93:, and taught widely in schools and to non-native learners of the language. Within a language community, standardization usually begins with a particular variety being selected (often towards a goal of further linguistic uniformity), accepted by influential people, socially and culturally spread, established in opposition to competitor varieties, maintained, increasingly used in diverse contexts, and assigned a high social status as a result of the variety being linked to the most successful people. As a sociological effect of these processes, most users of a standard dialect—and many users of other dialects of the same language—come to believe that the standard is inherently superior to, or consider it the linguistic baseline against which to judge, the other dialects. However, such beliefs are firmly rooted in social perceptions rather than any objective evaluation. Any varieties that do not carry high social status in a community (and thus may be defined in opposition to standard dialects) are called nonstandard or
966:. The differences between the variants do not hinder mutual intelligibility and do not undermine the integrity of the system as a whole. Compared to the differences between the variants of English, German, French, Spanish, or Portuguese, the distinctions between the variants of Serbo-Croatian are less significant.Nonetheless, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro have all named the language differently in their constitutions.
1814:, p. 2: "Rinneadh iarracht ar leith san athbhreithniú seo foirmeacha agus leaganacha atá ar fáil go tréan sa chaint sna mórchanúintí a áireamh sa Chaighdeán Oifigiúil Athbhreithnithe sa tslí is go mbraithfeadh an gnáthchainteoir mórchanúna go bhfuil na príomhghnéithe den chanúint sin aitheanta sa Chaighdeán Oifigiúil agus, mar sin, gur gaire don ghnáthchaint an Caighdeán Oifigiúil anois ná mar a bhíodh."
3753:
384:
For example, when Norway became independent from
Denmark in 1814, the only written language was Danish. Different Norwegian dialects were spoken in rural districts and provincial cities, but people with higher education and upper-class urban people spoke "Danish with a Norwegian pronunciation". Based
244:
identifies a repertoire of broadly recognizable conventions in spoken and written communications used in a society; the term implies neither a socially ideal idiom nor a culturally superior form of speech. These conventions develop from related dialects, usually by social action (ethnic and cultural
380:
of
Scandinavia (Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish). Moreover, in political praxis, either a government or a neighbouring population might deny the cultural status of a standard language. In response to such political interference, linguists develop a standard variety from elements of the different
718:
in the 1950s. As of
September 2013, the first major revision of the Caighdeán Oifigiúil is available, both online and in print. Among the changes to be found in the revised version are, for example, various attempts to bring the recommendations of the Caighdeán closer to the spoken dialect of
367:
Politically, in the formation of a nation-state, identifying and cultivating a standard variety can serve efforts to establish a shared culture among the social and economic groups who compose the new nation-state. Different national standards, derived from a
276:). In the practices of broadcasting and of official communications, the standard usually functions as a normalizing reference for speech and writing. In educational contexts, it usually informs the version of the language taught to non-native learners.
338:, an idealized abstraction. Hence, the full standardization of a language is impractical, because a standardized dialect cannot fully function as a real entity, but does function as set of linguistic norms observed to varying degrees in the course of
2635:
Kafadar, Enisa (2009). "Bosnisch, Kroatisch, Serbisch – Wie spricht man eigentlich in
Bosnien-Herzegowina?" [Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian – How do people really speak in Bosnia-Herzegovina?]. In Henn-Memmesheimer, Beate; Franz, Joachim (eds.).
245:
unification) that elevate discourse patterns associated with perceived centres of culture, or more rarely, by deliberately defining the norms of standard language with selected linguistic features drawn from the existing dialects, as in the case of
748:, as well as to the political and cultural significance of Florence at the time and the fact that it was linguistically an intermediate between the northern and the southern Italian dialects. It would later become the official language of all the
364:, which indicates that linguistic standardization is the result of a society's history and sociology, and thus is not a universal phenomenon; of the approximately 7,000 contemporary spoken languages, most do not have a codified standard dialect.
3273:
Wechselbeziehungen zwischen slawischen
Sprachen, Literaturen und Kulturen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart: Akten der Tagung aus Anlaß des 25jährigen Bestehens des Instituts für Slawistik an der Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, 25. - 27. Mai
344:– of how people actually speak and write the language. In practice, the language varieties identified as standard are neither uniform nor fully stabilized, especially in their spoken forms. From that perspective, the linguist
743:
established that dialect as base for the standard language of Italy. In particular, Italian became the language of culture for all the people of Italy, thanks to the prestige of the masterpieces of
Florentine authors like
299:, linguistic standardization occurs informally and piecemeal, without formal government intervention; (ii) in the cases of the French and Spanish languages, linguistic standardization occurs formally, directed by
104:
and a language-in-use cannot be permanently standardized like the parts of a machine. Standardization may originate from a motivation to make the written form of a language more uniform, as is the case of
260:, in which users can also sometimes find illustrative examples drawn from literary, legal, or religious texts. Whether grammars and dictionaries are created by the state or by private citizens (e.g.
266:), some users regard such linguistic codifications as authoritative for correcting the spoken and written forms of the language. Effects of such codifications include slowing the pace of
509:
In the early 20th century, many
Chinese intellectuals argued that the country needed a standardized language. By the 1920s, Literary Chinese had been replaced as the written standard by
800:(colloquial language) spoken by the educated and uneducated peoples of the middle and the lower social classes of Roman society. The Latin language that Roman armies introduced to
3727:
Kloss, Heinz (1976). "Abstandsprachen und
Ausbausprachen" [Abstand-languages and Ausbau-languages]. In Göschel, Joachim; Nail, Norbert; van der Elst, Gaston (eds.).
591:. Socially, the accent of the spoken version of the standard language then indicated that the speaker was a man or a woman possessed of a good education, and thus of high
3350:
Silverstein, Michael (1996). "Monoglot 'Standard' in
America: Standardization and Metaphors of Linguistic Hegemony". In Brennis, Donald; Macaulay, Ronald H.S (eds.).
498:
and far removed from any contemporary speech. As a practical measure, officials of the late imperial dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a
295:; moreover, the standardization of spoken forms is oriented towards the codified standard. Historically, a standard language arises in two ways: (i) in the case of
89:. Typically, the varieties that undergo standardization are those associated with centres of commerce and government, used frequently by educated people and in
1850:, p. 318, quote="L'italiano di oggi ha ancora in gran parte la stessa grammatica e usa ancora lo stesso lessico del fiorentino letterario del Trecento."
3271:
Pohl, Hans-Dieter (1996). "Serbokroatisch - Rückblick und
Ausblick" [Serbo-Croatian – Looking backward and forward]. In Ohnheiser, Ingeborg (ed.).
