6510:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6500:
6498:
6495:
6494:
6492:
6486:
6480:
6477:
6475:
6472:
6470:
6467:
6465:
6462:
6460:
6457:
6455:
6452:
6450:
6447:
6446:
6444:
6440:
6436:
6432:
6425:
6420:
6418:
6413:
6411:
6406:
6405:
6402:
6389:
6385:
6384:
6380:
6378:
6374:
6373:
6369:
6367:
6363:
6362:
6358:
6357:
6354:
6350:
6343:
6339:
6338:
6334:
6332:
6328:
6327:
6323:
6321:
6317:
6316:
6312:
6310:
6306:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6295:
6291:
6290:
6286:
6282:
6280:
6276:
6275:
6271:
6267:
6266:
6263:
6258:
6254:
6247:
6243:
6242:
6238:
6235:
6234:
6230:
6228:
6224:
6219:
6215:
6214:
6209:
6204:
6203:
6182:
6178:
6174:
6167:
6159:
6155:
6149:
6141:
6137:
6132:
6127:
6123:
6119:
6115:
6111:
6107:
6100:
6092:
6088:
6083:
6078:
6075:(2): 208–13.
6074:
6070:
6066:
6059:
6052:
6051:Canine Nation
6048:
6044:
6041:
6035:
6027:
6023:
6022:
6017:
6011:
5996:on 9 May 2009
5995:
5991:
5985:
5974:
5967:
5961:
5945:
5941:
5935:
5919:
5915:
5908:
5900:
5894:
5889:
5888:
5879:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5849:
5833:
5829:
5825:
5818:
5810:
5806:
5802:
5798:
5795:(4): 463–67.
5794:
5790:
5783:
5775:
5771:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5755:
5751:
5747:
5740:
5738:
5729:
5723:
5719:
5718:
5710:
5708:
5691:
5687:
5683:
5680:Fishbein MC.
5676:
5660:
5656:
5652:
5646:
5638:
5634:
5630:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5599:
5591:
5589:
5572:
5568:
5567:
5562:
5555:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5524:
5516:
5512:
5506:
5502:
5501:
5493:
5485:
5484:Sunday Herald
5478:
5470:
5466:
5462:
5459:Robertson D.
5455:
5447:
5441:
5437:
5436:
5428:
5409:
5402:
5396:
5389:
5385:
5381:
5375:
5359:
5355:
5351:
5345:
5329:
5325:
5321:
5314:
5307:(332 KB)
5299:
5292:
5290:
5282:
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5268:
5264:
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5227:
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5219:
5210:
5206:
5201:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5161:
5145:
5141:
5135:
5127:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5109:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5093:
5089:
5085:
5078:
5062:
5058:
5052:
5045:
5041:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5027:
5021:
5005:
5001:
4995:
4979:
4975:
4971:
4964:
4957:
4953:
4949:
4944:
4937:
4936:
4931:
4927:
4922:
4915:
4911:
4908:
4902:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4867:
4859:
4852:
4844:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4829:
4821:
4813:
4806:
4797:
4792:
4788:
4784:
4780:
4774:
4765:
4760:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4744:
4740:
4734:
4718:
4714:
4710:
4704:
4696:
4690:
4686:
4679:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4657:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4627:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4596:
4580:
4576:
4570:
4554:
4550:
4544:
4528:
4524:
4520:
4513:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4490:(5): 594–97.
4489:
4485:
4478:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4448:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4405:(3): 327–34.
4404:
4400:
4396:
4389:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4346:(4): 270–80.
4345:
4341:
4337:
4330:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4300:
4298:
4289:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4269:
4266:(4): 270–80.
4265:
4261:
4254:
4246:
4239:
4223:
4219:
4218:
4213:
4207:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4181:
4173:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4130:
4115:on 5 May 2011
4114:
4110:
4104:
4088:
4084:
4078:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4048:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4017:
4015:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3984:
3968:
3964:
3958:
3951:
3950:
3945:
3941:
3938:
3932:
3917:
3913:
3906:
3890:
3887:. About.com.
3886:
3880:
3861:
3857:
3853:
3846:
3839:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3808:
3792:
3788:
3782:
3778:
3777:
3769:
3762:
3758:
3755:
3749:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3719:
3717:
3715:
3706:
3699:
3691:
3684:
3676:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3651:(3): 690–95.
