5412:, leading to widespread and long-standing misconceptions that it is a grammatically inferior form of English, which linguistics research of the twentieth century has debunked. However, educators and social commentators traditionally have advocated for eliminating AAVE usage through the public-education system for a variety of reasons, ranging from a continued belief that AAVE is intrinsically deficient to arguments that its use, by being stigmatized in certain social contexts, is socially limiting. Some of the harshest criticism of AAVE or its use has come from African Americans themselves. A conspicuous example was the "
5523:
12403:
5481:
1898:
2300:
2249:
2194:
5495:
2382:
phonological process where a final consonant group or cluster, consisting of two consonant sounds, is simplified or reduced to a single consonant sound. The analysis of consonant cluster reduction in AAVE assumes that, initially, final clusters are present and intact in the language. For example, the word "tes" in AAVE originates from "test", with the final "t" of the "st" consonant cluster being deleted in word-final position.
5509:
5055:. As statistically shown by Algeo (1991: 3-14), the main sources for new words are combining, shifting, shortening, blending, borrowing, and creating. However, it has also been suggested that some of the vocabulary unique to AAVE has its origin in West African languages, but etymology is often difficult to trace, and without a trail of recorded usage, the suggestions below cannot be considered proven.
2166:. Dillard quotes a recollection of "slave language" toward the latter part of the 18th century: "Kay, massa, you just leave me, me sit here, great fish jump up into da canoe, here he be, massa, fine fish, massa; me den very grad; den me sit very still, until another great fish jump into de canoe; but me fall asleep, massa, and no wake 'til you come...." Not until the time of the
2124:, McWhorter characterized AAVE as a "hybrid of regional dialects of Great Britain that slaves in America were exposed to because they often worked alongside the indentured servants who spoke those dialects..." According to McWhorter, virtually all linguists who have carefully studied the origins of AAVE "agree that the West African connection is quite minor."
5117:. African American slang is formed by words and phrases that are regarded as informal. It involves combining, shifting, shortening, blending, borrowing, and creating new words. African American slang possess all of the same lexical qualities and linguistic mechanisms as any other language. AAVE slang is more common in speech than it is in writing.
2266:
5252:
sociolinguists would realize that these cities lacked the influence of the rural south; the early studies had not considered the representation of the south of
America, which caused the AAE studies to change. To make those changes, the newer studies used the diversity of the country and took into consideration the rural south.
2109:) that suggests that the grammar of early AAVE was closer to that of contemporary British dialects than modern urban AAVE is to other current American dialects, suggesting that the modern language is a result of divergence from mainstream varieties, rather than the result of decreolization from a widespread American creole.
2366:). McWhorter argues that what truly unites all AAVE accents is a uniquely wide-ranging intonation pattern or "melody", which characterizes even the most "neutral" or light African-American accent. A handful of multisyllabic words in AAVE differ from General American in their stress placement so that, for example,
2267:
8201:"Black critics use all the different arguments of the White critics, and spare us the more or less open embarrassment that all White Americans feel when publicly criticizing anything or anyone Black. So, of course, they can be even more wrong-headed and self-righteously wrong-headed than anyone else ..."
2269:
2211:
5436:
for AAVE, which was later called "Ebonics". The
Oakland School board approved that Ebonics be recognized as a language independent from English (though this particular view is not endorsed by linguists), that teachers would participate in recognizing this language, and that it would be used in theory
5307:
Regional variation in AAVE does not pattern with other regional variation in North
American English, which broadly follows East-to-West migration patterns, but instead patterns with the population movements during the Great Migration, resulting in a broadly South-to-North pattern, albeit with founder
5077:
Compounding in AAVE is a very common method in creating new vocabulary. The most common type of compounding is the noun–noun combination. There is also the adjective–noun combination, which is the second most commonly occurring type of combination found in AAE slang. AAE also combines adjectives with
4014:
The level of AAVE rhoticity is likely somewhat correlated with the rhoticity of White speakers in a given region; in 1960s research, AAVE accents tended to be mostly non-rhotic in
Detroit, whose White speakers are rhotic, but completely non-rhotic in New York City, whose White speakers are also often
5251:
The first studies on the
African American English (AAE) took place in cities such as New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago, to name a few. These studies concluded that the African American Language (AAL) was homogeneous, which means that AAE was spoken the same way everywhere around the country. Later,
5255:
African-American
Vernacular English began as mostly rural and Southern, yet today is mostly urban and nationally widespread, and its more recent urban features are now even diffusing into rural areas. Urban AAVE alone is intensifying with the grammatical features exemplified in these sentences: "He
4562:
Auxiliaries in
African American Vernacular English are related in a typical pattern. They can be grouped into negative forms and affirmative forms for each of the words. For example, "had" is an affirmative form, while "hatn" is the corresponding negative form. These same auxiliaries can be used to
5427:
issued a position statement affirming students' rights to their own dialects and the validity of all dialects. Mainstream linguistics has long agreed with this view about dialects. In 1979, a judge ordered the Ann Arbor School
District to find a way to identify AAVE speakers in the schools and to
3864:) in these examples that is lost rather than the fricative; the nasal is also either preserved completely or lost with preservation of nasality on the preceding consonant. Speakers may carry this declustered pronunciation when pluralizing so that the plural of test is rather than . The clusters
2381:
Final consonant groups or clusters in AAVE have been examined as evidence of the systematic nature of this language variety, governed by specific rules. Additionally, such analyses have been utilized to bolster arguments concerning the historical origins of AAVE. Consonant cluster reduction is a
4072:
from "a 'deep' Black
English through a 'light' Black English to standard English," saying the sounds on this continuum may vary from one African American speaker to the next or even in a single speaker from one situational context to the next. McWhorter regards the following as rarer features,
3812:
A marked feature of AAVE is final consonant cluster reduction. This is a process by which the pronunciations of consonant clusters at the end of certain words are reduced to pronouncing only the first consonant of that cluster. There are several phenomena that are similar but are governed by
2214:
6053:, says "I would like to think that this clear demonstration of the similarities among the three diaspora dialects and the White benchmark dialects, combined with their differences from creole grammars, would close at least one chapter in the history of the creole controversies."
2212:
5456:
are also characteristic of many colloquial dialects of
American English. There is general uniformity of AAVE grammar, despite its vast geographic spread across the whole country. This may be due in part to relatively recent migrations of some African Americans out of the
4571:
can be inserted to mark this sentence, making the marked equivalent "She was at home". Auxiliaries such as these also have opposing negative and affirmative forms. In its negative form the auxiliary verb "wadn" is used to convey the opposing affirmative form. I
2319:
5120:
AAVE also has words that either are not part of most other American English dialects or have strikingly different meanings. For example, there are several words in AAVE referring to White people that are not part of mainstream American English; these include
5937:"was about a perfectly ordinary variety of English spoken by a large and diverse population of Americans of African descent. . . . ssentially all linguists agree that what the Oakland board was dealing with is a dialect of English."
2265:
1833:
1720:
2135:, due to the captives speaking many different native languages and therefore needing a new way to communicate among themselves and with their captors. According to this theory, these captives first developed what are called
5308:
effects in cities that already had existing African American populations at the beginning of the Great Migration. There is no vowel for which the geographic variation in AAVE patterns with that of White American English.
2318:
2210:
2139:: simplified mixtures of languages. Since pidgins form from close contact between speakers of different languages, the slave trade would have been exactly such a situation. Creolist John Dillard quotes, for example,
2258:
2161:
conducted the first attempt at recording the speech of slaves in his interviews regarding the practice of smallpox inoculation. By the time of the American Revolution, varieties among slave creoles were not quite
8328:
Bailey, Guy (2001), "The relationship between African American Vernacular English and White Vernaculars in the American South: A sociocultural history and some phonological evidence", in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.),
5237:
or marginalized as ethnic minorities are also well-studied in adopting African-American Vernacular English, or prominent elements of it: for example, Southeast-Asian Americans embracing hip-hop identities.
11775:
11770:
9605:
7767:. In Edgar W. Schneider, Kate Burridge, Bernd Kortmann, Rajend Mesthrie & Clive Upton (eds.), A Handbook of Varieties of English: Phonology. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 875-876.
2182:
detailed many features of his Black soldiers' language. Opponents of the creole theory suggest that such pidgins or creoles existed but simply died out without directly contributing to modern AAVE.
10169:
8670:
DeBose, Charles; Faraclas, Nicholas (1993), "An Africanist approach to the linguistic study of black English: getting to the roots of tense-aspect-modality and copula systems in Afro-American", in
2268:
6319:
Jones, Taylor; Kalbfeld, Jessica Rose; Hancock, Ryan; Clark, Robin (2019). "Testifying while black: An experimental study of court reporter accuracy in transcription of African American English".
4822:
use data from early recordings of African Nova Scotian English, Samaná English, and the recordings of former slaves to demonstrate that negation was inherited from nonstandard colonial English.
11782:
6687:), and on the linguistic or cognitive abilities of a speaker of another variety of English who would take "aks" to mean "axe" in a context that in another variety would probably call for "ask".
2316:
1705:
11523:
4912:
These forms cannot be omitted when they would be pronounced with stress in Standard American (whether or not the stress serves specifically to impart an emphatic sense to the verb's meaning).
9853:
1637:
5292:
in standard English, as in the sentence "That's the way it bees" is also one of the rarest of all deep AAVE features today, and most middle-class AAVE speakers would recognize the verb
1715:
11787:
1700:
10241:
2213:
2203:
2317:
353:
5423:
Educators traditionally have attempted to eliminate AAVE usage through the public education system, perceiving the dialect as grammatically defective. In 1974, the teacher-led
11458:
999:
8355:
Bailey, Guy; Thomas, Erik (1998), "Some aspects of African-American Vernacular English phonology", in Mufwene, Salikoko; Rickford, John R.; Bailey, Guy; Baugh, John (eds.),
4479:
to indicate that performance of the verb is of a habitual nature. In most other American English dialects, this can only be expressed unambiguously by using adverbs such as
3954:
3486:, particularly of the South. The pin-pen merger is not universal in AAVE, and there is evidence for unmerged speakers in California, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.
10289:
10068:
Wolfram, Walter A. (1994), "The phonology of a sociocultural variety: The case of African American Vernacular English", in Bernthal, John E.; Bankson, Nicholas W. (eds.),
2153:
412:
364:
10163:"Understanding African-American English: A Course in Language Comprehension and Cross-Cultural Understanding for Advanced English Language Learners in the United States"
6196:
Thomas, Erik R. (September 2007). "Phonological and Phonetic Characteristics of African American Vernacular English: Phonological and Phonetic Characteristics of AAVE".
1710:
1662:
1672:
1667:
1938:
1682:
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6740:
3607:, though these words may retain the longer vowel pronunciations that typically precede voiced consonants, and devoicing may be realized with debuccalization (where
3483:
9575:
Rickford, John R.; King, Sharese (2016). "Language and linguistics on trial: Hearing Rachel Jeantel (and other vernacular speakers) in the courtroom and beyond".
2085:
The presiding theory among linguists is that AAVE has always been a dialect of English, meaning that it originated from earlier English dialects rather than from
3813:
different grammatical rules. This tendency has been used by creolists to compare AAVE to West African languages since such languages do not have final clusters.
1652:
12308:
12303:
11852:
10584:
10441:
7420:
Nagle, S., & Sanders, S. (Eds.). (2003). English in the Southern United States (Studies in English Language). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 12.
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1977:. Having its own unique grammatical, vocabulary and accent features, AAVE is employed by middle-class Black Americans as the more informal and casual end of a
555:
9057:
Howe, Darin M.; Walker, James A. (2000), "Negation and the Creole-Origins Hypothesis: Evidence from Early African American English", in Poplack, Shana (ed.),
12115:
11987:
10572:
1587:
1577:
396:
8994:
Harry, Beth; Anderson, Mary G. (1995), "The disproportionate placement of African-American males in special education programs: a critique of the process",
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suggests that a better translation when used with stative verbs is "for a long time". For instance, in response to "I like your new dress", one might hear
1657:
334:
10162:
6511:
Bloomquist, Jennifer; Green, Lisa J.; Lanehart, Sonja L.; Thomas, Erik R.; Bailey, Guy (July 1, 2015), "Segmental Phonology of African American English",
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marks type 1 sentences, which by default are present tense, and transforms them to a time before the present. Take, for instance, "She at home": the word
13372:
5424:
1996:. AAVE is widespread throughout the United States, but is not the native dialect of all African Americans, nor are all of its speakers African American.
1647:
1642:
17:
4870:("Where are you (at)?"). This has been sometimes considered a Southern U.S. regionalism, though it is most frequent in Black speech. On the other hand,
10682:
3372:
vowels. This chain shift is called the "African American Shift". However, there is still evidence of AAVE speakers picking up the cot-caught merger in
11271:
10406:
9925:
7517:
4291:"), it does have an optional tense system with at least four aspects of the past tense and two aspects of the future tense. The dialect uses several
1677:
1557:
4989:. Many language forms throughout the world use an unmarked possessive; it may here result from a simplification of grammatical structures. Example:
11765:
9868:
3344:
traditionally pronounced , though now often . Early 2000s research has shown that this resistance may continue to be reinforced by the fronting of
4073:
characteristic only of a deep Black English but which speakers of light Black English may occasionally "dip into for humorous or emotive effect":
12313:
11553:
873:
12382:
12357:
7913:
Jones, Taylor (2016). "Tweets as graffiti: What the reconstruction of Vulgar Latin can tell us about Black Twitter". In Squires, Lauren (ed.).
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1912:
1813:
560:
432:
286:
2378:
are pronounced with initial stress instead of ultimate stress. The following are phonological differences in AAVE vowel and consonant sounds.
12367:
12362:
11294:
10742:
9524:(1997a), "Prior Creolization of African-American Vernacular English? Sociohistorical and Textual Evidence from the 17th and 18th Centuries",
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1931:
10318:
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11628:
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In order to distinguish the stressed and unstressed forms, which carry different meaning, linguists often write the stressed version as BIN
6831:
5023:("Who the hell does she think she is?") lack the inversion of most other forms of English. Because of this, there is also no need for the "
4985:
The genitive -'s ending may or may not be used. Genitive case is inferrable from adjacency. This is similar to many creoles throughout the
1867:
1847:
1607:
1099:
1084:
571:
9270:
Morgan, Marcyliena (1999), "US Language Planning and Policies for Social Dialect Speakers", in Davis, Kathryn Anne; Huebner, Thom (eds.),
5137:, an extension of the slang use for "Irish". "Red bone" is another example of this, usually referring to light skinned African Americans.
12125:
11897:
10263:
1612:
1592:
10294:
9393:
5304:
There are at least 10 distinct regional accents in AAVE, and regional patterns of pronunciation and word choice appear on social media.
2170:
did the language of the slaves become familiar to a large number of educated Whites. The abolitionist papers before the war form a rich
13467:
12440:
12345:
11289:
11284:
8454:
Blake, René; Shousterman, Cara; Newlin-Łukowicz, Luiza (2015), "African American Language in New York City", in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.),
878:
339:
9164:
Lanehart, Sonja, ed. (2001), "State of the art in African American English research: Multi-disciplinary perspectives and directions",
3918:
Similarly, final consonants may be deleted (although there is a great deal of variation between speakers in this regard). Most often,
12004:
11508:
10617:
10220:
8464:
8134:"Phonological and Phonetic Characteristics of African American Vernacular English: Phonological and Phonetic Characteristics of AAVE"
7202:
5564:
5466:
1542:
1419:
453:
8300:
Artiles, Alfredo J.; Trent, Stanley C. (1994), "Overrepresentation of minority students in special education: a continuing debate",
7886:
Jones, Taylor (November 2015). "Toward a Description of African American Vernacular English Dialect Regions Using 'Black Twitter'".
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to support the transition from Ebonics to Standard American English in schools. This program lasted three years and then died off.
5404:
African-American Vernacular suffers from persistent stigma and negative social evaluation in American culture. By definition, as a
1924:
1862:
1627:
1582:
6401:
Farrington, Charlie (October 2018). "Incomplete neutralization in African American English: The case of final consonant voicing".
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12014:
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11758:
7114:
Coats, S. (2024). Naturalistic double modals in North America. American Speech: A Quarterly of Linguistic Usage, 99(1), 47–77.
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Stewart, William A. (1969), "On the use of Negro dialect in the teaching of reading", in Baratz, Joan; Shuy, Roger (eds.),
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1602:
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319:
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5469:) as well as to long-term racial segregation that kept these speakers living together in largely homogeneous communities.
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12095:
12065:
11426:
10638:
7284:
Cassidy, Frederic G.; Algeo, John (June 1993). "Fifty Years among the New Words: A Dictionary of Neologisms, 1941-1991".
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which modify a noun in the object or predicate nominative position are not obligatorily introduced by a relative pronoun.
2309:
1489:
1469:
883:
729:
265:
10237:"Black English Vernacular (Ebonics) and Educability: A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Language, Cognition, and Schooling"
9190:
Lee, Margaret (1999), "Out of the Hood and into the News: Borrowed Black Verbal Expressions in a Mainstream Newspaper",
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dialects is clear to most English speakers, some characteristics, notably double negatives and the omission of certain
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6298:"On Negotiating Racial and Regional Identities: Vocalic Variation Among African Americans in Bakersfield, California"
497:
329:
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Florini, Sarah (2014), "Tweets, Tweeps, and Signifyin': Communication and Cultural Performance on "Black Twitter"",
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Early AAVE and Gullah contributed a number of words of African origin to the American English mainstream, including
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6683::92–94) on "aks" and metathesis, on the frequency with which "aks" is brought up by those who ridicule AAVE (e.g.
5213:
African-American Vernacular English has influenced the development of other dialects of English. The AAVE accent,
4027:(though never between vowels) and, in combination with cluster simplification (see above), can make homophones of
3649:
en") that are present in other varieties of English. The phoneme's position in a word determines its exact sound.
13170:
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2016:
1409:
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1021:
255:
122:
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These forms can be omitted only when the corresponding form in standard English can be contracted. For example,
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12927:
12433:
12100:
11994:
11909:
11513:
9210:
Linnes, Kathleen (1998), "Middle-class AAVE versus middle-class bilingualism: Contrasting speech communities",
5559:
5168:, spoken in hopes of disappearing from danger. However, most dictionaries simply say its etymology is unknown.
4054:
2031:
1818:
1494:
1444:
6902:
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13527:
13220:
13182:
12137:
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11999:
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5130:
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2086:
1967:
1509:
1479:
1464:
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1424:
1404:
1026:
660:
527:
5614:
5221:, some of whose speakers use an accent indistinguishable from an AAVE one. AAVE has also influenced certain
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13573:
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12995:
12812:
12633:
11960:
11936:
11931:
11914:
11882:
11825:
10938:
10887:
10720:
10077:
Wolfram, Walter A. (1998), "Language ideology and dialect: understanding the Oakland Ebonics controversy",
9088:
Kendall, Tyler; Wolfram, Walt (2009), "Local and external language standards in African American English",
7553:, meaning "to understand/appreciate" according to Smitherman 2000 s.v. "Dig"; or, it may instead come from
5332:
4126:
2102:
2020:
1537:
1429:
1414:
1399:
1366:
665:
344:
159:
9887:
8752:
Eberhardt, Maeve (2008), "The Low-Back Merger in the Steel City: African American English in Pittsburgh",
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4024:
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6543:
Green, Lisa (September 23, 2021), "Aspect and predicate phrases in African-American vernacular English",
5934:
2046:. However, a minority of linguists argue that the vernacular shares so many characteristics with African
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convention, which interprets a double negative to mean a positive (although this was not always so; see
3856:
is unchanged, as it contains both a voiced and a voiceless consonant in the cluster. It is the plosive (
13482:
13197:
13055:
12466:
12243:
12180:
12170:
11720:
11478:
11438:
10795:
10489:
9317:(1999), "Beyond Language: Ebonics, Proper English, and Identity in a Black-American Speech Community",
9292:, Varieties of English Around the World, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 21–52,
8333:, Varieties of English Around the World, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 53–92,
8133:
5433:
4774:
had its origins in common English but became increasingly stigmatized since the 19th century. See also
4439:
Harvard professor Sunn m'Cheaux says the immediate future tense (for example "I'ma") originated in the
3620:
3377:
2179:
1775:
1755:
1258:
1193:
966:
868:
835:
622:
507:
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9168:, Varieties of English Around the World, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 1–20,
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12426:
12152:
11965:
11797:
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10857:
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10502:
8407:
Baranowski, Maciej (2013), "Ethnicity and Sound Change: African American English in Charleston, SC",
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3980:
3634:
3618:
3410:
2012:
1993:
1730:
1474:
1434:
723:
9667:
Schilling-Estes, Natalie (2006), "Dialect Variation", in Fasold, Ralph; Connor-Linton, Jeff (eds.),
8772:
Edwards, Walter (2004), "African American Vernacular English: Phonology", in Kortmann, Bernd (ed.),
5805:
13187:
13141:
13040:
13013:
12978:
12873:
12744:
11842:
11406:
11319:
10963:
10752:
10567:
10507:
10497:
10423:
9024:
A critical investigation of literary and linguistic structures in the fiction of Zora Neale Hurston
5574:
5045:
AAVE shares most of its lexicon with other varieties of English, particularly that of informal and
4788:
3373:
2038:
AAVE to diverse non-standard dialects of English as spoken by the English-speaking settlers in the
2000:
1309:
1089:
936:
820:
594:
475:
303:
31:
9823:
Stewart, William (1975), "Teaching Blacks to Read Against Their Will", in Luelsdorff, P.A. (ed.),
7790:
Reyes, Angela (November 2005). "Appropriation of African American slang by Asian American youth".
6063:
4443:
language (an English creole), which uses "a-" instead of "-ing" for this type of verb inflection.
4436:(always unstressed, pronounced as /dən/) is used to emphasize the completed nature of the action.
