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AAVE in schools by teachers not only insults the students that speak AAVE, but those insults also put the individuals who taught these students how to speak, such as their family members, in a subordinate position. In turn, this further reinforces stratification of social groups in a linguistic and social context. In schools around the world that teach
English, speaking "proper" English is emphasized, even if other varieties are equally valid and able to communicate the same ideas. In a school in Mumbai, India, there is a large emphasis placed on speaking "good English." Thus, proficiency is not determined by ability to convey ideas, but rather the grammatical adherence of the speaker to the rules used in the "standard" English variety, and speaking English that way. This not only perpetuates the idea of a "correct" way of speaking in the classroom, but this subordination extends well outside of the classroom.
915:-speakers noticed that certain features of their Spanish were evaluated negatively by local speakers. Spanish varieties spoken in Latin American countries have linguistic differences from the way many locals in Madrid speak. Their use of Latin American Spanish is associated with "symbolic and monetary capital (such as social class and ethnicity)." The study asserted that "To be accepted, therefore, the speakers have to "correct" these "errors" and "adapt" to the local variety of Spanish, which is considered the model to follow. In other words, to be acknowledged as full participants in their respective communities, these participants have to sound like locals." Thus, social class plays a role in determining prestige, impacting the way that Latin American Spanish is acknowledged.
1181:. Language convergence is when two languages have been exposed for a long period of time and they begin to have more properties in common. Language shift is when a speaker shifts from speaking a lower prestige dialect to a higher prestige dialect. Language death can happen in many ways, one of which is when speakers of a language die off, and there are no new generations learning to speak this language. The intensity of the contact between the two languages and their relative prestige levels influence the degree to which a language experiences lexical borrowing and changes to the
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a particular way and enjoy covert prestige in the
African American speech community. The study pointed out that "mainstream uses of AAVE 'slang' are especially prevalent in social circles that desire to create and project a heterosexual masculinity," and included examples of a Korean-American student using AAVE to gain recognition/acceptance in the African American speech community. This underscores that the relative status of language varies according to audience.
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443:(also known as Standard Arabic) is a more prestigious form. Prestige varieties do not exhibit features, grammatically speaking, which prove them superior in terms of logic, efficacy or aesthetics. With certain exceptions, they are the language varieties of the prestigious social classes. Therefore, the prestige variety of a given language community or nation-state has symbolic significance and may act as an instrument of political power.
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possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists: there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the
Sanskrit.
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settings, usage of this variety can result in negative connotations. Due to this, practitioners are often perceived as having minimal academic prowess or being lowly educated. They can also be associated with poverty or low economic means. These inherent stigmas and biases impede the AAVE speaker from academic, social, and economic success.
657:, notes that he "can't think of any situations in the United States where low-prestige groups have high-prestige language systems". Wolfram further emphasizes this in his PBS documentary "Do You Speak American?", and explains how there is a very clear hierarchy in which "modern American English" is at the top, and
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with a specific—and non-prestigious—group of people, or to signal to other speakers their identification with that group. The idea of covert prestige was first introduced by
William Labov, who noticed that even speakers who used non-standard dialects often believed that their own dialect was "bad" or
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The education system is one of the primary agents in emphasizing a "standard" way of speaking. For example, Wolfram's documentary also shows how speakers of AAVE are often corrected by teachers, since it has linguistic features that are different from what has been deemed the "standard." Criticism of
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Prestige varieties are those that are regarded mostly highly within a society. As such, the standard language, the form promoted by authorities—usually governmental or from those in power—and considered "correct" or otherwise superior, is often the prestige variety. However, there are many exceptions
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In a study by Elaine Chun, it was noted that even though the use of
African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) is not viewed as the standard in many American schools, and thus is often corrected by teachers, there are some instances where non-African Americans use AAVE to construct their identity in
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The prestige accorded to the churchmen, lawyers and scholars who used Latin was transferred to the language itself. Latin was held to be noble and beautiful, not just the thoughts expressed in it or the people who used it. What is called 'beauty' in a language is more accurately seen as a reflection
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Different languages and dialects are accorded prestige based upon factors, including "rich literary heritage, high degree of language modernization, considerable international standing, or the prestige of its speakers". These, and other attributes and factors contribute to how the language is viewed
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of language is inherently better than any other, for every language serves its purpose of allowing its users to communicate. This is because every variety of a language is systematic and rule governed. These rules do not contain a hierarchy, thus certain varieties—linguistically—are not placed above
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The presence of prestige dialects is a result of the relationship between the prestige of a group of people and the language that they use. Generally, the language or variety that is regarded as more prestigious in that community is the one used by the more prestigious group. The level of prestige a
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situation, the creole that results is typically largely based on the prestige language; as noted above, linguists have observed that the low-prestige language usually provides the phonology while the high-prestige language provides the lexicon and grammatical structure. Over time, continued contact
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will more closely resemble that of their neighbors across the border than the standard languages of their respective home countries. Even so, speakers near the border would describe themselves as speaking a variety of their respective standard languages, and the evolution of these dialects tends to
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societies by John Angle and
