Succession to Muhammad

10272: 1621: 1811:, was elected caliph in Kufa. Muawiya then marched on Kufa with his army, whereas Hasan's military response to Muawiya suffered defections in large numbers, largely facilitated by military commanders and tribal chiefs who had been swayed to Muawiya's side by promises and offers of money. Under attack from Muawiya and after a failed assassination attempt on his life, a wounded Hasan ceded the caliphate to Muawiya in 661. Notably, under their agreement, it is said that Muawiya appointed Hasan as his successor. However, Hasan died in 669 at the age of forty six, before Muawiya. It is believed that he was poisoned at the instigation of Muawiya. 1457:, but God averted the evil of it." This was a reference to the exclusion of the majority of the Muhajirun and particularly Muhammad's kin, whose participation was vital for a legitimate outcome at the Saqifa. Possibly because of its questionable legal authority, Umar also warned Muslims against ever following the example of Saqifa. Similar concerns about the legitimacy of the Saqifa are raised by contemporary authors. Some have further criticized the Saqifa affair as a "backroom deal" and a "coup" which was heavily influenced by the pre-Islamic tribal politics. The evil of the 2306: 1498: 11316: 3157: 2498:

respected Abu Bakr but considers the prayer story inconclusive because it does not formally relate to the political leadership of the community. Walker notes that this and similar traditions suggest friendship and trust but are hardly related to succession because Muhammad regularly delegated this task and other positions of authority to others. For the same reason, Shaban goes further and assigns no significance to the prayer story.

2533:), Umar instead says that Muhammad is raving. A quarrel then broke out at Muhammad's bedside, with some suggesting that his orders should be followed and some siding with Umar to disregard the prophet's request. The argument is said to have saddened Muhammad, who asked them to leave and did not write anything. Some sources write that Muhammad instead gave oral recommendations, which have been recorded differently by various authors. 1632: 3034: 1579: 1010: 640: 1366:. The Muhajirun, Abu Bakr argued, were the best of Arabs in lineage and location, had accepted Islam earlier, and were closer to Muhammad in kinship. Abu Bakr then reportedly invited the Ansar to choose Umar or Abu Ubaida as Muhammad's successor. Since his two candidates lacked any realistic chance of success, this manoeuvre presented Abu Bakr as an acceptable alternative to Umar and Abu Ubaida for the Ansar. 3688: 2616: 3120:, while not ideal, are seen as legitimate because they complied with the requirements of the law, kept the borders safe and the community united. While the Umayyads and the Abbasids are viewed as kingships, the Sunni was more willing than others to accommodate these rulers, regardless of their legitimacy and mode of government, and in so doing the Sunni made most of Islamic history their own. 1873:, does not explicitly identify a successor to Muhammad, though it grants key privileges to the families of the past prophets. After the past prophets, their descendants become the spiritual and material heirs to them in the Quran. The scripture describes how the past prophets prayed for (and were granted) the divine favor to be succeeded by their close kin in kingship, in rule, in wisdom, in 49: 1443:, to abandon their support for Ali. The boycott was successful, and those who initially supported Ali gradually turned away and pledged their allegiance to Abu Bakr. Most likely, Ali did not pledge allegiance to Abu Bakr until his wife Fatima died within six months of her father Muhammad. In Shia sources, the death (and miscarriage) of the young Fatima are attributed to an 1022: 1374: 2434:) suggests that the Ghadir Khumm sermon was simply intended as a public declaration of Muhammad's love and esteem for Ali in response to criticism of some soldiers. Accepting this explanation as such, that Muhammad equated Ali with himself in an extraordinary announcement at the Ghadir Khumm still provides a strong basis for the Shia claims, suggests Jafri. 1804:, and reduced the caliphate, as an institution, to no more than a worldly kingship. Second, according to Cooperson, was the exclusion of Ali, who, insofar as the kinship of the Quraysh with Muhammad was concerned, had an arguably better claim to the caliphate. Ali eventually became caliph, but not in time to stop the rise of the Umayyads. 1225:, although legal traditions could have been invented, historical material may have been primarily subject to "tendential shaping" rather than being invented. Modern Western scholars approach the classic Islamic histories with circumspection and are less likely than Sunni Islamic scholars to trust the work of the Abbasid historians. 3755:, the succession to Muhammad was settled by divine appointment, rather than by consensus. Moreover, as with the past prophets in the Quran, God chose Muhammad's successor from his family. A number of verses in the Quran and some hadiths might be linked to the prominent position of Muhammad's family in Islam, including the verse of 1652:, from which the word caliph arose. Abu Bakr's tenure as the caliph lasted just over two years. Though he was appointed caliph by those at Saqifah, Abu Bakr designated Umar as his successor, reportedly against the advice of the Quraysh elders. Umar was instrumental in the ascension of Abu Bakr to the caliphate. 2446:

