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of whom are bilingual in
Quechua and Spanish. There is a desire to preserve the uniqueness of Quechua as a language with its own attributes and representations of culture. Some argue that promoting a diverse literacy program gives students diverse perspectives on life, which could only enhance their educational experience. Before 1975, Peru had bilingual education programs, but Quechua was not taught as a subject in primary and secondary schools. After the 1975 education reform, Quechua and Spanish both had standing in bilingual programs, but only in restricted speech communities. These experimental programs were then canceled due to a change in government planning, but again reinstated in 1996. Even with national
329: – a typology drawn from Bernard Spolsky's theory of language policy. According to Spolsky, language management is a more precise term than language planning. Language management is defined as "the explicit and observable effort by someone or some group that has or claims authority over the participants in the domain to modify their practices or beliefs" (p. 4) Language planning is often associated with government planning, but is also used by a variety of
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and political planning. Some proposed acquisition changes could also be too drastic or instituted too suddenly without proper planning and organization. Acquisition planning can also be financially draining, so adequate planning and awareness of financial resources is essential. Therefore, it is important that government goals be organized and planned carefully.
1407:; communities of Quechua speakers outside Peru enable communication in Quechua across borders. Still, because of Quechua's low status, Spanish is almost always used as the lingua franca instead. Recently, Quechua has also gained ground in the academic world, both as a school subject and a topic of literary interest.
1440:/i/ and /u/ with separate letters <e> and <o>, which creates an apparent five-vowel system. They argued that this makes the language easier to learn for people who are already familiar with written Spanish. However, other Quechua linguists argued that a three-vowel system was more faithful to the
1513:
Since
Quechua is no longer an official language of Peru, Quechua literacy is not consistently encouraged in schools. Peru's education system is instead based on Spanish, the nation's official language. Despite its low prestige, Quechua is still spoken by millions of indigenous Peruvians, a great deal
1419:
When
Quechua was made an official language in Peru in 1975, the introduction of the language into the education and government domains made it essential to have a standard written language. The task of adopting a writing system proved to be a point of contention among Quechua linguists. Although most
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Although acquisition planning can be useful to governments, there are problems which must be considered. Even with a solid evaluation and assessment system, the effects of planning methods can never be certain; governments must consider the effects on other aspects of state planning, such as economic
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programs, teachers at local schools and members of the community often prefer using
Spanish, destabilizing support for bilingual education. This underscores the importance of community support as a goal for the education sector as mentioned earlier. Some believe that due to Spanish's higher national
1504:
Lexical modernization has also been critical to the development of
Quechua. Language planners have attempted to coin new Quechua words by combining Quechua morphemes to give new meanings. Generally, loanwords are considered only when the words cannot be developed through existing Quechua structures.
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Choosing the standard language has important social consequences, as it benefits the speakers whose spoken and written dialect conforms closest to the chosen standard. The chosen standard is generally spoken by the most powerful social group within society, and it is imposed upon other groups as the
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of a language often adopt characteristics in the written form that are distinct from the spoken form. Second, the use of writing often leads to a folk belief that the written language is the 'real' language, and speech is a corruption of it. Written language is viewed as more conservative, while the
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and orthographic conventions for a language. The use of writing in a speech community can have lasting sociocultural effects, which include easier transmission of material through generations, communication with greater numbers of people, and a standard against which varieties of spoken language are
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intervention in the forms of a language, whereby planning decisions are made to engineer changes in the structure of the language. Corpus planning activities often arise as the result of beliefs about the adequacy of the form of a language to serve desired functions. Unlike status planning, which is
608:
Language status is distinct from, though intertwined with, language prestige and language function. Language status is the given position (or standing) of a language against other languages. A language garners status according to the fulfillment of four attributes, described in 1968 by two different
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of a language. Another approach, where dialects are mutually intelligible, is to introduce a poly-phonemic written form that is intended to represent all dialects of a language adequately but with no standard spoken form. If one dialect is chosen, it comes to be perceived as supra-dialectal and the
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served as a language of wider communication, a lingua franca, between
Spaniards and Peruvian natives. As the years passed, Spaniards asserted the superiority of the Spanish language; as a result, Spanish gained prestige, taking over as a language of wider communication and the dominant language of
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language program, only to name a few. For example, if a government chooses to raise the status level of a certain language or change its level of prestige, it can establish a law which requires teachers to teach only in this language or that textbooks are written using only this language's script.