Sharlene Hesse-Biber showed that the poorer men were more likely to speak the prestige language than were poorer women, even though women were more particularly "drawn to the language of the rich." One explanation put forth for this is that poorer men are more likely to
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prestigious dialect than that which they actually spoke. According to this interpretation then, "women's use of prestige features simply conforms to the ordinary sociolinguistic order, while men deviate from what is expected." Elizabeth Gordon, in her study of New
Zealand, suggested instead that
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is related to the prestige of the languages spoken in the community. In general, "greater prestige tends to be attached to the notion of the standard, since it can function in higher domains, and has a written form." While there are some counterexamples, such as Arabic, "prestigious and standard
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Another prime example of covert prestige is within popular culture. The pervasiveness of hip hop music and its usage of AAVE has coined many widely used terms. Usage of AAVE has created a certain social capital, or clout, in certain social contexts. Contrastingly, in educational or hierarchical
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Social class has a correlation with the language that is considered more prestigious, and studies in different communities have shown that sometimes members of a lower social class attempt to emulate the language of individuals in higher social classes to avoid how their distinct language would
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The
Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could
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The debate was extremely controversial, with beliefs stemming from the same beliefs that govern morality, religion, and ethics. Similar to the beliefs that govern these areas, the debate on
Ebonics was believed to be inflexible. The discussion "surfaced foundational beliefs about language and
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controversy of 1996. Illustrating the pervasiveness of public views on socio-educational issues in relation to language diversity, the
Oakland, California school board came to a resolution recognizing Ebonics within public education. This proposition recognized Ebonics as a language system in
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The prevailing view among contemporary linguists is that, regardless of perceptions that a dialect or language is "better" or "worse" than its counterparts, when dialects and languages are assessed "on purely linguistic grounds, all languages—and all dialects—have equal merit".
690:, and Jasmine's father have American accents, but several other characters do not. Associating the American accent with sympathetic or prestigious characters in children's TV shows/movies can have negative implications, contributing to the formation of stereotypes and biases.
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wrote that "the importance of language as a mirror of culture can be demonstrated by dialect differences in American English". Thus the relation between the way speakers use a language and their social status is a long recognized tool in sociolinguistics.
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In diglossic societies, the prestigious language tends to conservatively resist change over time while the low-prestige language, the local vernacular, undergoes normal language change. For instance, Latin, the high prestige language of
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Far more common is for the two languages to have an unequal power relationship, as is the case of many colonial language contact situations. Languages that have a higher status in relation to a certain group often manifest themselves in
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otherwise construct their identity. The relationship between language and identity construction as a result of prestige influences the language used by different individuals, depending on which groups they do belong or want to belong.
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urban areas, in which there are likely to be speakers of different languages and/or dialects interacting often. The result of language contact depends on the power relationship between the languages of the groups that are in contact.
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or variety which is considered prestigious in one context will not carry the same status in another. The relative status of language varies according to audience, situation and other contextual elements such as geographic location.
581:"Language is intertwined with culture," therefore there is often a strong correlation between the prestige of a group of people and the prestige accorded to the language they speak, as linguist Laurie Bauer's description of
897:. Remarkably, the speech differences between Hindus and Muslims "are of the same order as those between individual touchable castes and certainly much less important than the variation between touchables and untouchables".
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That they are classified as such reflects the fact that "language differences are not only marks of differential group membership, but also powerful triggers of group attitudes". Such fuzziness has resulted in the
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Some instances of contact between languages with different prestige levels have resulted in diglossia, a phenomenon in which a community uses a high prestige language or dialect in certain situations, usually for
361:, which may not be distinctive enough to constitute a separate dialect. The concept of prestige provides one explanation for the phenomenon of variation in form among speakers of a language or languages.
1043:"inferior". Labov realized that there must be some underlying reason for their use of the dialect, which he identified as a signal of group identity. One example is a 1998 study on the use of word-final
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for many centuries, underwent minimal change while the everyday low prestige spoken languages evolved significantly. If, however, the two languages are spoken freely, the prestige language may undergo
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Many films and TV shows (especially children's TV shows) use different language varieties for different characters, which constructs their identity in particular ways. For example, the protagonists of
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attempts for the city to receive public funding for bilingual situations. Heavy debate arose amongst members of congress, newscasters, and other commentators with relatively no linguistics knowledge.
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at all. Another trend Labov noticed was that at all three of the stores, but Macy's in particular, when prompted to say "fourth floor" a second time, employees were much more likely to pronounce the
1142:. One example is in English, which features many French words, as a result of the historical prestige of French. Another potential result of such contact relationships includes the creation of a
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of the prestige away from the regional standard, as higher prestige groups sought to differentiate themselves from lower prestige groups. He concluded that in determining speech patterns in this
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When different language varieties come into contact, a variety of relationships can form between the two, all typically influenced by prestige. When they have equal power or prestige, they form
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group has can also influence whether the language that they speak is considered its own language or a dialect (implying that it does not have enough prestige to be considered its own language).