2143:
captain William Smith describing the sheer diversity of mutually unintelligible languages just in
13399:
13232:
13050:
13025:
12175:
11725:
11379:
11348:
11128:
11068:
10933:
10676:
10314:
8637:"Codeswitching: Black English and Standard English in the African-American linguistic repertoire"
5514:
5218:
4163:
3636:
2127:
However, a creole theory, less accepted among linguists, posits that AAVE arose from one or more
2116:
maintains that the contribution of West African languages to AAVE is minimal. In an interview on
1823:
1765:
1228:
1188:
911:
810:
688:
502:
164:
102:
92:
82:
8095:"Regional Variations in the Phonological Characteristics of African American Vernacular English"
13314:
13292:
13096:
12793:
12762:
12640:
12090:
11820:
11058:
10852:
10842:
10780:
10590:
10529:
9067:
5458:
5420:
criticized some African Americans for various social behaviors, including the way they talked.
4689:(which may or may not be an auxiliary) may be used to indicate speaker indignation, such as in
2043:
1963:
522:
512:
492:
13210:
10267:
8474:
8094:
6595:
5268:). On the other hand, rural AAVE alone shows certain features too, such as: "I was a-huntin" (
4693:("Don't try to act as if you don't know what happened, because you started the whole thing").
13512:
13297:
13192:
12905:
12839:
12593:
12583:
12578:
12165:
11678:
11543:
11498:
11314:
11033:
10998:
10817:
10800:
10607:
10524:
10284:
9429:
9349:
9076:
9027:
8939:
8390:
8076:
5569:
5541:
3821:
3567:
2163:
2117:
2027:
1959:
1146:
1136:
1068:
1031:
815:
805:
705:
386:
13505:
9606:"African American Language in California:Over Four Decades of Vibrant Variationist Research"
6843:
6520:
4700:, having no intrinsic tense refers to a current or future event that may be less than real.
12934:
12827:
12767:
12645:
12618:
12535:
12407:
11815:
11578:
11389:
11341:
11213:
11103:
11008:
10775:
10765:
10737:
10602:
10456:
9405:
8725:
8523:
5486:
4832:
3999:
may also be deleted between a consonant and a back rounded vowel, especially in words like
3520:
2406:
2326:
2132:
1902:
1354:
599:
391:
324:
179:
10192:
5229:, directly derived from the AAVE of the original 16,000 African Americans who migrated to
5185:
AAVE has also contributed many words and phrases to other varieties of English, including
8:
13578:
13532:
13362:
13354:
13252:
13215:
13101:
13086:
12961:
12951:
12878:
12717:
12190:
11548:
11463:
10943:
10732:
10622:
10552:
10283:
Pollock, K.; Bailey, G.; Berni; Fletcher; Hinton, L.N.; Johnson; Roberts; Weaver (1998).
9832:
Sweetland, Julie (2002), "Unexpected but Authentic Use of an Ethnically-Marked Dialect",
9796:
Spears, Arthur K. (2015), "African American Standard English", in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.),
9621:
9288:
Mufwene, Salikoko (2001), "What is African American English?", in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.),
6017:
Those in favor of the "creole hypothesis" of African-American Vernacular English include
5405:
5364:
4244:
3979:
is typically dropped when not followed by a vowel; it may also manifest as an unstressed
3615:
3406:
1770:
1248:
1210:
627:
458:
12195:
9409:
8729:
8527:
7778:
Language, Identity, and Stereotype Among Southeast Asian American Youth: The Other Asian
5363:. Memphis and St. Louis AAVE are developing, since the mid-twentieth century, an iconic
5272:-prefixing); "It riz above us" (different irregular forms); and "I want for to eat it" (
4454:
must occur as the first auxiliary; when they occur as the second, they carry additional
2098:
1253:
13422:
13389:
13324:
13307:
13162:
12983:
12530:
12520:
12263:
12200:
11943:
11401:
11168:
11148:
11053:
10978:
10805:
10710:
10700:
10688:
10579:
10476:
10451:
10212:
10094:
10070:
Child Phonology: Characteristics, Assessment, and Intervention with Special Populations
10057:
9966:
9917:
9785:
9745:
9733:
9592:
9510:
9502:
9421:
9389:
9334:
9227:
9199:
9105:
9069:
Variation in African American English: The Great Migration and Regional Differentiation
9011:
8910:
8882:
8829:
8801:
8741:
8546:
8511:
8416:
8317:
7681:
7309:
6566:
6418:
6336:
5336:
4847:
4455:
3438:
2167:
2094:
1141:
926:
693:
670:
359:
97:
87:
10368:
7852:, edited by Bernd Kortmann and Edgar Schneider. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 335-336.
5428:"use that knowledge in teaching such students how to read standard English." In 1996,
4730:
as a general negative marker. As in other English dialects, it can be used instead of
245:
13427:
13412:
13384:
13344:
13136:
13073:
12822:
12598:
12562:
11710:
11431:
11093:
11063:
10658:
10415:
10355:
10216:
10148:
10130:
10098:
10061:
9993:
9921:
9864:
9751:
9672:
9654:
9633:
9626:
9596:
9562:
9514:
9482:
9469:
9451:
9445:
9355:
9338:
9301:
9275:
9257:
9177:
9151:
9109:
8981:
8951:
8914:
8886:
8833:
8819:
8797:
8779:
8745:
8694:
8656:
8595:
8551:
8478:
8441:
8394:
8368:
8342:
8321:
8149:
8114:
8026:
Language Variation and the Great Migration: Regionality and African American Language
7926:
7848:
Wolfram, Walt (2004). "The Grammar of Urban African American Vernacular English". In
7835:
Wolfram, Walt (2004). "The Grammar of Urban African American Vernacular English". In
7803:
7669:
7659:
7610:
7511:
7498:
7462:
7435:
7365:
7342:
7332:
7301:
7003:
6847:
6570:
6556:
6524:
6475:
6465:
6422:
6340:
6209:
5842:
5826:
5737:
5712:
5413:
5387:
5344:
5328:
5114:
3982:
3825:
3329:
2039:
1970:
946:
787:
294:
65:
13118:
6959:"Stressed BIN (been) | Yale Grammatical Diversity Project: English in North America"
6958:
6832:"The Systematic Marking of Tense, Modality, and Aspect in African American Language"
4787:; if the sentence is negative, all negatable forms are negated. This contrasts with
4538:, meaning that the speaker has had the dress for a long time and that it isn't new.
2106:
2078:. While it is clear that there is a strong historical relationship between AAVE and
1326:
261:
13547:
13500:
13452:
13379:
13287:
13277:
13272:
13262:
13108:
13081:
12939:
12859:
12804:
12702:
12684:
12671:
12508:
12503:
11866:
11837:
11832:
11730:
11698:
11671:
11396:
11013:
10983:
10973:
10968:
10535:
10350:
10204:
10188:
10086:
10049:
9958:
9907:
9841:
9777:
9725:
9646:
9584:
9533:
9494:
9425:
9413:
9326:
9293:
9240:
English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States
9219:
9169:
9097:
9003:
8902:
8874:
8811:
8761:
8733:
8671:
8648:
8621:
8565:
8541:
8531:
8470:
8420:
8386:
8360:
8334:
8309:
8145:
8106:
8029:
7955:
7918:
7895:
7799:
7745:
7490:
7293:
6839:
6548:
6516:
6410:
6328:
6297:
6205:
5838:
5827:"Ethnolinguistic repertoire: Shifting the analytic focus in language and ethnicity"
5655:
5632:
5500:
5441:
5409:
5226:
5089:. In many cases, the postulated etymologies are not recognized by linguists or the
4843:
4691:
Don't come acting like you don't know what happened and you started the whole thing
4587:
4250:
4222:
4216:
4193:
4149:
3973:
3720:
3698:
3677:
3655:
3547:
3533:
3508:
3289:
3272:
3223:
3187:
3151:
3117:
3081:
3044:
3004:
2970:
2936:
2902:
2877:
2845:
2805:
2771:
2737:
2703:
2669:
2633:
2599:
2582:
2533:
2485:
2429:
2363:
2359:
1986:
1321:
1178:
1006:
941:
921:
830:
213:
208:
117:
112:
107:
8930:
Golden, Tim (January 14, 1997), "Oakland Scratches plan to teach black English.",
8652:
7839:, edited by Bernd Kortmann and Edgar Schneider. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 334.
5078:
other adjectives, less frequently, but more so than in standard American English.
4475:
The latter example shows one of the most distinctive features of AAVE: the use of
3938:. Nasal consonants may be lost while nasalization of the vowel is retained (e.g.,
13417:
13319:
13257:
13227:
13035:
12910:
12731:
12707:
12679:
12650:
12623:
12588:
12475:
11861:
11688:
11598:
11593:
11524:
Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)
11374:
11329:
11183:
11173:
11153:
11138:
11038:
10913:
10903:
10542:
10124:
10040:
Winford, Donald (1992), "Back to the past: The BEV/creole connection revisited",
9987:
9251:
9080:
8944:
8805:
8773:
8536:
8068:
7604:
7494:
7456:
7388:
7190:
6744:
6070:
5546:
5321:
vowel; meanwhile, conversely, Pittsburgh AAVE may merge this same vowel with the
5312:
5234:
5222:
5214:
5161:
5153:
5033:
4851:
4792:
4440:
3035:
2128:
2047:
1978:
1974:
1349:
1156:
906:
825:
74:
9031:
8636:
7364:(1st ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 19–64.
13492:
13407:
13367:
13267:
13091:
12844:
12749:
12739:
12655:
12457:
12298:
11703:
11666:
11656:
11416:
11411:
11353:
11188:
11118:
11048:
11043:
10547:
10471:
10090:
9247:
8878:
8463:
Bloomquist, Jennifer; Green, Lisa J.; Lanehart, Sonja L., eds. (July 1, 2015).
8313:
8072:
7554:
7543:
6748:
5445:
4530:
shows that the action began in the distant past and that it is continuing now.
3887:
are reduced, again with the final element being deleted rather than the former.
3748:
2330:
2113:
2055:
2054:
or semi-creole language, distinct from the English language, before undergoing
2051:
1808:
1233:
1203:
961:
951:
782:
197:
174:
10208:
10053:
9912:
9716:
Smitherman, Geneva (1999), "CCCC's Role in the Struggle for Language Rights",
9330:
8815:
8765:
7922:
7819:
7817:
7815:
7813:
7346:
7025::17) refers to this as a combination of "punctuative" and "imperfect" aspects.
6414:
4498:('She has been running'). This aspect has been given several names, including
13562:
13542:
13457:
13113:
13030:
12971:
12883:
12834:
12712:
12694:
11256:
11238:
11228:
11198:
11143:
11098:
11083:
11028:
11018:
11003:
10953:
10948:
10918:
10715:
10643:
10466:
10334:
10310:
9521:
9368:
9345:
9125:
9101:
9050:
Down Home and Up Town: the Representation of Black Speech in American Fiction
8906:
8587:
8364:
8118:
7959:
7899:
7673:
7305:
6479:
6025:
5528:
4639:
3995:() can be pronounced , though this doesn't occur across morpheme boundaries.
3756:
2158:
2090:
1982:
1877:
1872:
55:
10027:
Williamson, Juanita (1970), "Selected features of speech: black and white",
9845:
9537:
9116:
van Keulen, Jean E.; Weddington, Gloria Toliver; DeBose, Charles E. (1998),
8626:
8609:
8110:
7002:(1st ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 371–386.
6552:
5174:
refers to the particularly curly or kinky hair at the nape of the neck, and
4541:
To see the difference between the simple past and the gerund when used with
2097:-based evidence (evidence from a body of writing) from isolated enclaves in
13045:
12893:
12772:
11568:
11336:
11261:
11233:
11218:
11203:
11158:
11133:
11113:
11023:
10993:
10988:
10958:
10908:
10760:
10446:
9464:
Radford, Andrew; Atkinson, Martin; Britain, David; Clahsen, Harald (1999),
9297:
9173:
8555:
8338:
7810:
7115:
6344:
6169:
6031:
5149:
4519:
3935:
3778:
3752:
3328:
African American Vowel Shift: AAVE accents have traditionally resisted the
2338:
2225:
2148:
1361:
1173:
901:
764:
204:
10246:
10145:
The Skin that We Speak: Thoughts on Language and Culture in the Classroom.
10123:
Bailey, Guy; Baugh, John; Mufwene, Salikoko S.; Rickford, John R. (2013),
9588:
7100:
Labov, William (2013). "Co-existent Systems In African-American English".
6332:
2358:
Many pronunciation features distinctly set AAVE apart from other forms of
11588:
11573:
11421:
11384:
11223:
11178:
11163:
10928:
10923:
10770:
6018:
5536:
4839:
4187:
4177:
4140:
3744:
3689:
3671:
3402:
3388:
3351:
2397:
2171:
1527:
1183:
1036:
916:
700:
169:
2105:
peopled by descendants of migrations of early AAVE-speaking groups (see
12956:
12448:
11123:
11108:
11078:
11073:
10822:
10790:
10629:
10597:
9506:
9272:
Sociopolitical perspectives on language policy and planning in the USA.
9015:
8737:
5417:
5335:, though AAVE accents traditionally do not have the cot-caught merger.
5145:
5024:
4720:
Negatives are formed differently from most other varieties of English:
4490:
or BIN is stressed and semantically distinct from the unstressed form:
3817:
3809:
as in these contexts is commonly found in many other English dialects.
3777:) instead of the standard . This change does not occur in one-syllable
2350:
2288:
2276:
2237:
2144:
2140:
1990:
1962:
of English natively spoken, particularly in urban communities, by most
632:
371:
11459:
Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)
9970:
9789:
9737:
9231:
9203:
8034:
7313:
6348:
6097:
6095:
12513:
11737:
11583:
11088:
10872:
10810:
10705:
10285:"Phonological Features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE)"
9949:
Walser, Richard (1955), "Negro dialect in eighteenth-century drama",
9694:
Smith, Ernie; Crozier, Karen (1998), "Ebonics Is Not Black English",
9417:
9314:
8257:
5296:
as part of only a deep "Southern" or "country" speaker's vocabulary.
4986:
4280:
3479:
3384:
2836:
2334:
2075:
2071:
2008:
1857:
1198:
931:
710:
537:
238:
226:
10384:
9818:, Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, pp. 156–219
9498:
9007:
7558:
4806:
can be inverted with the negative verb particle for emphasis (e.g.,
4317:(durative aspect). These can function separately or in conjunction.
3913:
exhibit variation in whether the first or second element is deleted.
2003:, African-American Vernacular English shares a large portion of its
12540:
12210:
12205:
11715:
9962:
9781:
9729:
9253:
Word on the Street: Debunking the Myth of a "Pure" Standard English
9223:
8923:
The Signifying Monkey: a Theory of Afro-American literary Criticism
7570:
7568:
7297:
6092:
5494:
5051:
4776:
4726:
4077:
4051:. Homonymy may be reduced by vowel lengthening and by an off-glide
3759:
1243:
1168:
1161:
273:
11474:
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
9128:(1969), "The logic of non-standard English", in Alatis, J. (ed.),
8512:"You Know What It Is: Learning Words through Listening to Hip-Hop"
8383:
Blues, Ideology, and Afro-American Literature: a Vernacular Theory
5905:
5903:
5217:, and Spanish-language accents have together yielded the sound of
4665:
corresponds to "fixing to" in other varieties. It is also written
3380:, South Carolina, Florida and Georgia, and in parts of California.
1981:
continuum. However, in formal speaking contexts, speakers tend to
13477:
13472:
13282:
12628:
12555:
12550:
10827:
9290:
Sociocultural and Historical Contexts of African American English
9166:
Sociocultural and Historical Contexts of African American English
8852:
Farrison, W. Edward (1970), "Dialectology versus Negro dialect",
8331:
Sociocultural and Historical Contexts of African American English
7406:
5340:
5233:
in the 1800s. In the United States, urban youth participating in
5230:
2414:
2067:
2004:
1331:
637:
269:
8161:
8159:
7703:
suggests either a general West African or the Pig Latin origin.
7565:
5004:
denote existence of something, equivalent to standard English's
3423:
in General American) is also monophthongized, especially before
1989:
grammar and vocabulary, usually while retaining elements of the
12545:
12525:
11661:
9139:
Language in the Inner City: Studies in Black English Vernacular
8807:
A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool
8775:
A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool
8453:
7751:
5999:
5900:
5110:
4523:
2136:
2066:
African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) may be considered a
1238:
9747:
Black Talk: Words and Phrases from the Hood to the Amen Corner
9685:
Simpkins, Gary A.; Holt, Grace; Simpkins, Charlesetta (1977),
8865:
Fickett, Joan G. (1972), "Tense and aspect in Black English",
6596:"Phonological Features of African American Vernacular English"
4923:
and correspondingly Standard English forbids the contraction *
3536:
3295:
3275:
3190:
3154:
3084:
2973:
2706:
2325:
An example of two men with AAVE accents, the interviewer from
11473:
10020:
Code-switching: Teaching Standard English in Urban Classrooms
9463:
8156:
7855:
6510:
6139:
6137:
5955:
5943:
5638:
4471:
means "until recently, he worked over a long period of time".
2905:
2808:
2585:
2488:
1011:
9989:
The Workings of Language: From Prescriptions to Perspectives
9764:
Spears, Arthur K. (1982), "The black English semi-auxiliary
7125:
7123:
5709:
Language and Linguistic Diversity in the US: An Introduction
4947:
ending in the present-tense third-person singular. Example:
4712:, which can function in various ways, including as adverbs.
4563:
mark sentences for the anterior aspect. As another example,
3658:
3550:
3226:
3120:
3047:
2275:
An example of a man from New York City with an AAVE accent (
2050:
spoken around the world that it could have originated in an
2026:
Mainstream linguists see only minor parallels between AAVE,
11518:
9447:
American Tongue and Cheek: A Populist Guide to Our Language
8678:, Athens, GA: University of Georgia press, pp. 364–387
8171:
6906:
6186:
See pronunciation for "Chicago AAVE" and "N.Carolina AAVE."
5861:
5762:
5644:
5408:
of English, AAVE has not received the social prestige of a
5311:
New York City AAVE incorporates some local features of the
5141:
4196:
4152:
3701:
3007:
2939:
2848:
2636:
2602:
2221:
1041:
10282:
10122:
9671:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 311–42,
9118:
Speech, Language, Learning, and the African American Child
9115:
9041:
The Character of the Word: The Texts of Zora Neale Hurston
8716:
Downing, John (1978), "Strategies of Bilingual Teaching",
8240:
Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts
8208:
7489:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. ix–xii,
6134:
4798:
In a negative construction, an indefinite pronoun such as
3894:
also occurs in words that other varieties of English have
2774:
2536:
2089:
that "decreolized" back into English. In the early 2000s,
272:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
8691:
Black English: Its History and Usage in the United States
8276:
8264:
7946:
Austen, Martha (August 1, 2017). "Put the Groceries Up".
7120:
6981:
6979:
6318:
6074:
5810:
5658:
4959:
comes from this, unlike in some other dialects which use
4943:
Verbs are uninflected for number and person: there is no
4253:
4225:
4204:, universally, resulting in (so that, for example, even
4183:. In other words, the tongue fully touches the top teeth.
3292:
2740:
2672:
2461:
2432:
2147:. By 1715, an African pidgin was reproduced in novels by
8409:
University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics
7971:
7969:
7229:
6872:
6870:
6806:
6794:
6782:
6690:
6613:
6429:
6302:
University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics
6112:
6110:
5873:
5849:
3987:
or the lengthening of the preceding vowel. Intervocalic
9544:
Rickford, John (1997b), "Suite for Ebony and Phonics",
8978:
Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language
8594:(2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
8462:
7823:
7733:
6576:
6491:
6489:
6262:
6260:
6258:
6245:
6243:
6101:
5890:
5888:
4783:
Negative concord, also called "double negation", as in
8220:
8183:
7524:
7265:
7253:
7159:
7081:
7028:
6976:
6939:
6882:
6770:
6661:
6649:
6637:
6279:
6277:
6275:
6228:
6080:
5400:
African-American Vernacular English and social context
3926:
are deleted. As with other dialects of English, final
3762:
and content morphemes with two or more syllables like
3666:
is normally the same as in other English dialects (so
10264:"A bibliography of works on African American English"
10022:, Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English
9485:(1939), "The speech of Negroes in colonial America",
8641:
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development
8438:
Beyond Ebonics: Linguistic Pride and Racial Prejudice
8357:
African-American English: Structure, History, and Use
8062:
The regional development of African American Language
8042:
8005:
7993:
7966:
7867:
6867:
6738:
The regional development of African American Language
6506:
6504:
6216:
6107:
5750:
4558:
means "I've been buying her clothes for a long time".
3680:
10126:
African-American English: Structure, History and Use
9684:
8810:, vol. 1, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 383–392,
8778:, vol. 2, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 366–382,
8238:
Flood, J., Jensen, J., Lapp, D., Squire, J. (1991).
7981:
7135:
6758:
6486:
6367:
6255:
6240:
6149:
5885:
5786:
5689:
For the reasons that linguists avoid using the term
5661:
5641:
5476:
5081:
AAVE has also contributed slang expressions such as
5049:
dialects; for example, the relatively recent use of
4825:
3723:
2082:, the origins of AAVE are still a matter of debate.
9800:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 786–799
9709:
Talkin and Testifyin: The Language of Black America
9615:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 299–315
9148:
Principles of Linguistic Change, II: Social factors
8946:
African American English: A Linguistic Introduction
8685:
5 vols. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985–.
8592:
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.