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The three main types of corpus planning are all evident in the development of
Quechua languages in Peru since the colonial era. Graphization has been in process since the arrival of the Spanish in the region, when the Spanish imperialists attempted to describe the exotic sounds of the language to
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Acquisition planning is often integrated into a broader language planning process in which the statuses of languages are evaluated, corpuses are revised and the changes are finally introduced to society on a national, state or local level through education systems, ranging from primary schools to
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Acquisition planning is a type of language planning in which a national, state or local government system aims to influence aspects of language, such as language status, distribution and literacy through education. Acquisition planning can also be used by non-governmental organizations, but it is
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The program implementation was mostly left to the individual schools, which did not consistently carry it out. Additionally, educating a generation is a long process, for which the League was not prepared. There was no consensus as to how the Irish language should be reinstituted; the League and
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in education, especially in many countries which were once colonized. Choosing the language of instruction which would be most beneficial to effective communication on the local and state level requires thoughtful planning, and it is surrounded by debate. Some states prefer to teach only in the
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The search for a unified alphabet reflects the process of standardization. Unlike other cases of standardization, in
Quechua this has been applied only to the written language, not to the spoken language, and no attempt was made to change the spoken language of native speakers, which varied by
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Vitality – the ratio, or percent, of users of a language to another variable, such as the total population. Kloss and
Stewart both distinguish six classes of statistical distribution. However, they draw the line between classes at different percentages. According to Kloss, the highest level of
1378:
declares
Spanish the only official language of the state; Quechua and Aymara are relegated to "official use zones," equivalent to Stewart's provincial function described above. Quechua has officially remained a provincial language since 1979. Today, Quechua also serves a limited international
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of Spain. These organizations often write their own dictionaries and grammar books, thus affecting the materials which students are exposed to in schools. Although these organizations do not hold official power, they influence government planning decisions, such as with educational materials,
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mostly undertaken by administrators and politicians, corpus planning is generally the work of individuals with greater linguistic expertise. There are three traditionally recognized types of corpus planning: graphization, standardization, and modernization.
1340:
gained independence in 1922, the League declared that Irish must be the language of instruction for at least one hour in primary schools in the state. Irish-speaking teachers were recruited, and preparatory colleges were established to train new teachers.
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made two key observations about the results of adopting a writing system. First, the use of writing adds another form of the language to the community's repertory. Although written language is often viewed as secondary to spoken language, the
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spoken form is more susceptible to language change. Isolated relic areas of the spoken language may be less innovative than the written form, or the written language may have been based on a divergent variety of the spoken language.
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vitality is demarcated by 90% or more speakers, followed by 70%, 40%, 20%, 3%, and less than 3%. According to Stewart, the six classes are determined by the following percentages of speakers: 75%, 50%, 25%, 10%, 5%, and less than 5%.
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Official – An official language "function as a legally appropriate language for all politically and culturally representative purposes on a nationwide basis." The official function of a language is often specified in a
2162:
Kadochnikov, Denis (2016). Languages, Regional Conflicts and Economic Development: Russia. In: Ginsburgh, V., Weber, S. (Eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Economics and Language. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 538-580.
1191:, or to promote linguistic purism. In a case where a government revises a corpus, new dictionaries and educational materials will need to be revised in schools in order to maintain effective language acquisition.
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from another language. While Hungarian has almost exclusively used language-internal processes to coin new words, Japanese has borrowed extensively from English to derive new words as part of its modernization.
1287:. The use of a single language of instruction supports national unity and homogeneity whereas the incorporation of different languages may help students to learn better by offering alternative perspectives.
1070:, as the print language. Because of the dialect's use for administrative, government, business, and literary purposes, it became entrenched as the prestigious variety of English. After the development of
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Wider communication – A language of wider communication may be official or provincial, but more importantly, it functions as a medium of communication across language boundaries within a nation (e.g.
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prestige, it is more socially and economically beneficial to learn and speak Spanish. It is debatable whether these education programs will benefit education or raise the status of Quechua.
