Religion in China - Knowledge

14365: 10079: 15330: 15339:, p. 93, quoting: "By the early 1990s Daoist activities had become popular especially in rural areas, and began to get out of control as the line between legitimate Daoist activities and popular folk religious activities – officially regarded as feudal superstition – became blurred. Unregulated activities can range from orthodox Daoist liturgy to shamanistic rites. The popularity of these Daoist activities underscores the fact that Chinese rural society has a long tradition of religiosity and has preserved and perpetuated Daoism regardless of official policy and religious institutions. With the growth of economic prosperity in rural areas, especially in the coastal provinces where Daoist activities are concentrated, with a more liberal policy on religion, and with the revival of local cultural identity, Daoism – be it the officially sanctioned variety or Daoist activities which are beyond the edge of the official Daoist body – seems to be enjoying a strong comeback, at least for the time being.". 9637: 15456:, p. 10: "There were and are many such pilgrimages to regional and national temples in China, and of course such pilgrimages cannot always be clearly distinguished from festivals for the gods or saints of local communities, because such festivals can involve participants from surrounding villages and home communities celebrating the birthdays or death days of their patron gods or saints, whatever their appeal to those from other areas. People worship and petition at both pilgrimages and local festivals for similar reasons. The chief differences between the two are the central role of a journey in pilgrimages, the size of the area from which participants are attracted, and the role of pilgrimage societies in organizing the long trips that may be involved. pilgrimage in China is also characterized by extensive planning and organization both by the host temples and those visiting them." 15480:, p. 15: " Popular religious sects with their own forms of organization, leaders, deities, rituals, beliefs and scripture texts were active throughout the Ming and Qing periods, particularly in north China. Individuals and families who joined them were promised special divine protection in this life and the next by leaders who functioned both as ritual masters and missionaries. These sects were more active in some communities than in others, but in principle were open to all who responded to these leaders and believed in their efficacy and teachings, so some of these groups spread to wide areas of the country. significant for us here though is evidence for the residual influence of sectarian beliefs and practices on non-sectarian community religion where the sects no longer exist, particularly the feminization of deities by adding to their names the characters 2564: 6622: 9807: 7583: 2886:. The study analysed the proportion of believers that were at the same time members of the local section of the CCP, finding that it was exceptionally high among the Taoists, while the lowest proportion was found among the Protestants. About education and wealth, the survey found that the wealthiest populations were those of Buddhists and especially Catholics, while the poorest was that of the Protestants; Taoists and Catholics were the better educated, while the Protestants were the less educated among the religious communities. These findings confirmed a description by Francis Ching-Wah Yip that the Protestant population was predominantly composed of rural people, illiterate and semi-illiterate people, elderly people, and women, already in the 1990s and early 2000s. A 2017 study of the Christian communities of 6740: 8784: 7869:. Since the 2000s, Confucianism has been embraced as a religious identity by a large numbers of intellectuals and students in China. In 2003, the Confucian intellectual Kang Xiaoguang published a manifesto in which he made four suggestions: Confucian education should enter official education at any level, from elementary to high school; the state should establish Confucianism as the state religion by law; Confucian religion should enter the daily life of ordinary people, a purpose achievable through a standardization and development of doctrines, rituals, organizations, churches and activity sites; the Confucian religion should be spread through non-governmental organizations. Another modern proponent of the institutionalization of Confucianism in a 12238:, whose leaders very often corresponded to local political authorities. This pattern continues today with former village Communist Party secretaries elected as temple association bosses (p. 83). He concludes (p. 92): "In sum, since at least the early twentieth century the majority of local ritual leaders in north China have been products of their own or nearby communities. They have special skills in organization, ritual performance or interaction with the gods, but none are full-time ritual specialists; they have all 'kept their day jobs'! As such they are exemplars of ordinary people organizing and carrying out their own cultural traditions, persistent traditions with their own structure, functions and logic that deserve to be understood as such." 11400: 1741: 8186: 7238: 6787: 8170: 15468:, p. 3: " there are significant differences between aspects of local religion in the south and north, one of which is the gods who are worshiped."; p. 33: " the veneration in the north of ancient deities attested to in pre-Han sources, deities such as Nüwa, Fuxi and Shennong, the legendary founder of agriculture and herbal medicine. In some instances these gods were worshiped at places believed to be where they originated, with indications of grottoes, temples and festivals for them, some of which continue to exist or have been revived. Of course, these gods were worshiped elsewhere in China as well, though perhaps not with the same sense of original geographical location." 2164:, besides, became more associated to its meaning of "Heaven" as a paradise. The proliferation of foreign religions in the Tang, especially Buddhist sects, entailed that each of them conceived their own ideal "Heaven". "Tian" itself started to be used, linguistically, as an affix in composite names to mean "heavenly" or "divine". This was also the case in the Buddhist context, with many monasteries' names containing this element. Both Buddhism and Taoism developed hierarchic pantheons which merged metaphysical (celestial) and physical (terrestrial) being, blurring the edge between human and divine, which reinforced the religious belief that gods and devotees sustain one another. 8162: 7907: 10040: 5796:) which dates back to prehistory, and is the focal aspect of Chinese religion. Defined as "the essential religion of the Chinese", ancestor worship is the means of memory and therefore of the cultural vitality of the entire Chinese civilisation. Rites, symbols, objects and ideas construct and transmit group and individual identities. Rituals and sacrifices are employed not only to seek blessing from the ancestors, but also to create a communal and educational religious environment in which people are firmly linked with a glorified history. Ancestors are evoked as gods and kept alive in these ceremonies to bring good luck and protect from evil forces and 2536: 9665: 6756: 1801: 5650: 14440: 22217: 2500: 22105: 11850: 10926: 10791: 6265:, is a term that needs to be translated into English in at least three different ways, according to the context: "spirit", "spirits", and "spiritual". The first, "spirit", is in the sense of "human spirit" or "psyche". The second use is "spirits" or "gods"—the latter written in lowercase because "Chinese spirits and gods need not be seen as all-powerful, transcendent, or creators of the world". These "spirits" are associated with stars, mountains, and streams and directly influence what happens in the natural and human world. A thing or being is "spiritual"—the third sense of 10465: 1706:

participates in religion—the rituals and festivals of the lunar calendar—without being party to any religious institution. National surveys conducted during the early 21st century estimated that an estimated 80% of the Chinese population practice some form of folk religion, for a total of over 1 billion people. 13–16% of the population are Buddhists, 10% are Taoists; 2.53% are Christians, and 0.83% are Muslims. Folk salvation movements involve anywhere from 2–13% of the population. Many in the intellectual class adhere to Confucianism as a religious identity. Several

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government encouraged villages to manage themselves and collect and hand over their own taxes. leaders were responsible for settling disputes, dealing with local government, organizing crop protection and planning for collective ceremonies. All these factors tended to strengthen the local protective deities and their temples as focal points of village identity and activity. This social context defines North China local religion, and keeps us from wandering off into vague discussions of 'popular' and 'elite' and relationships with Daoism and Buddhism."

10052: 7626: 7618: 8640: 4379: 6383: 8760: 2520: 9196: 8222: 295: 9341: 10850:. Most of them left China after the war, the rest relocating prior to, or immediately after, the establishment of the People's Republic. Today, the Kaifeng Jewish community is functionally extinct. Many descendants of the Kaifeng community still live among the Chinese population, mostly unaware of their Jewish ancestry, while some have moved to Israel. Meanwhile, remnants of the later arrivals maintain communities in Shanghai and Hong Kong. In recent years a community has also developed in Beijing through the work of the 10453: 12248:

conducted in 2010. The populations of Chinese ancestorism and Buddhism may overlap, even with the large remaining parts of the population whose belief is not documented in the table. The latter, the uncharted population, may practise other forms of Chinese religion, such as the worship of gods, Taoism, Confucianism, and folk salvationisms, or may be atheist. According to the CFPS 2012, only 6.3% of the Chinese were irreligious in the sense of "atheism", while the rest practised the worship of gods and ancestors.

11201: 11177: 253: 9417: 15351:, p. 185: about Taoism in southeastern China: "Ethnographic research into the temple festivals and communal rituals celebrated within these god cults has revealed the widespread distribution of Daoist ritual traditions in this area, including especially Zhengyi (Celestial Master Daoism) and variants of Lushan Daoist ritual traditions. Various Buddhist ritual traditions (Pu'anjiao, Xianghua married monks and so on) are practised throughout this region, particularly for requiem services". (quoting 7807:

polarities of spiritual cultivation, that is to say self-cultivation and world redemption, synthesised in the ideal of "sageliness within and kingliness without". As defined by Stephan Feuchtwang, Heaven is thought to have an ordering law which preserves the world, which has to be followed by humanity by means of a "middle way" between yin and yang forces; social harmony or morality is identified as patriarchy, which is the worship of ancestors and progenitors in the male line, in ancestral shrines.