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at all. The difference between this study and the "fourth floor" study was the fact that speakers were closely monitoring their speech, not speaking spontaneously, and were thus careful to add
775:." That is, speakers of some language variety with political and social power are viewed as having a distinct language, while "'dialect' is a term that suggests lower-class or rural speech".
1232:(the most "conservative" creole). An example of decreolization described by Hock and Joseph is African American Vernacular English (AAVE), in which older, more conservative versions preserve
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of prestige in the Arabic language, after which she concluded that in Baghdadi Arabic, women are more conscious of prestige than are men. Other areas in which this has been observed include
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It started a moment in time in which Sanskrit was considered the oldest language in the world, followed by other languages increasing their prestige by claiming to be as close to a presumed
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976:, "with the loss of Britain's imperial status 'r'-less British speech ceased to be regarded as 'prestige speech'". In 1966, when Labov performed his study, pronouncing words like
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Wang, Limei; Ladegaard, Hans J. (2008). "Language Attitudes and Gender in China: Perceptions and Reported Use of Putonghua and Cantonese in the Southern Province of Guangdong".
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employees, once made conscious of having to pronounce "fourth floor", altering their pronunciation in order to match that of the high prestige dialect. The prestige given to
1090:. As explanation, Trudgill suggests that for men, there is covert prestige associated with speaking the working-class dialect. In fact, he observed men claiming to speak a
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prestige among working-class men for the very reason that they are considered incorrect". These situations occur when the speaker wants to gain recognition, acceptance, or
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causes for differences in dialects. Very often, the "public prestige dialect of the elite in a stratified community differs from the dialect(s) of the non-elite strata (
676:, while minor characters or antagonists are more likely to speak with other accents. This is true even when characters would not logically speak English, as in the film
798:, where language differences "constitute barriers to but do not wholly block communication", but are considered distinct languages because they are spoken in different
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Labov attributed his findings to the perceived prestige of each dialect. He noted that New York City's "dropped 'r' has its origins in posh British speech", but after
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developed different forms in countries such as Italy, France, Portugal, Spain, Catalonia, as well as other Roman Catholic nations, notably in pronunciation – see
1154:. In the case of pidgins and creoles, it is usually noted that the low prestige language provides the phonology while the high prestige language provides the
1004:-pronunciation was a prestigious trait, many of the lower-class speakers in another Labov study—in which speakers were asked to read from word lists—added
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are language or dialect families which are generally considered by a society to be the most "correct" or otherwise superior. In many cases, they are the
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to demonstrate what they saw as working-class behavioral traits, such as 'hard-working' and 'casual,' thus creating a specific identity for themselves.
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prestige. Overt prestige is related to standard and "formal" language features, and expresses power and status; covert prestige is related more to
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Gumperz also observed that the lower prestige groups sought to imitate the higher prestige speech patterns and that over time, it had caused the
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Non-standard dialects are usually considered low-prestige, but in some situations dialects "stigmatized by the education system still enjoy a
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have the means of acquiring a second language than poorer women as a result of having "greater exposure" and "greater economic motivation."
953:(low)—and studied how their employees pronounced the phrase "fourth floor". His results demonstrated that the employees at Saks pronounced
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The terms and conditions of prestige assigned to a language variety are subject to change depending on speaker, situation and context. A
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Though women use prestige dialects more than men, the same gender preference for prestige languages does not seem to exist. A study of
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as being of high prestige, leaving a language or dialect with few or none of these attributes to be considered to be of low prestige.
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493:, since it equates "nonstandard" or "substandard" language with "nonstandard or substandard human beings." Linguists believe that no
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Bauer, Laurie (1998). "Myth 16: You Shouldn't Say 'It is Me' because 'Me' is Accusative". In Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill (ed.).
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Abu-Haidar, Farida (December 1989). "Are Iraqi Women More Prestige Conscious than Men? Sex Differentiation in Baghdadi Arabic".
1106:. Whatever the cause, women across many cultures seem more likely than men to modify their speech towards the prestige dialect.
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is highly valued). In addition to dialects and languages, prestige is also applied to smaller linguistic features, such as the
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men in the United States. The fraternity men used "-in" rather than "-ing," from which the author concluded that the men used
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In 1958, one of the earliest studies of the relationship between social differences and dialect differences was published by
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between 1200 and 1600, the vowel system in England became nearly unrecognizable to its European ecclesiastic counterparts.
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observed that more working-class women spoke the standard dialect than men. Farida Abu-Haidar performed a similar study in
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Language History, Language Change, and Language Relationship: An Introduction to Historical and Comparative Linguistics
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1283:'s 1959 article "Diglossia" listed the following examples of diglossic societies: in the Middle East and North Africa,
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1315:. In most African countries, a European language serves as the official, prestige language (Standard French, English,
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language diversity and exposed an alternative, non-mainstream set of beliefs about language and language variation."
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Gordon, Elizabeth (March 1997). "Sex, Speech, and Stereotypes: Why Women Use Prestige Speech Forms More than Men".