1448:
programs and textbooks. However, the Peruvian Academy and the SIL both refused to adopt it and continued to propose new alphabets, leaving the issue unsettled. For more information, see
1444:
of Quechua. After years of debate and disagreement, in 1985 Quechua linguists proposed the Pan-Quechua alphabet as an accurate representation of the language, and this was adopted in
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to describe new technical terms, but it is also necessary to ensure that the new terms are consistently used by the appropriate sectors within society. While some languages, such as
793:
International – An international language functions as a medium of communication across national boundaries (e.g. English, formerly French as a diplomatic and international language)
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form to emulate, making the standard norm necessary for socioeconomic mobility. In practice, standardization generally entails increasing the uniformity of the norm, as well as the
1324:, as the nation's primary language, based on a widespread sentiment for Irish nationalism and cultural identity. During and after colonisation, Irish had competed with English and
617:. Both Kloss and Stewart stipulated four qualities of a language that determine its status. Their respective frameworks differ slightly, but they emphasize four common attributes:
1150:
often play a significant role in lexical expansion, but technical vocabulary can be effective within a language, regardless of whether it comes from the language's own process of
1374:, the revolutionary government of Peru declared Quechua an official language of the Peruvian state, "coequal with Spanish." Four years later, the law was reversed. Peru's 1979
1102:
Modernization occurs when a language needs to expand its resources to meet functions. Modernization often occurs when a language undergoes a shift in status, such as when a
1178:
universities. This process of change can entail an alteration in student textbook formatting, a change in methods of teaching an official language, or the development of a
1345:
schools did not develop a system assessment plan to monitor progress. Thus the movement lost strength, and the number of native Irish speakers has been in steady decline.
600:
Status planning is the allocation or reallocation of a language or dialect to functional domains within a society, thus affecting the status, or standing, of a language.
450:. The coexistence of many languages may not necessarily arise from a conscious language ideology but rather the relative efficiency of communicating in a shared language.
341:
of a single dominant language can bring economic benefits to minorities but is also perceived to facilitate their political domination. It involves the establishment of
1456:. Another disagreement was about how to reflect the phonological differences apparent in different dialects of Quechua. For example, some distinct dialects utilize
983:, but Ainu contains many CVC syllables which cannot easily be adapted to this syllabary. Therefore, Ainu uses a modified katakana system, in which syllable-final
663:
Promoted language – lacks official status on a national or regional level but is promoted and sometimes used by public authorities for specific functions (e.g.
1183:
This, in turn, would support the elevation of the language's status or could increase its prestige. In this way, acquisition planning is often used to promote
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the adoption of a non-indigenous language as a means of wider communication, as an official language or in a particular domain, such as the use of English in
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In addition to the education sector, there are non-governmental sectors or organizations that have a significant effect on language acquisition, such as the
1533:
1742:
Linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann claims that any attempt to revive a no-longer spoken language is likely to end up with a hybrid - see Zuckermann, Ghil'ad,
1424:, linguists disagreed about how to represent the phonological system of Quechua, particularly in regards to the vowel system. Representatives from the
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regions. Rather, standardization was needed to produce a uniform writing system to provide education to Quechua speakers in their native language.
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Auxiliary-code standardization – standardization of marginal, auxiliary aspects of language, such as signs for the deaf, place names, or rules of
2127:
1787:
Jennifer Jones, Dee Ann Bosworth, Amy Lonetree, "American Indian Boarding Schools: An Exploration of Global Ethnic & Cultural Cleansing"
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345:, such as formal or informal agencies, committees, societies or academies to design or develop new structures to meet contemporary needs.
1978:. Ed. Rubin, Joan, Björn H. Jernudd, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, Joshua A. Fishman and Charles A. Ferguson. The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1977
1965:. Ed. Rubin, Joan, Björn H. Jernudd, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, Joshua A. Fishman and Charles A. Ferguson. The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1977
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In establishing a writing system for a language, corpus planners have the option of using an existing system or designing a new one. The
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as the natural choice for a standard since it is recognized as the form which is most similar to that spoken by the Incas. Others favor
895:
Robert Cooper outlines two additional functional domains (mass media and work) and distinguishes three sub-types of official functions:
268:
2065:
Coronel-Molina, Serafin M. "Functional Domains of the Quechua Language in Peru: Issues of Status Planning." University of Pennsylvania
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Hornberger, Nancy and Kendell A. King. "Authenticity and Unification in Quechua Language Planning." University of Pennsylvania: 1998.