8800: 7213:"... the two decades after the reforms have seen the revival of many folk societies organized around the worshipping of local deities, which had been banned by the state for decades as 'feudal superstition'. These societies enjoy wide local support, as they carry on traditions going back many generations, and cater to popular beliefs in theism, fatalism and retribution ... Because they build on tradition, common interest, and common values, these societies enjoy social legitimacy ... ." 4467: 1686:. In the early 20th century, Christian communities grew. However, after 1949, foreign missionaries were expelled, and churches brought under government-controlled institutions. After the late 1970s, religious freedoms for Christians improved and new Chinese groups emerged. Islam has been practiced in Chinese society for 1,400 years. Muslims constitute a minority group in China; according to the latest estimates, they represent between 0.45% and 1.8% of the total population. While 2589: 272: 24777: 6514:—instead of separation—emphasises communication, correspondence and mutuality between the ancestor and the descendant, the master and the disciple, and between the Way (Tao, the way of the divine in nature) and its ways. Ancestors are the mediators of Heaven. In other words, to the Chinese, the supreme principle is manifested and embodied by the chief gods of each phenomenon and of each human kin, making the worship of the highest God possible even in each 10776: 2233: 11864: 1445: 24787: 10067: 8891:, Buddhism was suppressed and temples closed or destroyed. Restrictions lasted until the reforms of the 1980s, when Buddhism began to recover popularity and its place as the largest organised faith in the country. While estimates of the number of Buddhists in China vary, the most recent surveys found an average 10–16% of the population of China claiming a Buddhist affiliation, with even higher percentages in urban agglomerations. 2053:

enlightened masters and in reviving and perpetuating more or less abandoned cults of national, regional and local divinities that better represented indigenous identities. The Han state religion was "ethnicised" by associating the cosmological deities to regional populations. By the end of the Eastern Han, the earliest record of a mass religious movement attests the excitement provoked by the belief in the imminent advent of the

5687: 2812:. The survey found only ~10% of the population belonging to organised religions; specifically, 6.75% were Buddhists, 2.4% were Christians (of whom 1.89% Protestants and 0.41% Catholics), 0.54% were Taoists, 0.46% were Muslims, and 0.40% declared to belong to other religions. Although ~90% of the population declared that they did not belong to any religion, the survey estimated (according to a 1992 figure) that only 6.3% were 2639:(folk religious sects). Furthermore, in the 1990s some of these organisations began to register as branches of the official Taoist Association and therefore to fall under the label of "Taoism". In order to address this terminological confusion, some Chinese intellectuals have proposed the legal recognition and management of the indigenous religion by the state and to adopt the label "Chinese native (or indigenous) religion" ( 2461: 6844:(which are peoples within the Chinese people, identified by the same surnames and by the same ancestor-god), and professional guilds, rather than in institutions with merely religious functions. It is a meaning system of social solidarity and identity, which provides the fabric of Chinese society, uniting all its levels from the lineages to the village or city communities, to the state and the national economy. 228: 2701:, found that only 5.3% of the analysed population belonged to religious organisations, while 51.8% were non-religious, in that they did not belong to any religious association. Nevertheless, 23.8% of the population regularly worshipped gods and venerated ancestors, 23.1% worshipped Buddha or identified themselves as Buddhists, up to 38.5% had beliefs and practices associated with the folk religions such as 17662: 9956:, who are related to the Zhuang. ince the 1980s, there has been a revival of Zhuang folk religion, which has followed two directions. The first is a grass-roots revival of cults dedicated to local deities and ancestors, led by shamans; the second way is a promotion of the religion on the institutional level, through a standardisation of Moism elaborated by Zhuang government officials and intellectuals. 11379: 10479: 1767: 31: 11557:(907–960), and saw the development of an indigenous Chinese Zoroastrianism that lasted until modern times. During this period, the gods of Sogdian Zoroastrianism were assimilated into the Chinese folk religion; Zoroastrian currents of the Chinese folk religion were increasingly practised by the Chinese and survived until the 1940s. Chinese Zoroastrian temples were witnessed to be active in 10348:, before 1949, there were approximately 4 million Christians (3 million Catholics and 1 million Protestants), and by 2010, China had roughly 67 million Christians, representing about 5% of the country's total population. Christians were unevenly distributed geographically, the only provinces in which they constituted a population significantly larger than 1 million persons being 2831:. Members of folk religious sects were not taken into account. Around the same year, Kenneth Dean estimated 680 million people involved in folk religion, or 51% of the total population. In the same years, reports of the Chinese government claim that the folk religious sects have about the same number of followers of the five state-sanctioned religions counted together (~13% ≈180 million). 6805:) is the "background" religious tradition of the Chinese, whose practices and beliefs are shared by both the elites and the common people. This tradition includes veneration of forces of nature and ancestors, exorcism of harmful forces, and a belief that a rational order structures the universe, and such order may be influenced by human beings and their rulers. Worship is devoted to 2897:' findings for 2012 shew that Buddhists tended to be younger and better educated, while Christians were older and more likely to be illiterate. Furthermore, Buddhists were generally wealthy, while Christians most often belonged to the poorest parts of the population. Henan was found hosting the largest percentage of Christians of any province of China, about 6%. According to Ji Zhe, 10749:

amount of the population in Ningxia and Qinghai. Of China's recognised ethnic minorities, ten groups are traditionally Islamic. Accurate statistics on China's Muslim population are hard to find; various surveys found that they constitute 1–2% of the Chinese population, or between 10 and 20 million people. In the 2010s they were served by 35,000 to 45,000 mosques, 40,000 to 50,000