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Sociolinguistic prestige is especially visible in situations where two or more distinct languages are used, and in
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or features will be considered more prestigious depends on audience and context. There are thus the concepts of
2076:"Language surveillance: Pressure to follow local models of speakerhood among Latin American students in Madrid"
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2212:"The Construction of White, Black, and Korean American Identities through African American Vernacular English"
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The prestige language may also change under the influence of specific regional dialects in a process known as
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Ibrahim, Muhammad H. (Spring 1986). "Standard and Prestige Language: A Problem in Arabic Sociolinguistics".
1267:, but uses a low prestige language or dialect for other situations, often in conversation in the home or in
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1216:, in which the creole begins to more closely resemble the prestige language. Decreolization thus creates a
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wrote that "sometimes two communities are said to have the same, or different, languages on the grounds of
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661:(AAVE) is at the bottom, because AAVE is seldom considered "standard" English in academic settings.
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believes that this belief in a standard language defends and rationalizes the preservation of the
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3166:(1992). "Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe".
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One notable example of the relationship between dialect and social stratification in English is
598:, multiple languages were considered to be of high prestige at some time or another, including "
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Angle, John; Hesse-Biber, Sharlene (April 1981). "Gender and Prestige Preference in Language".
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908:, "the determining factor seems to be informal friendship contacts" rather than work contacts.
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When two languages with an asymmetrical power relationship come into contact, such as through
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Kloss, Heinz (1966). "Types of Multilingual Communities: A Discussion of Ten Variables".
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One of the primary examples of the debate of prestige within the media is the Oakland
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3192:"Sex, Covert Prestige and Linguistic Change in the Urban British English of Norwich"
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Smith, Graham; Law, Vivien; Wilson, Andrew; Bohr, Annette; Allworth, Edward (1998).
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Preston, Dennis R. (1996). "Whaddayaknow? The Modes of Folk Linguistic Awareness".
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Nation-Building in the Post-Soviet Borderlands: The Politics of National Identities
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varieties coincide to the extent that the two terms can be used interchangeably."
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English with an Accent: Language, Ideology and Discrimination in the United States
1813:"Learning to Speak 'Good English': Notes from an English-Speaking Class in Mumbai"
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McDavid, Raven (December 1946). "Dialect Geography and Social Science Problems".
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and other)". In fact, in an article which in part tried to motivate the study of
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1882:"Language Ideology and Dialect: Understanding the Oakland Ebonics Controversy"
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O'Grady, William; Archibald, John; Aronoff, Mark; Rees-Miller, Janie (2001).
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Haugen, Einar (1966b). "Semicommunication: The language gap in Scandinavia".
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less often, and at S. Klein, seventy-nine percent of the respondents said no
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478:" belief that the most prestigious dialect is the single standard dialect of
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Kroch, Anthony (April 1978). "Toward a Theory of Social Dialect Variation".
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2872:"Men's Identities and Sociolinguistic Variation: The Case of Fraternity Men"
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1224:(a version of the creole that is very similar to the prestige language), to
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of the language, though there are exceptions, particularly in situations of
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Sacred Language, Ordinary People: Dilemmas of Culture and Politics in Egypt
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being pronounced in Italy but in France, but after English underwent the
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refers to relatively high value placed on a non-standard form of language.
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2655:"Dialect Differences and Social Stratification in a North Indian Village"
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An example of this was also observed in a study in Madrid, Spain, where
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Kahane, Henry (September 1986). "A Typology of the Prestige Language".
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1788:"Do You Speak American. What Speech Do We Like Best? . Prestige | PBS"
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728:, or lack thereof", but alone, this definition is often insufficient.
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2512:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press – via ProQuest ebrary.
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was then considered an element of prestige speech. This resulted in
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are not mutually intelligible, the speech of people living near the
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Gumperz observed that the different castes were distinguished both
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This phenomenon is not limited to English-speaking populations. In
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Level of respect towards a language variety in a speech community
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women used higher prestige forms because of the association of
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Prestige influences whether a language variety is considered a
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1134:, which shared elements with each other more or less equally.
2933:] (in Spanish). Madrid: Euphonía Ediciones. p. 416.
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and begin to incorporate vernacular features. An example is
1755:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 273–275.
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between the creole and the prestige language may result in
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In addition to forming a new language, known as a creole,
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speak many different languages and come from a variety of
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Rojo, Luisa Martín; Reiter, Rosina Márquez (2019-05-27).
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deal primarily with United States and do not represent a
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Niedzielski, Nancy A.; Preston, Dennis Richard (2003).
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Different language varieties in an area exist along a
2596:"The Way We Live Now: 9-12-99: On Language; Dialects"
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at the bottom, and 90% of the overall population was
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or a dialect. In discussing definitions of language,
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337:, relative to other languages or dialects. Prestige
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is the level of regard normally accorded a specific
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2786:"Sociolinguistics and the ethnography of speaking"
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2508:Eckert, Penelope; Rickford, John R., eds. (2002).