19:
This article is about the field of language planning and policy. For details on the creation of planned or artificial languages, see
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1948:
Liddicoat, Anthony J., and Richard B. Baldauf, Jr., "Language Planning in Local Contexts: Agents, Contexts and Interactions."
1146:, have failed to do so. Such expansion is aided by the use of new terms in textbooks and professional publications. Issues of
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Provincial – A provincial language functions as an official language for a geographic area smaller than a nation, typically a
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Group – A group language functions as a conventional language among the members of a single cultural or ethnic group
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Interlingual communication – facilitation of linguistic communication between members of distinct speech communities
1206:
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503:" of language, protect language from foreign influences, and guard against perceived language deviation from within
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official language, but some aim to foster linguistic and thus social diversity by encouraging teaching in several
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Religious – A religious language functions as a language for the ritual purposes of a particular religion (e.g.
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in the Southeast of the present-day United States. It uses some Latin characters but also introduces new ones.
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was founded to promote the acquisition of Irish in schools, thus "de-Anglicizing" Ireland. Immediately after
330:
2228:
1468:, while others do not and some language planners found it important to reflect these dialectal differences.
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2264:
1528:
1138:, have experienced rapid lexical expansion to meet the demands of modernization, other languages, such as
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Degree of standardization – the extent of development of a formal set of norms that define 'correct' usage
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Hornberger, Nancy H. (2006). "Frameworks and Models in Language Policy and Planning", in Thomas Ricento,
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Rubin, Joan, Björn H. Jernudd, Jyotirindra Das Gupta, Joshua A. Fishman and Charles A. Ferguson, eds.
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choices based on state and local evaluation reports. The duties of education sectors vary by country;
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the recognition and support of many languages within one society. Examples include the coexistence of
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Liddicoat, Anthony J. (2005). "Corpus Planning: Syllabus and Materials Development," in Eli Hinkel,
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1922:
Christian, Donna (1988). "Language Planning: the view from linguistics", in Frederick J. Newmeyer,
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that combines features of both dialects. This norm has been accepted by many institutions in Peru.
1465:
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for the guidance of writers and speakers in a non-homogeneous speech community" (p. 8). Along with
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1906:
Ferguson, Charles A. (1968). "Language Development", in Charles A. Ferguson, Thom Huebner (1996),
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394:, should learn and use the dominant language of the society in which they live. An example is the
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Coronel-Molina, Serafin M. (1996). "Corpus Planning for the Southern Peruvian Quechua Language."
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1952:. Ed. Anthony J. Liddicoat and Richard B. Baldauf, Jr. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 2008
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Wiley, Terrance G. (2003). "Language Planning and Policy," in Sandra McKay, Nancy H. Horberger,
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557:, grammar, and style. That includes changing the use of language in social and formal contexts.
509:– the attempt to restore to common use a language which has few or no surviving native speakers
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Ed. Anthony J. Liddicoat and Richard B. Baldauf, Jr. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 2008
309:. Robert L. Cooper (1989) defines language planning as "the activity of preparing a normative
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since it is more conservative, whereas Qusqu-Qullaw has been influenced by contact with the
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Language origin – whether a given language is indigenous or imported to the speech community
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By contrast, English has become standardized without any planning. The process began when
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often involves one variety of a language taking precedence over other social and regional
8:
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School subject – A school subject language is taught as a subject in secondary school or
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515:– deliberate change in specific aspects of language or extralinguistic elements, such as
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196:
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Macnamara, John. "Successes and Failures in the Movement for the Restoration of Irish,"
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If loanwords are adopted, linguists may adjust them to match typical Quechua phonology.
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led to the dissemination of this dialect as the cultural norm for the English language.
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Capital – A capital language functions as a prominent language in and around a national
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Four overarching language ideologies are proposed to explain motivations and decisions.
1789:, Ziibiwing Center of Anishinabe Culture & Lifeways, 2011, accessed 25 January 2014
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and development of an indigenous language, along with its adoption by the state as an
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Tolerated language – neither promoted nor proscribed; acknowledged but ignored (e.g.