3650:
3646:
3642:
3635:
3619:
3615:
3608:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3569:
3567:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3537:
3535:
3533:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3493:
3491:
3482:
3476:
3472:
3471:
3463:
3454:
3449:
3446:(3): 279–82.
3445:
3441:
3437:
3430:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3399:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3376:(7): 489–93.
3375:
3371:
3364:
3362:
3353:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3312:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3289:(1): 258–62.
3288:
3284:
3277:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3262:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3237:(1): 164–78.
3236:
3232:
3228:
3221:
3213:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3196:(4): 343–49.
3195:
3191:
3187:
3180:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3153:
3151:
3142:
3140:
3131:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3106:(6): 386–96.
3105:
3101:
3097:
3090:
3082:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3041:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3011:
3004:
2997:
2993:
2991:9780160900150
2987:
2983:
2976:
2975:
2970:
2964:
2948:
2944:
2943:
2936:
2934:
2932:
2930:
2928:
2926:
2924:
2922:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2891:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2861:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2838:
2836:
2816:
2812:
2805:
2799:
2797:
2795:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2763:(6): 600–06.
2762:
2758:
2751:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2721:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2691:
2683:
2676:
2668:
2661:
2653:
2649:
2647:9781782976349
2643:
2639:
2638:
2630:
2622:
2621:
2616:
2609:
2602:
2598:
2597:
2592:
2591:Scott, Robert
2588:
2584:
2575:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2542:(2): 192–95.
2541:
2537:
2533:
2526:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2496:
2494:
2492:
2490:
2488:
2479:
2475:
2473:9781139576659
2469:
2465:
2464:
2456:
2445:
2441:
2439:9789241547536
2435:
2428:
2427:
2419:
2417:
2415:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2378:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2334:
2330:
2328:9781498808613
2324:
2320:
2319:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2277:
2275:
2273:
2271:
2254:
2250:
2244:
2242:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2180:
2178:
2176:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2145:
2143:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2075:
2073:
2071:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2025:
2017:
2015:
2011:
2006:
2001:Other animals
1998:
1996:
1995:electric iron
1992:
1987:
1985:
1981:
1971:
1969:
1964:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1953:Patrick Leahy
1950:
1946:
1941:
1939:
1935:
1925:
1922:
1917:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1898:Boris Yeltsin
1895:
1890:
1886:
1879:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1836:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1790:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1740:
1738:
1733:
1731:
1725:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1711:
1707:
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1699:
1695:
1690:
1688:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1674:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1607:Vollum strain
1604:
1601:
1597:
1596:anthrax toxin
1593:
1589:
1585:
1582:The virulent
1581:
1578:
1577:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1565:anthrax toxin
1562:
1558:
1554:
1553:
1546:
1537:
1533:
1530:This list is
1528:
1521:
1520:
1512:
1510:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1481:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1452:
1451:Louis Pasteur
1448:
1444:
1435:
1430:
1420:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1373:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1341:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1311:
1309:
1305:
1304:Lonjsko Polje
1295:
1293:
1288:
1286:
1282:
1276:
1274:
1266:United States
1263:
1255:
1253:
1243:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1230:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1211:lethal factor
1202:
1200:
1199:antibacterial
1196:
1195:Obiltoxaximab
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1169:In May 2009,
1162:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1139:ciprofloxacin
1136:
1125:
1122:
1117:
1116:antimicrobial
1089:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1023:
1018:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1007:Louis Pasteur
1002:
992:
990:
986:
981:
979:
975:
971:
970:rubber gloves
966:
957:
955:
951:
947:
943:
931:
927:
923:
918:
917:may be used.