521:, but with vocabulary also drawn from other Mandarin varieties and its syntax based on the written vernacular. It is the official spoken language of the
228:
language is one of many dialects and varieties of a language, rather than the totality of the language, whilst minimizing the negative implication of
2997:
Kristophson, Jürgen (2000). "Vom Widersinn der Dialektologie: Gedanken zum Štokavischen" [Dialectological Nonsense: Thoughts on Shtokavian].
1826:, p. 7: "Triaileadh, mar shampla, aitheantas a thabhairt don leathnú atá ag teacht ar úsáid fhoirm an ainmnigh in ionad an ghinidigh sa chaint."
962:). These variants do differ slightly, as is the case with other pluricentric languages, but not to a degree that would justify considering them as
2478:
847:, but that now encompasses educated urban pronunciations from the different speech communities in the southeast. This artificial accent is called
3119:
2764:
2469:
3630:
Variation in Modern Standard Arabic in Radio News Broadcasts: A Synchronic Descriptive Investigation into the Use of Complementary Particles
188:
occasionally refers also to the entirety of a language that includes a standardized form as one of its varieties. In Europe, a standardized
2896:
428:(1963–1991) developed their national language from the dialect continuum demarcated by Serbia to the north and Bulgaria to the east, their
2828:
2978:
288:
3276:. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft, Slavica aenipontana (in German). Vol. 4. Innsbruck: Non Lieu. pp. 205–221.
3788:
3452:
Starčević, Anđel (2016). "Govorimo hrvatski ili 'hrvatski': standardni dijalekt i jezične ideologije u institucionalnom diskursu".
2200:
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Trudgill, Peter (2004). "Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe". In Anna Duszak, Urszula Okulska (ed.).
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Language and Policy: Language Policy and Linguistic Nationalism in the Republic of India and the Socialist Yugoslavia (1945-1991)
2233:
Sprache und Politik: Sprachpolitik und Sprachnationalismus in der Republik Indien und dem sozialistischen Jugoslawien (1945-1991)
2131:
Auer, Peter (2011). "Dialect vs. standard: a typology of scenarios in Europe". In Kortmann, Bernd; van der Auwera, Johan (eds.).
719:
Gaeltacht speakers, including allowing further use of the nominative case where the genitive would historically have been found.
389:(Christiania) and other major cities, several orthographic reforms, notably in 1907 and 1917, resulted in the official standard
3783:
3520:[Serbo-Croatian (Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, Serbian): from the study of a language to the identity of languages].
2294:
Carter, Ronald (1999). "Standard Grammars, Spoken Grammars: Some Educational Implications.". In Bex, Tony; Watts, R.J. (eds.).
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432:
was based upon vernaculars from the west of the republic, which were the dialects most linguistically different from standard
3717:
3617:
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Davila, Bethany (2016). "The Inevitability of 'Standard' English: Discursive Constructions of Standard Language Ideologies".
2319:
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Milroy, James (2007). "The Ideology of the Standard Language". In Llamas, Carmen; Mullany, Louise; Stockwell, Peter (eds.).
2371:
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Ammon, Ulrich (2004). "Standard variety". In Ammon, Ulrich; Dittmar, Norbert; Mattheier, Klaus J.; Trudgill, Peter (eds.).
490:. Before the 20th century, most Chinese spoke only their local variety. For two millennia, formal writing had been done in
17:
3308:
Romaine, Suzanne (2008). "Linguistic Diversity and Language Standardization". In Hellinger, Marlis; Pauwels, Anne (eds.).
2729:
Slavistische Linguistik 2002: Referate des XXVIII. Konstanzer Slavistischen Arbeitstreffens, Bochum 10.-12. September 2002
2526:"Foilseacháin Rialtais / Government Publications—Don tSeachtain dar críoch 25 Iúil 2012 / For the week ended 25 July 2012"
3757:
3648:
Vogl, Ulrike (2012). "Multilingualism in a Standard Language Culture". In Hüning; Vogl, Ulrike; Moliner, Olivier (eds.).
3163:
580:
632:
3659:
3638:
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3252:
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85:
or other reference works, and also the process of making people's language usage conform to that standard, is called
70:, or other features and that stands out among related varieties in a community as the one with the highest status or
291:
with respect to the standard idiom. Standard usage serves as the linguistic authority, as in the case of specialist
3808:
3731:. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, Beihefte, n.F., Heft 16. Wiesbaden: F. Steiner. pp. 301–322.
2552:
Das Serbokroatische zwischen Linguistik und Politik: mit einer Bibliographie zum postjugoslavischen Sprachenstreit
1897:
425:
3511:(in Russian). Moscow: Российская академия наук. Институт языкознания. Российская академия лингвистических наук.
963:
955:
1010:
812:
had a grammar, syntax, and vocabulary different from the Classical Latin spoken and written by the statesman
584:
935:
470:, many of which are not mutually intelligible, usually classified into seven to ten major groups, including
3518:"Le serbo-croate (bosniaque, croate, monténégrin, serbe): de l'étude d'une langue à l'identité des langues"
2556:
Serbo-Croatian Between Linguistics and Politics: With a Bibliography of the Post-Yugoslav Language Dispute
923:
862:
858:
3773:
3201:
893:
699:
692:
664:
453:
441:
372:, might be treated as discrete languages (along with heteronomous vernacular dialects) even if there are
280:
81:, the process of a variety becoming organized into a standard, for instance by being widely expounded in
71:
2487:
749:
603:.", but it may also be spoken with other accents, and in other countries still other accents are used (
510:
444:, nonetheless, for political and cultural reasons, Bulgarians treat Macedonian as a Bulgarian dialect.
114:
55:
3689:
Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz: das Problem der nationalen Varietäten
2720:
2355:. Contributions to the sociology of language. Vol. 62. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
3803:
3465:
3221:
3115:
129:, and to encourage public acceptance of the codifications as intrinsically correct. In that vein, a
3432:
2303:
2082:
1898:"BRASÍLIA, SUA GENTE, SEUS SOTAQUES: DIFUSÃO CANDANGA E FOCALIZAÇÃO BRASILIENSE NA CAPITAL FEDERAL"
2848:
2209:
377:
306:
300:
262:
253:
3568:(1992). "Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe".
2784:
1022:
939:
596:
267:
2886:
2818:
2754:
2558:]. Lincom Studies in Slavic Linguistics (in German). Vol. 34. Munich: Lincom Europa.
3798:
2916:
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840:
373:
331:
312:
270:
change in the standardized variety and affording a basis for further linguistic development (
229:
130:
51:
2973:
2891:
2823:
2759:
2673:
998:
as well as the political elite, and thus has the most prestige among other Somali dialects.