8458:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 280–298
7480:
7478:
7241:
7217:
7201:(transcript). Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
7040:
6718:
6625:
6462:
African American English: a linguistic introduction
6272:
6122:
5635:
5425:
Conference on College Composition and Communication
1834:
Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers
9892:A look at selected AAVE features in the TV series
9809:, Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics
9625:
9379:
8943:
8610:"The Co-Construction of Whiteness in an MC Battle"
8564:
7171:
6501:
6050:
5909:
5806:"Do you speak American?: African American English"
4023:is often vocalized in patterns similar to that of
8635:DeBose, Charles (1992). Eastman, Carol M. (ed.).
7432:African American Slang - A Linguistic Description
7147:
6355:
5774:
4750:However, some speakers of AAVE distinctively use
4601:He frequently (or habitually) works on Tuesdays.
4514:places action in the distant past. However, when
13560:
11509:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
10333:
9798:The Oxford Handbook of African American Language
9619:
9613:The Oxford Handbook of African American Language
9141:, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press
9130:Georgetown Monograph on Language and Linguistics
8794:"African American Vernacular English: phonology"
8580:Sociolinguistics: The Study of Speakers' Choices
8466:The Oxford Handbook of African American Language
8456:The Oxford Handbook of African American Language
8431:, Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics
8081:The Oxford Handbook on African American Language
7656:African American slang: a linguistic description
7606:African American Slang: A Linguistic Description
7590:
7574:
7475:
7458:African American Slang: A Linguistic Description
7362:African American Slang: A Linguistic Description
7329:African American slang: a linguistic description
6836:The Oxford Handbook of African American Language
6753:The Oxford Handbook on African American Language
6513:The Oxford Handbook of African American Language
6312:
6064:"Op-Ed: DEA Call For Ebonics Experts Smart Move"
5393:
5246:
4862:("She's my sister"). This extends to questions:
4297:integrated into the predicate phrase, including
4283:marker of other English varieties (that is, the
11554:Black players in professional American football
11504:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
10365:"African American Vernacular English (Ebonics)"
9807:Non-standard Speech and the Teaching of English
9666:
9373:The English History of African American English
9059:The English History of African American English
8676:Africanisms in Afro-American Language Varieties
8083:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 149-151.
7752:Blake, Shousterman & Newlin-Łukowicz (2015)
4818:While AAVE shares these with Creole languages,
4510:(this article uses the third). As shown above,
2023:of African Americans primarily in that region.
2013:regional dialects of the Southern United States
9885:
9750:(revised ed.), Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
9669:An Introduction to Language and Linguistics ed
9087:
8669:
8093:Hinton, Linette N.; Pollock, Karen E. (2003).
7062:
6751:, Lisa Green, and Jennifer Bloomquist (eds.),
6450::121–122) although her examples are different.
6167:
5208:
561:Education of freed people during the Civil War
12434:
10400:
10105:Wolfram, Walter A.; Fasold, Ralph W. (1974),
10104:
10017:
9651:Educating Eve: The "Language Instinct" Debate
8993:
8242:. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company.
8092:
8060:Wolfram, Walt; Kohn, Mary E. (forthcoming). "
7642:Dictionary of American Regional English, s.v.
7516:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (
6736:Wolfram, Walt; Kohn, Mary E. (forthcoming). "
6712:
5706:
4552:means "I bought her clothes a long time ago".
4494:('She has been running for a long time') and
4063:
2001:English varieties spoken by African Americans
1932:
12792:
11267:Historically black colleges and universities
10143:Delpit, Lisa; Dowdy, Joanne Kilgour (2002),
9693:
9574:
8505:, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
8496:, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press
8354:
8299:
7562:, according to Random House Unabridged, 2001
7283:
7189:
7000:Oxford Handbook of African American Language
6385:
6005:
4279:Although AAVE does not necessarily have the
4099:Word-medially and word-finally, pronouncing
572:Historically black colleges and universities
10142:
9237:
8427:Baratz, Joan C.; Shuy, Roger, eds. (1969),
8177:
6900:
5260:), "She be done had her baby" (resultative
3991:may also be dropped, e.g. General American
3844:is pronounced (alternatively or ), since
556:Education during the slave period in the US
13468:Comparison of American and British English
12441:
12427:
10407:
10393:
10026:
9743:
9715:
9706:
9380:Poplack, Shana; Tagliamonte, Sali (2001),
9056:
8647:(1–2). Multilingual Matters LTD: 157–167.
8426:
8406:
8214:
8024:Farrington, Charles (September 18, 2019).
8023:
7915:English in Computer-Mediated Communication
7780:. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
7716:
7700:
7686:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
7586:
7434:. Cambridge University Press. p. 20.
7129:
6755:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 147.
6400:
6234:
6170:"Accents of English from Around the World"
6168:Heggarty, Paul; et al., eds. (2013).
5922:
5440:Although the distinction between AAVE and
4971:when not in the negative. Similarly, AAVE
4893:(of which the latter is often replaced by
4819:
1939:
1925:
879:National Black Caucus of State Legislators
11484:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)
10354:
10018:Wheeler, Rebecca; Swords, Rachel (2006),
9976:
9911:
9831:
9825:Linguistic Perspectives on Black English.
9543:
9520:
9468:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
9246:
8950:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
8751:
8625:
8545:
8535:
8282:
8226:
8165:
8033:
7861:
7485:Widawski, Maciej (2015), "Introduction",
7102:The Structure of African American English
6903:"The evolution of Black American English"
6825:
6823:
6821:
6800:
6788:
6582:
6222:
6143:
5993:
5961:
5949:
5879:
5855:
5565:North American English regional phonology
4465:means "he finished work a long time ago".
335:Slavery in the colonial history of the US
13161:
10309:
10160:
9939:
9861:Atlas of North American English (online)
9687:Bridge: A Cross-Cultural Reading Program
9628:Spoken Soul: The Story of Black English.
9603:
9556:
9382:African American English in the Diaspora
9163:
9038:
9021:
8975:
8851:
8683:Dictionary of American Regional English.
8189:
7653:
7602:
7530:
7484:
7454:
7429:
7359:
7326:
7116:https://doi.org/10.1215/00031283-9766889
6985:
5768:
5160:, which means "light-colored", from the
4708:The dialect uses double modals, such as
4617:Intensified continuative (not habitual)
4531:
4176:sound nearly identical). This is called
3511:is frequently reduced or absent, making
10261:
10223:from the original on September 23, 2009
10187:
10076:
10067:
10039:
9985:
9822:
9813:
9804:
9645:
9394:"Language that dare not speak its name"
9367:
9287:
8892:
8864:
8791:
8771:
8715:
8706:
8688:
8586:
8577:
8509:
8500:
8475:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199795390.001.0001
8251:
7824:Bloomquist, Green & Lanehart (2015)
7727:Dictionary of American Regional English
7165:
7022:
6876:
6812:
6389:
6116:
6102:Bloomquist, Green & Lanehart (2015)
6086:
5989:
5985:
5981:
5973:
5894:
5798:
5792:
5756:
5707:Tamasi, Susan; Antieau, Lamont (2015).
5264:), and "They come hollerin" (indignant
4313:(habitual aspect, state of being), and
266:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
14:
13561:
12383:Topics related to the African diaspora
11489:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)
10197:Natural Language and Linguistic Theory
9948:
9928:from the original on December 15, 2017
9851:
9795:
9763:
9388:
9344:
9269:
9209:
9047:
8929:
8634:
8607:
8491:
8391:10.7208/chicago/9780226160849.001.0001
8359:, London: Routledge, pp. 85–109,
8327:
8131:
7945:
7075:
6997:
6829:
6818:
6195:
6062:Ludden, Jennifer (September 6, 2010).
5977:
5938:
5867:
5780:
5731:
4545:, consider the following expressions:
4088:, causing pronunciations such as for
12422:
12363:Landmark African-American legislation
10414:
10388:
10266:. University of Essex. Archived from
10234:
10109:, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
9944:, New York: New York University Press
9718:College Composition and Communication
9443:
9319:American Educational Research Journal
9145:
9136:
9124:
9065:
9052:, London: Associated University Press
8964:from the original on December 4, 2019
8938:
8920:
8562:
8440:, New York: Oxford University Press,
8435:
8380:
8270:
8202:
8048:
8011:
7999:
7987:
7975:
7912:
7885:
7873:
7789:
7271:
7259:
7247:
7235:
7223:
7205:from the original on February 9, 2010
7177:
7153:
7141:
7099:
7087:
7058:
7046:
7034:
6945:
6924:
6888:
6844:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199795390.013.18
6776:
6764:
6724:
6708:
6696:
6684:
6680:
6667:
6655:
6643:
6631:
6619:
6542:
6521:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199795390.013.13
6495:
6459:
6447:
6435:
6373:
6361:
6283:
6266:
6249:
6155:
6037:
5935:The Oakland school board's resolution
5825:Benor, Sarah Bunin (April 19, 2010).
5824:
5694:
2174:of examples of plantation creole. In
1077:Athletic associations and conferences
566:History of African-American education
13538:Non-native pronunciations of English
11494:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)
9886:Trotta, Joe; Blyahher, Oleg (2011),
9696:The Western Journal of Black Studies
9481:
9313:
8840:from the original on August 19, 2018
7104:: 110–153 – via Research Gate.
6295:
6128:
4854:, and other languages. For example:
4606:Intensified continuative (habitual)
1000:Association for the Study of African
11848:African-American Vernacular English
10362:
10107:Social Dialects in American English
9979:An Introduction to Sociolinguistics
9632:, New York: John Wiley & Sons,
9559:African American Vernacular English
9189:
8925:, New York: Oxford University Press
8563:Cosby, William (January 10, 1997),
7765:Liberian Settler English: phonology
7739:
6830:DeBose, Charles E. (July 1, 2015).
6176:from the original on April 26, 2016
5299:
5256:be the best" (intensified equative
4274:
1952:African-American Vernacular English
1814:Race and ethnicity in the US census
1315:African-American Vernacular English
884:National Conference of Black Mayors
128:African-American Vernacular English
42:African-American Vernacular English
24:
18:African-American vernacular English
11766:U.S. cities with large populations
11469:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
10321:from the original on March 1, 2009
10175:from the original on March 4, 2016
10115:
8079:, and Jennifer Bloomquist (eds.),
7603:Widawski, Maciej (March 5, 2015).
7455:Widawski, Maciej (March 5, 2015).
6547:, London: Routledge, p. 109,
6296:King, Sharese (December 1, 2016).
6049:William Labov, in the Foreword to
5125:as an adjective for Whites (as in
4938:Other minor conditions also apply.
4655:
3942:may be pronounced ). More rarely,
3816:Final consonant clusters that are
3670:is ); in other situations, it may
3471:are both pronounced like , making
2298:
2247:
2220:An example of a man from northern
2192:
1017:National Black Chamber of Commerce
25:
13590:
10639:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013
10635:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009
10442:African American founding fathers
10297:from the original on May 29, 2010
10006:from the original on May 18, 2016
9986:Wheeler, Rebecca S., ed. (1999),
9066:Jones, Taylor (January 1, 2020).
8718:International Review of Education
6901:Ciku Theuri (February 17, 2023).
5386:. Californian AAVE often lacks a
5182:means "snobbish" or "bourgeois".
5019:("Why aren't they growing?") and
4826:Other grammatical characteristics
1721:Places by plurality of population
387:Civil rights movement (1954–1968)
377:Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
330:Abolitionism in the United States
12401:
11519:United Negro College Fund (UNCF)
10664:Nadir of American race relations
9827:, Regensburg, Germany: Hans Carl
9242:, London: Blackwell, p. 200
9043:, West Port, CT: Greenwood Press
8976:Guralnik, David Bernard (1984),
8566:"Elements of Igno-Ebonics Style"
8510:Chesley, Paula (December 2011).
8302:The Journal of Special Education
8245:
8232:
8195:
8150:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2007.00029.x
8138:Language and Linguistics Compass
8125:
8086:
8054:
8017:
7939:
7906:
7879:
7850:Handbook of Varieties of English
7842:
7837:Handbook of Varieties of English
7829:
7804:10.1111/j.1360-6441.2005.00304.x
7783:
7770:
7757:
7710:
7694:
7647:
7623:
7596:
7580:
7536:
7448:
7423:
7414:
7396:
7378:
7353:
6210:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2007.00029.x
6198:Language and Linguistics Compass
6051:Poplack & Tagliamonte (2001)
6040:, pp. 1–11, 'Introduction'.
5910:Poplack & Tagliamonte (2001)
5843:10.1111/j.1467-9841.2010.00440.x
5734:Labov: A Guide for the Perplexed
5654:
5631:
5629:is pronounced as an initialism,
5521:
5507:
5493:
5479:
5148:, is another general term for a
4421:
4249:
4221:
4192:
4148:
3719:
3697:
3676:
3654:
3546:
3532:
3354:of vowels to the raising of the
3288:
3271:
3222:
3186:
3150:
3116:
3080:
3043:
3003:
2969:
2935:
2901:
2844:
2804:
2770:
2736:
2702:
2668:
2632:
2598:
2581:
2532:
2484:
2428:
2349:Problems playing this file? See
2314:
2287:Problems playing this file? See
2263:
2236:Problems playing this file? See
2208:
2131:used by African captives of the
1896:
418:Black Belt in the American South
10525:Civil rights movement 1954–1968
10515:Civil rights movement 1865–1896
10242:African American Web Connection
9816:Teaching Black Children to Read
9048:Holton, Sylvia Wallace (1984),
8921:Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (1988),
8494:Black English in the Mass Media
8429:Teaching Black Children to Read
8385:, University of Chicago Press,
8292:
7320:
7277:
7183:
7108:
7093:
7068:
7052:
7016:
6991:
6951:
6930:
6913:
6894:
6730:
6702:
6673:
6588:
6536:
6453:
6441:
6394:
6379:
6289:
6189:
6161:
6056:
6043:
6011:
5967:
5928:
5915:
5818:
5430:Oakland Unified School District
5359:vowel lowering associated with
4927:. Compare the acceptable forms
3713:may be ). In other situations,
2017:older Southern American English
1022:National Council of Negro Women
123:Older Southern American English
13488:English-based creole languages
11514:Thurgood Marshall College Fund
10520:Civil right movement 1896–1954
10337:; Rickford, Angela E. (1995),
10315:"Ebonics Notes and Discussion"
10079:Journal of English Linguistics
9992:, Greenwood Publishing Group,
9854:"Rural White Southern Accents"
9090:Journal of English Linguistics
8867:Journal of English Linguistics
8381:Baker, Houston A. Jr. (1984),
7609:. Cambridge University Press.
7575:Rickford & Rickford (2000)
7461:. Cambridge University Press.
7331:. Cambridge University Press.
5725:
5700:
5683:
5620:
5587:
5560:Languages of the United States
5129:), possibly from the color of
5021:Who the hell she think she is?
4874:can be included for emphasis:
4838:in the present tense is often
4657:
4068:McWhorter discusses an accent
3614:AAVE speakers may not use the
3611:is realized as , for instance)
2087:English-based creole languages
2080:earlier Southern U.S. dialects
2032:English-based creole languages
1819:Racism against Black Americans
13:
1:
13528:List of English-based pidgins
11694:Cherokee freedmen controversy
10670:The Negro Motorist Green Book
10161:McDorman, Richard E. (2012).
10042:Language Variation and Change
9132:, vol. 22, pp. 1–44
8709:A History of American English
8653:10.1080/01434632.1992.9994489
7763:Singler, John Victor (2004).
7729:, s.vv. "Kitchen", "Siditty".
7658:. Cambridge, United Kingdom.
7591:Rickford & Rickford (2000
6403:Language Variation and Change
5676:
5394:Social perception and context
5247:Urban versus rural variations
5040:
4975:is used for standard English
4595:Habitual/continuative aspect
3581:
2176:Army Life in a Black Regiment
1027:National Pan-Hellenic Council
13523:Linguistic purism in English
10356:10.1016/0898-5898(95)90003-9
9805:Stewart, William A. (1964),
9611:, in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.),
9487:The Journal of Negro History
9466:Linguistics: An Introduction
9238:Lippi-Green, Rosina (1997),
8537:10.1371/journal.pone.0028248
7495:10.1017/cbo9781139696562.001
7063:DeBose & Faraclas (1993)
5390:, especially before nasals.
5276:complement). Using the word
5241:
4951:("She writes poetry"). AAVE
4808:Don't nobody know the answer
4486:This aspect-marking form of
4423:
4408:
4398:
4385:
4375:
4365:
4355:
4345:
4332:
3793:is . Other examples include
3489:The distinction between the
3409:(this is also found in most
2185:
1829:School segregation in the US
1367:Black American Sign Language
1341:Languages and other dialects
7:
12624:London & Thames Estuary
11564:Black players in ice hockey
11499:National Urban League (NUL)
11325:American Society of Muslims
10563:Selma to Montgomery marches
10483:Brown v. Board of Education
10339:"Dialect readers revisited"
9834:Journal of Sociolinguistics
9744:Smitherman, Geneva (2000),
9707:Smitherman, Geneva (1977),
9526:Journal of Sociolinguistics
8469:. Oxford University Press.
7792:Journal of Sociolinguistics
6515:, Oxford University Press,
6172:. University of Edinburgh.
5831:Journal of Sociolinguistics
5736:. Bloomsbury. p. 215.
5732:Gordon, Matthew J. (2013).
5472:
5209:Influence on other dialects
5152:; it might derive from the
4715:
4648:He is about to go to work.
3828:are reduced. For instance,
3441:: Before nasal consonants (
3332:spreading nationwide, with
2333:) and the interviewee from
656:African-American businesses
27:Variety of American English
10:
13595:
13483:English as a lingua franca
11721:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
11479:Nashville Student Movement
10490:Children of the plantation
10290:Child Phonology Laboratory
10262:Patrick, Peter L. (2007).
10091:10.1177/007542429802600203
9977:Wardhaugh, Ronald (2002),
9711:, Boston: Houghton Mifflin
8996:Journal of Negro Education
8895:Television & New Media
8879:10.1177/007542427200600102
8503:English in Black and White
8314:10.1177/002246699402700404
7497:(inactive April 1, 2024),
6713:Wolfram & Fasold (1974
6006:Smith & Crozier (1998)
5711:. Routledge. p. 146.
5397:
4933:I don't know where he's at
4446:As phase auxiliary verbs,
4269:
4265:, etc. to something like .
4247:and fronting of the vowel
2180:Thomas Wentworth Higginson
2154:The Life of Colonel Jacque
2061:
1194:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
869:Congressional Black Caucus
836:African Diaspora Religions
623:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
29:
13463:Broad and general accents
13445:
13398:
13373:regional and occupational
13353:
13340:
13333:
13245:
13206:
13154:
13132:
13072:
13004:
12869:
12858:
12803:
12785:
12758:
12730:
12693:
12670:
12609:
12571:
12494:
12485:
12474:
12465:
12391:
12358:Index of related articles
12236:
12151:
11875:
11808:
11746:
11646:
11607:
11539:
11532:
11447:
11367:
11359:Doctrine of Father Divine
11305:
11247:
10896:
10751:
10743:Women's suffrage movement
10696:Reconstruction Amendments
10503:Voting Rights Act of 1965
10422:
10343:Linguistics and Education
10293:. University of Alberta.
10054:10.1017/S0954394500000831
9913:10.58221/mosp.v105i1.8284
9331:10.3102/00028312036002147
9120:, Boston: Allyn and Bacon
8816:10.1515/9783110197181-027
8766:10.1215/00031283-2008-021
8689:Dillard, John L. (1972),
8578:Coulmas, Florian (2005),
8501:Burling, Robbins (1973),
7923:10.1515/9783110490817-004
7654:Widawski, Maciej (2015).
7430:Widawski, Maciej (2015).
7360:Widawski, Maciej (2016).
7327:Widawski, Maciej (2019).
6464:. Cambridge Univ. Press.
6415:10.1017/S0954394518000145
6386:Bailey & Thomas (1998
5091:Oxford English Dictionary
5015:Word order in questions:
4882:. The general rules are:
4696:The irrealis mood marker
4576:AAVE grammatical aspects
4556:I been buying her clothes
4550:I been bought her clothes
4536:Oh, I been had this dress
4386:
4376:
4333:
4325:
4294:Tense-Aspect-Mood markers
4233:, resulting in (so that
4092:(sounding something like
3672:move forward in the mouth
3484:present in other dialects
3240:
3235:
3034:
2842:
2835:
2549:
2547:
2530:
2499:
2497:
2426:
2395:
2385:
1701:US states and territories
1002:American Life and History
724:Lift Every Voice and Sing
433:Treatment of the enslaved
252:
236:
224:
219:
194:
152:
71:
61:
51:
46:
41:
13569:African-American English
12408:United States portal
11843:African-American English
11272:Inventors and scientists
10964:George Washington Carver
10568:Chicago Freedom Movement
9940:Trudgill, Peter (1983),
9852:Thomas, Erik R. (2006),
9102:10.1177/0075424209339281
9039:Holloway, Karla (1987),
9022:Holloway, Karla (1978).
8907:10.1177/1527476413480247
8792:Edwards, Walter (2020),
8608:Cutler, Cecelia (2007).
8365:10.4324/9780203355596-13
8132:Thomas, Erik R. (2007).
7960:10.1215/00031283-4312064
7900:10.1215/00031283-3442117
7195:"Why Ebonics Is No Joke"
7130:Howe & Walker (2000)
6998:Debose, Charles (2015).
6600:www.rehabmed.ualberta.ca
6545:African-American English
5923:Howe & Walker (2000)
5607:African-American English
5603:Black English Vernacular
5599:Black Vernacular English
5580:
5575:Brittonicisms in English
5448:(see below) such as the
5434:controversial resolution
5365:merger of the vowels in
5333:White Pittsburgh accents
5227:Liberian Settler English
4929:I don't know where he at
4917:I don't know where he is
4820:Howe & Walker (2000)
4789:standard written English
4598:He be working Tuesdays.