The most notable event that supports Abu Bakr's right to succession reportedly occurred towards the end of Muhammad's life. According to Walker, too ill to lead the prayers himself, Muhammad instructed Abu Bakr to take his place, ignoring concerns that he was too emotionally delicate for the role. In

1997:

as, "Your protector is only God, and His Messenger, and those who believe, who perform the prayer and give alms while bowing down." Some Sunni exegeses link this verse to the hostility of the Jewish tribes in Medina, while Shia and some Sunni sources consider this verse a specific reference to the

3803:

was revealed to Muhammad, declaring the completion of God's favor to the faithful. Though it is believed that Ali considered himself as the rightful successor of Muhammad, he is said to have turned down proposals to forcefully pursue his claims to the caliphate after the appointment of Abu Bakr, for

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view, after a prophet's death, it is deemed as essential that a divinely-appointed successor would guide the faithful towards the righteous path. Without a divinely-appointed successor, according to the Twelver Shia, the prophetic mission and God's favor to the faithful would both remain incomplete.

2497:

Sunni authors often refer to this event as evidence of Abu Bakr's right to succeed Muhammad, though their accounts of the event might be colored by later Shia-Sunni polemics. Ayoub adds that the prayer argument was likely not a consideration in the early caliphal debate. Lecomte writes that Muhammad

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Insofar as the Quran reflects the views of Muhammad, Madelung concludes, he could have not seen his succession differently from the earlier prophets or considered Abu Bakr as his natural successor. This is because, he argues, the succession of prophets is a matter that is settled by divine selection

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rituals in Mecca. In his sermon in Mecca and again later at the Ghadir Khumm by some accounts, he alerted Muslims about his impending death. After the Hajj, Muhammad set off on the return journey from Mecca to Medina, accompanied by a large number of pilgrims. On the way, Muhammad called the Muslim

2086:

617 CE). One of the two versions of how Muhammad attempted to do this is that he invited his relatives to a meal. After the meal, Muhammad introduced his relatives to Islam and asked for their support, "And which of you will assist me in this cause and become my brother, my trustee and my successor

1682:

of Muhammad, and second, he should follow the example of Abu Bakr and Umar. Ali is said to have accepted the first condition but declined the second one, adding that he would rely only on his own judgment in the absence of any precedent from the Quran or the Sunnah. Abd al-Rahman then presented the

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had no familial relation to the Quraysh tribe. In Sunni Islam, caliphs are not viewed as infallible and can be removed from the office if their actions are deemed sinful. At the same time, obedience to a caliph is often regarded as a religious obligation even if the caliph is unjust. Conversely, a

1913:

Verse 2:124 includes the exchange, " said , 'I shall make you an imam for the people.' He said: 'And also of my off-spring?' said: 'My compact will not comprise the evil-doers.'" God's pledge in this verse thus extends to just descendants of Abraham. Elsewhere in verse 29:27, God praises Abraham,

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to subdue Ali at the order of Abu Bakr. Sunnis categorically reject these allegations. After Fatima's death and in the absence of popular support, Ali is said to have relinquished his claims to the caliphate for the sake of the unity of a nascent Islam, In contrast with Muhammad's lifetime, Ali is

4097:

The Ibadi, an Islamic school distinct from Sunni and Shia, believe that leadership of the Muslim community is not something which should be decided by lineage, tribal affiliations or divine selection, but rather through election by leading Muslims. They do not view their leaders as infallible. In

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The historicity of the Ghadir Khumm is rarely disputed within the Muslim community, as its recorded tradition is "among the most extensively acknowledged and substantiated" in classical Islamic sources, even as the statements made at the event remain open to interpretation. In Shia and some Sunni

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Someone countered Abu Bakr with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar should choose their separate rulers among themselves. A heated argument ensued until Umar asked Abu Bakr to stretch his hand and pledged allegiance to the latter, followed by others. In the process, Sa'd was beaten into