2716:
2271:. Contributions to the sociology of language 62. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
995:
979:
836:
550:
467:
349:
2547:
8:
3553:
3014:
1059:
753:
668:
429:
284:
142:
2262:
874:
409:('country tongue'), the standard based upon the dialects of western Norway. In 1885 the
252:
Either course of events typically results in a relatively fixed orthography codified in
3793:
3581:
3401:
2704:
2463:
2442:
2404:
1034:
959:
769:
740:
736:
604:
433:
413:(parliament) declared both forms official and equal. In 1929 it was officially renamed
3693:
German Language in Germany, Austria and Switzerland: The Problem of National Varieties
3778:
3732:
3713:
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3655:
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2874:
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2814:
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2796:
2750:
2742:
2732:
2653:
2643:
2621:
2602:
2577:
2569:
2559:
2511:
2446:
2408:
2356:
2334:
2315:
2282:
2272:
2250:
2240:
2217:
2186:
2167:
2136:
2117:
1064:
1054:
1049:
848:
757:
715:
572:
491:
369:
361:
200:
178:
166:
100:
The standardization of a language is a continual process, because language is always
90:
3654:. Multilingualism and diversity management. Vol. 1. John Benjamins Publishing.
2856:
2731:. Slavistishe Beiträge; vol. 434 (in German). Munich: Otto Sagner. pp. 97–148.
1039:
861:
when it appears at the end of a syllable (whereas in Rio de Janeiro this represents
3577:
3529:
3477:
3367:
2930:
2434:
2396:
2239:]. Beiträge zur Südasienforschung (in German). Vol. 192. Würzburg: Ergon.
926:
than Brazilian dialects, with the former using and and the latter using , , or .
866:
765:
761:
728:
616:
612:
608:
600:
576:
562:
546:
514:
495:
471:
463:
437:
296:
209:
189:
174:
170:
162:
158:
134:
106:
3608:
Trudgill, Peter (2006). "Standard and Dialect Vocabulary". In Brown, Keith (ed.).
3649:
3628:
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745:
568:
518:
345:
150:
146:
138:
101:
2265:(1992). "Serbo-Croatian as a pluricentric language". In Clyne, Michael G (ed.).
3565:
3364:
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2307:
907:
882:
781:
732:
711:
672:
640:
402:
154:
67:
3557:
3481:
3397:
3018:
575:
of England and Wales. In the late-seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries,
3767:
3549:
3541:
3281:
3010:
2960:
2878:
2810:
2657:
2581:
2438:
2348:
878:
483:
246:
82:
3700:
3533:
3173:
3066:
2968:
2746:
2589:
2525:
2418:
Dictionary of languages: the definitive reference to more than 400 languages
2400:
2286:
2254:
3736:
903:
793:
785:
683:'s official tongue); as a result, Hindustani is often called "Hindi-Urdu".
628:
3710:
Eloquence and Power: The Rise of Language Standards and Standard Languages
3499:
3371:
549:
now dominates public life, and is much more widely studied than any other
3359:
2934:
2692:
636:
487:
479:
292:
110:
78:
2708:
844:
792:, the literary dialect spoken by upper classes of Roman society, whilst
406:
109:. Typically, standardization processes include efforts to stabilize the
1069:
947:
592:
475:
421:
398:
257:
126:
118:
94:
1918:
390:
2639:
Die Ordnung des Standard und die Differenzierung der Diskurse; Teil 1
889:
797:
538:
327:
3591:
Speaking from the margin: global English from a European perspective
3032:. Palgrave Studies in Minority Languages and Communities. Springer.
2133:
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595:. In England and Wales, Standard English is usually associated with
394:
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1375:
831:
829:
In Brazil, actors and journalists usually adopt an unofficial, but
805:
680:
652:
410:
232:
that the standard is the only form worthy of the label "language".
3389:
2952:
2573:
2387:
Curzan, Anne (2002). "Teaching the Politics of Standard English".
1793:
74:. Often, it is the prestige language variety of a whole country.
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1007:
994:
clan. Northern Central Somali has frequently been used by famous
975:
943:
910:, is the accent from Brazilian Portuguese that is the nearest to
898:
414:
348:
says that standard languages can be conceptually compared to the
335:
326:
A standard variety can be conceptualized in two ways: (i) as the
122:
63:
59:
1089:
1087:
1085:
440:. Although Macedonian functions as the standard language of the
3752:
3291:
Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
1572:
1457:
1387:
951:
813:
644:
588:
530:
272:
1954:
1608:
1560:
27:
Language variety with substantially codified grammar and usage
3695:] (in German). Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter.
2642:(in German). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. pp. 95–106.
1445:
1116:
1082:
991:
987:
922:
European and African dialects have differing realizations of
809:
648:
522:
3311:
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2929:. Rotulus Universitas (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Durieux.
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Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations
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3651:
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2486:(in Irish). Seirbhís Thithe an Oireachtais. Archived from
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1435:
1433:
1431:
1192:
537:"national language") and one of the official languages of
436:, the previous linguistic norm used in that region of the
3415:
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2787:[Croatian, Serbian, Bosniakian, and Montenegrin]
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529:"common speech"), the de facto official language of the
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2328:
2026:
1716:
1481:
1428:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1381:
1351:
1106:
1104:
1102:
839:, originally derived from the middle-class dialects of
3183:
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2863:(in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Disput. pp. 83–108.
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2329:
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1841:
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513:, which was based on Mandarin dialects. In the 1930s,
2524:
2014:
1865:
1799:
1668:
1644:
1469:
1281:
1279:
1017:
as the region subtag for a standardized form such as
3025:
2785:"La langue croate, serbe, bosniaque et monténégrine"
2723:[Pro and contra: "Serbo-Croatian" nowadays]
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2050:
1817:
1805:
1728:
1536:
1524:
1416:
1399:
1327:
1264:
1099:
768:'s lexicon has been deeply influenced by almost all
3092:
1924:
1829:
1781:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1548:
1240:
1180:
599:, "the standard accent of English as spoken in the
571:, which is based upon the language of the medieval
3289:Richards, Jack Croft; Schmidt, Richard W. (2010).
3029:Language Planning and National Identity in Croatia
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1990:
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873:is pronounced in the same situation (whereas in
579:became established as the linguistic norm of the
517:was adopted, with its pronunciation based on the
133:has interacting standard varieties. Examples are
3765:
3199:
3134:
3047:Lepschy, Anna Laura; Lepschy, Giulio C. (1988).
2480:An Caighdeán Oifigiúil—Caighdeán Athbhreithnithe
2302:
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556:
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714:. It was first published by the translators in
675:(one of 23 co-official national languages) and
3671:Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society'
3476:. The Hague, Paris: Mouton. pp. 529–545.