3599:, whereby, for example,
3587:Word-final devoicing of
2034:, instead most directly
1903:United States portal
1310:African-American English
821:African-American Muslims
382:Jim Crow era (1896–1954)
47:Black Vernacular English
32:African-American English
30:Not to be confused with
12331:African-American firsts
11380:Back-to-Africa movement
11349:Black Hebrew Israelites
11129:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
10677:Partus sequitur ventrem
10235:Oubré, Alondra (1997).
10209:10.1023/A:1005815614064
10147:, New York: New Press,
9846:10.1111/1467-9481.00199
9604:Rickford, John (2015),
9557:Rickford, John (1999),
9538:10.1111/1467-9481.00019
9146:Labov, William (2001),
9137:Labov, William (1972),
8627:10.1075/prag.17.1.01cut
8492:Brasch, Walter (1981),
8111:10.1111/1467-971X.00155
6553:10.4324/9781003165330-3
6460:Green, Lisa J. (2012).
5515:English language portal
5219:New York Latino English
5017:Why they ain't growing?
4993:("my mother's sister").
4925:I don't know where he's
3972:behavior, in which the
3875:More often, word-final
3431:indistinguishable from
3411:White Southern dialects
1824:Reparations for slavery
912:Back-to-Africa movement
811:Black Hebrew Israelites
689:African-American beauty
12641:Received Pronunciation
12299:Spingarn Medal winners
11788:States and territories
11559:Black NFL quarterbacks
11059:Martin Luther King Jr.
10591:Dred Scott v. Sandford
10530:Montgomery bus boycott
9298:10.1075/veaw.g27.06muf
9174:10.1075/veaw.g27.05lan
8980:, Simon and Schuster,
8339:10.1075/veaw.g27.08bai
8254:English with an Accent
7776:Reyes, Angela (2007).
7487:African American Slang
5467:Second Great Migration
5361:White Southern accents
5347:AAVE incorporates the
4921:I don't know where he,
4919:cannot be reduced to *
4812:Ain't nothing going on
4685:In addition to these,
4612:He is always working.
4321:Phases/tenses of AAVE
4190:) of all instances of
3898:so that, for example,
3890:For younger speakers,
3755:, alveolarization) in
3413:). The vowel sound in
2303:
2252:
2197:
2044:Southern United States
2028:West African languages
2021:historical enslavement
1294:Dialects and languages
454:Second Great Migration
254:This article contains
12835:Multicultural Toronto
11609:Athletic associations
11544:Negro league baseball
11315:African-American Jews
11034:Ketanji Brown Jackson
10999:Henry Highland Garnet
10858:Negro National Anthem
10608:George Floyd protests
10573:Post–civil rights era
9589:10.1353/lan.2016.0078
9450:, New York: Penguin,
9351:The Language Instinct
9150:, Oxford: Blackwell,
8707:Dillard, J.L (1992),
8252:Lippi-Green, Rosina.
6333:10.1353/lan.2019.0042
5870:, pp. 16, 19–20.
5570:Northern Subject Rule
5542:Glossary of jive talk
5315:, including its high
4963:for standard English
4955:for standard English
4931:in AAVE, paralleling
4645:He finna go to work.
4634:He has been working.
4623:He keeps on working.
4309:(completive aspect),
3852:are both voiced; but
3832:is pronounced since
3824:) and share the same
3822:place of articulation
3736:Realization of final
3391:, in particular, the
3383:Reduction of certain
2302:
2251:
2224:with an AAVE accent (
2196:
2164:mutually intelligible
2118:National Public Radio
1706:US metropolitan areas
1533:List of neighborhoods
1147:Alabama Creole people
1137:African-American Jews
1069:Negro league baseball
1032:National Urban League
984:Civic/economic groups
816:African-American Jews
706:African-American hair
568:, after the Civil War
397:Post–civil rights era
12996:Western Pennsylvania
11816:Afro-Seminole Creole
11342:Azusa Street Revival
11214:Booker T. Washington
10738:Underground Railroad
10603:Free people of color
10457:Atlantic slave trade
10371:on February 10, 2010
10270:on February 16, 2010
9874:on December 22, 2014
9354:, New York: Morrow,
8672:Mufwene, Salikoko S.
8436:Baugh, John (2000),
7193:(October 17, 1998).
5964:, pp. 162, 182.
5952:, pp. 162, 185.
5925:for more information
5771:, pp. 302, 310.
5487:United States portal
5327:vowel, matching the
4935:in Standard English.
4866:("Who're you?") and
4858:("You're crazy") or
4628:Perfect progressive
4469:He done been working
4463:He been done working
4432:is grammatical, but
3950:may also be deleted.
3840:are both voiceless;
3785:, which is and not
3717:may move forward to
3407:voiceless consonants
2133:Atlantic slave trade
2052:English-based creole
1863:Criminal stereotypes
1638:District of Columbia
1355:Afro-Seminole Creole
797:Non-Christian groups
392:Black power movement
356:during the Civil War
325:Atlantic slave trade
180:Early Modern English
13574:Dialects of English
13533:Mid-Atlantic accent
13124:Trinidad and Tobago
12211:Trinidad and Tobago
11826:Black American Sign
11653:By African descent
11647:Ethnic subdivisions
11634:Southwestern (SWAC)
11549:Baseball color line
11464:Black Panther Party
11368:Political movements
11285:in computer science
10944:Carol Moseley Braun
10733:Tulsa race massacre
10726:Treatment of slaves
10558:March on Washington
10553:Birmingham movement
9653:, London: Cassell,
9444:Quinn, Jim (1982),
9410:1997Natur.386..321P
9390:Pullum, Geoffrey K.
8802:Schneider, Edgar W.
8730:1978IREdu..24..329D
8711:, New York: Longman
8571:Wall Street Journal
8528:2011PLoSO...628248C
8273:, pp. 506–508.
8260:. pp. 304–321.
8256:(Second ed.).
8168:, pp. 343–348.
7864:, pp. 146–147.
7826:, pp. 140–159.
7754:, pp. 284–285.
7742:, pp. 381–386.
7238:, pp. 102–103.
6699:, pp. 119–121.
6622:, pp. 107–116.
6438:, pp. 117–119.
6024:, John Dillard and
6008:, pp. 113–114.
4785:I didn't go nowhere
4620:He steady working.
4577:
4322:
3905:Clusters ending in
3805:→ . Realization of
3773:is pronounced as (
3558:also merge, making
3376:, Pennsylvania, in
3350:, linked through a
2392:
1259:Sierra Leone Creole
1220:Specific ancestries
1105:Southwestern (SWAC)
628:Black History Month
459:New Great Migration
413:Agriculture history
160:Proto-Indo-European
13056:Pennsylvania Dutch
12309:US representatives
12304:US cabinet members
12196:Dominican Republic
11783:Metropolitan areas
11624:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
11449:Civic and economic
11427:Self-determination
11248:Education, science
11169:Fred Shuttlesworth
11149:A. Philip Randolph
11054:Coretta Scott King
10979:Frederick Douglass
10806:Harlem Renaissance
10711:Separate but equal
10701:Reconstruction era
10689:Plessy v. Ferguson
10580:Cornerstone Speech
10494:Civil Rights Acts
10477:Black Lives Matter
10452:American Civil War
10193:"Double Standards"
10072:, New York: Thieme
9689:, Houghton-Mifflin
9483:Read, Allen Walker
9392:(March 27, 1997),
9274:, John Benjamins,
9248:McWhorter, John H.
9061:, pp. 109–139
8738:10.1007/BF00598048
8178:Lippi-Green (1997)
8067:2018-11-06 at the
7917:. pp. 43–68.
6743:2018-11-06 at the
6069:2018-01-08 at the
5980::55), both citing
5693:, see for example
5609:, or occasionally
5406:vernacular dialect
5353:vowel raising and
4897:) can be omitted;
4575:
4410:Indefinite future
4320:
4188:monophthongization
4146:. Word-initially,
3872:are also affected.
3781:morphemes such as
3603:sounds similar to
3405:to except before
2407:English diaphoneme
2390:
2304:
2253:
2198:
2168:American Civil War
2122:Talk of the Nation
1268:Sexual orientation
1142:Afro-Puerto Ricans
1095:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
730:Self-determination
694:Black is beautiful
360:Reconstruction era
98:North Sea Germanic
13556:
13555:
13441:
13440:
13241:
13240:
13150:
13149:
13068:
13067:
13064:
13063:
12989:Pacific Northwest
12850:Standard Canadian
12781:
12780:
12726:
12725:
12666:
12665:
12416:
12415:
12244:African Americans
12116:Dallas–Fort Worth
11711:Black Southerners
11642:
11641:
11094:Thurgood Marshall
11064:Bernard Lafayette
10659:Million Man March
10416:African Americans
10335:Rickford, John R.
10313:(December 1996).
10311:Rickford, John R.
10189:Nunberg, Geoffrey
10136:978-1-135-09756-1
9999:978-0-275-96245-6
9890:Game done changed
9865:Walter de Gruyter
9647:Sampson, Geoffrey
9622:Rickford, Russell
9546:Discover Magazine
9404:(6623): 321–322,
9307:978-90-272-4885-5
9263:978-0-7382-0446-8
9183:978-90-272-4885-5
8825:978-3-11-017532-5
8785:978-3-11-017532-5
8662:978-1-85359-167-9
8484:978-0-19-979539-0
8400:978-0-226-03538-3
8374:978-0-203-35559-6
8348:978-90-272-4885-5
8215:Smitherman (1999)
7932:978-3-11-049081-7
7717:Smitherman (2000)
7701:Smitherman (2000)
7665:978-1-107-07417-0
7616:978-1-316-24061-8
7587:Smitherman (1977)
7504:978-1-139-69656-2
7468:978-1-316-24061-8
7441:978-1-316-24061-8
7371:978-1-107-07417-0
7338:978-1-107-42440-1
7274:, pp. 89–91.
7262:, pp. 84–89.
7090:, pp. 73–74.
7037:, pp. 71–72.
7009:978-0-19-979539-0
6948:, pp. 54–55.
6891:, pp. 60–62.
6853:978-0-19-979539-0
6815:, pp. 17–18.
6779:, pp. 14–15.
6670:, pp. 18–19.
6658:, pp. 17–18.
6646:, pp. 15–16.
6562:978-1-003-16533-0
6530:978-0-19-979539-0
6471:978-0-521-81449-2
6345:Project MUSE
6235:Baranowski (2013)
6146:, pp. 146–7.
5743:978-1-4411-5852-9
5718:978-0-415-80667-1
5414:Pound Cake speech
5388:cot-caught merger
5345:Research Triangle
5329:cot-caught merger
5280:even in place of
4768:I ain't know that
4652:
4651:
4631:He been working.
4609:He stay working.
4419:
4418:
4404:I'ma gonna buy it
4281:simple past-tense
4263:strut, mud, tough
4139:. This is called
3509:liquid consonants
3330:cot-caught merger
3325:
3324:
2320:
2270:
2215:
2151:, in particular,
2040:Southern Colonies
2015:, and especially
1971:African Americans
1949:
1948:
1886:
1885:
1784:
1783:
1558:Dallas-Fort Worth
1375:
1374:
1285:
1284:
1229:Americo-Liberians
1112:
1111:
1050:
1049:
975:
974:
844:
843:
788:Womanist theology
738:
737:
680:Symbols and ideas
466:
465:
345:Antebellum period
340:Revolutionary War
295:African Americans
280:
279:
262:rendering support
258:phonetic symbols.
66:African Americans
16:(Redirected from
13586:
13453:English language
13338:
13337:
13159:
13158:
13142:Falkland Islands
13041:General American
13014:African-American
12867:
12866:
12801:
12800:
12790:
12789:
12492:
12491:
12483:
12482:
12472:
12471:
12443:
12436:
12429:
12420:
12419:
12406:
12405:
12404:
12368:Lynching victims
11867:Louisiana Creole
11838:American English
11726:Louisiana Creole
11699:Choctaw freedmen
11537:
11536:
11074:Huddie Ledbetter
11014:Fannie Lou Hamer
10984:W. E. B. Du Bois
10974:Claudette Colvin
10969:Shirley Chisholm
10786:Family structure
10654:Military history
10536:Browder v. Gayle
10409:
10402:
10395:
10386:
10385:
10380:
10378:
10376:
10367:. Archived from
10359:
10358:
10330:
10328:
10326:
10306:
10304:
10302:
10279:
10277:
10275:
10258:
10256:
10254:
10249:on June 14, 2007
10245:. Archived from
10231:
10230:
10228:
10184:
10182:
10180:
10174:
10167:
10157:
10139:
10110:
10101:
10073:
10064:
10036:
10023:
10014:
10013:
10011:
9982:
9973:
9945:
9936:
9935:
9933:
9915:
9882:
9881:
9879:
9873:
9867:, archived from
9858:
9848:
9828:
9819:
9810:
9801:
9792:
9760:
9740:
9712:
9703:
9690:
9681:
9663:
9642:
9631:
9620:Rickford, John;
9616:
9610:
9600:
9571:
9553:
9540:
9517:
9478:
9460:
9440:
9439:
9437:
9428:, archived from
9418:10.1038/386321a0
9385:
9376:
9364:
9341:
9310:
9284:
9266:
9243:
9234:
9206:
9186:
9160:
9142:
9133:
9121:
9112:
9084:
9074:
9062:
9053:
9044:
9035:
9018:
8990:
8972:
8971:
8969:
8949:
8935:
8926:
8917:
8889:
8861:
8848:
8847:
8845:
8788:
8768:
8748:
8712:
8703:
8693:, Random House,
8679:
8666:
8631:
8629:
8604:
8583:
8574:
8573:, pp. P.A11
8568:
8559:
8549:
8539:
8506:
8497:
8488:
8459:
8450:
8432:
8423:
8403:
8377:
8351:
8324:
8286:
8283:Wardhaugh (2002)
8280:
8274:
8268:
8262:
8261:
8249:
8243:
8236:
8230:
8227:McWhorter (2001)
8224:
8218:
8212:
8206:
8199:
8193:
8187:
8181:
8175:
8169:
8166:Wardhaugh (2002)
8163:
8154:
8153:
8129:
8123:
8122:
8090:
8084:
8058:
8052:
8046:
8040:
8039:
8037:
8021:
8015:
8009:
8003:
7997:
7991:
7985:
7979:
7973:
7964:
7963:
7943:
7937:
7936:
7910:
7904:
7903:
7883:
7877:
7871:
7865:
7862:McWhorter (2001)
7859:
7853:
7846:
7840:
7833:
7827:
7821:
7808:
7807:
7787:
7781:
7774:
7768:
7761:
7755:
7749:
7743:
7737:
7731:
7723:Kitchen, siditty
7714:
7708:
7698:
7692:
7691:
7685:
7677:
7651:
7645:
7634:Black Talk, s.v.
7627:
7621:
7620:
7600:
7594:
7584:
7578:
7572:
7563:
7540:
7534:
7528:
7522:
7521:
7515:
7507:
7482:
7473:
7472:
7452:
7446:
7445:
7427:
7421:
7418:
7412:
7400:
7394:
7387:5th edition, cf
7382:
7376:
7375:
7357:
7351:
7350:
7324:
7318:
7317:
7281:
7275:
7269:
7263:
7257:
7251:
7245:
7239:
7233:
7227:
7221:
7215:
7214:
7212:
7210:
7187:
7181:
7175:
7169:
7163:
7157:
7151:
7145:
7139:
7133:
7127:
7118:
7112:
7106:
7105:
7097:
7091:
7085:
7079:
7072:
7066:
7061::70–71), citing
7056:
7050:
7044:
7038:
7032:
7026:
7020:
7014:
7013:
6995:
6989:
6983:
6974:
6973:
6971:
6969:
6955:
6949:
6943:
6937:
6934:
6928:
6917:
6911:
6910:
6898:
6892:
6886:
6880:
6874:
6865:
6864:
6862:
6860:
6827:
6816:
6810:
6804:
6801:McWhorter (2001)
6798:
6792:
6789:McWhorter (2001)
6786:
6780:
6774:
6768:
6762:
6756:
6734:
6728:
6722:
6716:
6706:
6700:
6694:
6688:
6677:
6671:
6665:
6659:
6653:
6647:
6641:
6635:
6629:
6623:
6617:
6611:
6610:
6608:
6606:
6592:
6586:
6583:Rickford (1997b)
6580:
6574:
6573:
6540:
6534:
6533:
6508:
6499:
6493:
6484:
6483:
6457:
6451:
6445:
6439:
6433:
6427:
6426:
6398:
6392:
6383:
6377:
6371:
6365:
6359:
6353:
6352:
6327:(2): e216–e252.
6316:
6310:
6309:
6293:
6287:
6281:
6270:
6264:
6253:
6247:
6238:
6232:
6226:
6223:Eberhardt (2008)
6220:
6214:
6213:
6193:
6187:
6185:
6183:
6181:
6165:
6159:
6153:
6147:
6144:McWhorter (2001)
6141:
6132:
6126:
6120:
6114:
6105:
6099:
6090:
6084:
6078:
6060:
6054:
6047:
6041:
6035:
6029:
6015:
6009:
6003:
5997:
5994:Rickford (1997a)
5971:
5965:
5962:McWhorter (2001)
5959:
5953:
5950:McWhorter (2001)
5947:
5941:
5932:
5926:
5919:
5913:
5907:
5898:
5892:
5883:
5880:Wardhaugh (2002)
5877:
5871:
5865:
5859:
5856:McWhorter (2001)
5853:
5847:
5846:
5822:
5816:
5815:
5802:
5796:
5790:
5784:
5778:
5772:
5766:
5760:
5754:
5748:
5747:
5729:
5723:
5722:
5704:
5698:
5687:
5670:
5668:
5667:
5664:
5663:
5660:
5651:
5650:
5647:
5646:
5643:
5640:
5637:
5624:
5618:
5591:
5531:
5526:
5525:
5524:
5517:
5512:
5511:
5510:
5503:
5501:Languages portal
5498:
5497:
5489:
5484:
5483:
5482:
5442:General American
5410:standard dialect
5376:
5375:
5370:
5369:
5358:
5357:
5352:
5351:
5326:
5325:
5320:
5319:
5300:Local variations
5034:Relative clauses
4949:She write poetry
4909:are not deleted.
4661:
4588:Standard English
4578:
4574:
4496:She been running
4427:
4351:I done bought it
4341:I been bought it
4323:
4319:
4305:(future tense),
4275:Tense and aspect
4260:
4259:
4256:
4255:
4232:
4231:
4228:
4227:
4217:diphthongization
4203:
4202:
4199:
4198:
4186:Glide deletion (
4167:
4159:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4130:
4122:
4110:
4102:
4087:
4083:
4064:"Deep" phonology
4058:
4026:
4022:
3998:
3990:
3986:
3978:
3974:rhotic consonant
3949:
3945:
3934:may reduce to a
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3912:
3908:
3897:
3893:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3851:
3847:
3839:
3835:
3808:
3788:
3772:
3742:
3730:
3729:
3726:
3725:
3716:
3708:
3707:
3704:
3703:
3695:Word-initially,
3687:
3686:
3683:
3682:
3665:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3652:Word-initially,
3640:
3624:
3610:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3557:
3556:
3553:
3552:
3543:
3542:
3539:
3538:
3506:
3503:
3502:
3497:
3494:
3493:
3470:
3467:
3466:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3417:
3400:
3396:
3395:
3371:
3370:
3365:
3364:
3359:
3358:
3349:
3348:
3343:
3342:
3338:pronounced and
3337:
3336:
3302:
3301:
3298:
3297:
3294:
3282:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3233:
3232:
3229:
3228:
3197:
3196:
3193:
3192:
3161:
3160:
3157:
3156:
3127:
3126:
3123:
3122:
3091:
3090:
3087:
3086:
3054:
3053:
3050:
3049:
3036:R-colored vowels
3014:
3013:
3010:
3009:
2980:
2979:
2976:
2975:
2946:
2945:
2942:
2941:
2912:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2878:Canadian raising
2855:
2854:
2851:
2850:
2815:
2814:
2811:
2810:
2781:
2780:
2777:
2776:
2747:
2746:
2743:
2742:
2713:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2679:
2678:
2675:
2674:
2643:
2642:
2639:
2638:
2609:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2592:
2591:
2588:
2587:
2543:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2495:
2494:
2491:
2490:
2439:
2438:
2435:
2434:
2393:
2391:All AAVE vowels
2389:
2364:General American
2360:American English
2322:
2321:
2301:
2272:
2271:
2250:
2217:
2216:
2195:
2129:creole languages
2048:creole languages
1987:standard English
1941:
1934:
1927:
1901:
1900:
1899:
1848:media depictions
1797:
1796:
1692:Population count
1388:
1387:
1322:Liberian English
1301:English dialects
1298:
1297:
1254:Samaná Americans
1179:Creoles of color
1125:
1124:
1063:
1062:
1007:Black conductors
988:
987:
857:
856:
831:Louisiana Voodoo
753:
752:
498:Family structure
481:
480:
428:Military history
423:Business history
354:military history
309:
308:
282:
281:
248:
229:
214:American Braille
209:English alphabet
200:
118:American English
77:
39:
38:
21:
13594:
13593:
13589:
13588:
13587:
13585:
13584:
13583:
13559:
13558:
13557:
13552:
13437:
13394:
13349:
13329:
13237:
13233:Solomon Islands
13202:
13146:
13128:
13060:
13051:New York Latino
13026:American Indian
13006:
13000:
12861:
12854:
12795:
12777:
12763:Channel Islands
12754:
12722:
12689:
12662:
12605:
12567:
12477:
12461:
12447:
12417:
12412:
12402:
12400:
12387:
12353:Historic places
12346:US state firsts
12232:
12147:
11871:
11804:
11776:2010 majorities
11771:2000 majorities
11742:
11689:Black Seminoles
11638:
11629:Southern (SIAC)
11612:
11611:and conferences
11610:
11603:
11599:Serena Williams
11594:Jackie Robinson
11528:
11452:
11450:
11443:
11363:
11330:Nation of Islam
11301:
11249:
11243:
11184:Sojourner Truth
11174:Clarence Thomas
11139:Gabriel Prosser
11039:Michael Jackson
10914:Crispus Attucks
10904:Ralph Abernathy
10892:
10848:Musical theater
10747:
10613:Great Migration
10585:COVID-19 impact
10543:Sit-in movement
10418:
10413:
10383:
10374:
10372:
10363:Sidnell, Jack.