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in this verse is interpreted as spiritual authority. The verse of wilaya thus describes Ali as the rightful authority over the believers, after God and Muhammad, and underlines his right to succeed Muhammad as the spiritual and political leader of the Muslim community. Alternatively, those Sunni

2168:. Muhammad is said to have left Ali in charge at Medina before leaving on his longest expedition. But when rumors spread that Ali was left behind because he was a burden to Muhammad, he left Medina and caught up with Muhammad, who reassured him, "Are you not content, Ali, to stand to me as 2437:

For the Sunni, it is also unimaginable that most companions would act wrongly and ignore a clear appointment of Ali at the Ghadir Khumm. The Shia response is that numerical strength cannot be a factor in a tribal community, adding that majority does not imply legitimacy in the Qur'an.

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In Shia theology, while direct revelation ended with Muhammad's death, Ali remained the righteous guide towards God, similar to the successors of the past prophets in the Quran. After Muhammad's death, Ali inherited his divine knowledge and his authority to correctly interpret the

1228:

Hadith compilations are records of the traditions or sayings of Muhammad. The development of hadith is a crucial element of the first three centuries of Islamic history. Early Western scholars mistrusted the later narrations and reports, regarding them as fabrications.

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among you." Muhammad's cousin Ali, the youngest among them, was the only relative who offered his assistance to Muhammad, who then declared, "This is my brother, my executor, and my successor among you, so listen to him and obey." This was the account of the Sunni

1745:, both companions of Muhammad with ambitions for the high office, likely gave their pledges though they later broke their oaths, claiming that they had pledged their allegiance to Ali under public pressure. There is, however, less evidence for violence here than in 2207:) writes that this hadith invested in Ali all the privileges which Aaron had received from Moses except prophethood. In particular, Ali was the deputy of Muhammad just as Aaron was the deputy of Moses, which implies that Ali was the rightful successor to Muhammad. 2281:, a canonical Sunni source. By some Shia and Sunni accounts, he then continued, "O God, befriend the friend of Ali and be the enemy of his enemy," which might have been the standard formula for pledging allegiance at the time, used later both by Ali and his son 1274:

narrates in detail events relating to the succession. However, there have been doubts regarding the reliability of the collection, with some believing that it was a later creation given that the earliest mention of the text only appears in the eleventh century.

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Initially, Zayd's activist approach gained him a large following. However, as he increasingly compromised with the traditionalists, some of Zayd's supporters are said to have returned to Muhammad al-Baqir. According to Jafri, a related incident is when two

2485:, who considers it fabricated. Shia authors similarly dispute the authenticity of these reports, adding that Muhammad had earlier instructed his companions, including Abu Bakr and Umar, to leave Medina on a military campaign against the Byzantines under 3075:

The general Sunni belief is that Muhammad had not chosen anyone to succeed him, instead reasoning that he had intended for the community to decide on a leader amongst themselves. However, some specific hadiths are used to justify that Muhammad intended

1385:

Muhammad had been buried by the time the Saqifa meeting ended, with the exclusion of Abu Bakr from the funeral rites. The authority of Abu Bakr was precarious at first, until Umar secured the pledges of allegiance from the Medinans with help from the

1108:, which are the recorded sayings of Muhammad. Sunni Muslims contend that Muhammad did not explicitly appoint a successor, leaving the choice of leadership to the Muslim community. They recognize the legitimacy of Abu Bakr's rule, who was elected at 1938:

in his prophetic mission. His prayer is answered by God, as evidenced by verses 20:36-42, 25:35, and 28:35. Aaron thus becomes the chosen associate of Moses in his prophetic mission and in revelation, as described in verses 21:48-9 and 2:248.

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who is learned, pious, and revolts against the tyrants of his time. On this basis, his followers, known as Zaydis, consider Zayd as the rightful successor of the fourth Shia Imam, though the fourth Imam himself did not revolt against the

9710: 2126:), Muhammad made it clear that the first relative to accept his invitation would become his successor and inheritor. Lastly, Rubin notes that the association of this account with verse 26:214 implies divine authorization. 3083:

In Sunni Islam, the election of a caliph is ideally a democratic choice made by the Muslim community. As this is difficult to enforce, Sunni Islam recognizes as caliph anyone who seizes power, as long as he is from the

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submission by Umar, which indicates that a substantial number of the Ansar must have initially refused to follow Umar's lead. Otherwise, there would have been no need to beat up their chief Sa'd, according to Madelung.