3046:
1859:
982:(or North-Central Somali) forms the basis for
704:('The Official Standard'), often shortened to
3026:Langston, Keith; Peti-Stantić, Anita (2014).
401:(1813–1896) considered urban and upper-class
279:In those ways, the standard variety acquires
235:
208:, a naming convention still prevalent in the
192:is sometimes identified with the German word
3570:International Journal of Applied Linguistics
3180:
3137:The Oxford Companion to the English Language
2674:"Language, Ideology and Politics in Croatia"
2314:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
2083:"Unicode Locale Data Markup Language (LDML)"
1198:
1162:
304:
212:In contemporary linguistic usage, the terms
193:
3506:
3349:
3156:The Routledge Companion to Sociolinguistics
3113:
2996:
2202:Standards and Norms in the English Language
2032:
1960:
1309:
705:
697:
500:common language based on Mandarin varieties
334:or (ii) as the normative codification of a
3116:"Naučnoznanstvena-znanstvenonaučna istina"
2861:Jezični varijeteti i nacionalni identiteti
2468:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2458:(in Polish). Warszawa-Kraków. p. 134.
2180:
1710:
1145:
1143:
635:; these dialects are spoken mainly in the
360:, as described by the political scientist
3593:. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. pp. 35–49.
3451:
3228:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3200:Ní Shúilleabháin, Niamh (2 August 2012).
1487:
1357:
385:upon the bourgeois speech of the capital
3668:
3610:Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
3607:
3588:
3564:
3366:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
3261:
3202:"Caighdeán Athbhreithnithe don Ghaeilge"
2851:[Polycentric Standard Language]
2721:"Pro und kontra: "Serbokroatisch" heute"
2618:Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
2596:
2546:
2261:
2181:Baugh, Albert C.; Cable, Thomas (2002).
2044:
1948:
1734:
1722:
1602:
1542:
1439:
1186:
210:linguistic traditions of eastern Europe.
3669:Williams, Raymond (1983). "Standards".
3626:
3464:
3307:
2671:
2634:
2505:
2476:
2369:
2135:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 485–500.
2008:
1847:
1823:
1811:
1787:
1554:
1506:
1475:
1321:
1234:
1140:
1110:
405:too similar to Danish, so he developed
283:and greater functional importance than
14:
3766:
3707:
3515:
3431:
3242:
3220:
3181:Milroy, James; Milroy, Lesley (2012).
3158:. London: Routledge. pp. 133–13.
3153:
3135:McArthur, Tom; McArthur, Feri (1992).
3073:
2914:
2846:
2782:
2715:
2424:
2386:
2374:. Istituto della Enciclopedia italiana
2293:
2020:
1996:
1972:
1883:
1871:
1835:
1674:
1662:
1650:
1638:
1626:
1614:
1518:
1345:
1285:
1210:
1174:
204:is occasionally used as a synonym for
3726:
3686:
3509:Словарь социолингвистических терминов
3474:Readings in the Sociology of Language
3412:
3358:
3328:
3264:The Concise Oxford English Dictionary
3185:(4th ed.). New York: Routledge.
3078:. Taylor & Francis. p. 318.
2691:
2615:
2453:
2415:
2347:
2296:Standard English: The Widening Debate
2208:
2111:
2080:
2068:
2056:
1936:
1698:
1686:
1590:
1530:
1422:
1410:
1382:Charity Hudley & Mallinson (2011)
1333:
1297:
1270:
1258:
1246:
739:—the Florentine influence upon early
3647:
3270:
3114:Methadžović, Almir (10 April 2015).
2333:. New York: Teachers College Press.
2230:
2130:
2074:
1984:
1751:
1369:
1134:
917:
2199:
2185:(5th ed.). London: Routledge.
2149:
1763:
1222:
506:(literally "speech of officials").
303:language institutions, such as the
24:
3679:
3582:10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x
3122:from the original on 16 April 2015
2902:from the original on 4 August 2012
2834:from the original on 4 August 2012
2770:from the original on 4 August 2012
2477:Eachach, Vivian Uíbh, ed. (2012).
2456:Język mieszkańców Krakowa, część I
710:, is the official standard of the
376:varieties among them, such as the
220:are neutral synonyms for the term
25:
3820:
3745:
3507:Сулейменова, Элеонора Д. (2006).
2601:(1st ed.). London: Longman.
2214:A History of the English Language
2183:A History of the English Language
1896:Vieira Lima Neto, Newton (2018).
929:
397:('book tongue'). The philologist
173:. Monocentric languages, such as
3751:
2984:from the original on 1 June 2012
2849:"Policentrični standardni jezik"
3789:Promotion of national languages
3460:. University of Zagreb: 67–103.
3076:A Linguistic History of Italian
2508:Language: Its Structure and Use
2204:. De Gruyter. pp. 221–238.
2104:
2081:Davis, Mark (25 October 2023).
1889:
1018:
1014:
426:Socialist Republic of Macedonia
181:, have one standardized idiom.
54:that has undergone substantial
3354:. Routledge. pp. 284–306.
2389:Journal of English Linguistics
2298:. Routledge. pp. 149–166.
1579:Chambers & Trudgill (1998)
1567:Chambers & Trudgill (1998)
1464:McArthur & McArthur (1992)
1452:Chambers & Trudgill (1998)
1394:McArthur & McArthur (1992)
934:Four standard variants of the
13:
1:
3784:Language varieties and styles
3433:"Літературна мова (стандарт)"
3333:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
3293:. Pearson Education Limited.
2172:: CS1 maint: date and year (
1925:Mateus & d'Andrade (2000)
1123:Richards & Schmidt (2010)
1094:Richards & Schmidt (2010)
1075:
1011:Common Locale Data Repository
819:
780:The standard language in the
658:
557:English in the United Kingdom
315:, which respectively produce
224:, usages which indicate that
198:(written language). The term
3262:Pearsall, Judy, ed. (1999).
2999:Zeitschrift für Balkanologie
2420:. Columbia University Press.
1860:Lepschy & Lepschy (1988)
1800:Foilseacháin Rialtais (2012)
671:have legal status in India:
381:dialects used by a society.
113:of the prestige dialect, to
7:
3516:Thomas, Paul-Louis (2003).
3139:. Oxford University Press.
3099:. Oxford University Press.
3096:The Phonology of Portuguese
2791:. In Madelain, Anne (ed.).
2697:Anthropological Linguistics
2597:Horrocks, Geoffrey (1997).
1028:
1001:
936:pluricentric Serbo-Croatian
770:regional languages of Italy
454:List of language regulators
447:
442:Republic of North Macedonia
287:, which depend upon or are
10:
3825:
3247:. University of Oklahoma.
3049:The Italian language today
2370:Coletti, Vittorio (2011).