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Deliberate effort to influence languages or their varieties within a speech community
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Ed. Rubin, Joan, and Björn H. Jernudd. Hawaii: The University Press of Hawaii, 1971
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Ed. Rubin, Joan, and Björn H. Jernudd. Hawaii: The University Press of Hawaii, 1971
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Ed. Rubin, Joan, and Björn H. Jernudd. Hawaii: The University Press of Hawaii, 1971
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2185:. Studia philologiæ Scandinavicæ Upsaliensia, 6. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell.
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as well as individuals. Goals of such planning vary. Better communication through
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1708:. Eds. Juan Cobarrubias and Joshua Fishman. New York: Mouton Publishers, 1983.
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To determine what materials will be used and how they will be incorporated into
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Eds. Paulston, Christina Bratt and G. Richard Tucker. Oxford: Blackwell, 2003
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Language maintenance – preservation of a group's native language as a first or
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Educational – An educational language functions as a medium of instruction in
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Language spread – the attempt to increase the number of speakers of a language
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399:
98:
2128:"Language planning and language ecology: Towards a theoretical integration."
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or education sector of government is typically in charge of making national
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Proscribed language – discouraged by official sanction or restriction (e.g.
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Mac Giolla Chriost, Diarmait. "Micro-level Language Planning in Ireland."
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Language planners in Peru have proposed several varieties to serve as the
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where pressures threaten or cause a decline in the status of the language
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1361:'s history of language planning begins in the 16th century with Spanish
1801:
Stewart, William A. "Sociolinguistic Typology of Multilingualism," in
1744:"Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns"
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Ferguson, Charles A. "Sociolinguistic Settings of Language Planning."
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Sociolinguistic Perspectives: papers on language in society, 1959-1994
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William Stewart outlines ten functional domains in language planning:
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Fishman, Joshua A. "The Impact of Nationalism on Language Planning,"
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version of a katakana symbol that begins with the desired consonant.
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Research Methods in Language Policy and Planning: A Practical Guide.
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Sole official language (e.g. French in France and Turkish in Turkey)
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and Richard B. Baldauf describe the sectors' six principal goals:
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Graphization refers to development, selection and modification of
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Eleven language planning goals have been recognized (Nahir 2003):
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1328:; the movement to restore the language gained momentum after the
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of the neighboring peoples. Likewise, in the early 19th century,
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An example of an original script includes the development of the
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the belief that every member of a society, irrespective of their
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293:) is a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure or
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1990:
Thorburn, Thomas. "Cost-Benefit Analysis in Language Planning."
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for a regional language or dialect, developing it as the chosen
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A working language is used by a government for daily activities
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Stylistic simplification – simplification of language usage in
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Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning
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in 1476. This was followed by the adoption of the south-east
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1805:. Ed. Joshua Fishman. The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1968.
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Nahir, Moshe. "Language Planning Goals: A Classification."
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Cobarrubias, Juan. "Ethical Issues in Status Planning."
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To choose the languages which should be taught within the
1118:. The main force in modernization is the expansion of the
1706:
Progress in Language Planning: International Perspectives
2135:
Progress in Language Planning: International Perspective
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Ed. Hornberger, Nancy. New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1996
1122:, which allows the language to discuss topics in modern
2110:
Hornberger, Nancy "Quechua Literacy and Empowerment."
979:. Katakana is designed for a language with a basic CV
1320:, a movement began which aimed at the restoration of
899:
A statutory language is a "de jure" official language
641:; French, German, Italian and Romansh in Switzerland)
586:
Language planning has been divided into three types:
325:
and language practices, language planning is part of
1759:
Edwards, John. "Language, Prestige, and Stigma," in
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There is also growing concern over the treatment of
1187:, which can change a language's status or reverse a
1126:. Language planners generally develop new lists and
1534:
Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation
1174:more commonly associated with government planning.
1974:Ferguson, Charles A. "Language Planning Processes"
1635:
543:Lexical modernization – word coining or adaptation
1642:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.
1370:Peru. In 1975, under the leadership of President
1290:
546:Terminology unification – development of unified
526:Language standardization – the attempt to garner
2256:
1672:Department of English Literature and Linguistics
2147:Hult, F.M., & Johnson, D.C. (eds.) (2015).