3979:(874 CE), compelled by the hostility of his enemies. His advent is awaited by all Muslims, though different sects hold different views about Mahdi. In his absence, the vacuum in the Shia leadership is partly filled by 9477: 9372: 9346: 4110:

are viewed as righteous leaders. However, Uthman is viewed as having committed grave sins during the latter half of his rule and was deserving of death. Ali is also similarly understood to have lost his mandate.

1975:, by Shia and some Sunni accounts. These five are known as the Ahl al-Bayt (lit. 'people of the household') in Shia, though various Sunni interpretations are broader and often include Muhammad's wives as well. 4048:, was an Imam before he resorted to the sword. When Zayd refused to answer this question, the two broke their allegiance with him and went back to Muhammad al-Baqir. Eventually, Zayd took up arms against the 2541:

The disobedience to Muhammad in this incident has been downplayed by some Sunni scholars, whereas others view this incident as a missed opportunity to formally designate Abu Bakr as the successor. Ibn Kathir

9549: 2549:) goes further, claiming that Muhammad had publicly appointed Abu Bakr before his final illness. In contrast, the incident is viewed as a calamity and a missed opportunity to designate Ali in Shia sources. 2215:

Despite its Shia coloring, the Hadith of Position nevertheless remains prominent in Sunni sources as one of the most important pieces of evidence supporting the finality of Muhammad in the chain of prophets.

1354:, who contend that the Ansar only wanted to re-establish their control over their city, Medina. When they found out about the meeting via an informant, Abu Bakr and Umar rushed to the Saqifa, accompanied by 1832:

and cutting off their access to water for multiple days, Yazid's forces slaughtered Husayn, alongside his family and his small group of supporters. The women and children were taken prisoner and marched to

1947:

Similar to the past prophets, Muhammad's family has an eminent position in the Quran. Elevating them above common Muslims, a state of purity is bestowed upon Muhammad's kin in verses 8:41, 59:7, the

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is interpreted along sectarian lines. Shia sources interpret this word as meaning 'leader' or 'ruler', while Sunni accounts of this sermon tend to offer little explanation or substitute the word

2095:(d. 767), among others, though some Sunni reports do not include Muhammad's response to Ali or replace it with his rejection of Ali's offer. Muhammad's announcement was met with ridicule from 1251:

has rejected the indiscriminate dismissal of everything not included in "early sources", instead judging later narratives in the context of history and compatibility with events and figures.

2512:

Shortly before his death, Muhammad asked for writing materials, so that he would "write something, after which you will not be led into error," as reported in the canonical Sunni collection

1824:) of the Muslim elite in 676 and won their support through flattery, bribes, and threats. Notably, Muawiya was unsuccessful in securing the oath of allegiance from Hasan's younger brother, 1725:

in Medina. It appears that Ali personally did not force anyone for a pledge though the strong pro-Ali atmosphere of Medina might have exerted some pressure on his opponents. In particular,

2188:, Aaron also performs miracles and is entrusted with the esoteric knowledge of the scripture. Of similar importance therein is the divine prerogatives bestowed upon Aaron's descendants. 1979:

in the Quran. In particular, God selects their successors from their own families, whether or not those successors become prophets themselves. Jafri and Abbas develop similar arguments.

1358:. These three companions were the only members of the Muhajirun in the Saqifa meeting, possibly accompanied by some relatives and servants. Once there, Abu Bakr warned the Ansar that 1713:

writes that, " shrank from drama in which religion had been displaced by politics, and devotion by intrigue." In the absence of any serious opposition and urged particularly by the

1429:. Ordered by Abu Bakr, Umar then led an armed mob to Ali's residence and threatened to set the house on fire if Ali and his supporters would not pledge their allegiance to Abu Bakr. 9562: 3947:

We made them Imams, guiding by Our command, and We revealed to them the performance of good deeds, the maintenance of prayers, and the giving of zakat, and they used to worship Us.

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caravan to a halt at the Ghadir Khumm before the pilgrims parted to go their separate ways. After the noon prayer, Muhammad delivered a sermon in which he famously said, "He whose

4071:, attempted a compromise between Sunni and Shia by accepting the legitimacy of the Sunni caliphs while maintaining that they were inferior to Ali. Imamat al-Mafdul (literally, " 1448:

believed to have retired from public life during the caliphates of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, which has been interpreted as a silent censure of the first three caliphs.