1199:Milroy & Milroy (2012)
1163:Milroy & Milroy (2012)
722:
690:
560:
523:People's Republic of China
511:written vernacular Chinese
494:, a style modelled on the
458:
451:
236:Linguistic standardization
121:) meanings through formal
3482:10.1515/9783110805376.531
2915:Kordić, Snježana (2010).
2847:Kordić, Snježana (2009).
2783:Kordić, Snježana (2007).
2216:. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
969:
902:spoken in the capital of
824:
784:(509 BC – 27 BC) and the
305:
3708:Joseph, John E. (1987).
2923:Language and Nationalism
2506:Finegan, Edward (2007).
2454:Dunaj, Bogusław (1989).
2439:10.1177/0741088316632186
1711:Baugh & Cable (2002)
1617:, pp. 108–109, 245.
1149:Trudgill, Peter (2009).
990:dialect of the northern
775:
735:, specifically from its
686:
622:
466:consists of hundreds of
378:North Germanic languages
3809:Linguistics terminology
3712:. New York: Blackwell.
3534:10.3406/slave.2002.6801
3522:Revue des études slaves
3074:Maiden, Martin (2014).
2859:; Silić, Josip (eds.).
2401:10.1177/007542402237882
1776:Ní Shúilleabháin (2012)
857:represents the phoneme
117:usages and particular (
3687:Ammon, Ulrich (1995).
3633:. Peeters Publishers.
3627:Van Mol, Mark (2003).
3413:Smith, Jeremy (1996).
3352:The Matrix of Language
2672:Kapović, Mate (2011).
2416:Dalby, Andrew (1998).
1905:University of Brasília
1023:Modern Standard Arabic
940:Bosnia and Herzegovina
788:(27 BC – AD 1453) was
706:
700:An Caighdeán Oifigiúil
698:
693:An Caighdeán Oifigiúil
597:Received Pronunciation
424:(1945–1992), when the
332:socio-economic stratum
194:
3456:(in Serbo-Croatian).
3454:Suvremena Lingvistika
3417:. London: Routledge.
3372:10.1017/9781108685795
3314:. Walter de Gruyter.
3243:Palmer, L.R. (1988).
2855:. In Badurina, Lada;
2427:Written Communication
2372:"Storia della lingua"
2231:Blum, Daniel (2002).
1153:. Penguin Books, 5-6.
1045:Language secessionism
835:, spoken standard of
627:The standard form of
561:Further information:
545:"Chinese language").
533:governing Taiwan (as
374:mutually intelligible
370:continuum of dialects
313:Royal Spanish Academy
131:pluricentric language
3760:at Wikimedia Commons
3329:Saeed, John (1999).
2935:10.2139/ssrn.3467646
2918:Jezik i nacionalizam
1939:, pp. 166, 206.
1629:, pp. 133, 136.
954:. They all have the
853:. In that standard,
837:Brazilian Portuguese
731:is derived from the
525:(where it is called
350:imagined communities
285:nonstandard dialects
263:Webster's Dictionary
230:social subordination
44:standardized dialect
18:Standardised dialect
3466:Stewart, William A.
1987:, p. 214, 219.
1963:, pp. 178–186.
1951:, pp. 347–380.
1927:, pp. 5–6, 11.
1665:, pp. 136–137.
1641:, pp. 133–134.
1605:, pp. 173–174.
1593:, pp. 123–124.
1137:, pp. 492–493.
1060:Nonstandard dialect
986:, particularly the
964:different languages
877:this is usually an
754:Italian unification
669:Hindustani language
430:Standard Macedonian
3774:Standard languages
3758:Standard languages
3245:The Latin Language
2548:Gröschel, Bernhard
2047:, p. 344–350.
2033:Methadžović (2015)
1961:Kristophson (2000)
1310:Сулейменова (2006)
1035:Classical language
764:. Modern Standard
741:Italian literature
737:Florentine variety
583:, composed of the
551:variety of Chinese
393:, in 1929 renamed
307:Académie Française
3756:Media related to
3719:978-1-55786-001-9
3619:978-0-08-044299-0
3491:978-3-11-080537-6
3470:Fishman, Joshua A
3424:978-0-415-13273-2
3381:978-953-313-086-6
3300:978-1-4082-0460-3
3235:978-0-521-29653-3
3192:978-0-415-69683-8
3058:978-0-941533-22-5
2944:978-953-188-311-5
2870:978-953-260-054-4
2802:978-2-35270-036-4
2627:978-0-08-044299-0
2565:978-3-929075-79-3
2517:978-1-4130-3055-6
2349:Clyne, Michael G.
2321:978-0-521-59646-6
2263:Brozović, Dalibor
2223:978-0-8147-1313-6
2192:978-0-415-28098-3
2152:"Beginners' Blas"
2150:BBC (June 2005).
2142:978-3-11-022025-4
2123:978-3-11-014189-4
1324:, pp. 46–48.
1312:, pp. 53–55.
1065:Official language
1055:National language
1050:Literary language
918:Africa and Europe
871:⟨r⟩
855:⟨s⟩
758:national language
663:Two standardized
633:Southern dialects
573:court of Chancery
531:Republic of China
492:Classical Chinese
417:(New Norwegian).
362:Benedict Anderson
242:standard language
222:standard language
206:standard language
201:literary language
186:standard language
91:news broadcasting
32:standard language
16:(Redirected from
3816:
3804:Sociolinguistics
3755:
3740:
3723:
3704:
3674:
3665:
3644:
3623:
3604:
3585:
3561:
3528:(2–3): 311–325.
3512:
3503:
3461:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3428:
3409:
3355:
3344:
3325:
3304:
3285:
3267:
3266:(10th ed.).