1010:, it distinguished Armenian from the Greek and
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2104:
1839:. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
1763:. Ed. Hans Goebel. New York: de Gruyter, 1996.
1620:Kaplan B., Robert, and Richard B. Baldauf Jr.
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2183:Introduction to a Theory of Language Planning
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2144:. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
2133:Cobarrubius, Juan & Joshua Fishman, eds.
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23:. For applied computational linguistics, see
2249:Articles on language planning in West Africa
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737:; indigenous American languages during the
2096:Working Papers in Educational Linguistics,
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1622:Language Planning from Practice to Theory.
1365:. When the Spanish first arrived in Peru,
1114:or when there is a change in the language
1006:. Though the script was modeled after the
633:Joint official language (e.g. English and
269:
255:
2023:
2007:. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005
1939:, Cambridge University Press, pp 103-147.
1926:, Cambridge University Press, pp 193-211.
1913:
1889:
1873:
1842:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1766:
1731:Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings.
1624:Clevedon: Multilingual Matters ltd., 1997
1508:
822:schools on a regional or national basis (
499:of usage norms in order to preserve the "
2234:Language Problems and Language Planning.
2052:
1981:
1689:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1616:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1426:Peruvian Academy of the Quechua language
2077:
2010:
1910:, Oxford University Press US, pp 40-47.
1792:
1684:
1228:To determine the amount and quality of
1194:
1162:
1078:in the 18th century, the rise of print
1018:(Cherokee) designed an orthography for
905:A symbolic language is used as a state
2257:
1937:Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching
1808:
1753:
1633:
2177:. The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1977.
2112:Indigenous Literacies in the Americas
2005:Language Planning in Higher Education
1929:
1803:Readings in the Sociology of Language
1779:
1607:
2209:
1924:Language: the socio-cultural context
1776:. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2008
1723:
1410:
1353:
430:; and the shared official status of
348:
2251:(Journal of West African Languages)
2216:Current Issues in Language Planning
2142:Language Planning and Social Change
2047:Language Planning in Local Contexts
1950:Language Planning in Local Contexts
1837:Language Planning and Social Change
1774:An Introduction to Sociolinguistics
1638:Language planning and social change
1454:Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift
13:
2120:
1868:An Introduction to Language Policy
1772:Wardhaugh, Ronald. "Planning," in
1273:
1025:
912:
603:
589:
14:
2306:
2242:
1720:Lehmann, W.P., 1983, Random House
1516:intercultural bilingual education
1446:intercultural bilingual education
644:Regional official language (e.g.
1855:Language Planning and Education.
1097:
237:
228:
227:
178:
177:
2039:
1997:
1968:
1955:
1942:
1430:Summer Institute of Linguistics
1249:To establish a local and state
925:
1736:
1711:
1678:
1660:
1627:
1497:proposed a literary standard,
1291:Non-governmental organizations
975:as the writing system for the
917:Corpus planning refers to the
331:non-governmental organizations
1:
2280:Language varieties and styles
1601:
1039:'best' form of the language.
550:, mainly in technical domains
2151:Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell
1870:, Wiley-Blackwell, pp 24-41.
1529:Abstand and ausbau languages
856:functions as a language for
523:, in order to facilitate use
7:
2270:Concepts in language policy
2175:Language Planning Processes
1976:Language Planning Processes
1963:Language Planning Processes
1857:Edinburgh University Press.
1748:Journal of Language Contact
1522:
1349:Case study: Quechua in Peru
1264:
1253:system to monitor progress.
673:West African Pidgin English
596:Prestige (sociolinguistics)
10:
2311:
2199:Language policy in Oceania
2137:. The Hague: Mouton, 1983.
1853:Ferguson, Gibson. (2006).
1718:Language: An Introduction,
1311:
1198:
1166:
593:
352:
18:
2126:Bastardas-Boada, Albert.
1886:, Routledge, pp 993-1012.
1685:Spolsky, Bernard (2009).
1466:voiceless uvular stop /q/
1330:Irish War of Independence
1297:
935:often compared. Linguist
684:Native American languages
398:of some residents of the
335:grass-roots organizations
212:Sociocultural linguistics
2197:Silva, Diego B. (2019).