10324:
10322:
10300:
10298:
10273:
10271:
10252:
10250:
10226:
10224:
10178:
10176:
10172:
10165:
10155:
10137:
10118:
10116:Further reading
10113:
10009:
10007:
10000:
9951:American Speech
9931:
9929:
9877:
9875:
9871:
9856:
9758:
9679:
9661:
9640:
9608:
9569:
9499:10.2307/2714378
9476:
9458:
9435:
9433:
9432:on May 27, 2010
9362:
9308:
9282:
9264:
9256:, Basic Books,
9212:American Speech
9192:American Speech
9184:
9158:
9072:
9008:10.2307/2967298
8988:
8967:
8965:
8958:
8843:
8841:
8826:
8798:Kortmann, Bernd
8786:
8754:American Speech
8701:
8663:
8602:
8485:
8448:
8401:
8375:
8349:
8295:
8290:
8289:
8281:
8277:
8269:
8265:
8250:
8246:
8237:
8233:
8225:
8221:
8213:
8209:
8200:
8196:
8190:Lanehart (2001)
8188:
8184:
8176:
8172:
8164:
8157:
8130:
8126:
8099:World Englishes
8091:
8087:
8069:Wayback Machine
8059:
8055:
8047:
8043:
8022:
8018:
8010:
8006:
7998:
7994:
7986:
7982:
7974:
7967:
7948:American Speech
7944:
7940:
7933:
7911:
7907:
7888:American Speech
7884:
7880:
7872:
7868:
7860:
7856:
7847:
7843:
7834:
7830:
7822:
7811:
7788:
7784:
7775:
7771:
7762:
7758:
7750:
7746:
7738:
7734:
7715:
7711:
7699:
7695:
7679:
7678:
7666:
7652:
7648:
7628:
7624:
7617:
7601:
7597:
7585:
7581:
7573:
7566:
7541:
7537:
7531:Guralnik (1984)
7529:
7525:
7509:
7508:
7505:
7483:
7476:
7469:
7453:
7449:
7442:
7428:
7424:
7419:
7415:
7401:
7397:
7383:
7379:
7372:
7358:
7354:
7339:
7325:
7321:
7282:
7278:
7270:
7266:
7258:
7254:
7246:
7242:
7234:
7230:
7222:
7218:
7208:
7206:
7188:
7184:
7176:
7172:
7164:
7160:
7152:
7148:
7140:
7136:
7128:
7121:
7113:
7109:
7098:
7094:
7086:
7082:
7073:
7069:
7057:
7053:
7045:
7041:
7033:
7029:
7021:
7017:
7010:
6996:
6992:
6986:Rickford (1999)
6984:
6977:
6967:
6965:
6957:
6956:
6952:
6944:
6940:
6935:
6931:
6918:
6914:
6899:
6895:
6887:
6883:
6875:
6868:
6858:
6856:
6854:
6828:
6819:
6811:
6807:
6803:, pp. 148.
6799:
6795:
6791:, pp. 146.
6787:
6783:
6775:
6771:
6763:
6759:
6745:Wayback Machine
6735:
6731:
6723:
6719:
6707:
6703:
6695:
6691:
6678:
6674:
6666:
6662:
6654:
6650:
6642:
6638:
6630:
6626:
6618:
6614:
6604:
6602:
6594:
6593:
6589:
6581:
6577:
6563:
6541:
6537:
6531:
6509:
6502:
6494:
6487:
6472:
6458:
6454:
6446:
6442:
6434:
6430:
6399:
6395:
6384:
6380:
6372:
6368:
6360:
6356:
6317:
6313:
6294:
6290:
6282:
6273:
6265:
6256:
6248:
6241:
6233:
6229:
6221:
6217:
6194:
6190:
6179:
6177:
6166:
6162:
6154:
6150:
6142:
6135:
6127:
6123:
6115:
6108:
6100:
6093:
6085:
6081:
6071:Wayback Machine
6061:
6057:
6048:
6044:
6036:
6032:
6022:William Stewart
6016:
6012:
6004:
6000:
5972:
5968:
5960:
5956:
5948:
5944:
5933:
5929:
5920:
5916:
5908:
5901:
5893:
5886:
5878:
5874:
5866:
5862:
5854:
5850:
5823:
5819:
5804:
5803:
5799:
5791:
5787:
5779:
5775:
5769:Rickford (2015)
5767:
5763:
5755:
5751:
5744:
5730:
5726:
5719:
5705:
5701:
5688:
5684:
5679:
5674:
5673:
5657:
5653:
5634:
5630:
5625:
5621:
5613:(a colloquial,
5592:
5588:
5583:
5547:Gullah language
5527:
5522:
5520:
5513:
5508:
5506:
5499:
5492:
5485:
5480:
5478:
5475:
5463:Great Migration
5402:
5396:
5373:
5372:
5367:
5366:
5355:
5354:
5349:
5348:
5323:
5322:
5317:
5316:
5313:New York accent
5302:
5249:
5244:
5235:hip-hop culture
5223:Chicano accents
5215:New York accent
5211:
5043:
4991:my momma sister
4885:Only the forms
4828:
4793:double negative
4718:
4532:Rickford (1999)
4492:She BIN running
4428:Syntactically,
4400:Post-immediate
4367:Past inceptive
4277:
4272:
4252:
4248:
4237:may sound like
4224:
4220:
4208:may sound like
4195:
4191:
4151:
4147:
4066:
3902:is pronounced .
3820:(have the same
3722:
3718:
3700:
3696:
3679:
3675:
3657:
3653:
3584:
3549:
3545:
3535:
3531:
3500:
3499:
3491:
3490:
3482:. This is also
3464:
3463:
3455:
3454:
3415:
3414:
3403:monophthongized
3393:
3392:
3368:
3367:
3362:
3361:
3356:
3355:
3346:
3345:
3340:
3339:
3334:
3333:
3306:
3291:
3287:
3274:
3270:
3253:
3237:
3225:
3221:
3201:
3189:
3185:
3165:
3153:
3149:
3119:
3115:
3095:
3083:
3079:
3058:
3046:
3042:
3006:
3002:
2972:
2968:
2938:
2934:
2904:
2900:
2847:
2843:
2807:
2803:
2773:
2769:
2739:
2735:
2705:
2701:
2671:
2667:
2635:
2631:
2601:
2597:
2584:
2580:
2562:
2535:
2531:
2513:
2487:
2483:
2431:
2427:
2388:
2362:(particularly,
2356:
2355:
2347:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2342:
2323:
2315:
2312:
2305:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2285:
2283:
2282:
2281:
2280:
2273:
2264:
2261:
2254:
2248:
2243:
2242:
2234:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2229:
2218:
2209:
2206:
2199:
2193:
2188:
2064:
1979:sociolinguistic
1975:Black Canadians
1945:
1897:
1895:
1888:
1887:
1882:
1838:
1794:
1786:
1785:
1780:
1725:
1687:
1663:Omaha, Nebraska
1628:Historic places
1622:
1514:
1385:
1377:
1376:
1371:
1336:
1295:
1287:
1286:
1281:
1263:
1215:
1157:Black Seminoles
1122:
1121:Sub-communities
1114:
1113:
1100:Southern (SIAC)
1060:
1052:
1051:
1046:
1001:
985:
977:
976:
971:
888:
854:
846:
845:
840:
826:Nation of Islam
792:
769:
750:
740:
739:
734:
675:
642:
609:
581:
542:
518:Musical theater
478:
468:
467:
449:Great Migration
306:
260:Without proper
244:
225:
212:
201:
196:
190:
155:
148:
78:
75:Language family
73:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
13592:
13582:
13581:
13576:
13571:
13554:
13553:
13551:
13550:
13545:
13540:
13535:
13530:
13525:
13520:
13515:
13510:
13509:
13508:
13503:
13495:
13493:Englishisation
13490:
13485:
13480:
13475:
13470:
13465:
13460:
13455:
13449:
13447:
13443:
13442:
13439:
13438:
13436:
13435:
13430:
13425:
13420:
13415:
13410:
13404:
13402:
13400:Southeast Asia
13396:
13395:
13393:
13392:
13387:
13382:
13377:
13376:
13375:
13365:
13359:
13357:
13351:
13350:
13348:
13347:
13341:
13335:
13331:
13330:
13328:
13327:
13322:
13317:
13315:South Atlantic
13312:
13311:
13310:
13305:
13295:
13290:
13285:
13280:
13275:
13270:
13265:
13260:
13255:
13249:
13247:
13243:
13242:
13239:
13238:
13236:
13235:
13230:
13225:
13224:
13223:
13213:
13207:
13204:
13203:
13201:
13200:
13195:
13190:
13185:
13180:
13179:
13178:
13167:
13165:
13156:
13152:
13151:
13148:
13147:
13145:
13144:
13139:
13133:
13130:
13129:
13127:
13126:
13121:
13116:
13111:
13106:
13105:
13104:
13097:Cayman Islands
13094:
13089:
13084:
13078:
13076:
13070:
13069:
13066:
13065:
13062:
13061:
13059:
13058:
13053:
13048:
13043:
13038:
13033:
13028:
13023:
13022:
13021:
13010:
13008:
13007:ethno-cultural
13002:
13001:
12999:
12998:
12993:
12992:
12991:
12986:
12976:
12975:
12974:
12969:
12964:
12959:
12954:
12944:
12943:
12942:
12932:
12931:
12930:
12925:
12915:
12914:
12913:
12903:
12902:
12901:
12896:
12891:
12886:
12876:
12870:
12864:
12856:
12855:
12853:
12852:
12847:
12842:
12837:
12832:
12831:
12830:
12825:
12815:
12809:
12807:
12798:
12787:
12783:
12782:
12779:
12778:
12776:
12775:
12770:
12765:
12759:
12756:
12755:
12753:
12752:
12747:
12742:
12736:
12734:
12728:
12727:
12724:
12723:
12721:
12720:
12715:
12710:
12705:
12699:
12697:
12691:
12690:
12688:
12687:
12682:
12676:
12674:
12668:
12667:
12664:
12663:
12661:
12660:
12659:
12658:
12653:
12643:
12638:
12637:
12636:
12631:
12621:
12615:
12613:
12607:
12606:
12604:
12603:
12602:
12601:
12599:Stoke-on-Trent
12596:
12591:
12581:
12575:
12573:
12569:
12568:
12566:
12565:
12560:
12559:
12558:
12553:
12548:
12543:
12533:
12528:
12523:
12518:
12517:
12516:
12506:
12500:
12498:
12489:
12480:
12469:
12463:
12462:
12458:Modern English
12446:
12445:
12438:
12431:
12423:
12414:
12413:
12411:
12410:
12398:
12392:
12389:
12388:
12386:
12385:
12380:
12375:
12370:
12365:
12360:
12355:
12350:
12349:
12348:
12343:
12338:
12328:
12327:
12326:
12321:
12319:Visual artists
12316:
12311:
12306:
12301:
12296:
12291:
12286:
12281:
12279:Mathematicians
12276:
12271:
12266:
12261:
12256:
12251:
12240:
12238:
12234:
12233:
12231:
12230:
12229:
12228:
12220:
12215:
12214:
12213:
12208:
12203:
12198:
12193:
12185:
12184:
12183:
12178:
12173:
12168:
12157:
12155:
12149:
12148:
12146:
12145:
12140:
12135:
12130:
12129:
12128:
12123:
12118:
12113:
12103:
12098:
12096:South Carolina
12093:
12088:
12087:
12086:
12078:
12073:
12068:
12066:North Carolina
12063:
12062:
12061:
12051:
12046:
12045:
12044:
12034:
12029:
12028:
12027:
12019:
12018:
12017:
12011:Massachusetts
12009:
12008:
12007:
11997:
11992:
11991:
11990:
11980:
11975:
11974:
11973:
11963:
11958:
11957:
11956:
11946:
11941:
11940:
11939:
11929:
11928:
11927:
11922:
11912:
11907:
11906:
11905:
11900:
11890:
11885:
11879:
11877:
11873:
11872:
11870:
11869:
11864:
11859:
11858:
11857:
11856:
11855:
11853:social context
11850:
11840:
11830:
11829:
11828:
11818:
11812:
11810:
11806:
11805:
11803:
11802:
11801:
11800:
11795:
11785:
11780:
11779:
11778:
11773:
11763:
11762:
11761:
11750:
11748:
11744:
11743:
11741:
11740:
11735:
11734:
11733:
11723:
11718:
11713:
11708:
11707:
11706:
11704:Creek Freedmen
11701:
11696:
11691:
11681:
11679:Alabama Creole
11676:
11675:
11674:
11669:
11664:
11659:
11650:
11648:
11644:
11643:
11640:
11639:
11637:
11636:
11631:
11626:
11621:
11619:Central (CIAA)
11615:
11613:
11608:
11605:
11604:
11602:
11601:
11596:
11591:
11586:
11581:
11576:
11571:
11566:
11561:
11556:
11551:
11546:
11540:
11534:
11530:
11529:
11527:
11526:
11521:
11516:
11511:
11506:
11501:
11496:
11491:
11486:
11481:
11476:
11471:
11466:
11461:
11455:
11453:
11448:
11445:
11444:
11442:
11441:
11436:
11435:
11434:
11424:
11419:
11414:
11412:Pan-Africanism
11409:
11404:
11399:
11394:
11393:
11392:
11382:
11377:
11371:
11369:
11365:
11364:
11362:
11361:
11356:
11354:Black theology
11351:
11346:
11345:
11344:
11334:
11333:
11332:
11327:
11317:
11311:
11309:
11303:
11302:
11300:
11299:
11298:
11297:
11295:in STEM fields
11292:
11287:
11279:
11274:
11269:
11264:
11259:
11253:
11251:
11250:and technology
11245:
11244:
11242:
11241:
11236:
11231:
11226:
11221:
11216:
11211:
11206:
11201:
11196:
11191:
11189:Harriet Tubman
11186:
11181:
11176:
11171:
11166:
11161:
11156:
11151:
11146:
11141:
11136:
11131:
11126:
11121:
11119:Michelle Obama
11116:
11111:
11106:
11101:
11096:
11091:
11086:
11081:
11076:
11071:
11066:
11061:
11056:
11051:
11049:Barbara Jordan
11046:
11044:Harriet Jacobs
11041:
11036:
11031:
11026:
11021:
11016:
11011:
11006:
11001:
10996:
10991:
10986:
10981:
10976:
10971:
10966:
10961:
10956:
10951:
10946:
10941:
10936:
10934:Amelia Boynton
10931:
10926:
10921:
10916:
10911:
10906:
10900:
10898:
10897:Notable people
10894:
10893:
10891:
10890:
10885:
10880:
10875:
10870:
10865:
10860:
10855:
10850:
10845:
10840:
10835:
10833:LGBT community
10830:
10825:
10820:
10815:
10814:
10813:
10803:
10798:
10793:
10788:
10783:
10778:
10773:
10768:
10763:
10757:
10755:
10749:
10748:
10746:
10745:
10740:
10735:
10730:
10729:
10728:
10718:
10713:
10708:
10703:
10698:
10693:
10685:
10680:
10673:
10666:
10661:
10656:
10651:
10646:
10641:
10632:
10627:
10626:
10625:
10620:
10610:
10605:
10600:
10595:
10587:
10582:
10577:
10576:
10575:
10570:
10565:
10560:
10555:
10550:
10548:Freedom Riders
10545:
10540:
10532:
10522:
10517:
10512:
10511:
10510:
10505:
10500:
10492:
10487:
10479:
10474:
10472:Black genocide
10469:
10464:
10459:
10454:
10449:
10444:
10439:
10434:
10428:
10426:
10420:
10419:
10412:
10411:
10404:
10397:
10389:
10382:
10381:
10360:
10349:(2): 107–128,
10331:
10307:
10280:
10259:
10232:
10203:(3): 667–675,
10185:
10158:
10153:
10140:
10135:
10119:
10117:
10114:
10112:
10111:
10102:
10085:(2): 108–121,
10074:
10065:
10048:(3): 311–357,
10037:
10024:
10015:
9998:
9983:
9974:
9963:10.2307/453562
9957:(4): 269–276,
9946:
9937:
9883:
9849:
9840:(4): 514–536,
9829:
9820:
9811:
9802:
9793:
9782:10.2307/413960
9776:(4): 850–872,
9761:
9756:
9741:
9730:10.2307/358856
9724:(3): 349–376,
9713:
9704:
9691:
9682:
9677:
9664:
9659:
9643:
9638:
9617:
9601:
9583:(4): 948–988.
9572:
9567:
9554:
9541:
9532:(3): 315–336,
9522:Rickford, John
9518:
9493:(3): 247–258,
9479:
9474:
9461:
9456:
9441:
9386:
9377:
9369:Poplack, Shana
9365:
9360:
9346:Pinker, Steven
9342:
9325:(2): 147–184,
9311:
9306:
9285:
9280:
9267:
9262:
9244:
9235:
9224:10.2307/455582
9218:(4): 339–367,
9207:
9198:(4): 369–388,
9187:
9182:
9161:
9156:
9143:
9134:
9126:Labov, William
9122:
9113:
9096:(4): 305–330,
9085:
9063:
9054:
9045:
9036:
9019:
9002:(4): 602–619,
8991:
8986:
8973:
8956:
8940:Green, Lisa J.
8936:
8934:, pp. A10
8932:New York Times
8927:
8918:
8901:(3): 223–237,
8890:
8862:
8849:
8824:
8789:
8784:
8769:
8760:(3): 284–311,
8749:
8724:(3): 329–346,
8713:
8704:
8699:
8686:
8680:
8667:
8661:
8632:
8605:
8600:
8588:Crystal, David
8584:
8575:
8560:
8522:(12): e28248.
8507:
8498:
8489:
8483:
8460:
8451:
8446:
8433:
8424:
8404:
8399:
8378:
8373:
8352:
8347:
8325:
8296:
8294:
8291:
8288:
8287:
8285:, p. 339.
8275:
8263:
8244:
8231:
8219:
8217:, p. 357.
8207:
8194:
8182:
8180:, p. 200.
8170:
8155:
8144:(5): 450–475.
8124:
8085:
8073:Sonja Lanehart
8053:
8051:, p. 226.
8041:
8016:
8014:, p. 264.
8004:
8002:, p. 253.
7992:
7980:
7978:, p. 225.
7965:
7954:(3): 298–320.
7938:
7931:
7905:
7894:(4): 403–440.
7878:
7876:, p. 263.
7866:
7854:
7841:
7828:
7809:
7798:(4): 509–532.
7782:
7769:
7756:
7744:
7732:
7709:
7707:, s.v. "Ofay".
7693:
7664:
7646:
7632:: Smitherman,
7622:
7615:
7595:
7579:
7577:, p. 146.
7564:
7535:
7523:
7503:
7474:
7467:
7447:
7440:
7422:
7413:
7395:
7377:
7370:
7352:
7337:
7319:
7298:10.2307/416548
7276:
7264:
7252:
7240:
7228:
7216:
7182:
7170:
7168:, p. 350.
7166:Winford (1992)
7158:
7146:
7144:, p. 284.
7134:
7132:, p. 110.
7119:
7107:
7092:
7080:
7067:
7051:
7039:
7027:
7015:
7008:
6990:
6975:
6950:
6938:
6929:
6912:
6893:
6881:
6877:Fickett (1972)
6866:
6852:
6817:
6813:Fickett (1972)
6805:
6793:
6781:
6769:
6767:, p. 121.
6757:
6749:Sonja Lanehart
6729:
6717:
6711::121), citing
6701:
6689:
6672:
6660:
6648:
6636:
6624:
6612:
6587:
6575:
6561:
6535:
6529:
6500:
6498:, p. 107.
6485:
6470:
6452:
6440:
6428:
6409:(3): 361–383.
6393:
6390:Wolfram (1994)
6378:
6376:, p. 116.
6366:
6354:
6311:
6288:
6271:
6269:, p. 123.
6254:
6252:, p. 165.
6239:
6227:
6215:
6204:(5): 450–475.
6188:
6160:
6158:, p. 131.
6148:
6133:
6131:, p. 247.
6121:
6117:Dillard (1972)
6106:
6091:
6089:, p. 112.
6087:Wolfram (1998)
6079:
6055:
6042:
6030:
6010:
5998:
5990:Dillard (1972)
5986:Stewart (1969)
5982:Stewart (1964)
5966:
5954:
5942:
5927:
5914:
5899:
5895:Poplack (2000)
5884:
5882:, p. 341.
5872:
5860:
5858:, p. 179.
5848:
5837:(2): 159–183.
5817:
5797:
5793:Wheeler (1999)
5785:
5773:
5761:
5759:, p. 383.