2080:International Journal of the Sociology of Language
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3016:The Social Stratification of English in New York
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2323:
2185:
1386:. Some of these differences were minor, such as
1339:) serve as everyday languages of communication.
1243:while newer, less conservative versions do not.
742:This continuum means that despite the fact that
2390:
1066:Likewise, in studies of the speech patterns in
763:mirror that of the standard languages as well.
2540:Fasold, Ralph W.; Connor-Linton, Jeff (2006).
2507:
1850:
1848:
1501:
1016:in an attempt to mimic a higher social class.
3224:
2765:Hock, Hans Henrich; Joseph, Brian D. (1996).
2284:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1023:
1000:observed in lower-class speech. Knowing that
773:A language is a dialect with an army and navy
531:The examples and perspective in this section
298:
3168:International Journal of Applied Linguistics
3018:. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
2493:. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
810:While some differences between dialects are
2542:An Introduction to Language and Linguistics
2489:Chambers, Jack K.; Trudgill, Peter (1998).
1854:
1845:
739:often means a change in the local variety.
2764:
2397:
2381:
2369:
2346:
2260:
2073:
2045:
2043:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1507:
549:, or create a new section, as appropriate.
408:, and expresses solidarity, community and
305:
291:
3253:
3207:
2726:
2673:
2576:
2544:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2161:
2149:
2126:
2095:
1950:
1828:
1676:
1453:Language planning and policy in Singapore
1189:, and overall structure of the language.
937:that catered to three clearly delineated
585:'s prestige exemplifies this phenomenon:
565:Learn how and when to remove this message
3186:
3162:
3143:
2869:
2558:
2358:
2319:
2317:
2248:
2197:
2138:
1938:
1810:
1558:
1228:(decreasingly similar versions), to the
957:most often, Macy's employees pronounced
439:aimed at international audiences, while
3274:
3122:
3051:
2831:
2810:
2743:
2708:
2649:
2335:
2061:
2049:
2040:
2034:
2022:
2010:
1986:
1974:
1962:
1879:
1640:
1617:
1605:
1586:
1584:
1582:
1547:
3323:
3277:An Introduction to Contact Linguistics
2919:
2840:
2612:
2516:
2308:
2296:
2272:
1736:
1712:
1700:
416:Standard varieties and covert prestige
3032:
3010:
2973:
2898:
2783:
2690:
2463:
2314:
2173:
1998:
1926:
1782:
1780:
1724:
1688:
1652:
1629:
1590:
1573:
1490:
1192:
838:, who studied the speech patterns in
705:
2209:
1579:
1569:
1567:
933:. Labov went to three New York City
626:Similarly, when British philologist
517:
18:
3257:An Introduction to Sociolinguistics
2593:
2510:Style and Sociolinguistic Variation
1518:
1259:, for religious ceremonies, and on
1117:
659:African American Vernacular English
13:
3180:10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x
2913:10.1111/j.1475-682X.1966.tb00621.x
2758:10.1111/j.1475-682X.1966.tb00630.x
2525:. Cambridge, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
2470:. London: Penguin Books. pp.
2216:Journal of Linguistic Anthropology
1777:
1378:. For example, in medieval times,
14:
3367:
3295:
1811:Malhotra, Shrishti (2018-12-06).
1564:
647:, both in Europe and South Asia.
3301:
3108:. Boston: Bedford St. Martin's.
2790:Social Anthropology and Language
2521:The Sociolinguistics of Language
1412:
653:, a professor of linguistics at
590:of the prestige of its speakers.
522:
273:
264:
263:
214:
213:
23:
3146:"The Academy: Talking the Tawk"
2375:
2363:
2352:
2340:
2329:
2302:
2290:
2278:
2266:
2254:
2242:
2203:
2191:
2179:
2167:
2155:
2143:
2132:
2120:
2067:
2055:
2028:
2016:
2004:
1992:
1980:
1968:
1956:
1944:
1932:
1920:
1873:
1817:Contemporary Education Dialogue
1804:
1742:
1730:
1718:
1706:
1694:
1682:
1670:
1658:
1646:
1634:
1623:
1611:
1542:Fasold & Connor-Linton 2006
1169:can result in changes, such as
805:
655:North Carolina State University
388:Additionally, which varieties,
3144:Seabrook, David (2005-11-14).
2792:. London: Routledge. pp.
2709:Haugen, Einar (August 1966a).
2578:10.1080/00437956.1959.11659702
1886:Journal of English Linguistics
1665:Niedzielski & Preston 2003
1535:
1495:
1484:
1008:to words that did not have an
482:that all people should speak.
1:
3331:Language varieties and styles
3306:The dictionary definition of
3137:10.1080/09658416.1996.9959890
3087:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
2728:10.1525/aa.1966.68.4.02a00040
2675:10.1525/aa.1958.60.4.02a00050
2559:Ferguson, Charles A. (1959).
850:. In all, the village has 31
842:, a small, highly stratified
672:animated films tend to speak
645:Proto-Indo-European mythology
2594:Fox, Margalit (1999-09-12).