3258:
3239:
3217:
3215:
3213:
3196:
3177:
3150:
3131:
3129:
3127:
3110:
3089:
3070:
3043:
3022:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2983:
2976:
2928:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2901:
2894:
2854:
2843:
2841:
2839:
2833:
2826:
2790:
2779:
2777:
2775:
2769:
2762:
2726:
2717:Kordić, Snježana
2712:
2688:
2681:Slavia Centralis
2678:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2631:
2612:
2593:
2543:
2538:
2536:
2530:
2521:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2492:
2485:
2473:
2467:
2459:
2450:
2421:
2412:
2383:
2381:
2379:
2366:
2344:
2325:
2299:
2290:
2258:
2227:
2205:
2196:
2177:
2171:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2146:
2127:
2114:Sociolinguistics
2098:
2097:
2095:
2093:
2078:
2072:
2066:
2060:
2054:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2018:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1964:
1958:
1952:
1946:
1940:
1934:
1928:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1902:
1893:
1887:
1881:
1875:
1869:
1863:
1857:
1851:
1845:
1839:
1833:
1827:
1821:
1815:
1809:
1803:
1797:
1791:
1785:
1779:
1773:
1767:
1761:
1755:
1749:
1738:
1732:
1726:
1720:
1714:
1708:
1702:
1696:
1690:
1684:
1678:
1672:
1666:
1660:
1654:
1648:
1642:
1636:
1630:
1624:
1618:
1612:
1606:
1600:
1594:
1588:
1582:
1576:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1552:
1546:
1540:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1491:
1488:Starčević (2016)
1485:
1479:
1473:
1467:
1461:
1455:
1449:
1443:
1437:
1426:
1420:
1414:
1408:
1397:
1391:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1367:
1361:
1358:Starčević (2016)
1355:
1349:
1343:
1337:
1331:
1325:
1319:
1313:
1307:
1301:
1295:
1289:
1283:
1274:
1268:
1262:
1256:
1250:
1244:
1238:
1232:
1226:
1220:
1214:
1208:
1202:
1196:
1190:
1184:
1178:
1172:
1166:
1160:
1154:
1147:
1138:
1132:
1126:
1120:
1114:
1108:
1097:
1091:
1020:
1016:
925:
872:
867:rhotic consonant
864:
860:
856:
762:Kingdom of Italy
752:, and after the
709:
703:
631:is based on the
601:south of England
577:Standard English
563:Standard English
547:Standard Chinese
515:Standard Chinese
438:Balkan peninsula
310:
309:
297:Standard English
218:standard variety
214:standard dialect
197:
190:written language
171:Mandarin Chinese
107:Standard English
52:language variety
40:standard dialect
36:standard variety
21:
3824:
3823:
3819:
3818:
3817:
3815:
3814:
3813:
3764:
3763:
3748:
3743:
3720:
3682:
3680:Further reading
3677:
3662:
3641:
3620:
3601:
3566:Trudgill, Peter
3492:
3442:
3440:
3425:
3382:
3341:
3322:
3301:
3255:
3236:
3211:
3209:
3193:
3166:
3147:
3125:
3123:
3107:
3086:
3059:
3040:
2987:
2985:
2981:
2972:
2945:
2926:
2905:
2903:
2899:
2890:
2871:
2857:Pranjković, Ivo
2852:
2837:
2835:
2831:
2822:
2803:
2793:Au sud de l'Est
2788:
2773:
2771:
2767:
2758:
2739:
2724:
2676:
2662:
2660:
2650:
2628:
2609:
2566:
2534:
2532:
2528:
2518:
2496:
2494:
2490:
2483:
2461:
2460:
2377:
2375:
2363:
2341:
2322:
2308:Trudgill, Peter
2279:
2247:
2224:
2193:
2165:
2164:
2157:
2155:
2143:
2124:
2107:
2102:
2101:
2091:
2089:
2079:
2075:
2067:
2063:
2055:
2051:
2045:Gröschel (2009)
2043:
2039:
2031:
2027:
2019:
2015:
2007:
2003:
1995:
1991:
1983:
1979:
1971:
1967:
1959:
1955:
1949:Brozović (1992)
1947:
1943:
1935:
1931:
1923:
1919:
1909:
1907:
1900:
1894:
1890:
1882:
1878:
1874:, pp. 7–9.
1870:
1866:
1858:
1854:
1846:
1842:
1834:
1830:
1822:
1818:
1810:
1806:
1798:
1794:
1786:
1782:
1774:
1770:
1762:
1758:
1750:
1741:
1735:Horrocks (1997)
1733:
1729:
1723:Pearsall (1999)
1721:
1717:
1709:
1705:
1697:
1693:
1685:
1681:
1673:
1669:
1661:
1657:
1649:
1645:
1637:
1633:
1625:
1621:
1613:
1609:
1603:Trudgill (1992)
1601:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1581:, pp. 3–4.
1577:
1573:
1565:
1561:
1553:
1549:
1543:Trudgill (2004)
1541:
1537:
1529:
1525:
1517:
1513:
1505:
1494:
1486:
1482:
1474:
1470:
1462:
1458:
1450:
1446:
1440:Trudgill (2006)
1438:
1429:
1421:
1417:
1409:
1400:
1392:
1388:
1380:
1376:
1368:
1364:
1356:
1352:
1344:
1340:
1332:
1328:
1320:
1316:
1308:
1304:
1296:
1292:
1284:
1277:
1273:, pp. 1–3.
1269:
1265:
1257:
1253:
1245:
1241:
1233:
1229:
1221:
1217:
1209:
1205:
1197:
1193:
1187:Williams (1983)
1185:
1181:
1173:
1169:
1161:
1157:
1148:
1141:
1133:
1129:
1121:
1117:
1109:
1100:
1092:
1083:
1078:
1031:
1004:
984:Standard Somali
980:Northern Somali
972:
932:
920:
870:
854:
827:
822:
790:Classical Latin
778:
746:Dante Alighieri
725:
695:
689:
661:
625:
593:social prestige
569:British English
565:
559:
519:Beijing dialect
468:local varieties
461:
456:
450:
346:Suzanne Romaine
321:El buen español
317:Le bon français
281:social prestige
238:
87:standardization
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3822:
3812:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3762:
3761:
3747:
3746:External links
3744:
3742:
3741:
3724:
3718:
3705:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3675:
3666:
3660:
3645:
3639:
3624:
3618:
3605:
3599:
3586:
3576:(2): 167–177.
3562:
3513:
3504:
3490:
3462:
3449:
3439:(in Ukrainian)
3429:
3423:
3410:
3380:
3356:
3346:
3345:
3339:
3326:
3320:
3305:
3299:
3286:
3268:
3259:
3253:
3240:
3234:
3218:
3197:
3191:
3178:
3165:978-0203441497
3164:
3151:
3145:
3132:
3111:
3105:
3090:
3084:
3071:
3057:
3044:
3038:
3023:
2994:
2943:
2912:
2869:
2844:
2801:
2780:
2737:
2713:
2689:
2669:
2648:
2632:
2626:
2613:
2607:
2594:
2564:
2544:
2522:
2516:
2503:
2474:
2451:
2433:(2): 127–148.
2422:
2413:
2395:(4): 339–352.
2384:
2367:
2361:
2351:, ed. (1992).
2345:
2339:
2326:
2320:
2304:Chambers, J.K.
2300:
2291:
2277:
2259:
2245:
2228:
2222:
2206:
2197:
2191:
2178:
2147:
2141:
2128:
2122:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2073:
2061:
2059:, p. 571.
2049:
2037:
2025:
2023:, p. 314.
2013:
2011:, p. 103.