1417:

The Banu Hashim and some companions of Muhammad gathered at Ali's house in protest after learning about the appointment of Abu Bakr. Among them were Muhammad's uncle

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particular, if a leader fails to maintain a legitimate government in accordance with the Islamic law, it is the duty of the population to remove him from power. The

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who, despite being of the Quraysh, were among the most powerful enemies of Muhammad before their late conversion to Islam. Their rise to power marginalized both the

3877:, Abu Bakr was sent to Mecca to give an ultimatum to disbelievers, there is strong evidence that Muhammad might have sent out Ali to take over this responsibility. 2218:

In response to the Shia claims, Sunni scholars argue that the Hadith of Position is irrelevant to Muhammad's succession because Aaron died before Moses. The Shia

1698:, to rule the Islamic territories. According to Glassé, Uthman was assassinated by rebels in 656, in a climate of growing dissension against the despotism of the 11009: 1436:

pleaded with them. During this time period Madelung says that Ali could see nothing but hypocrisy in Abu Bakr's tears and his claims to love Muhammad's family.

7387:"(Quran 3:7) It is He who has sent down to you the Book. Parts of it are definitive verses, which are the mother of the Book, while others are metaphorical..." 2419:

Among Sunni Muslims, the Ghadir Khumm is not associated with the succession to Muhammad. Instead, the event is often connected with Ali's earlier campaign in

2196:

Shia authors have used the Hadith of Position to argue for the special status of Ali and his designation as the successor of Muhammad. For instance, the Shia

1131:. According to Twelver Shia doctrine, the subsequent rulers after Muhammad are considered illegitimate, with Ali and his lineage of eleven divinely-appointed 1667:, Othman's brother-in-law, and it has been suggested that the makeup and configuration of this committee left a small possibility for the nomination of Ali. 2244:

later designated the progeny of Aaron to succeed him instead of his own or Moses'. Al-Kulayni suggests that Joshua did so because it was the divine choice.

1687:

was well aware of Ali's disagreements with the past two caliphs and that Ali, known for his sincerity, would have inevitably rejected the second condition.

9954:

The Brother of the Prophet Mohammad (the Imam Ali): a Reconstruction of Islamic History and an Extensive Research of the Shi'ite Islamic School of Thought

2111:. He adds that the early appointment of Ali as Muhammad's heir in this version supports Ali's right to succeed Muhammad, a central tenet of Shia Islam. 9920: 8954: 3967:). In Shia theology, at any time, there is only one Imam and his successor, if alive, is called the silent Imam. After Hasan's death, his brother, 9294: 1852:

The succession subsequently transformed under the Umayyads from an elective/appointed position to being effectively hereditary within the family.

9008:

Miskinzoda, Gurdofarid (2015). "The significance of the Hadith of the Position of Aaron for the formulation of the Shi'i doctrine of authority".

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and Umar in which the latter claimed that Muhammad intended to name Ali as his successor and that he prevented this out of the conviction that

2407:

Shia Muslims view the Ghadir Khumm as Muhammad's most public announcement of Ali's succession. Supporting the Shia interpretation, the Shia

9990: 11002: 7817: 3896:). Often cited here is a well-attested hadith, attributed to Muhammad, which reads as, "I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate." 3852:(literally, "the lion of God"), Ali has been viewed as the most able warrior in Muhammad's army and the two were the only Muslim men who 10083: 2522:

protested, "The illness has overwhelmed the prophet. We have the book of God and that is enough for us." In some reports by the Sunni

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Verse 26:214 of the Quran tasked Muhammad with presenting Islam to his relatives, some three years after his first divine revelation (

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The Muslim Diaspora (Volume 1, 570-1500): A Comprehensive Chronology of the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas

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In 644, on his deathbed, Umar tasked a committee of six with choosing the next caliph among themselves. The committee included Ali,

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Gross, Max (2012). "Shi'a Muslims and Security: the Centrality of Iran". In Seiple, Chris; Hoover, Dennis; Otis, Pauletta (eds.).