2034:Can Language Be Planned?
2018:Can Language Be Planned?
1992:Can Language Be Planned?
1750:, Varia 2 (2009), 40-67.
1316:Before the partition of
581:
495:Language purification –
486:
1634:Cooper, Robert (1989).
1554:Gender-neutral language
1495:Rodolfo Cerrón Palomino
1308:affecting acquisition.
1256:To determine financial
1185:language revitalization
950:phonological structures
887:for the reading of the
697:in the UK in the past,
387:Linguistic assimilation
207:Linguistic anthropology
124:Phono-semantic matching
2181:Tauli, Valter (1968).
1674:. Bar Ilan University.
1576:Linguistic imperialism
1479:spoken norm. Some saw
1450:Quechua writing system
1305:Real Academia Española
946:grammatical structures
705:and others in France;
202:Historical linguistics
144:Linguistic description
114:Homophonic translation
1596:Languages in censuses
1566:Linguistic relativity
1559:Political correctness
1372:Juan Velasco Alvarado
1199:Further information:
1167:Further information:
594:Further information:
396:English-only movement
353:Further information:
217:Sociology of language
2203:Alfa, Rev. Linguíst.
1509:Acquisition planning
1432:wanted to represent
1379:function throughout
1338:The Irish Free State
1211:language acquisition
1195:The education sector
1169:Language acquisition
1163:Acquisition planning
729:'s regime in Spain;
407:Linguistic pluralism
363:Internationalization
291:language engineering
25:language engineering
21:Constructed language
2285:Language regulators
2265:Applied linguistics
1835:Cooper, Robert L.
1761:Contact Linguistics
1687:Language Management
1066:dialect, spoken in
1004:St. Mesrop Mashtots
964:chose to adopt the
937:Charles A. Ferguson
847:Classical languages
739:boarding school era
690:in the present day)
466:. Examples include
343:language regulators
197:Applied linguistics
1549:Inclusive language
1420:agreed to use the
1299:Académie française
1285:(native) languages
1201:Language education
1154:or from extensive
981:syllable structure
303:language varieties
243:Linguistics portal
139:Language varieties
134:Discourse analysis
119:Macaronic language
2275:Linguistic rights
2210:Relevant journals
2169:978-1-137-32505-1
2157:978-1-118-30838-7
1668:"Spolsky Bernard"
1586:Linguistic rights
1581:Linguistic purism
1303:of France or the
1235:To involve local
1148:linguistic purism
1084:industrialization
966:Japanese language
854:literary language
627:Juridical status
532:standard language
501:linguistic purity
464:official language
455:Vernacularization
370:, Singapore, the
355:Language ideology
349:Language ideology
323:language ideology
287:language planning
279:
278:
63:Language planning
58:Language ideology
2302:
2295:Interlinguistics
2290:Sociolinguistics
2194:
2115:
2108:
2099:
2098:12 (2), pp 1-27.
2092:
2075:
2072:
2066:
2063:
2050:
2043:
2037:
2030:
2021:
2014:
2008:
2003:Mansor, Sabiha.