2009:Kafadar (2009)
2001:
1989:
1977:
1965:
1953:
1941:
1929:
1917:
1888:
1876:
1864:
1852:
1848:Coletti (2011)
1840:
1828:
1824:Eachach (2012)
1816:
1812:Eachach (2012)
1804:
1792:
1788:Eachach (2012)
1780:
1768:
1756:
1739:
1727:
1725:, p. xiv.
1715:
1703:
1691:
1679:
1677:, p. 247.
1667:
1655:
1653:, p. 135.
1643:
1631:
1619:
1607:
1595:
1583:
1571:
1559:
1555:Stewart (1968)
1547:
1535:
1533:, p. 122.
1523:
1511:
1509:, p. 685.
1507:Romaine (2008)
1492:
1480:
1476:Van Mol (2003)
1468:
1466:, p. 290.
1456:
1444:
1442:, p. 119.
1427:
1425:, p. 276.
1415:
1413:, p. 275.
1398:
1396:, p. 980.
1386:
1374:
1362:
1350:
1338:
1336:, p. 134.
1326:
1322:Kapović (2011)
1314:
1302:
1290:
1275:
1263:
1251:
1239:
1237:, p. 534.
1235:Stewart (1968)
1227:
1215:
1203:
1201:, p. 245.
1191:
1179:
1167:
1155:
1139:
1127:
1125:, p. 552.
1115:
1111:Finegan (2007)
1098:
1096:, p. 554.
1080:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1073:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1040:Koiné language
1037:
1030:
1027:
1003:
1000:
971:
968:
938:are spoken in
931:
930:Serbo-Croatian
928:
919:
916:
912:sotaque neutro
908:Belo Horizonte
850:sotaque neutro
841:Rio de Janeiro
826:
823:
821:
818:
782:Roman Republic
777:
774:
756:it became the
750:Italian states
733:Tuscan dialect
724:
721:
712:Irish language
691:Main article:
688:
685:
673:Standard Hindi
660:
657:
641:Ionian Islands
624:
621:
558:
555:
460:
457:
449:
446:
403:Dano-Norwegian
256:and normative
237:
234:
195:Schriftsprache
155:Serbo-Croatian
68:writing system
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3821:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3771:
3769:
3759:
3754:
3750:
3749:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3725:
3721:
3715:
3711:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3685:
3684:
3672:
3667:
3663:
3661:9789027200556
3657:
3653:
3652:
3646:
3642:
3640:9789042911581
3636:
3632:
3631:
3625:
3621:
3615:
3611:
3606:
3602:
3600:9783631526637
3596:
3592:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3524:(in French).
3523:
3519:
3514:
3510:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3450:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3420:
3416:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3348:
3347:
3342:
3340:1-55619-224-X
3336:
3332:
3327:
3323:
3321:9783110198539
3317:
3313:
3312:
3306:
3302:
3296:
3292:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3269:
3265:
3260:
3256:
3254:0-8061-2136-X
3250:
3246:
3241:
3237:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3222:Norman, Jerry
3219:
3207:
3203:
3198:
3194:
3188:
3184:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3161:
3157:
3152:
3148:
3146:9780192141835
3142:
3138:
3133:
3121:
3117:
3112:
3108:
3106:0-19-823581-X
3102:
3098:
3097:
3091:
3087:
3085:9781317899273
3081:
3077:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3054:
3050:
3045:
3041:
3039:9781137390608
3035:
3031:
3030:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3001:(in German).
3000:
2995:
2980:
2975:
2974:CROSBI 475567
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2924:
2920:
2919:
2913:
2898:
2893:
2892:CROSBI 426269
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2850:
2845:
2830:
2825:
2824:CROSBI 429734
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2798:
2794:
2786:
2781:
2766:
2761:
2760:CROSBI 430499
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2738:3-87690-885-X
2734:
2730:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2670:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2649:9783631599174
2645:
2641:
2640:
2633:
2629:
2623:
2619:
2614:
2610:
2608:9780582307094
2604:
2600:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2542:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2513:
2509:
2504:
2493:on 6 May 2013
2489:
2482:
2481:
2475:
2471:
2465:
2457:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2423:
2419:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2385:
2373:
2368:
2364:
2362:3-11-012855-1
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2340:9780807774021
2336:
2332:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2278:9783110128550
2274:
2270:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2246:3-89913-253-X
2242:
2238:
2234:
2229:
2225:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2169:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2138:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2119:
2115:
2110:
2109:
2088:
2084:
2077:
2070:
2065:
2058:
2053:
2046:
2041:
2034:
2029:
2022:
2021:Thomas (2003)
2017:
2010:
2005:
1998:
1997:Kordić (2004)
1993:
1986:
1981:
1974:
1973:Kordić (2009)
1969:
1962:
1957:
1950:
1945:
1938:
1933:
1926:
1921:
1906:
1899:
1892:
1885:
1884:Palmer (1988)
1880:
1873:
1872:Maiden (2014)
1868:
1862:, p. 22.
1861:
1856:
1849:
1844:
1837:
1836:Maiden (2014)
1832:
1825:
1820:
1813:
1808:
1801:
1796:
1789:
1784:
1777:
1772:
1765:
1760:
1753:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1736:
1731:
1724:
1719:
1712:
1707:
1700:
1695:
1688:
1683:
1676:
1675:Norman (1988)
1671:
1664:
1663:Norman (1988)
1659:
1652:
1651:Norman (1988)
1647:
1640:
1639:Norman (1988)
1635:
1628:
1627:Norman (1988)
1623:
1616:
1615:Norman (1988)
1611:
1604:
1599:
1592:
1587:
1580:
1575:
1569:, p. 11.
1568:
1563:
1556:
1551:
1544:
1539:
1532:
1527:
1520:
1519:Milroy (2007)
1515:
1508:
1503:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1490:, p. 71.
1489:
1484:
1478:, p. 11.
1477:
1472:
1465:
1460:
1453:
1448:
1441:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1424:
1419:
1412:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1395:
1390:
1383:
1378:
1372:, p. 15.
1371:
1366:
1360:, p. 69.
1359:
1354:
1347:
1342:
1335:
1330:
1323:
1318:
1311:
1306:
1299:
1294:
1287:
1286:Kordić (2007)
1282:
1280:
1272:
1267:
1260:
1255:
1249:, p. 31.
1248:
1243:
1236:
1231:
1224:
1219:
1212:
1211:Carter (1999)
1207:
1200:
1195:
1188:
1183:
1176:
1175:Davila (2016)
1171:
1165:, p. 22.
1164:
1159:
1152:
1146:
1144:
1136:
1131:
1124:
1119:
1113:, p. 14.