2391:General and cited references
2324:Angle & Hesse-Biber 1981
2186:Chambers & Trudgill 1998
1855:Lippi-Green, Rosina (2001).
1478:
1384:Latin regional pronunciation
682:, where the title character
641:Proto-Indo-European language
615:; and the 17th-18th century
7:
3035:A Social History of English
2876:Journal of Sociolinguistics
2870:Kiesling, Scott F. (1998).
2813:Anthropological Linguistics
2711:"Dialect, Language, Nation"
1880:Wolfram, Walt (June 1998).
1504:, pp. 2–4, 24, 260–263
1405:
889:, with each caste having a
611:and as the language of the
545:, discuss the issue on the
36:to comply with Knowledge's
10:
3372:
3254:Wardhaugh, Ronald (2006).
2834:Egyptian Arabic Phrasebook
2788:. In Edwin Ardener (ed.).
1898:10.1177/007542429802600203
1859:. Routledge; 2nd Edition.
1502:Eckert & Rickford 2002
1319:), while local languages (
1196:
1027:
1024:Gender and covert prestige
924:variable pronunciation of
814:in nature, there are also
709:
419:
3336:Linguistic discrimination
3209:10.1017/S0047404500000488
2988:10.1017/S0047404500005315
2627:10.1017/S0047404500019400
2412:10.1017/S0047404500013865
2285:Wang & Ladegaard 2008
2228:10.1525/jlin.2001.11.1.52
1463:List of prestige dialects
874:, with the remaining 10%
674:Standard American English
513:
248:Sociocultural linguistics
3356:Sociological terminology
3275:Winford, Donald (2003).
3260:. Blackwell Publishing.
3105:Contemporary Linguistics
2931:Language and Nationalism
2691:Haeri, Niloofar (2003),
2210:Chun, Elaine W. (2001).
1830:10.1177/0973184918802878
996:was also evident in the
49:may contain suggestions.
34:may need to be rewritten
3341:Linguistics terminology
2888:10.1111/1467-9481.00031
2832:Jenkins, Siona (2001),
2715:American Anthropologist
2662:American Anthropologist
1428:Conservative (language)
782:example of this is the
243:Linguistic anthropology
160:Phono-semantic matching
3316:Do You Speak American?
2695:, Palgrave Macmillan,
2517:Fasold, Ralph (1990).
2382:Hock & Joseph 1996
2370:Hock & Joseph 1996
2347:Hock & Joseph 1996
2088:10.1515/ijsl-2019-2019
1458:Linguistic imperialism
1363:and for word-initial
913:Latin American Spanish
784:Scandinavian languages
726:mutual intelligibility
637:
592:
458:In countries like the
427:to this rule, such as
359:grammatical constructs
238:Historical linguistics
180:Linguistic description
150:Homophonic translation
3037:. London: Routledge.
2926:Lengua y Nacionalismo
2769:. Walter de Gruyter.
1301:Swiss Standard German
1197:Further information:
1160:grammatical structure
1028:Further information:
922:'s 1966 study of the
710:Further information:
632:
587:
412:more than authority.
357:or usage of words or
253:Sociology of language
3033:Leith, Dick (1997).
2901:Sociological Inquiry
2784:Hymes, Dell (1971).
2746:Sociological Inquiry
1380:Ecclesiastical Latin
1171:language convergence
1126:, as exemplified by
686:, his love interest
543:improve this section
351:non-standard dialect
3196:Language in Society
2976:Language in Society
2615:Language in Society
2400:Language in Society
1530:O'Grady et al. 2001
1281:Charles A. Ferguson
1257:university campuses
1030:Language and gender
643:or linked to other
378:socially stratified
233:Applied linguistics
3227:Language Awareness
3125:Language Awareness
2961:on 3 November 2019
2600:The New York Times
2449:10.1007/BF00288072
1727:, pp. 132–137
1703:, pp. 322–328
1691:, pp. 143–144
1448:Language attrition
1299:; in Switzerland,
1289:vernacular Arabics
1220:, ranging from an
1193:Language structure
893:specific to their
706:Language attitudes
487:Rosina Lippi-Green
435:is widely used in
279:Linguistics portal
175:Language varieties
170:Discourse analysis
155:Macaronic language
3286:978-0-631-21251-5
3267:978-1-4051-3559-7
3094:978-3-11-017554-7
3044:978-0-415-16456-6
3025:978-0-521-82122-3
2940:978-84-936668-8-0
2776:978-3-11-014785-8
2551:978-0-521-84768-1
2532:978-0-631-13825-9
2500:978-0-521-59646-6
1443:Dialect levelling
1400:Great Vowel Shift
1349:vernacularization
1238:completive marker
1102:with lower-class
935:department stores
733:dialect continuum
575:
574:
567:
448:standard language
422:Standard language
315:
314:
99:Language planning
94:Language ideology
64:
63:
38:quality standards
3363:
3351:Sociolinguistics
3305:
3290:
3271:
3250:
3221:
3211:
3190:(October 1972).