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
887:
878:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
831:pyrophosphate
828:
824:
820:
815:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
771:anthrax toxin
768:
758:
754:
752:
743:
738:
734:
732:
717:
713:
706:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
674:
669:
666:
660:
655:
654:
653:
651:
650:lethal factor
647:
643:
639:
635:
629:
627:
621:
618:
614:
613:Gram-positive
610:
605:
597:
593:
589:
585:
571:
568:
564:
555:
553:
552:mediastinitis
548:
544:
542:
538:
527:
524:
519:
515:
505:
503:
498:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
467:
459:
451:
437:
435:
433:
432:
425:
420:
418:
414:
412:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
380:
370:
368:
364:
359:
355:
350:
347:
343:
338:
336:
333:and possibly
332:
328:
324:
320:
319:ciprofloxacin
316:
312:
310:
306:
301:
299:
295:
291:
287:
282:
280:
276:
272:
268:
267:
263:
259:
250:
246:
242:
240:
236:
233:
230:Antibiotics,
229:
225:
222:
218:
215:
211:
208:
204:
200:
198:
194:
190:
188:
184:
181:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
161:
157:
152:
148:
144:
139:
136:
134:
130:
127:
124:
122:
118:
114:
109:
105:
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70:
60:
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52:
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27:
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7549:Gas gangrene
7541:
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7232:
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7063:S. anginosus
7062:
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7049:S. sanguinis
7047:
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6594:
6490:and response
6435:bioterrorism
6381:
6370:
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6335:
6324:
6313:
6298:
6283:
6268:
6239:
6232:
6211:
6185:. Retrieved
6176:
6166:
6148:
6113:
6109:
6099:
6072:
6068:
6058:
6050:
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6019:
6010:
5998:. Retrieved
5994:the original
5984:
5960:
5948:. Retrieved
5934:
5922:. Retrieved
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5878:
5866:. Retrieved
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5848:
5836:. Retrieved
5827:
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5694:. Retrieved
5685:
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5645:
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5575:. Retrieved
5564:
5554:
5542:. Retrieved
5538:the original
5533:
5523:
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5492:
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5464:
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5427:
5415:. Retrieved
5395:
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5374:
5362:. Retrieved
5353:
5344:
5332:. Retrieved
5323:
5313:
5289:The Bulletin
5288:
5281:
5250:
5238:. Retrieved
5230:Science News
5229:
5174:
5170:
5160:
5148:. Retrieved
5134:
5091:
5087:
5077:
5065:. Retrieved
5051:
5020:
5008:. Retrieved
4994:
4982:. Retrieved
4973:
4963:
4954:; New York:
4951:
4943:
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4921:
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4872:
4866:
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4786:
4782:
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4746:
4742:
4733:
4721:. Retrieved
4712:
4703:
4684:
4678:
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4656:
4644:. Retrieved
4635:
4626:
4614:. Retrieved
4605:
4595:
4583:. Retrieved
4569:
4557:. Retrieved
4543:
4531:. Retrieved
4522:
4512:
4487:
4483:
4477:
4465:. Retrieved
4456:
4447:
4437:10 September
4435:. Retrieved
4402:
4398:
4388:
4378:10 September
4376:. Retrieved
4343:
4339:
4329:
4317:. Retrieved
4308:
4263:
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4238:
4226:. Retrieved
4215:
4206:
4189:
4180:
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4139:
4129:
4117:. Retrieved
4113:the original
4103:
4091:. Retrieved
4087:the original
4077:
4067:16 September
4065:. Retrieved
4056:
4047:
4035:. Retrieved
4026:
4001:. Retrieved
3992:
3983:
3971:. Retrieved
3957:
3947:
3931:
3920:, retrieved
3915:
3905:
3893:. Retrieved
3879:
3867:. Retrieved
3860:the original
3855:
3851:
3838:
3826:. Retrieved
3822:the original
3807:
3795:. Retrieved
3775:
3768:
3748:
3736:. Retrieved
3728:www.osha.gov
3727:
3704:
3698:
3689:
3683:
3648:
3644:
3634:
3622:. Retrieved
3607:
3595:. Retrieved
3578:
3554:, retrieved
3545:
3519:. Retrieved
3502:
3469:
3462:
3443:
3439:
3429:
3417:. Retrieved
3408:
3398:
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3325:
3321:
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3286:
3282:
3234:
3230:
3220:
3193:
3189:
3179:
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3149:
3103:
3099:
3089:
3063:10.2741/3544
3054:
3050:
3040:
3028:. Retrieved
3019:
3010:
3002:
2973:
2963:
2951:. Retrieved
2941:
2910:16 September
2908:. Retrieved
2899:
2890:
2878:. Retrieved
2869:
2860:
2847:
2822:. Retrieved
2815:the original
2810:
2760:
2756:
2750:
2738:. Retrieved
2734:the original
2729:
2720:
2708:. Retrieved
2699:
2690:
2681:
2675:
2666:
2660:
2636:
2629:
2618:
2608:
2594:
2574:
2539:
2535:
2525:
2513:. Retrieved
2509:the original
2504:
2462:
2455:
2425:
2401:. Retrieved
2392:
2364:. Retrieved
2355:
2317:
2294:. Retrieved
2285:
2257:. Retrieved
2205:
2201:
2162:. Retrieved
2153:
2129:. Retrieved
2120:
2092:. Retrieved
2083:
2057:. Retrieved
2048:
2007:
2004:
1990:
1988:
1977:
1965:
1942:
1931:
1918:
1906:
1881:
1866:British Army
1860:
1842:. President
1837:
1817:Nazi Germany
1791:
1767:
1758:Colin Powell
1734:
1730:B. anthracis
1729:
1726:
1718:
1714:
1691:
1684:
1678:
1672:
1670:
1651:
1648:Site cleanup
1574:
1540:
1506:
1482:
1455:
1440:
1374:
1348:
1317:
1301:
1289:
1277:
1269:
1261:
1258:Epidemiology
1251:
1249:
1241:
1238:
1231:
1208:
1191:B. anthracis
1190:
1187:B. anthracis
1186:
1173:submitted a
1168:
1147:erythromycin
1131:
1121:formaldehyde
1112:
1085:prophylactic
1074:
1029:live vaccine
1019:
1015:Soviet Union
1004:
982:
967:
963:
950:B. anthracis
949:
942:B. anthracis
941:
929:
926:B. anthracis
925:
921:
919:
907:B. anthracis
906:
902:
899:Gram stained
895:B. anthracis
894:
892:
859:septic shock
816:
787:B. anthracis
786:
764:
755:
747:
727:
664:
630:
625:
622:
608:
607:
595:
561:
549:
545:
533:
511:
502:B. anthracis
501:
472:
427:
421:
416:
408:
378:
376:
351:
339:
323:levofloxacin
313:
302:
297:
283:
264:
257:
256:
187:Risk factors
177:
155:
150:
142:
137:
88:
73:
67:October 2021
64:
40:
7703:Erysipeloid
7478:Clostridium
7448:Listeriosis
7351:susceptible
7101:S. pyogenes
7056:S. sobrinus
6991:susceptible
6679:Henipavirus
6610:Brucellosis
6361:MedlinePlus
6206:‹ The
5364:26 December
5334:26 December
4879:(2): 1–25.
4309:www.cdc.gov
4228:14 December
4146:(6): 1056.
4140:Diagnostics
4093:26 December
4057:www.cdc.gov
4037:26 December
3993:www.cdc.gov
3754:Respirators
3738:22 December
3624:26 December
3030:10 February
2900:www.cdc.gov
2870:Mayo Clinic
2824:14 December
2710:16 February
2249:"Treatment"
2150:"Diagnosis"
1980:irradiation
1957:Bruce Ivins
1949:Tom Daschle
1794:Porton Down
1706:bicarbonate
1619:Oxfordshire
1613:during the
1584:Ames strain
1486:Adrien Loir
1409:Home Office
1366:cell theory
1350:Robert Koch
1285:drum circle
1229:and death.
1223:vital organ
1179:raxibacumab
1143:doxycycline
1128:Antibiotics
1071:Antibiotics
946:medusa head
839:neutrophils
829:(cAMP) and
821:-dependent
742:mediastinal
696:erythrocyte
646:mediastinum
642:lymph nodes
634:macrophages
626:post mortem
617:Robert Koch
480:skin lesion
331:antibiotics
327:doxycycline
294:Robert Koch
221:antibiotics
166:Usual onset
7724:Categories
7631:Mollicutes
7605:Finegoldia
7534:nonmotile:
7468:Clostridia
7349:novobiocin
7277:Bacillales
7122:Erysipelas
7096:bacitracin
6874:Wikisource
6674:Hantavirus
6652:Venezuelan
6488:Prevention
6383:Patient UK
6326:DiseasesDB
5544:19 October
5417:31 October
5267:Transcript
5067:10 October
5037:Transcript
4974:Boston Sun
4533:19 October
4467:19 October
4319:25 January
4003:25 January
3597:2 November
3579:StatPearls
3556:2 November
3521:2 November
3419:2 November
2880:25 January
2045:"Symptoms"
2020:References
2010:permafrost
1914:stray dogs
1802:biowarfare
1571:Strain 836
1561:Max Sterne
1543:April 2018
1532:incomplete
1462:Émile Roux
1338:See also:
1155:penicillin
1151:vancomycin
1041:induration
960:Prevention
835:calmodulin
827:cyclic AMP
819:calmodulin
638:lymphatics
592:Gram stain
213:Prevention
203:antibodies
7578:-forming)
7485:-forming)
7312:S. aureus
7170:ungrouped
7148:CAMP test
7042:S. oralis
7035:S. mutans
6918:Bacillota
6825:Terrorism
6734:Tularemia
6372:eMedicine
6342:409498004
6337:SNOMED CT
6187:19 August
6000:13 August
5838:1 October
5717:Biohazard
5696:13 August
5665:13 August
5655:Frontline
5577:26 August
5465:The Times
5150:13 August
5010:13 August
4958:, p. 293.