1112:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1095:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1081:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1026:
1024:
1012:
1009:
999:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
967:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
927:
915:
913:
909:
905:
901:
900:
895:
891:
886:
884:
880:
879:alveolar flap
876:
868:
852:
851:
846:
842:
838:
834:
833:
817:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
773:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
742:
738:
734:
730:
720:
717:
713:
708:
702:
701:
694:
684:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
656:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
620:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
564:
554:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
507:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
455:
445:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
420:Likewise, in
418:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
382:
379:
375:
371:
365:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
342:
337:
333:
329:
324:
322:
318:
314:
308:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
277:
275:
274:
269:
265:
264:
259:
255:
250:
248:
247:Modern Hebrew
243:
233:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
202:
196:
191:
187:
182:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
103:
98:
96:
92:
88:
84:
83:grammar books
80:
75:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
3799:Dialectology
3728:
3709:
3692:
3688:
3670:
3650:
3629:
3609:
3590:
3573:
3569:
3525:
3521:
3508:
3473:
3457:
3453:
3441:. Retrieved
3436:
3414:
3363:
3360:Šipka, Danko
3351:
3330:
3310:
3290:
3272:
3263:
3244:
3225:
3210:. Retrieved
3206:Gaelport.com
3205:
3182:
3155:
3136:
3124:. Retrieved
3095:
3075:
3048:
3028:
3002:
2998:
2986:. Retrieved
2922:
2917:
2904:. Retrieved
2860:
2836:. Retrieved
2792:
2772:. Retrieved
2728:
2703:(7): 29–41.
2700:
2696:
2693:Kloss, Heinz
2684:
2680:
2661:. Retrieved
2638:
2617:
2598:
2555:
2551:
2540:
2533:. Retrieved
2507:
2495:. Retrieved
2488:the original
2479:
2455:
2430:
2426:
2417:
2392:
2388:
2376:. Retrieved
2352:
2330:
2312:Dialectology
2311:
2295:
2267:
2236:
2232:
2213:
2210:Blake, N. F.
2201:
2182:
2156:. Retrieved
2132:
2113:
2105:Bibliography
2090:. Retrieved
2086:
2076:
2071:, p. 5.
2069:Saeed (1999)
2064:
2057:Dalby (1998)
2052:
2040:
2028:
2016:
2004:
1992:
1980:
1968:
1956:
1944:
1937:Šipka (2019)
1932:
1920:
1910:15 September
1908:. Retrieved
1904:
1891:
1879:
1867:
1855:
1843:
1838:, p. 3.
1831:
1819:
1807:
1795:
1783:
1771:
1759:
1730:
1718:
1706:
1699:Blake (1996)
1694:
1687:Smith (1996)
1682:
1670:
1658:
1646:
1634:
1622:
1610:
1598:
1591:Inoue (2006)
1586:
1574:
1562:
1550:
1538:
1531:Inoue (2006)
1526:
1514:
1483:
1471:
1459:
1454:, p. 9.
1447:
1423:Ammon (2004)
1418:
1411:Ammon (2004)
1389:
1377:
1365:
1353:
1341:
1334:Dunaj (1989)
1329:
1317:
1305:
1300:, p. 3.
1298:Clyne (1992)
1293:
1271:Clyne (1992)
1266:
1261:, p. 1.
1259:Clyne (1992)
1254:
1247:Kloss (1967)
1242:
1230:
1218:
1206:
1194:
1182:
1170:
1158:
1150:
1130:
1118:
1005:
996:Somali poets
973:
956:same dialect
933:
921:
911:
904:Minas Gerais
897:
887:
849:
830:
828:
794:Vulgar Latin
786:Roman Empire
779:
726:
716:Dáil Éireann
707:An Caighdeán
696:
662:
629:Modern Greek
626:
566:
542:
534:
526:
508:
503:
462:
419:
383:
366:
357:
353:
339:
325:
320:
316:
301:prescriptive
289:heteronomous
278:
271:
261:
258:dictionaries
251:
241:
239:
226:the standard
225:
221:
217:
213:
205:
199:
185:
183:
127:dictionaries
99:
86:
76:
56:codification
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
29:
3126:12 February
2092:13 December
2087:unicode.org
1985:Pohl (1996)
1752:Blum (2002)
1370:Vogl (2012)
1135:Auer (2011)
637:Peloponnese
581:upper class
502:, known as
358:nationalism
330:of a given
293:terminology
97:dialects.
79:linguistics
3768:Categories
3443:13 January
3437:Соціологія
3398:1061308790
3390:2018048005
3208:(in Irish)
2953:2011520778
2574:2009473660
2378:10 October
1764:BBC (2005)
1346:Соціологія
1223:Bex (2008)
1076:References
1070:Vernacular
948:Montenegro
865:) and the
820:Portuguese
659:Hindi-Urdu
605:Australian
452:See also:
422:Yugoslavia
399:Ivar Aasen
268:diachronic
143:Portuguese
119:denotative
95:vernacular
46:or simply
3794:Diglossia
3550:754204160
3542:0080-2557
3406:150383965
3282:243829127
3011:0044-2356
2969:15270636W
2961:729837512
2879:437306433
2811:182916790
2658:699514676
2590:15295665W
2582:428012015
2464:cite book
2447:147594600
2409:143816335
960:Štokavian
890:sociolect
875:São Paulo
798:sociolect
727:Standard
665:registers
619:, etc.)
539:Singapore
527:Pǔtōnghuà
434:Bulgarian
328:sociolect
240:The term
184:The term
50:) is any
3779:Language
3701:33981055
3558:208723-6
3362:(2019).
3224:(1988).
3212:2 August
3174:76969042
3120:Archived
3067:17650220
3019:201058-6
2988:5 August
2979:Archived
2897:Archived
2829:Archived
2765:Archived
2747:56198470
2719:(2004).
2709:30029461
2550:(2009).
2535:2 August
2497:2 August
2310:(1998).
2287:24668375
2255:51961066
2212:(1996).
2168:cite web
2158:18 March
1029:See also
1002:Encoding
894:prestige
869:spelled
845:Brasília
832:de facto
806:Hispania
796:was the
681:Pakistan
653:Cyclades
651:and the
617:Scottish
613:American
609:Canadian
587:and the
496:classics
472:Mandarin
448:Examples
411:Storting
407:Landsmål
311:and the
254:grammars
179:Japanese
167:Armenian
123:grammars
111:spelling
102:changing
72:prestige
48:standard
3737:2598722
3472:(ed.).
3226:Chinese
2906:5 April
2887:3438216
2819:3439662
2755:3434516
1008:Unicode
976:Somalia
958:basis (
944:Croatia
899:mineiro
766:Italian
760:of the
729:Italian
723:Italian
667:of the
585:peerage
504:Guānhuà
464:Chinese
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