5757:Edwards (2004)
5749:
5742:
5724:
5717:
5699:
5681:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5672:
5671:
5619:
5593:Also known as
5585:
5584:
5582:
5579:
5578:
5577:
5572:
5567:
5562:
5557:
5549:
5544:
5539:
5533:
5532:
5518:
5504:
5490:
5474:
5471:
5459:American South
5398:Main article:
5395:
5392:
5301:
5298:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5210:
5207:
5133:uniforms; and
5042:
5039:
5038:
5037:
5031:
5013:
4994:
4983:
4941:
4940:
4939:
4936:
4913:
4910:
4827:
4824:
4816:
4815:
4796:
4781:
4717:
4714:
4683:
4682:
4650:
4649:
4646:
4643:
4636:
4635:
4632:
4629:
4625:
4624:
4621:
4618:
4614:
4613:
4610:
4607:
4603:
4602:
4599:
4596:
4592:
4591:
4585:
4582:
4560:
4559:
4553:
4473:
4472:
4466:
4417:
4416:
4414:I gonna buy it
4411:
4407:
4406:
4401:
4397:
4396:
4391:
4388:
4384:
4383:
4381:I be buying it
4378:
4374:
4373:
4368:
4364:
4363:
4358:
4354:
4353:
4348:
4344:
4343:
4338:
4335:
4331:
4330:
4327:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4267:
4266:
4261:of words like
4242:
4215:Full gliding (
4213:
4184:
4097:
4065:
4062:
4061:
4060:
4018:
4017:
4016:
3966:
3951:
3916:
3915:
3914:
3903:
3888:
3873:
3810:
3749:alveolar nasal
3734:
3733:
3732:
3693:
3612:
3583:
3580:
3579:
3578:
3507:vowels before
3487:
3439:Pin–pen merger
3436:
3381:
3366:, and perhaps
3323:
3322:
3308:
3303:
3284:
3283:
3267:
3266:
3239:
3234:
3218:
3217:
3203:
3198:
3182:
3181:
3167:
3162:
3146:
3145:
3130:
3128:
3112:
3111:
3097:
3092:
3076:
3075:
3060:
3055:
3039:
3038:
3032:
3031:
3017:
3015:
2999:
2998:
2983:
2981:
2965:
2964:
2949:
2947:
2931:
2930:
2915:
2913:
2897:
2896:
2881:
2873:
2872:
2858:
2856:
2840:
2839:
2833:
2832:
2818:
2816:
2800:
2799:
2784:
2782:
2766:
2765:
2750:
2748:
2732:
2731:
2716:
2714:
2698:
2697:
2682:
2680:
2664:
2663:
2646:
2644:
2628:
2627:
2612:
2610:
2594:
2593:
2577:
2576:
2548:
2545:
2544:
2528:
2527:
2498:
2496:
2480:
2479:
2465:
2457:
2456:
2442:
2440:
2424:
2423:
2418:
2410:
2402:
2401:
2387:
2384:
2346:
2331:D. J. Shockley
2324:
2313:
2310:Speech example
2308:
2307:
2306:
2297:
2296:
2295:
2284:
2274:
2262:
2259:Speech example
2257:
2256:
2255:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2233:
2219:
2207:
2204:Speech example
2202:
2201:
2200:
2191:
2190:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2114:John McWhorter
2107:Samaná English
2063:
2060:
2056:decreolization
2042:and later the
1947:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1936:
1929:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1890:
1889:
1884:
1883:
1881:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1809:Black genocide
1805:
1802:
1801:
1795:
1792:
1791:
1788:
1787:
1782:
1781:
1779:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1724:
1723:
1718:
1716:US communities
1713:
1708:
1703:
1697:
1694:
1693:
1689:
1688:
1686:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1673:South Carolina
1670:
1668:North Carolina
1665:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1624:
1623:
1621:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1516:
1515:
1513:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1490:South Carolina
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1470:North Carolina
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1396:
1393:
1392:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1373:
1372:
1370:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1358:
1357:
1346:
1343:
1342:
1338:
1337:
1335:
1334:
1329:
1327:Samaná English
1324:
1319:
1318:
1317:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1289:
1288:
1283:
1282:
1280:
1279:
1277:LGBT community
1273:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1264:
1262:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1234:Creek Freedmen
1231:
1225:
1222:
1221:
1217:
1216:
1214:
1213:
1208:
1207:
1206:
1204:Carmel Indians
1196:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1165:
1164:
1159:
1149:
1144:
1139:
1133:
1130:
1129:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1085:Central (CIAA)
1079:
1078:
1074:
1073:
1072:
1071:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1054:
1053:
1048:
1047:
1045:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1004:
996:
993:
992:
986:
983:
982:
979:
978:
973:
972:
970:
969:
964:
959:
954:
952:Pan-Africanism
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
924:
919:
914:
909:
904:
898:
895:
894:
890:
889:
887:
886:
881:
876:
871:
865:
862:
861:
855:
852:
851:
848:
847:
842:
841:
839:
838:
833:
828:
823:
818:
813:
808:
802:
799:
798:
794:
793:
791:
790:
785:
783:Black theology
779:
776:
775:
771:
770:
768:
767:
761:
758:
757:
751:
746:
745:
742:
741:
736:
735:
733:
732:
727:
720:
715:
714:
713:
703:
698:
697:
696:
685:
682:
681:
677:
676:
674:
673:
668:
663:
658:
652:
649:
648:
647:Economic class
644:
643:
641:
640:
635:
630:
625:
619:
616:
615:
611:
610:
608:
607:
602:
597:
591:
588:
587:
586:Academic study
583:
582:
580:
579:
574:
569:
563:
558:
552:
549:
548:
544:
543:
541:
540:
535:
530:
525:
520:
515:
510:
505:
500:
495:
489:
486:
485:
479:
474:
473:
470:
469:
464:
463:
462:
461:
456:
451:
443:
442:
438:
437:
436:
435:
430:
425:
420:
415:
407:
406:
402:
401:
400:
399:
394:
389:
384:
379:
374:
369:
368:
367:
357:
347:
342:
337:
332:
327:
322:
314:
313:
307:
302:
301:
298:
297:
291:
290:
278:
277:
264:, you may see
250:
249:
242:
234:
233:
230:
222:
221:
220:Language codes
217:
216:
202:
198:Writing system
195:
192:
191:
189:
188:
187:
186:
185:
184:
183:
182:
175:Middle English
165:Proto-Germanic
158:
156:
153:
150:
149:
147:
146:
145:
144:
143:
142:
141:
140:
139:
138:
137:
136:
135:
134:
133:
132:
131:
130:
81:
79:
72:
69:
68:
63:
59:
58:
53:
49:
48:
44:
43:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
13591:
13580:
13577:
13575:
13572:
13570:
13567:
13566:
13564:
13549:
13546:
13544:
13541:
13539:
13536:
13534:
13531:
13529:
13526:
13524:
13521:
13519:
13516:
13514:
13513:International
13511:
13507:
13504:
13502:
13499:
13498:
13496:
13494:
13491:
13489:
13486:
13484:
13481:
13479:
13476:
13474:
13471:
13469:
13466:
13464:
13461:
13459:
13456:
13454:
13451:
13450:
13448:
13444:
13434:
13431:
13429:
13426:
13424:
13421:
13419:
13416:
13414:
13411:
13409:
13406:
13405:
13403:
13401:
13397:
13391:
13388:
13386:
13383:
13381:
13378:
13374:
13371:
13370:
13369:
13366:
13364:
13361:
13360:
13358:
13356:
13352:
13346:
13343:
13342:
13339:
13336:
13332:
13326:
13323:
13321:
13318:
13316:
13313:
13309:
13306:
13304:
13301:
13300:
13299:
13296:
13294:
13291:
13289:
13286:
13284:
13281:
13279:
13276:
13274:
13271:
13269:
13266:
13264:
13261:
13259:
13256:
13254:
13251:
13250:
13248:
13244:
13234:
13231:
13229:
13226:
13222:
13219:
13218:
13217:
13214:
13212:
13209:
13208:
13205:
13199:
13196:
13194:
13193:Torres Strait
13191:
13189:
13186:
13184:
13181:
13177:
13174:
13173:
13172:
13169:
13168:
13166:
13164:
13160:
13157:
13153:
13143:
13140:
13138:
13135:
13134:
13131:
13125:
13122:
13120:
13117:
13115:
13112:
13110:
13107:
13103:
13100:
13099:
13098:
13095:
13093:
13090:
13088:
13085:
13083:
13080:
13079:
13077:
13075:
13071:
13057:
13054:
13052:
13049:
13047:
13044:
13042:
13039:
13037:
13034:
13032:
13029:
13027:
13024:
13020:
13017:
13016:
13015:
13012:
13011:
13009:
13003:
12997:
12994:
12990:
12987:
12985:
12982:
12981:
12980:
12977:
12973:
12970:
12968:
12965:
12963:
12960:
12958:
12955:
12953:
12950:
12949:
12948:
12945:
12941:
12938:
12937:
12936:
12933:
12929:
12928:North-Central
12926:
12924:
12921:
12920:
12919:
12916:
12912:
12909:
12908:
12907:
12906:New York City
12904:
12900:
12897:
12895:
12892:
12890:
12887:
12885:
12882:
12881:
12880:
12877:
12875:
12872:
12871:
12868:
12865:
12863:
12857:
12851:
12848:
12846:
12843:
12841:
12840:Ottawa Valley
12838:
12836:
12833:
12829:
12826:
12824:
12821:
12820:
12819:
12816:
12814:
12811:
12810:
12808:
12806:
12802:
12799:
12797:
12791:
12788:
12784:
12774:
12771:
12769:
12766:
12764:
12761:
12760:
12757:
12751:
12748:
12746:
12743:
12741:
12738:
12737:
12735:
12733:
12729:
12719:
12716:
12714:
12711:
12709:
12706:
12704:
12701:
12700:
12698:
12696:
12692:
12686:
12683:
12681:
12678:
12677:
12675:
12673:
12669:
12657:
12654:
12652:
12649:
12648:
12647:
12644:
12642:
12639:
12635:
12634:Multicultural
12632:
12630:
12627:
12626:
12625:
12622:
12620:
12617:
12616:
12614:
12612:
12608:
12600:
12597:
12595:
12594:Black Country
12592:
12590:
12587:
12586:
12585:
12584:West Midlands
12582:
12580:
12579:East Midlands
12577:
12576:
12574:
12570:
12564:
12561:
12557:
12554:
12552:
12549:
12547:
12544:
12542:
12539:
12538:
12537:
12534:
12532:
12529:
12527:
12524:
12522:
12519:
12515:
12512:
12511:
12510:
12507:
12505:
12502:
12501:
12499:
12497:
12493:
12490:
12488:
12484:
12481:
12479:
12473:
12470:
12468:
12464:
12459:
12455:
12451:
12444:
12439:
12437:
12432:
12430:
12425:
12424:
12421:
12409:
12399:
12397:
12394:
12393:
12390:
12384:
12381:
12379:
12378:Neighborhoods
12376:
12374:
12371:
12369:
12366:
12364:
12361:
12359:
12356:
12354:
12351:
12347:
12344:
12342:
12341:Sports firsts
12339:
12337:
12334:
12333:
12332:
12329:
12325:
12322:
12320:
12317:
12315:
12312:
12310:
12307:
12305:
12302:
12300:
12297:
12295:
12292:
12290:
12287:
12285:
12282:
12280:
12277:
12275:
12272:
12270:
12267:
12265:
12262:
12260:
12257:
12255:
12252:
12250:
12247:
12246:
12245:
12242:
12241:
12239:
12235:
12227:
12224:
12223:
12221:
12219:
12216:
12212:
12209:
12207:
12204:
12202:
12199:
12197:
12194:
12192:
12189:
12188:
12186:
12182:
12179:
12177:
12174:
12172:
12169:
12167:
12164:
12163:
12162:
12159:
12158:
12156:
12154:
12150:
12144:
12143:West Virginia
12141:
12139:
12136:
12134:
12131:
12127:
12124:
12122:
12119:
12117:
12114:
12112:
12109:
12108:
12107:
12104:
12102:
12099:
12097:
12094:
12092:
12089:
12085:
12082:
12081:
12080:Pennsylvania
12079:
12077:
12074:
12072:
12069:
12067:
12064:
12060:
12059:New York City
12057:
12056:
12055:
12052:
12050:
12047:
12043:
12040:
12039:
12038:
12035:
12033:
12030:
12026:
12023:
12022:
12020:
12016:
12013:
12012:
12010:
12006:
12003:
12002:
12001:
11998:
11996:
11993:
11989:
11986:
11985:
11984:
11981:
11979:
11976:
11972:
11969:
11968:
11967:
11964:
11962:
11959:
11955:
11952:
11951:
11950:
11947:
11945:
11942:
11938:
11935:
11934:
11933:
11930:
11926:
11923:
11921:
11918:
11917:
11916:
11913:
11911:
11908:
11904:
11903:San Francisco
11901:
11899:
11896:
11895:
11894:
11891:
11889:
11886:
11884:
11881:
11880:
11878:
11876:By state/city
11874:
11868:
11865:
11863:
11860:
11854:
11851:
11849:
11846:
11845:
11844:
11841:
11839:
11836:
11835:
11834:
11831:
11827:
11824:
11823:
11822:
11821:American Sign
11819:
11817:
11814:
11813:
11811:
11807:
11799:
11796:
11794:
11791:
11790:
11789:
11786:
11784:
11781:
11777:
11774:
11772:
11769:
11768:
11767:
11764:
11760:
11757:
11756:
11755:
11754:Neighborhoods
11752:
11751:
11749:
11745:
11739:
11736:
11732:
11729:
11728:
11727:
11724:
11722:
11719:
11717:
11714:
11712:
11709:
11705:
11702:
11700:
11697:
11695:
11692:
11690:
11687:
11686:
11685:
11684:Black Indians
11682:
11680:
11677:
11673:
11670:
11668:
11665:
11663:
11660:
11658:
11655:
11654:
11652:
11651:
11649:
11645:
11635:
11632:
11630:
11627:
11625:
11622:
11620:
11617:
11616:
11614:
11606:
11600:
11597:
11595:
11592:
11590:
11587:
11585:
11582:
11580:
11577:
11575:
11572:
11570:
11567:
11565:
11562:
11560:
11557:
11555:
11552:
11550:
11547:
11545:
11542:
11541:
11538:
11535:
11531:
11525:
11522:
11520:
11517:
11515:
11512:
11510:
11507:
11505:
11502:
11500:
11497:
11495:
11492:
11490:
11487:
11485:
11482:
11480:
11477:
11475:
11472:
11470:
11467:
11465:
11462:
11460:
11457:
11456:
11454:
11446:
11440:
11437:
11433:
11430:
11429:
11428:
11425:
11423:
11420:
11418:
11415:
11413:
11410:
11408:
11405:
11403:
11400:
11398:
11395:
11391:
11388:
11387:
11386:
11383:
11381:
11378:
11376:
11373:
11372:
11370:
11366:
11360:
11357:
11355:
11352:
11350:
11347:
11343:
11340:
11339:
11338:
11335:
11331:
11328:
11326:
11323:
11322:
11321:
11318:
11316:
11313:
11312:
11310:
11308:
11304:
11296:
11293:
11291:
11288:
11286:
11283:
11282:
11280:
11278:
11275:
11273:
11270:
11268:
11265:
11263:
11262:Black schools
11260:
11258:
11257:Black studies
11255:
11254:
11252:
11246:
11240:
11239:Whitney Young
11237:
11235:
11232:
11230:
11229:Oprah Winfrey
11227:
11225:
11222:
11220:
11217:
11215:
11212:
11210:
11207:
11205:
11202:
11200:
11199:Denmark Vesey
11197:
11195:
11192:
11190:
11187:
11185:
11182:
11180:
11177:
11175:
11172:
11170:
11167:
11165:
11162:
11160:
11157:
11155:
11152:
11150:
11147:
11145:
11144:Joseph Rainey
11142:
11140:
11137:
11135:
11132:
11130:
11127:
11125:
11122:
11120:
11117:
11115:
11112:
11110:
11107:
11105:
11102:
11100:
11099:Toni Morrison
11097:
11095:
11092:
11090:
11087:
11085:
11084:Joseph Lowery
11082:
11080:
11077:
11075:
11072:
11070:
11067:
11065:
11062:
11060:
11057:
11055:
11052:
11050:
11047:
11045:
11042:
11040:
11037:
11035:
11032:
11030:
11029:Jesse Jackson
11027:
11025:
11022:
11020:
11019:Kamala Harris
11017:
11015:
11012:
11010:
11007:
11005:
11004:Marcus Garvey
11002:
11000:
10997:
10995:
10992:
10990:
10987:
10985:
10982:
10980:
10977:
10975:
10972:
10970:
10967:
10965:
10962:
10960:
10957:
10955:
10954:Blanche Bruce
10952:
10950:
10949:Edward Brooke
10947:
10945:
10942:
10940:
10939:James Bradley
10937:
10935:
10932:
10930:
10927:
10925:
10922:
10920:
10919:James Baldwin
10917:
10915:
10912:
10910:
10907:
10905:
10902:
10901:
10899:
10895:
10889:
10886:
10884:
10881:
10879:
10876:
10874:
10871:
10869:
10866:
10864:
10863:Neighborhoods
10861:
10859:
10856:
10854:
10851:
10849:
10846:
10844:
10841:
10839:
10836:
10834:
10831:
10829:
10826:
10824:
10821:
10819:
10816:
10812:
10809:
10808:
10807:
10804:
10802:
10799:
10797:
10794:
10792:
10789:
10787:
10784:
10782:
10779:
10777:
10774:
10772:
10769:
10767:
10764:
10762:
10759:
10758:
10756:
10754:
10750:
10744:
10741:
10739:
10736:
10734:
10731:
10727:
10724:
10723:
10722:
10719:
10717:
10716:Silent Parade
10714:
10712:
10709:
10707:
10704:
10702:
10699:
10697:
10694:
10691:
10690:
10686:
10684:
10681:
10679:
10678:
10674:
10672:
10671:
10667:
10665:
10662:
10660:
10657:
10655:
10652:
10650:
10647:
10645:
10644:Jim Crow laws
10642:
10640:
10636:
10633:
10631:
10628:
10624:
10621:
10619:
10616:
10615:
10614:
10611:
10609:
10606:
10604:
10601:
10599:
10596:
10593:
10592:
10588:
10586:
10583:
10581:
10578:
10574:
10571:
10569:
10566:
10564:
10561:
10559:
10556:
10554:
10551:
10549:
10546:
10544:
10541:
10538:
10537:
10533:
10531:
10528:
10527:
10526:
10523:
10521:
10518:
10516:
10513:
10509:
10506:
10504:
10501:
10499:
10496:
10495:
10493:
10491:
10488:
10485:
10484:
10480:
10478:
10475:
10473:
10470:
10468:
10467:Black cowboys
10465:
10463:
10460:
10458:
10455:
10453:
10450:
10448:
10445:
10443:
10440:
10438:
10435:
10433:
10430:
10429:
10427:
10425:
10421:
10417:
10410:
10405:
10403:
10398:
10396:
10391:
10390:
10387:
10370:
10366:
10361:
10357:
10352:
10348:
10344:
10340:
10336:
10332:
10320:
10316:
10312:
10308:
10296:
10292:
10291:
10286:
10281:
10269:
10265:
10260:
10248:
10244:
10243:
10238:
10233:
10222:
10218:
10214:
10210:
10206:
10202:
10198:
10194:
10190:
10186:
10171:
10164:
10159:
10156:
10154:1-56584-544-7
10150:
10146:
10141:
10138:
10132:
10129:, Routledge,
10128:
10127:
10121:
10120:
10108:
10103:
10100:
10096:
10092:
10088:
10084:
10080:
10075:
10071:
10066:
10063:
10059:
10055:
10051:
10047:
10043:
10038:
10034:
10030:
10025:
10021:
10016:
10005:
10001:
9995:
9991:
9990:
9984:
9980:
9975:
9972:
9968:
9964:
9960:
9956:
9952:
9947:
9943:
9938:
9927:
9923:
9919:
9914:
9909:
9905:
9901:
9900:Moderna Språk
9897:
9895:
9891:
9884:
9870:
9866:
9862:
9855:
9850:
9847:
9843:
9839:
9835:
9830:
9826:
9821:
9817:
9812:
9808:
9803:
9799:
9794:
9791:
9787:
9783:
9779:
9775:
9771:
9767:
9762:
9759:
9757:0-395-96919-0
9753:
9749:
9748:
9742:
9739:
9735:
9731:
9727:
9723:
9719:
9714:
9710:
9705:
9701:
9697:
9692:
9688:
9683:
9680:
9678:0-521-84768-0
9674:
9670:
9665:
9662:
9660:0-304-33908-3
9656:
9652:
9648:
9644:
9641:
9639:0-471-39957-4
9635:
9630:
9629:
9623:
9618:
9614:
9607:
9602:
9598:
9594:
9590:
9586:
9582:
9578:
9573:
9570:
9568:0-631-21245-0
9564:
9561:, Blackwell,
9560:
9555:
9551:
9547:
9542:
9539:
9535:
9531:
9527:
9523:
9519:
9516:
9512:
9508:
9504:
9500:
9496:
9492:
9488:
9484:
9480:
9477:
9475:0-521-47854-5
9471:
9467:
9462:
9459:
9457:0-14-006084-7
9453:
9449:
9448:
9442:
9431:
9427:
9423:
9419:
9415:
9411:
9407:
9403:
9399:
9395:
9391:
9387:
9383:
9378:
9374:
9370:
9366:
9363:
9361:0-688-12141-1
9357:
9353:
9352:
9347:
9343:
9340:
9336:
9332:
9328:
9324:
9320:
9316:
9315:Ogbu, John U.