2001:
1995:
1988:
1979:
1972:
1966:
1959:
1953:
1946:
1940:
1933:
1927:
1920:
1911:
1904:
1887:
1880:
1871:
1864:
1858:
1851:
1840:
1833:
1806:
1799:
1790:
1783:
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1721:
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1691:
1690:
1682:
1676:
1675:
1664:
1658:
1657:
1641:
1631:
1625:
1618:
1591:Interlinguistics
1499:Southern Quechua
1485:Ayacucho Quechua
1464:versions of the
1302:
1301:
1230:teacher training
1215:Robert B. Kaplan
1124:semantic domains
1116:education policy
1012:Syriac alphabets
873:Liturgical Latin
843:higher education
784:Swahili language
771:(e.g. French in
727:Francisco Franco
507:Language revival
470:in the state of
444:Mandarin Chinese
376:Papua New Guinea
307:speech community
283:sociolinguistics
271:
264:
257:
241:
231:
230:
181:
180:
34:Sociolinguistics
30:
29:
2310:
2309:
2305:
2304:
2303:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2255:
2254:
2245:
2225:Language Policy
2212:
2123:
2121:Further reading
2118:
2109:
2102:
2093:
2078:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2053:
2044:
2040:
2031:
2024:
2015:
2011:
2002:
1998:
1989:
1982:
1973:
1969:
1960:
1956:
1947:
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1632:
1628:
1619:
1608:
1604:
1544:Language policy
1525:
1511:
1489:Aymara language
1413:
1411:Corpus planning
1356:
1354:Status planning
1351:
1314:
1293:
1280:multilingualism
1276:
1274:Multilingualism
1267:
1203:
1197:
1171:
1165:
1100:
1054:introduced the
1032:standardization
1030:The process of
1028:
1026:Standardization
1000:Armenian script
928:
915:
913:Corpus planning
881:Catholic Church
615:William Stewart
606:
604:Language status
598:
592:
590:Status planning
584:
572:transliteration
565:second language
513:Language reform
489:
392:native language
357:
351:
327:language policy
289:(also known as
275:
68:Multilingualism
53:Language change
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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2297:
2292:
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1189:language shift
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1152:word formation
1112:colonial power
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1092:mass education
1056:printing press
1052:William Caxton
1027:
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1008:Greek alphabet
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1047:of the norm.
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977:Ainu language
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576:transcription
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548:terminologies
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1376:constitution
1363:colonization
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1076:dictionaries
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497:prescription
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380:South Africa
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339:assimilation
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62:
40:Key concepts
2227:(Springer)
1462:glottalized
1416:Europeans.
1237:communities
879:within the
788:East Africa
713:in Sweden;
658:Maharashtra
611:Heinz Kloss
521:orthography
460:restoration
428:Switzerland
372:Philippines
311:orthography
295:acquisition
2259:Categories
1602:References
1434:allophones
1251:assessment
1223:curriculum
1128:glossaries
1080:capitalism
989:consonants
942:vocabulary
864:purposes (
782:in India;
731:Macedonian
669:New Mexico
319:dictionary
154:Pragmatics
2237:Home page
2229:Home page
2220:Home page
2191:0081-6809
1458:aspirated
1442:phonology
1385:Argentina
1180:bilingual
1156:borrowing
1136:Hungarian
993:subscript
973:syllabary
866:Academese
862:scholarly
820:secondary
707:Elfdalian
635:Afrikaans
609:authors,
448:Singapore
305:within a
299:languages
109:Diglossia
78:Variation
1523:See also
1428:and the
1401:Colombia
1265:Problems
1207:ministry
1132:Japanese
1072:grammars
1064:Midlands
1036:dialects
1020:Cherokee
1016:Sequoyah
970:katakana
875:for the
858:literary
806:Brussels
765:province
715:Galician
703:Alsatian
677:Cameroon
660:, India)
528:prestige
333:such as
233:Category
164:Soramimi
149:Loanword
129:Register
73:Prestige
2205:63 (2).
1436:of the
1405:Ecuador
1389:Bolivia
1367:Quechua
1318:Ireland
1312:Ireland
1244:syllabi
1120:lexicon
1110:from a
1104:country
1060:England
932:scripts
832:Bengali
816:primary
798:capital
725:during
723:Catalan
711:Gutnish
686:in the
665:Spanish
654:Marathi
650:Nigeria
555:lexicon
517:grammar
476:Quechua
432:English
424:Romansh
420:Italian
315:grammar
104:Dialect
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1438:vowels
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1393:Brazil
1332:. The
1144:Arabic
1106:gains
1090:, and
1068:London
907:symbol
889:Qur'an
885:Arabic
845:(e.g.
800:(e.g.
773:Quebec
769:region
735:Greece
719:Basque
699:Breton
536:region
472:Israel
468:Hebrew
442:, and
422:, and
416:German
412:French
378:, and
317:, and
172:People
159:Pidgin
94:Accent
2130:2000.
1785:cite
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1326:Scots
1322:Irish
1258:costs
1140:Hindi
991:by a
985:codas
962:Japan
802:Dutch
780:Hindi
695:Welsh
582:Types
534:of a
487:Goals
440:Tamil
436:Malay
368:India
2187:ISSN
2165:ISBN
2153:ISBN
1648:ISBN
1460:and
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