2160:. Muhammad might have repeated this analogy on multiple occasions, though the Hadith of Position is most frequently linked to the 11333: 10649: 9200: 423: 1756:

Ali inherited the internal problems of Uthman's reign. Immediately after his election, Ali quelled an armed insurrection led by

11319: 10995: 10429: 10405: 9667: 9656: 3904:

In Shia Islam, where he is regarded as the righteous guide after Muhammad, Ali is believed to be infallible. Ali is one of the

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et al. suggest that the frequent association of this verse with Ali in early Sunni sources strongly support its authenticity.

728: 3744:

At the same time, in Shia theology, this designated successor would not rule by force if the faithful withhold their support.

11021: 10812: 9962: 9826: 9769: 9257: 8836: 8720: 8696: 8672: 8613: 8589: 8568: 8520: 8477: 8456: 8432: 8411: 8333: 8290: 8266: 8221: 8200: 8179: 8136: 8029: 7975: 7902: 7806: 7782: 7740: 7668: 3062: 310: 3955:, the earth has never remained without an Imam, in the form of prophets and their divinely-appointed successors. After Ali, 10849: 3716: 1818:, who is often remembered as a debaucher who openly violated the Islamic norms. In particular, Muawiya summoned a council ( 872: 8664:

Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought: Essays in Honour of Hermann Landolt

1607: 9323: 10151: 9633: 9271: 9077: 8739: 8496: 3986: 1425:. These held Ali to be the rightful successor to Muhammad, possibly referring to the announcement by the latter at the 1052: 2477:, whose rivalry and dislike for Ali and Fatima are well-documented. Mentioning three different versions of the story, 1694:, is said to have regained its pre-Islamic influence and power. Uthman installed his relatives, including his cousin, 11390: 11214: 9847: 9803: 9735: 9699: 9610: 9587: 9525: 9502: 9466: 9443: 9420: 9397: 8925: 8906: 8887: 8868: 8812: 8788: 8760: 8651: 8544: 8390: 8371: 8352: 8242: 8155: 8113: 8092: 8071: 8050: 8008: 7940: 7921: 7880: 7850: 7827: 7761: 7721: 7700: 3939:

after Muhammad, that is, the righteous guide towards God and His vicar on the earth. This divine authority, known as

2905: 2230: 2148:

Hadith of position is a biblical analogy in favor of Ali that appears in canonical Sunni and Shia sources, including

1841:, some of whom are said to have perished from mistreatment. The tragic death of Husayn and his supporters marked the 1730: 1148: 837: 752: 488: 11046: 10176: 9210: 3323: 3181: 2637: 88: 10271: 2029:

in this verse is nothing more than friendship or mutual support. In response, Shia authors note that the particle

1620: 9874: 3943:, is central to the Shia belief and appears in multiple verses of the Quran. In particular, verse 21:73 reads as 1705:

Shortly after the assassination of Uthman, the caliphate was offered to Ali, who declined the position at first.

670: 9306: 2454:, Abu Bakr attempted to step back to let Muhammad lead the prayer but the prophet allowed Abu Bakr to continue. 2012:

authors who acknowledge a link between this verse and Ali reject any Shia implications. For instance, the Sunni

1764:, declared war on Ali and a long and indecisive civil war ensued. The first four caliphs are referred to by the 11360: 10941: 10171: 10076: 9621: 3108:

are regarded by the Sunni as the most righteous of their generation, with their merit being reflected in their

2423:, where he is said to have strictly imposed the Islamic guidelines for a fair distribution of booty. The Sunni 865: 799: 615: 9689: 3868:, the central text of Islam, is deemed as one of his key contributions. When, following the revelation of the 1217:(d. 923). Many scholars accept these biographies although their accuracy is uncertain. Studies by Schacht and 11204: 10884: 10472: 9835: 8019: 4006: 2318: 2131: 1684: 1671: 1664: 1660: 1160: 775: 359: 9037:

Lewinstein, Keith (2001). "The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate by Wilferd Madelung".

1243: 1151:

holds significance for most Muslims, although different sects maintain varying perspectives on this matter.

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These differing viewpoints on succession stem from varying interpretations of early Islamic history and the

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Walker, Adam Hani (2014). "Abu Bakr Siddiq (C. 573-634)". In Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (eds.).

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Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2014). "Ali ibn Abi Talib (599-661)". In Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (eds.).