9312:
9309:
9303:
9299:
9295:
9291:
9286:
9283:
9281:1-55619-735-7
9277:
9273:
9268:
9265:
9259:
9255:
9254:
9249:
9245:
9241:
9236:
9233:
9229:
9225:
9221:
9217:
9213:
9208:
9205:
9201:
9197:
9193:
9188:
9185:
9179:
9175:
9171:
9167:
9162:
9159:
9157:0-631-17915-1
9153:
9149:
9144:
9140:
9135:
9131:
9127:
9123:
9119:
9114:
9111:
9107:
9103:
9099:
9095:
9091:
9086:
9082:
9078:
9071:
9070:
9064:
9060:
9055:
9051:
9046:
9042:
9037:
9033:
9029:
9025:
9020:
9017:
9013:
9009:
9005:
9001:
8997:
8992:
8989:
8987:0-671-41814-9
8983:
8979:
8974:
8963:
8959:
8957:0-521-89138-8
8953:
8948:
8947:
8941:
8937:
8933:
8928:
8924:
8919:
8916:
8912:
8908:
8904:
8900:
8896:
8891:
8888:
8884:
8880:
8876:
8872:
8868:
8863:
8859:
8855:
8850:
8839:
8835:
8831:
8827:
8821:
8817:
8813:
8809:
8808:
8803:
8799:
8795:
8790:
8787:
8781:
8777:
8776:
8770:
8767:
8763:
8759:
8755:
8750:
8747:
8743:
8739:
8735:
8731:
8727:
8723:
8719:
8714:
8710:
8705:
8702:
8700:0-394-71872-0
8696:
8692:
8687:
8684:
8681:
8677:
8673:
8668:
8664:
8658:
8654:
8650:
8646:
8642:
8638:
8633:
8628:
8623:
8619:
8615:
8611:
8606:
8603:
8601:0-521-82348-X
8597:
8593:
8589:
8585:
8581:
8576:
8572:
8567:
8561:
8557:
8553:
8548:
8543:
8538:
8533:
8529:
8525:
8521:
8517:
8513:
8508:
8504:
8499:
8495:
8490:
8486:
8480:
8476:
8472:
8468:
8467:
8461:
8457:
8452:
8449:
8447:0-19-515289-1
8443:
8439:
8434:
8430:
8425:
8422:
8418:
8414:
8410:
8405:
8402:
8396:
8392:
8388:
8384:
8379:
8376:
8370:
8366:
8362:
8358:
8353:
8350:
8344:
8340:
8336:
8332:
8326:
8323:
8319:
8315:
8311:
8307:
8303:
8298:
8297:
8284:
8279:
8272:
8267:
8259:
8255:
8248:
8241:
8235:
8228:
8223:
8216:
8211:
8204:
8198:
8191:
8186:
8179:
8174:
8167:
8162:
8160:
8151:
8147:
8143:
8139:
8135:
8128:
8120:
8116:
8112:
8108:
8104:
8100:
8096:
8089:
8082:
8078:
8074:
8070:
8066:
8063:
8057:
8050:
8045:
8036:
8031:
8027:
8020:
8013:
8008:
8001:
7996:
7990:, p. 35.
7989:
7984:
7977:
7972:
7970:
7961:
7957:
7953:
7949:
7942:
7934:
7928:
7924:
7920:
7916:
7909:
7901:
7897:
7893:
7889:
7882:
7875:
7870:
7863:
7858:
7851:
7845:
7838:
7832:
7825:
7820:
7818:
7816:
7814:
7805:
7801:
7797:
7793:
7786:
7779:
7773:
7766:
7760:
7753:
7748:
7741:
7736:
7730:
7726:
7722:
7718:
7713:
7706:
7702:
7697:
7689:
7683:
7675:
7671:
7667:
7661:
7657:
7650:
7643:
7639:
7635:
7631:
7626:
7618:
7612:
7608:
7607:
7599:
7592:
7588:
7583:
7576:
7571:
7569:
7561:
7560:
7556:
7552:
7548:
7545:
7542:This is from
7539:
7532:
7527:
7519:
7513:
7506:
7500:
7496:
7492:
7488:
7481:
7479:
7470:
7464:
7460:
7459:
7451:
7443:
7437:
7433:
7426:
7417:
7411:
7408:
7405:5th edition,
7404:
7399:
7393:
7390:
7386:
7381:
7373:
7367:
7363:
7356:
7348:
7344:
7340:
7334:
7330:
7323:
7315:
7311:
7307:
7303:
7299:
7295:
7291:
7287:
7280:
7273:
7268:
7261:
7256:
7250:, p. 80.
7249:
7244:
7237:
7232:
7226:, p. 38.
7225:
7220:
7204:
7200:
7199:Lingua Franca
7196:
7192:
7186:
7179:
7174:
7167:
7162:
7155:
7150:
7143:
7138:
7131:
7126:
7124:
7117:
7111:
7103:
7096:
7089:
7084:
7077:
7071:
7064:
7060:
7055:
7049:, p. 71.
7048:
7043:
7036:
7031:
7024:
7023:Fickett (1972
7019:
7011:
7005:
7001:
6994:
6988:, p. ??.
6987:
6982:
6980:
6964:
6963:ygdp.yale.edu
6960:
6954:
6947:
6942:
6933:
6926:
6922:
6916:
6908:
6904:
6897:
6890:
6885:
6879:, p. 19.
6878:
6873:
6871:
6855:
6849:
6845:
6841:
6837:
6833:
6826:
6824:
6822:
6814:
6809:
6802:
6797:
6790:
6785:
6778:
6773:
6766:
6761:
6754:
6750:
6746:
6742:
6739:
6733:
6727:, p. 14.
6726:
6721:
6714:
6710:
6705:
6698:
6693:
6686:
6682:
6676:
6669:
6664:
6657:
6652:
6645:
6640:
6634:, p. 15.
6633:
6628:
6621:
6616:
6601:
6597:
6591:
6585:, p. ??.
6584:
6579:
6572:
6568:
6564:
6558:
6554:
6550:
6546:
6539:
6532:
6526:
6522:
6518:
6514:
6507:
6505:
6497:
6492:
6490:
6481:
6477:
6473:
6467:
6463:
6456:
6449:
6444:
6437:
6432:
6424:
6420:
6416:
6412:
6408:
6404:
6397:
6391:
6388::89), citing
6387:
6382:
6375:
6370:
6363:
6358:
6350:
6346:
6342:
6338:
6334:
6330:
6326:
6322:
6315:
6307:
6303:
6299:
6292:
6286:, p. 19.
6285:
6280:
6278:
6276:
6268:
6263:
6261:
6259:
6251:
6246:
6244:
6236:
6231:
6224:
6219:
6211:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6192:
6175:
6171:
6164:
6157:
6152:
6145:
6140:
6138:
6130:
6125:
6119:, p. ??.
6118:
6113:
6111:
6103:
6098:
6096:
6088:
6083:
6076:
6072:
6068:
6065:
6059:
6052:
6046:
6039:
6034:
6027:
6026:John Rickford
6023:
6020:
6014:
6007:
6002:
5995:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5974:Mufwene (2001
5970:
5963:
5958:
5951:
5946:
5940:
5939:Pullum (1997)
5936:
5931:
5924:
5918:
5911:
5906:
5904:
5896:
5891:
5889:
5881:
5876:
5869:
5868:Thomas (2006)
5864:
5857:
5852:
5844:
5840:
5836:
5832:
5828:
5821:
5813:
5812:
5807:
5801:
5795:, p. 55.
5794:
5789:
5782:
5781:Spears (2015)
5777:
5770:
5765:
5758:
5753:
5745:
5739:
5735:
5728:
5720:
5714:
5710:
5703:
5696:
5692:
5686:
5682:
5666:
5649:
5628:
5623:
5616:
5615:controversial
5612:
5608:
5604:
5600:
5596:
5595:Black English
5590:
5586:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5566:
5563:
5561:
5558:
5556:
5554:
5550:
5548:
5545:
5543:
5540:
5538:
5535:
5534:
5530:
5529:Africa portal
5519:
5516:
5505:
5502:
5496:
5491:
5488:
5477:
5470:
5468:
5464:
5460:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5438:
5435:
5431:
5426:
5421:
5419:
5415:
5411:
5407:
5401:
5391:
5389:
5385:
5381:
5377:
5362:
5346:
5342:
5338:
5334:
5330:
5314:
5309:
5305:
5297:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5259:
5253:
5239:
5236:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5220:
5216:
5206:
5204:
5200:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5183:
5181:
5177:
5173:
5169:
5167:
5163:
5159:
5155:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5138:
5136:
5132:
5128:
5124:
5118:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5096:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5079:
5075:
5073:
5069:
5065:
5061:
5056:
5054:
5053:
5048:
5035:
5032:
5029:
5028:
5022:
5018:
5014:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4992:
4988:
4984:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4970:
4966:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4937:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4914:
4911:
4908:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4883:
4881:
4877:
4873:
4869:
4868:Where you at?
4865:
4861:
4860:She my sister
4857:
4853:
4849:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4834:
4830:
4829:
4823:
4821:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4779:
4778:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4729:
4728:
4723:
4722:
4721:
4713:
4711:
4706:
4705:
4701:
4699:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4660:
4659:
4654:
4653:
4647:
4644:
4641:
4638:
4637:
4633:
4630:
4627:
4626:
4622:
4619:
4616:
4615:
4611:
4608:
4605:
4604:
4600:
4597:
4594:
4593:
4589:
4586:
4583:
4580:
4579:
4573:
4570:
4566:
4557:
4554:
4551:
4548:
4547:
4546:
4544:
4539:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4520:stative verbs
4518:is used with
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4500:perfect phase
4497:
4493:
4489:
4484:
4482:
4478:
4470:
4467:
4464:
4461:
4460:
4459:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4444:
4442:
4437:
4435:
4431:
4426:
4425:
4415:
4412:
4409:
4405:
4402:
4399:
4395:
4392:
4389:
4382:
4379:
4372:
4369:
4366:
4362:
4359:
4356:
4352:
4349:
4346:
4342:
4339:
4336:
4328:
4324:
4318:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4295:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4264:
4258:
4246:
4243:
4240:
4236:
4230:
4218:
4214:
4211:
4207:
4201:
4189:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4175:
4171:
4165:
4157:
4145:
4143:
4138:
4134:
4128:
4118:
4114:
4108:
4098:
4095:
4091:
4079:
4076:
4075:
4074:
4071:
4056:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4019:
4013:
4012:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3994:
3984:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3964:
3961:for "ask" or
3960:
3956:
3952:
3941:
3937:
3917:
3904:
3901:
3889:
3874:
3855:
3843:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3814:
3811:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3739:
3735:
3728:
3712:
3706:
3694:
3691:
3685:
3673:
3669:
3663:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3644:
3638:
3632:
3628:
3622:
3617:
3613:
3606:
3602:
3586:
3585:
3576:
3574:
3570:
3565:
3561:
3555:
3541:
3529:
3527:
3523:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3488:
3485:
3481:
3478:
3474:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3430:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3379:
3375:
3353:
3331:
3327:
3326:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3304:
3300:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3269:
3268:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3231:
3220:
3219:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3199:
3195:
3184:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3163:
3159:
3148:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3129:
3125:
3114:
3113:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3093:
3089:
3078:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3056:
3052:
3041:
3040:
3037:
3033:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3016:
3012:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2982:
2978:
2967:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2948:
2944:
2933:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2879:
2875:
2874:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2857:
2853:
2841:
2838:
2834:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2817:
2813:
2802:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2768:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2749:
2745:
2734:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2715:
2711:
2700:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2681:
2677:
2666:
2665:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2641:
2630:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2611:
2607:
2596:
2595:
2590:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2546:
2541:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2493:
2482:
2481:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2463:
2459:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2437:
2425:
2422:
2421:Example words
2419:
2417:
2416:
2411:
2409:
2408:
2404:
2403:
2399:
2396:Pure vowels (
2394:
2383:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2354:
2352:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2311:
2292:
2290:
2278:
2260:
2241:
2239:
2227:
2223:
2205:
2183:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2160:
2159:Cotton Mather
2156:
2155:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2125:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2110:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2091:Shana Poplack
2088:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2024:
2022:
2019:, due to the
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1999:As with most
1997:
1995:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1942:
1937:
1935:
1930:
1928:
1923:
1922:
1920:
1919:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1894:
1893:
1892:
1891:
1879:
1878:Minstrel show
1876:
1874:
1873:Magical Negro
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1855:
1853:
1852:
1849:
1845:
1842:
1841:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1803:
1799:
1798:
1790:
1789:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1735:
1732:
1729:
1728:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1696:
1695:
1691:
1690:
1684:
1683:West Virginia
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1619:
1618:San Francisco
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1598:New York City
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1522:
1518:
1517:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1395:
1394:
1390:
1389:
1381:
1380:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1356:
1353:
1352:
1351:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1344:
1340:
1339:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1308:
1307:
1305:
1304:
1300:
1299:
1291:
1290:
1278:
1275:
1274:
1272:
1271:
1267:
1266:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1249:Nova Scotians
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1218:
1212:
1209:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1153:
1152:Black Indians
1150:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1134:
1132:
1131:
1127:
1126:
1118:
1117:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1090:HBCU (HBCUAC)
1088:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1081:
1080:
1076:
1075:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1056:
1055:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1003:
998:
997:
995:
994:
991:Organizations
990:
989:
981:
980:
968:
965:
963:
960:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
928:
925:
923:
920:
918:
915:
913:
910:
908:
905:
903:
900:
899:
897:
896:
892:
891:
885:
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
866:
864:
863:
860:Organizations
859:
858:
850:
849:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
822:
819:
817:
814:
812:
809:
807:
804:
803:
801:
800:
796:
795:
789:
786:
784:
781:
780:
778:
777:
773:
772:
766:
763:
762:
760:
759:
755:
754:
749:
744:
743:
731:
728:
725:
721:
719:
716:
712:
709:
708:
707:
704:
702:
699:
695:
692:
691:
690:
687:
686:
684:
683:
679:
678:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
653:
651:
650:
646:
645:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
624:
621:
620:
618:
617:
613:
612:
606:
603:
601:
598:
596:
593:
592:
590:
589:
585:
584:
578:
575:
573:
570:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
554:
553:
551:
550:
546:
545:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
528:Neighborhoods
526:
524:
521:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
504:
501:
499:
496:
494:
491:
490:
488:
487:
483:
482:
477:
472:
471:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
446:
445:
444:
440:
439:
434:
431:
429:
426:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
410:
409:
408:
404:
403:
398:
395:
393:
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
366:
363:
362:
361:
358:
355:
351:
348:
346:
343:
341:
338:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
321:
318:
317:
316:
315:
311:
310:
305:
300:
299:
296:
293:
292:
288:
284:
283:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
257:
251:
247:
243:
241:
240:
235:
231:
228:
223:
218:
215:
210:
206:
203:
199:
193:
181:
178:
177:
176:
173:
172:
171:
168:
167:
166:
163:
162:
161:
157:
151:
129:
126:
125:
124:
121:
120:
119:
116:
115:
114:
111:
110:
109:
106:
105:
104:
103:Anglo-Frisian
101:
100:
99:
96:
95:
94:
93:West Germanic
91:
90:
89:
86:
85:
84:
83:Indo-European
80:
76:
70:
67:
64:
60:
57:
56:United States
54:
50:
45:
40:
37:
33:
19:
13298:South Africa
13293:Sierra Leone
13046:Miami Latino
13018:
12935:Philadelphia
12923:Inland North
12828:Newfoundland
12646:West Country
12460:by continent
12294:Sportspeople
12264:Billionaires
12181:Sierra Leone
12084:Philadelphia
11920:Jacksonville
11847:
11747:Demographics
11579:Jack Johnson
11569:Muhammad Ali
11402:Conservatism
11337:Black church
11234:Andrew Young
11219:Ida B. Wells
11209:David Walker
11204:C. T. Vivian
11159:Paul Robeson
11154:Hiram Revels
11134:Colin Powell
11114:Barack Obama
11069:James Lawson
11024:Jimi Hendrix
10994:James Farmer
10989:Medgar Evers
10959:Ralph Bunche
10909:Maya Angelou
10883:Middle class
10761:Afrofuturism
10687:
10675:
10668:
10589:
10534:
10481:
10447:Afrocentrism
10437:Abolitionism
10373:. Retrieved
10369:the original
10346:
10342:
10323:. Retrieved
10299:. Retrieved
10288:
10272:. Retrieved
10268:the original
10251:. Retrieved
10247:the original
10240:
10225:, retrieved
10200:
10196:
10177:. Retrieved
10144:
10125:
10106:
10082:
10078:
10069:
10045:
10041:
10032:
10028:
10019:
10008:, retrieved
9988:
9978:
9954:
9950:
9941:
9930:, retrieved
9903:
9899:
9893:
9889:
9876:, retrieved
9869:the original
9860:
9837:
9833:
9824:
9815:
9806:
9797:
9773:
9769:
9765:
9746:
9721:
9717:
9708:
9699:
9695:
9686:
9668:
9650:
9627:
9612:
9580:
9576:
9558:
9549:
9545:
9529:
9525:
9490:
9486:
9465:
9446:
9434:, retrieved
9430:the original
9401:
9397:
9381:
9372:
9350:
9322:
9318:
9289:
9271:
9252:
9239:
9215:
9211:
9195:
9191:
9165:
9147:
9138:
9129:
9117:
9093:
9089:
9068:
9058:
9049:
9040:
9023:
8999:
8995:
8977:
8968:December 17,
8966:, retrieved
8945:
8931:
8922:
8898:
8894:
8873:(1): 17–19,
8870:
8866:
8857:
8853:
8842:, retrieved
8806:
8774:
8757:
8753:
8721:
8717:
8708:
8690:
8682:
8675:
8644:
8640:
8617:
8613:
8591:
8579:
8570:
8519:
8515:
8502:
8493:
8465:
8455:
8437:
8428:
8412:
8408:
8382:
8356:
8330:
8305:
8301:
8293:Bibliography
8278:
8271:Labov (2001)
8266:
8253:
8247:
8239:
8234:
8222:
8210:
8197:
8192:, p. 6.
8185:
8173:
8141:
8137:
8127:
8105:(1): 59–71.
8102:
8098:
8088:
8080:
8056:
8049:Jones (2020)
8044:
8025:
8019:
8012:Jones (2020)
8007:
8000:Jones (2020)
7995:
7988:Jones (2020)
7983:
7976:Jones (2020)
7951:
7947:
7941:
7914:
7908:
7891:
7887:
7881:
7874:Jones (2020)
7869:
7857:
7849:
7844:
7836:
7831:
7795:
7791:
7785:
7777:
7772:
7764:
7759:
7747:
7735:
7728:
7724:
7720:
7712:
7704:
7696:
7655:
7649:
7641:
7637:
7633:
7629:
7625:
7605:
7598:
7582:
7557:
7550:
7546:
7538:
7533:, p. ?.
7526:
7486:
7457:
7450:
7431:
7425:
7416:
7409:
7403:Shorter OED,
7402:
7398:
7391:
7385:Shorter OED,
7384:
7380:
7361:
7355:
7328:
7322:
7289:
7285:
7279:
7272:Green (2002)
7267:
7260:Green (2002)
7255:
7248:Green (2002)
7243:
7236:Green (2002)
7231:
7224:Green (2002)
7219:
7207:. Retrieved
7198:
7191:Geoff Pullum
7185:
7180:, p. 8.
7178:Labov (1972)
7173:
7161:
7149:
7142:Labov (1972)
7137:
7110:
7101:
7095:
7088:Green (2002)
7083:
7076:Spears (1982
7070:
7054:
7047:Green (2002)
7042:
7035:Green (2002)
7030:
7018:
6999:
6993:
6966:. Retrieved
6962:
6953:
6946:Green (2002)
6941:
6932:
6920:
6915:
6896:
6889:Green (2002)
6884:
6857:. Retrieved
6835:
6808:
6796:
6784:
6777:Labov (1972)
6772:
6765:Green (2002)
6760:
6752:
6732:
6725:Labov (1972)
6720:
6704:
6697:Green (2002)
6692:
6685:Cosby (1997)
6675:
6668:Labov (1972)
6663:
6656:Labov (1972)
6651:
6644:Labov (1972)
6639:
6632:Labov (1972)
6627:
6620:Green (2002)
6615:
6603:. Retrieved
6599:
6590:
6578:
6544:
6538:
6512:
6496:Green (2002)
6461:
6455:
6443:
6436:Green (2002)
6431:
6406:
6402:
6396:
6381:
6374:Green (2002)
6369:
6362:Jones (2020)
6357:
6324:
6320:
6314:
6305:
6301:
6291:
6284:Labov (1972)
6267:Green (2002)
6250:Jones (2020)
6230:
6218:
6201:
6197:
6191:
6178:. Retrieved
6163:
6156:Green (2002)
6151:
6124:
6082:
6058:
6045:
6038:Green (2002)
6033:
6013:
6001:
5978:Bailey (2001
5969:
5957:
5945:
5930:
5917:
5912:, p. ?.
5897:, p. ?.
5875:
5863:
5851:
5834:
5830:
5820:
5809:
5800:
5788:
5776:
5764:
5752:
5733:
5727:
5708:
5702:
5690:
5685:
5626:
5622:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5594:
5589:
5552:
5453:
5449:
5439:
5422:
5416:", in which
5403:
5383:
5379:
5310:
5306:
5303:
5293:
5289:
5285:
5281:
5277:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5261:
5257:
5254:
5250:
5212:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5191:main squeeze
5190:
5186:
5184:
5179:
5175:
5171:
5170:
5165:
5157:
5150:White person
5144:", which is
5139:
5134:
5126:
5122:
5119:
5106:
5102:
5098:
5094:
5086:
5082:
5080:
5076:
5071:
5067:
5063:
5059:
5057:
5050:
5044:
5026:
5020:
5016:
5009:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4990:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4944:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4879:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4855:
4835:
4817:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4784:
4775:
4771:
4767:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4731:
4725:
4719:
4709:
4707:
4703:
4702:
4697:
4695:
4690:
4686:
4684:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4656:
4568:
4564:
4561:
4555:
4549:
4542:
4540:
4535:
4527:
4515:
4511:
4508:remote phase
4507:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4485:
4480:
4476:
4474:
4468:
4462:
4451:
4447:
4445:
4438:
4433:
4429:
4422:
4420:
4413:
4403:
4393:
4380:
4370:
4361:I did buy it
4360:
4357:Pre-present
4350:
4340:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4293:
4288:
4284:
4278:
4262:
4238:
4234:
4209:
4205:
4178:
4173:
4169:
4141:
4136:
4132:
4116:
4112:
4093:
4089:
4067:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3992:
3965:for "grasp".