4893:142036883
4723:4 October
4399:Neurology
3895:13 August
3828:13 August
3797:8 October
3511:1059-1028
2615:"anthrax"
2501:"Anthrax"
2282:"Anthrax"
1848:Rhodesian
1786:Manchuria
1760:giving a
1658:peroxides
1498:John Gunn
1490:Australia
1354:Wollstein
1345:Discovery
1328:bone meal
1234:fulminant
1205:Prognosis
1092:Treatment
1022:acellular
881:Diagnosis
855:apoptosis
843:TNF-alpha
761:Mechanism
751:livestock
640:) to the
537:influenza
523:bone meal
508:Injection
419:, 1240).
373:Etymology
335:antitoxin
262:bacterium
248:Frequency
239:Prognosis
232:antitoxin
227:Treatment
201:Based on
158:: fever,
138:Skin form
121:Specialty
55:talk page
7760:Zoonoses
7508:Botulism
7432:Listeria
7389:Bacillus
7028:S. mitis
6989:optochin
6775:Bacteria
6724:Smallpox
6669:Glanders
6449:Unit 731
6208:template
6181:Archived
6158:Archived
6140:22114567
6116:: 8482.
6091:10475950
6043:Archived
6026:Archived
6021:NBC News
5973:Archived
5950:26 March
5944:Archived
5924:7 August
5918:Archived
5868:16 April
5862:Archived
5858:BBC News
5832:Archived
5809:12745053
5690:Archived
5659:Archived
5637:11041763
5571:Archived
5515:Archived
5469:Archived
5408:Archived
5388:Archived
5358:Archived
5354:BBC News
5328:Archived
5298:Archived
5270:Archived
5259:Archived
5234:Archived
5209:20305025
5144:Archived
5126:30901213
5061:Archived
5040:Archived
5029:Archived
5004:Archived
4984:6 August
4978:Archived
4950:(2015),
4928:(2007),
4910:Archived
4717:Archived
4670:Archived
4666:BBC News
4640:Archived
4610:Archived
4585:17 March
4579:Archived
4559:17 March
4553:Archived
4527:Archived
4461:Archived
4431:Archived
4427:37545366
4419:12177364
4372:Archived
4360:16490913
4313:Archived
4280:16490913
4222:Archived
4198:Archived
4172:36980364
4163:10046981
4061:Archived
4031:Archived
3997:Archived
3967:Archived
3940:Archived
3889:Archived
3852:ASM News
3791:Archived
3757:Archived
3732:Archived
3675:17617379
3618:Archived
3591:Archived
3587:30571000
3550:archived
3515:Archived
3413:Archived
3390:15486181
3352:21852539
3303:15313199
3261:14679236
3212:13364144
3167:Archived
3130:19654018
3081:19273366
3024:Archived
2996:Archived
2971:(2011).
2969:USAMRIID
2953:14 March
2947:Archived
2904:Archived
2874:Archived
2852:Archived
2785:37958515
2777:21083757
2740:19 April
2704:Archived
2652:Archived
2558:10475946
2478:Archived
2444:Archived
2397:Archived
2360:Archived
2333:Archived
2290:Archived
2253:Archived
2232:24447897
2158:Archived
2125:Archived
2088:Archived
2053:Archived
1921:cover-up
1852:Kantubek
1782:Unit 731
1694:catalyst
1656:such as
1636:Maryland
1623:Gruinard
1592:plasmids
1419:(1919).
1394:Bradford
1324:Stirling
1061:BioThrax
1045:soreness
1037:erythema
995:Vaccines
930:Bacillus
922:Bacillus
903:Bacillus
851:cytokine
791:protease
744:widening
579:Bacteria
518:Stirling
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