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By divine designation, Aaron was the associate of Moses in his prophetic mission and in revelation. In

1828:, who, after Muawiya's death, publicly denounced Yazid's legitimacy. In 680, after surrounding them in 1690:

Uthman's reign was marked with widespread accusations of nepotism. Under Uthman's rule, his tribe, the

478: 20: 11051: 10423: 7014: 2229:) counters that had Aaron survived Moses, the former would have surely succeeded the latter. The Shia 2130:

comments that this banquet "won for a proselyte worth a thousand sabers in the person of Ali, son of

11385: 11380: 10971: 10926: 10911: 10226: 10069: 10002: 9983: 9575: 9215: 8103: 8082: 8061: 8040: 7751: 4075:

of the inferior") is the belief that, while Ali was better suited to succeed Muhammad, the reigns of

3437: 3206: 3055: 2667: 2625: 2565: 2290: 2116: 1898: 1709:

attributes Ali's initial refusal to the polarizing impact of Uthman's murder on the community, while

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Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God [2 volumes]

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rightfully succeeded Muhammad through a process of election. In contrast, Shia Islam maintains that

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to succeed, but that he had shown this decision through his actions rather than doing so verbally.

1846: 1355: 505: 305: 10435: 10315: 10310: 7679: 10900: 10787: 10772: 10488: 10391: 10241: 10216: 9893: 9598: 8826: 8081:

Daftary, Farhad; Nanji, Azim (2014). "Shi'ism". In Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (eds.).

7839:"A Mantic Manifesto: The Sura of "The Poets" and the Qur'anic Foundations of Prophetic Authority" 7711: 4061: 3634: 2662: 2507: 2277: 1998:

occasion where Ali gave away his ring to a beggar while he was bowing in worship. In particular,

1792:, however, this definition of the caliphate had its costs. First, it facilitated the rise of the 1726: 1600: 1222: 977: 879: 100: 10335: 10010: 9644: 9513: 9490: 8232: 4114:

The Ibadi have been labeled by some scholars as the "moderate Kharijites." Their first Imam was

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in this verse has a different significance than mere friendship, similar to that in verse 33:6.

1545: 1189:

literature—which provide further information on Muhammad's life. The earliest surviving written

10956: 10797: 10144: 10024: 10015: 9909: 9785: 9276: 8822: 8125:"The Story of Pen and Paper and its interpretation in Muslim Literary and Historical Tradition" 3836:, Ali sworn a pact a brotherhood with Muhammad and later took the hand of Muhammad's daughter, 3599: 3213: 2962: 2127: 1270:

or 694-714 CE). This collection of hadith and historical reports from the first century of the

1045: 860: 554: 10320: 10295: 8858: 8847: 8774: 8710: 8558: 8446: 8323: 8211: 8124: 7772: 3243: 3093:

judge would be considered competent solely on the basis of his appointment by the government.

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Rubin writes that Ali's response to Muhammad's call contrasts the remainder of his tribe, the

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has compiled multiple volumes of Sunni and Shia historical documents about the Ghadir Khumm.

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Goldziher, I.; Arendonk, C. van; Tritton, A.S. (2022). "Ahl Al-Bayt". In Bearman, P. (ed.).

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have led the scholars to distinguish between legal and historical traditions. According to

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Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East: State and Civilization during the Later Medieval Times

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After Saddam: American Foreign Policy and the Destruction of Secularism in the Middle East

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in this verse to God, Muhammad, and those believers who gave alms while praying. As such,

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The Formation of the Sudanese Mahdist State: Ceremony and Symbols of Authority: 1882-1898

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by Sayyid 'Abdul-Husayn Sharafud-Dīn al-Mūsawi, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.

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Brunner, Rainer (2014). "Ahl al-Bayt". In Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (eds.).

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Jafri finds the related traditions often contradictory, many of which are attributed by

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Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shi'ism: From Ali to Post-Khomeini

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offered the caliphate to Ali on two conditions: first, he should follow the way of the

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The scene soon grew violent, but the mob retreated without Ali's pledge after his wife

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Corrigan, John; Denny, Frederick; Jaffee, Martin S.; Eire, Carlos (8 January 2016).

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The view advanced by the Shia is that Muhammad announced his cousin and son-in-law,

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Umar later criticized the Saqifa affair, "The oath of allegiance for Abu Bakr was a

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believe that Muhammad had explicitly designated Ali as his heir, notably during the

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which, Umar thought, had been averted by God would erupt later in the form of the

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