3183:
3159:
3157:
3156:
3140:
3119:
3098:
3084:Folk Linguistics
3077:
3048:
3029:
3007:
2970:
2968:
2966:
2957:. Archived from
2956:
2921:Kordić, Snježana
2916:
2895:
2890:. Archived from
2866:
2837:
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2807:
2780:
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1929:, pp. 47–92
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1499:
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1488:
1468:Raciolinguistics
1422:
1420:Languages portal
1417:
1416:
1362:
1337:Nigerian English
1307:; and in Haiti,
1218:creole continuum
1167:language contact
1118:Language contact
824:sociolinguistics
570:
563:
559:
556:
550:
526:
525:
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452:speech community
446:The notion of a
335:speech community
319:sociolinguistics
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70:Sociolinguistics
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3239:10.2167/la425.0
3188:Trudgill, Peter
3164:Trudgill, Peter
3154:
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3095:
3066:10.2307/2571555
3045:
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2836:, Lonely Planet
2804:
2777:
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2653:(August 1958).
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1433:Cultural cringe
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1376:regionalization
1309:Standard French
1285:Standard Arabic
1277:popular culture
1201:
1195:
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1068:British English
1032:
1026:
998:hypercorrection
862:at the top, to
854:, ranging from
808:
744:standard German
714:
708:
571:
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554:
551:
540:
527:
523:
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508:Covert prestige
476:folk linguistic
441:Literary Arabic
433:Egyptian Arabic
424:
418:
347:covert prestige
311:
104:Multilingualism
89:Language change
60:
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3296:External links
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3222:
3202:(2): 175–195.
3184:
3174:(2): 167–177.
3160:
3150:The New Yorker
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3099:
3093:
3078:
3060:(2): 168–172.
3049:
3043:
3030:
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3012:Labov, William
3008:
2971:
2939:
2917:
2907:(2): 135–145.
2896:
2894:on 2017-10-11.
2867:
2855:10.2307/415474
2849:(3): 495–508.
2838:
2829:
2819:(1): 115–126.
2808:
2803:978-0422737005
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2752:(2): 280–297.
2741:
2721:(4): 922–935.
2706:
2702:978-0312238971
2701:
2688:
2668:(4): 668–682.
2664:. New Series.
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2571:(2): 325–340.
2556:
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2499:
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2481:978-0140260236
2480:
2467:Language Myths
2461:
2443:(4): 449–461.
2432:
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2127:Wardhaugh 2006
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2082:(257): 17–48.
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1951:Wardhaugh 2006
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1872:
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1333:Ivorian French
1331:) or creoles (
1313:Haitian Creole
1214:decreolization
1194:
1191:
1179:language death
1175:language shift
1146:or eventually
1140:word borrowing
1119:
1116:
1072:Peter Trudgill
1051:among college
1025:
1022:
949:(middle), and
883:phonologically
807:
804:
748:standard Dutch
737:geographically
707:
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596:Western Europe
573:
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537:of the subject
535:worldwide view
530:
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420:Main article:
417:
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2383:
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2371:
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2359:Ferguson 1959
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2349:, p. 443
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2326:, p. 449
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2250:
2249:Trudgill 1972
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2199:
2198:Kiesling 1998
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2164:, p. 167
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2158:
2152:, p. 165
2151:
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2139:Seabrook 2005
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2129:, p. 164
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2037:, p. 675
2036:
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2025:, p. 670
2024:
2019:
2013:, p. 168
2012:
2007:
2000:
1995:
1989:, p. 281
1988:
1983:
1977:, p. 924
1976:
1971:
1965:, p. 297
1964:
1959:
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1941:, p. 169
1940:
1939:Trudgill 1992
1935:
1928:
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1762:0-521-59045-0
1758:
1754:
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1739:, p. 495
1738:
1733:
1726:
1721:
1715:, p. 498
1714:
1709:
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1679:, p. 335
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1575:
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1561:, p. 194
1560:
1559:Trudgill 1972
1555:
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32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
3308:
3276:
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3230:
3226:
3199:
3195:
3171:
3167:
3153:. Retrieved
3149:
3128:
3124:
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3057:
3053:
3034:
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2982:(1): 17–36.
2979:
2975:
2963:. Retrieved
2959:the original
2930:
2925:
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2900:
2892:the original
2879:
2875:
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2842:
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2816:
2812:
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2749:
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2692:
2665:
2661:
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2618:
2614:
2603:. Retrieved
2599:
2568:
2564:
2541:
2520:
2509:
2491:Dialectology
2490:
2466:
2440:
2436:
2403:
2399:
2377:
2365:
2354:
2342:
2336:Winford 2003
2331:
2311:, p. 48
2304:
2292:
2287:, p. 57
2280:
2275:, p. 47
2268:
2256:
2244:
2222:(1): 52–64.