3962:
3958:
3955:metathesized
3939:
3936:glottal stop
3899:
3853:
3841:
3829:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3782:
3774:
3767:
3763:
3753:assibilation
3737:
3710:
3667:
3646:
3642:
3630:
3626:
3604:
3600:
3572:
3568:
3566:homophones (
3563:
3559:
3525:
3521:
3519:homophones (
3516:
3512:
3476:
3472:
3432:
3428:
3389:monophthongs
3319:
3315:
3311:
3305:non-rhotic:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3236:non-rhotic:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3200:non-rhotic:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3164:non-rhotic:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3094:non-rhotic:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3057:non-rhotic:
3028:
3024:
3020:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2420:
2412:
2405:
2398:monophthongs
2380:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2357:
2348:
2339:Russell Gage
2286:
2235:
2226:Bobby Womack
2175:
2152:
2149:Daniel Defoe
2126:
2121:
2111:
2084:
2065:
2036:tracing back
2025:
1998:
1991:non-standard
1968:middle-class
1955:
1951:
1950:
1776:Sierra Leone
1608:Philadelphia
1578:Jacksonville
1314:
1174:Brass Ankles
927:Conservatism
902:Afrocentrism
874:Joint Center
765:Black church
756:Institutions
671:Billionaires
661:Middle class
614:Celebrations
577:Fraternities
253:
237:
127:
36:
13423:Philippines
13216:New Zealand
13102:Bay Islands
13082:The Bahamas
13005:Social and
12962:New Orleans
12879:New England
12773:Isle of Man
12718:Port Talbot
12619:East Anglia
12536:Northumbria
12314:US senators
12284:Republicans
12269:Journalists
12126:San Antonio
12091:Puerto Rico
12032:Mississippi
11925:Tallahassee
11898:Los Angeles
11589:Jesse Owens
11574:Arthur Ashe
11432:Nationalism
11422:Raised fist
11385:Black power
11290:in medicine
11224:Roy Wilkins
11179:Emmett Till
11164:Al Sharpton
10929:Julian Bond
10924:James Bevel
10888:Upper class
10878:Stereotypes
10771:Black mecca
10683:Plantations
10462:Black Codes
10029:CLA Journal
9981:, Blackwell
9384:, Blackwell
9375:, Blackwell
8854:CLA Journal
8620:(1): 9–22.
8582:, Cambridge
8415:(2): 1–10,
8308:: 410–437,
8203:Quinn (1982
7721:"Kitchen".
7059:Green (2002
6925:Green (2002
6709:Green (2002
6681:Baugh (2000
6448:Green (2002
6129:Read (1939)
5695:Green (2002
5537:Africanisms
5446:auxiliaries
5382:sound like
5131:Confederate
4754:instead of
4710:might could
4504:remote past
4430:I bought it
4394:I'ma buy it
4371:I do buy it
4337:Pre-recent
4015:non-rhotic.
3957:forms like
3789:. However,
3745:velar nasal
3690:Th-fronting
3352:chain shift
2462:/æ/ raising
2157:. In 1721,
2103:Nova Scotia
1844:Stereotypes
1771:Nova Scotia
1653:Mississippi
1613:San Antonio
1593:Los Angeles
1528:Black mecca
1455:Mississippi
1362:Negro Dutch
1184:Dominickers
1128:Multiethnic
1037:TransAfrica
947:Nationalism
917:Black power
701:Black pride
666:Upper class
365:Politicians
268:instead of
170:Old English
154:Early forms
13579:Sociolects
13563:Categories
13363:Bangladesh
13355:South Asia
13308:Cape Flats
13258:The Gambia
13183:Aboriginal
13019:vernacular
12984:California
12957:High Tider
12952:Appalachia
12813:Aboriginal
12745:South-West
12589:Birmingham
12546:Sunderland
12531:Manchester
12521:Lancashire
12259:Astronauts
12049:New Jersey
11893:California
11397:Capitalism
11194:Nat Turner
11124:Rosa Parks
11109:Diane Nash
11079:John Lewis
10868:Newspapers
10838:Literature
10823:Juneteenth
10776:Businesses
10630:Exodusters
10598:Free Negro
10179:October 8,
10010:January 7,
9942:On Dialect
9932:January 7,
9878:January 7,
9436:August 27,
9081:2423437304
9075:(Thesis).
9026:(Thesis).
8844:January 7,
8614:Pragmatics
8077:Lisa Green
8035:1794/24866
8028:(Thesis).
7740:Lee (1999)
7705:Black Talk
7347:1090422253
7292:(2): 397.
7154:Green 2002
6919:Aspectual
6605:August 30,
6180:January 7,
5677:References
5418:Bill Cosby
5146:pejorative
5093:, such as
5041:Vocabulary
5025:auxiliary
4996:The words
4390:Immediate
3970:non-rhotic
3818:homorganic
3616:fricatives
3582:Consonants
3480:homophones
3378:Charleston
3374:Pittsburgh
2837:Diphthongs
2351:media help
2289:media help
2277:Eric Adams
2238:media help
2145:The Gambia
2141:slave ship
1410:California
1384:Population
957:Patriotism
942:Liberalism
922:Capitalism
893:Ideologies
774:Theologies
633:Juneteenth
605:Literature
533:Newspapers
441:Migrations
372:Juneteenth
13428:Singapore
13390:Sri Lanka
13345:Hong Kong
13171:variation
13163:Australia
13074:Caribbean
12940:Baltimore
12823:Lunenburg
12768:Gibraltar
12685:Highlands
12563:Yorkshire
12526:Liverpool
12373:Monuments
12249:Activists
12101:Tennessee
12021:Michigan
12005:Baltimore
11995:Louisiana
11988:Lexington
11971:Davenport
11910:Cleveland
11809:Languages
11738:Melungeon
11716:Blaxicans
11584:Joe Louis
11439:Socialism
11375:Anarchism
11104:Bob Moses
11089:Malcolm X
11009:Fred Gray
10873:Soul food
10811:New Negro
10796:Folktales
10706:Redlining
10217:169316918
10099:144554543
10062:143664421
10035:: 420–433
9922:143111483
9906:: 15–42,
9702:: 109–116
9597:152062713
9515:150204787
9339:220339794
9110:145527700
9032:302879378
8915:145278111
8887:145716303
8834:240729342
8746:145456540
8322:146535428
8258:Routledge
8205::150–51).
8119:0883-2919
7682:cite book
7674:885547585
7589:cited in
7306:0097-8507
6571:244227668
6480:900606048
6423:149592143
6341:198787228
6019:creolists
5976::29) and
5555:-leveling
5378:, making
5242:Variation
5187:chill out
5127:gray dude
5107:bad-mouth
5010:there are
4987:Caribbean
4880:my sister
4876:Yes, she
4856:You crazy
4848:Hungarian
4181:-stopping
4144:-fronting
4135:and for
4131:(so for
4115:and for
4111:(so for
4070:continuum
3771:/ˈtrɪpɪŋ/
3760:morphemes
3747:, as the
3633:in") and
3427:, making
3387:forms to
3385:diphthong
3307:rhotic:
3238:rhotic:
3202:rhotic:
3166:rhotic:
3096:rhotic:
3059:rhotic:
2651:bout, syr
2335:Louisiana
2186:Phonology
2112:Linguist
2093:provided
2076:sociolect
2072:ethnolect
2011:with the
2009:phonology
1973:and some
1958:) is the
1868:Hollywood
1858:Blackface
1793:Prejudice
1711:US cities
1588:Lexington
1563:Davenport
1543:Baltimore
1519:US cities
1495:Tennessee
1445:Louisiana
1391:US states
1199:Melungeon
1169:Blaxicans
967:Socialism
932:Garveyism
907:Anarchism
711:Good hair
538:Soul food
508:Folktales
239:Glottolog
227:ISO 639-3
62:Ethnicity
13548:Standard
13518:Learning
13506:Nerrière
13497:Globish
13413:Malaysia
13385:Pakistan
13325:Zimbabwe
13253:Cameroon
13087:Barbados
12818:Atlantic
12786:Americas
12703:Abercraf
12672:Scotland
12651:Cornwall
12572:Midlands
12556:Teesside
12551:Tyneside
12541:Pitmatic
12504:Cheshire
12450:Dialects
12396:Category
12187:America
12153:Diaspora
12138:Virginia
12071:Oklahoma
12054:New York
12037:Nebraska
12000:Maryland
11983:Kentucky
11949:Illinois
11888:Arkansas
11793:Illinois
11731:of color
11417:Populism
11390:Movement
11307:Religion
10649:Lynching
10432:Timeline
10375:March 4,
10325:March 4,
10319:Archived
10301:March 4,
10295:Archived
10274:March 4,
10253:March 4,
10227:March 4,
10221:archived
10191:(1997),
10170:Archived
10004:archived
9926:archived
9894:the Wire
9770:Language
9649:(1997),
9624:(2000),
9577:Language
9371:(2000),
9348:(1994),
9250:(2001),
9077:ProQuest
9028:ProQuest
8962:archived
8942:(2002),
8838:archived
8804:(eds.),
8590:(2003),
8556:22205942
8516:PLOS ONE
8065:Archived
7644:"Paddy".
7636:"Gray".
7512:citation
7392:kingumbo
7286:Language
7203:Archived
6968:June 14,
6859:June 17,
6741:Archived
6321:Language
6174:Archived
6067:Archived
5473:See also
5454:has been
5284:to mean
5115:Mandinka
5047:Southern
5006:there is
4864:Who you?
4842:, as in
4716:Negation
4640:Irrealis
4590:meaning
4584:Example
4377:Present
4329:Example
4287:of "work
4078:Lowering
3968:General
3768:tripping
3757:function
3709:is (so
2178:(1870),
1985:to more
1908:Category
1731:Diaspora
1658:Missouri
1583:Kentucky
1510:Virginia
1480:Oklahoma
1465:New York
1460:Nebraska
1450:Maryland
1425:Illinois
1405:Arkansas
1244:Merikins
1189:Freedmen
1162:Mascogos
962:Populism
853:Politics
748:Religion
718:Stepping
484:Lifeways
320:Timeline
287:a series
285:Part of
274:Help:IPA
246:afri1276
88:Germanic
13478:Engrish
13473:E-Prime
13446:Related
13433:Vietnam
13418:Myanmar
13288:Nigeria
13283:Namibia
13273:Liberia
13155:Oceania
13137:Bermuda
13109:Jamaica
13036:Chicano
12874:Midland
12860:United
12796:America
12732:Ireland
12708:Cardiff
12680:Glasgow
12629:Cockney
12509:Cumbria
12487:England
12478:Britain
12454:accents
12324:Writers
12289:Singers
12274:Jurists
12222:Europe
12176:Liberia
12121:Houston
12025:Detroit
11961:Indiana
11954:Chicago
11937:Atlanta
11932:Georgia
11915:Florida
11883:Alabama
11833:English
11407:Leftism
11277:Museums
10828:Kwanzaa
10753:Culture
10721:Slavery
10424:History
9507:2714378
9426:4255646
9406:Bibcode
9016:2967298
8860:: 21–27
8726:Bibcode
8674:(ed.),
8547:3244393
8524:Bibcode
8421:2034660
7407:Kikongo
6927::47–54)
5691:Ebonics
5611:Ebonics
5432:made a
5341:Atlanta
5337:Memphis
5318:THOUGHT
5262:be done
5231:Liberia
5203:threads
5180:seddity
5176:siditty
5172:Kitchen
4965:doesn't
4957:doesn't
4844:Russian
4840:dropped
4804:nothing
4766:(e.g.,
4760:doesn't
4748:hasn't.
4744:haven't
4724:Use of
4642:(Mood)
4581:Aspect
4526:forms,
4481:usually
4456:aspects
4387:Future
4347:Recent
4270:Grammar
4245:Raising
4119:), and
4084:before
4009:through
3953:Use of
3826:voicing
3803:nothing
3799:morning
3795:wedding
3791:singing
3779:content
3775:trippin
3766:, e.g.
3341:THOUGHT
2508:ther, f
2415:phoneme
2376:Detroit
2327:Georgia
2137:pidgins
2068:dialect
2062:Origins
2005:grammar
1964:working
1960:variety
1766:Liberia
1648:Georgia
1643:Florida
1573:Houston
1568:Detroit
1553:Chicago
1538:Atlanta
1430:Indiana
1420:Georgia
1415:Florida
1400:Alabama
1332:Tutnese
1211:Redbone
937:Leftism
638:Kwanzaa
595:Studies
547:Schools
476:Culture
405:Aspects
350:Slavery
312:Periods
304:History
270:Unicode
113:English
13501:Gogate
13408:Brunei
13320:Uganda
13303:accent
13278:Malawi
13246:Africa
13221:accent
13176:accent
13119:Samaná
13092:Bequia
12911:accent
12884:Boston
12862:States
12845:Quebec
12805:Canada
12794:North
12750:Ulster
12740:Dublin
12656:Dorset
12514:Barrow
12476:Great
12467:Europe
12336:Mayors
12254:Actors
12226:France
12218:Israel
12206:Mexico
12191:Canada
12166:Gambia
12161:Africa
12111:Austin
12076:Oregon
12015:Boston
11978:Kansas
11944:Hawaii
11862:Gullah
11672:Yoruba
11662:Gullah
11533:Sports
11451:groups
11281:Women
10818:Hoodoo
10692:(1896)
10618:Second
10594:(1857)
10539:(1956)
10486:(1954)
10215:
10151:
10133:
10097:
10060:
9996:
9971:453562
9969:
9920:
9790:413960
9788:
9754:
9738:358856
9736:
9675:
9657:
9636:
9595:
9565:
9513:
9505:
9472:
9454:
9424:
9398:Nature
9358:
9337:
9304:
9278:
9260:
9232:455582
9230:
9204:455663
9202:
9180:
9154:
9108:
9079:
9030:
9014:
8984:
8954:
8913:
8885:
8832:
8822:
8782:
8744:
8697:
8659:
8598:
8554:
8544:
8481:
8444:
8419:
8397:
8371:
8345:
8320:
8117:
8071:". In
7929:
7719:, s.v.
7672:
7662:
7613:
7593::240).
7501:
7465:
7438:
7368:
7345:
7335:
7314:416548
7312:
7304:
7209:May 1,
7006:
6850:
6747:". In
6569:
6559:
6527:
6478:
6468:
6421:
6349:727848
6347:
6339:
5992:, and
5740:
5715:
5697::7–8).
5617:term).
5368:SQUARE
5343:, and
5274:for to
5201:, and
5162:Yoruba
5154:Ibibio
5111:calque
5105:, and
5095:to dig
5070:, and
5064:goober
4905:, and
4852:Arabic
4833:copula
4800:nobody
4764:didn't
4746:, and
4740:aren't
4732:am not
4704:Modals
4677:, and
4667:fixina
4524:gerund
4506:, and
4441:Gullah
4326:Phase
4239:wee-un
4137:rather
4133:smooth
4043:, and
4041:fought
4007:, and
4005:throat
3900:street
3883:, and
3743:, the
3595:, and
3575:merger
3528:merger
3501:FLEECE
3449:, and
3416:CHOICE
3397:vowel
3318:ope, p
3177:, doct
3173:, mart
2925:ch, sc
2887:ce, sl
2864:ze, sl
2512:ther,
2386:Vowels
2374:, and
2372:guitar
2368:police
2172:corpus
2099:Samaná
2095:corpus
2030:, and
1994:accent
1983:switch
1966:- and
1800:Racism
1761:Israel
1751:France
1746:Canada
1741:Africa
1548:Boston
1485:Oregon
1440:Kansas
1350:Gullah
1239:Gullah
1059:Sports
806:Hoodoo
108:Anglic
52:Region
13543:Plain
13458:Basic
13380:Nepal
13368:India
13268:Kenya
13263:Ghana
13228:Palau
13188:South
13031:Cajun
12972:Texas
12967:Older
12947:South
12918:North
12894:Maine
12713:Gower
12695:Wales
12611:South
12496:North
12237:Lists
12201:Haiti
12171:Ghana
12106:Texas
12042:Omaha
11320:Islam
10853:Names
10843:Music
10781:Dance
10213:S2CID
10173:(PDF)
10166:(PDF)
10095:S2CID
10058:S2CID
9967:JSTOR
9918:S2CID
9872:(PDF)
9857:(PDF)
9786:JSTOR
9734:JSTOR
9609:(PDF)
9593:S2CID
9511:S2CID
9503:JSTOR
9422:S2CID
9335:S2CID
9228:JSTOR
9200:JSTOR
9106:S2CID
9073:(PDF)
9012:JSTOR
8911:S2CID
8883:S2CID
8830:S2CID
8796:, in
8742:S2CID
8417:S2CID
8318:S2CID
7638:Paddy
7555:Irish
7551:dëgga
7544:Wolof
7410:nguba
7389:Bantu
7310:JSTOR
7078::850)
6715::140)
6567:S2CID
6419:S2CID
6337:S2CID
5652:, or
5581:Notes
5461:(see
5384:thurr
5380:there
5374:NURSE
5350:DRESS
5199:funky
5164:word
5156:word
5135:paddy
5113:from
5072:banjo
5060:gumbo
5052:y'all
4981:were.
4961:don't
4953:don't
4777:amn't
4772:Ain't
4762:, or
4756:don't
4752:ain't
4736:isn't
4727:ain't
4679:finta
4675:fitna
4671:fixna
4663:Finna
4334:Past
4303:gonna
4219:) of
4210:rahss
4170:those
4166:]
4162:[
4129:]
4125:[
4117:mouth
4113:month
4109:]
4105:[
4094:thang
4090:thing
4057:]
4053:[
4037:fault
4001:throw
3993:story
3985:]
3981:[
3963:graps
3896:/str/
3892:/skr/
3641:(the
3639:]
3635:[
3625:(the
3623:]
3619:[
3573:force
3456:DRESS
3394:PRICE
3363:DRESS
3249:se, p
3245:se, h
3140:st, h
2993:ce, m
2955:ke, p
2891:ce, t
2868:de, t
2824:d, gl
2794:t, sh
2760:d, wh
2756:s, fl
2726:c, fl
2722:m, ch
2688:t, sk
2622:t, br
2618:ss, m
2567:ss, s
2553:ll, d
2475:nd, y
2451:l, tr
2447:ct, p
2413:AAVE
1913:Index
1756:Ghana
1678:Texas
1603:Omaha
1500:Texas
1012:NAACP
523:Names
513:Music
493:Dance
205:Latin
13334:Asia
13211:Fiji
13198:West
13114:Saba
12979:West
12899:West
12889:East
12452:and
12133:Utah
11966:Iowa
11798:Ohio
11759:list
11667:Igbo
11657:Fula
10801:Hair
10791:Film
10508:1968
10498:1964
10377:2010
10327:2010
10303:2010
10276:2010
10255:2010
10229:2010
10181:2012
10149:ISBN
10131:ISBN
10012:2018
9994:ISBN
9934:2018
9880:2018
9766:come
9752:ISBN
9673:ISBN
9655:ISBN
9634:ISBN
9563:ISBN
9470:ISBN
9452:ISBN
9438:2010
9356:ISBN
9302:ISBN
9276:ISBN
9258:ISBN
9178:ISBN
9152:ISBN
8982:ISBN
8970:2019
8952:ISBN
8846:2018
8820:ISBN
8780:ISBN
8695:ISBN
8657:ISBN
8596:ISBN
8552:PMID
8479:ISBN
8442:ISBN
8395:ISBN
8369:ISBN
8343:ISBN
8115:ISSN
7927:ISBN
7688:link
7670:OCLC
7660:ISBN
7630:Gray
7611:ISBN
7559:tuig
7547:dëgg
7518:link
7499:ISBN
7463:ISBN
7436:ISBN
7366:ISBN
7343:OCLC
7333:ISBN
7302:ISSN
7211:2014
7074:See
7004:ISBN
6970:2022
6907:WBUR
6861:2022
6848:ISBN
6679:See
6607:2020
6557:ISBN
6525:ISBN
6476:OCLC
6466:ISBN
6308:(2).
6182:2018
5921:See
5738:ISBN
5713:ISBN
5627:AAVE
5465:and
5371:and
5356:FACE
5294:bees
5278:bees
5266:come
5225:and
5195:soul
5158:afia
5142:Ofay
5123:gray
5109:, a
5103:tote
5099:jazz
5085:and
5083:cool
5002:they
5000:and
4979:and
4969:does
4967:but
4907:were
4889:and
4831:The
4687:come
4543:been
4528:been
4516:been
4512:been
4488:been
4452:done
4450:and
4448:been
4434:done
4315:been
4307:done
4206:rice
4174:doze
4172:and
4168:(so
4047:and
4045:tool
4039:and
4031:and
4029:toll
3946:and
3940:find
3930:and
3922:and
3885:/sk/
3881:/st/
3877:/sp/
3870:/md/
3866:/ft/
3860:and
3854:pant
3848:and
3842:hand
3836:and
3830:test
3801:→ ,
3797:→ ,
3783:sing
3764:-ing
3711:this
3668:thin
3645:of "
3629:in "
3569:cure
3564:pour
3562:and
3560:poor
3544:and
3526:feel
3522:fill
3517:fill
3515:and
3513:feel
3498:and
3475:and
3462:and
3433:ball
3429:boil
3421:/ɔɪ/
3399:/aɪ/
3357:TRAP
3169:bett
3136:n, f
3107:, th
3066:n, c
3027:, sh
2989:, ch
2959:d, r
2790:k, p
2692:m, t
2573:augh
2559:ough
2557:g, b
2522:p, w
2518:t, t
2471:m, l
2222:Ohio
2101:and
2007:and
1956:AAVE
1846:and
1505:Utah
1475:Ohio
1435:Iowa
1042:UNCF
503:Film
352:and
12456:of
10766:Art
10623:New
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