2219:
2215:
2205:
2200:, p. 94
2193:
2188:, p. 85
2181:
2176:, p. 96
2169:
2157:
2145:
2134:
2122:
2097:10486/713438
2079:
2069:
2062:Gumperz 1958
2057:
2050:Gumperz 1958
2035:Gumperz 1958
2030:
2023:Gumperz 1958
2018:
2011:McDavid 1946
2006:
2001:, p. 17
1994:
1987:Haugen 1966b
1982:
1975:Haugen 1966a
1970:
1963:Haugen 1966b
1958:
1953:, p. 31
1946:
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1856:
1820:
1816:
1806:
1795:. Retrieved
1791:
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1744:
1732:
1720:
1708:
1696:
1684:
1672:
1667:, p. 44
1660:
1648:
1641:Preston 1996
1636:
1625:
1618:Jenkins 2001
1613:
1606:Ibrahim 1986
1593:, p. 85
1576:, p. 58
1537:
1532:, p. 7.
1525:
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1486:
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1391:
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1368:
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1341:
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1245:
1240:
1236:such as the
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1202:
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1152:nativization
1136:
1121:
1108:
1091:
1065:
1061:
1056:
1048:
1044:
1035:
1033:
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1009:
1005:
1001:
993:
990:middle-class
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981:
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958:
954:
925:
917:
910:
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836:John Gumperz
833:
809:
806:Social class
786:, including
777:
765:
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651:Walt Wolfram
649:
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580:
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491:social order
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445:
425:
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393:
387:
383:
371:
367:
363:
322:
316:
108:
76:Key concepts
52:
43:You can help
33:
2561:"Diglossia"
2309:Gordon 1997
2297:Fasold 1990
2273:Gordon 1997
1823:: 141–151.
1792:www.pbs.org
1737:Kahane 1986
1713:Kahane 1986
1701:Kordić 2014
1655:, p. 8
1279:. Linguist
1128:Old English
1080:New Zealand
760:Netherlands
630:published:
613:Renaissance
431:, in which
3325:Categories
3155:2013-06-14
2605:2009-03-23
2174:Leith 1997
1999:Kroch 1978
1927:Hymes 1971
1797:2020-10-09
1725:Bauer 1998
1689:Kloss 1966
1653:Leith 1997
1630:Haeri 2003
1591:Labov 2006
1574:Labov 2006
1491:Kroch 1978
1317:Portuguese
1261:television
1253:literature
1249:newspapers
1183:morphology
1100:immorality
1053:fraternity
1040:solidarity
895:subculture
891:vocabulary
722:Dell Hymes
437:mass media
404:and often
402:vernacular
190:Pragmatics
55:April 2023
3279:. Wiley.
3247:145146740
3131:: 40–74.
3004:143516854
2965:7 October
2949:16814702W
2882:: 69–99.
2643:145780489
2587:239352211
2457:143847747
2437:Sex Roles
2428:145776668
2236:1548-1395
2114:164806265
2106:0165-2516
1914:144554543
1906:0075-4242
1839:158825454
1479:Citations
1297:Dhimotiki
1275:, and in
1226:mesolects
1199:Diglossia
1124:adstratum
1111:diglossic
1084:Guangdong
906:community
902:evolution
887:lexically
800:countries
796:Norwegian
780:canonical
547:talk page
498:another.
390:registers
349:(where a
339:varieties
333:within a
145:Diglossia
114:Variation
47:talk page
3309:prestige
3014:(2006).
2923:(2014).
2843:Language
2825:30027950
1771:37755070
1519:Fox 1999
1473:Vergonha
1406:See also
1353:Sanskrit
1263:and the
1234:features
1230:basilect
1222:acrolect
1207:or in a
1150:through
951:S. Klein
945:(high),
856:Brahmins
840:Khalapur
812:regional
769:aphorism
758:and the
754:between
718:language
541:You may
484:Linguist
468:national
464:citizens
462:, where
327:language
323:prestige
269:Category
200:Soramimi
185:Loanword
165:Register
109:Prestige
3218:4166683
3074:2571555
2996:4166972
2635:4168749
2472:132–137
2420:4168077
1390:before
1325:Bambara
1269:letters
1209:refugee
1156:lexicon
1076:Baghdad
1047:versus
941:groups—
868:Bhangis
864:Chamars
860:Rajputs
844:village
792:Swedish
756:Germany
712:Dialect
695:ebonics
688:Jasmine
684:Aladdin
679:Aladdin
619:of the
602:as the
600:Italian
503:dialect
495:variety
480:English
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331:dialect
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1036:covert
947:Macy's
876:Muslim
852:castes
816:social
794:, and
788:Danish
752:border
670:Disney
617:French
514:Causes
429:Arabic
406:patois
398:covert
208:People
195:Pidgin
130:Accent
45:. The
3243:S2CID
3214:JSTOR
3070:JSTOR
3000:S2CID
2992:JSTOR
2929:[
2859:JSTOR
2821:JSTOR
2794:47–92
2733:JSTOR
2680:JSTOR
2658:(PDF)
2639:S2CID
2631:JSTOR
2583:S2CID
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1910:S2CID
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583:Latin
450:in a
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