8051:, one of the direct heirs of Kang Youwei's Confucian Church, has expanded its activities to the mainland, with the construction of statues of Confucius, the establishment of Confucian hospitals, the restoration of temples and other activities. In 2009, Zhou Beichen founded another institution which inherits the idea of Kang Youwei's Confucian Church, the Sacred Hall of Confucius ( 7197:"... numbers for authorised religions are dwarfed by the huge comeback of traditional folk religion in China. ... these actually may involve the majority of the population. Chinese officials and scholars now are studying "folk faiths" ... after decades of suppressing any discussion of this phenomenon. Certain local officials for some time have had to treat regional folk faiths as 11626: 10265:, an Italian mathematician who came to China in 1588 and lived in Beijing. Ricci was welcomed at the imperial court and introduced Western learning into China. The Jesuits followed a policy of adaptation of Catholicism to traditional Chinese religious practices, especially ancestor worship. However, such practices were eventually condemned as polytheistic idolatry by the popes 1721:, China's ecology may have influenced the country's religious landscape. Fairbank suggests that the challenges created by the climate of the country's river floodplains fostered uncertainty among the people, which may have contributed to their tendency toward relatively impersonal religious creeds, like Buddhism, in contrast with the anthropocentric nature of Christianity. 7886:("national learning") started to be implemented in public schools. Being well received by the population, even Confucian preachers started to appear on television since 2006. The most enthusiast New Confucians proclaim the uniqueness and superiority of Confucian Chinese culture, and have generated some popular sentiment against Western cultural influences in China. 12574:"Highest Deity") in his human form. As a human, Xuanyuan was the fruit of virginal birth, since his mother Fubao conceived him when she was aroused, while walking in the countryside, by seeing a yellow lightning revolving around the Big Dipper. She gave birth to her son on the mount of Shou (Longevity) or mount Xuanyuan (Chariot Shaft), after which he was named. 2882:

Protestants. The Buddhist community shew a greater balance of male and female believers. Concerning the age of believers, folk religious people and Catholics tended to be younger than the average, while Protestant and Taoist communities were composed by older people. The Christian community was more likely than other religions to have members belonging to the

14762: 14401:) in the Chinese scholarship, often inextricable from debates on the exact nature of the so-called 'White Lotus' tradition."; p. 14: "The local and anthropological focus of these studies, and their undermining of rigid distinctions between 'sectarian' groups and other forms of local religiosity, tends to draw them into the category of 'popular religion' 8703:

rituals, derived from the shamanic discourse of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600 BCE – 1046 BCE). What Confucianism did was to marginalize the features of old shamanism which were dysfunctional for the new political regime. However, shamanic traditions continued uninterrupted within the folk religion and found precise and functional forms within Taoism.

11971:"Buddha", "Tao", "Allah", "God of the Christians/Jesus", "Heavenly Lord of the Catholics") rather than membership in a religious group. It also included regions, such as those in the west of China, that were excluded in CFPS 2012, and unregistered Christians. For these reasons, she concludes that CFPS 2014 results are more accurate than 2012 ones. 2308:. Initially the new government did not suppress religious practice, but viewed popular religious movements as possibly seditious. It condemned religious organizations, labeling them as superstitious. Religions that were deemed "appropriate" and given freedom were those that entailed the ancestral tradition of consolidated state rule. In addition, 2754:, each representing different geographic and economic regions of China, found that followers of the Chinese folk religions were 31.9% of the analysed population, Buddhists were 10.85%, Christians were 3.93% of whom 3.54% Protestants and 0.39% Catholics, and Taoists were 0.71%. The remaining 53.41% of the population claimed to be not religious. 5734:, rites are conceived as "what makes the invisible visible", making possible for humans to cultivate the underlying order of nature. Correctly performed rituals move society in alignment with earthly and heavenly (astral) forces, establishing the harmony of the three realms—Heaven, Earth and humanity. This practice is defined as "centring" ( 6682:"A successful family temple economy expands its clientele from lineage relatives to strangers from other villages and kin groups by shifting from the worship of a single ancestor to embrace diverse religions. In this way, the management of a temple metamorphoses into a real business. Most Shishi villages have associations for the elderly ( 10360:. Protestants were characterized by a prevalence of people living in the countryside, women, illiterates and semi-literates, and elderly people. While according to the Yu Tao survey the Catholic population were characterized by a prevalence of men, wealthier, better educated, and young people. A 2017 study on the Christian community of 5752:). Rituals may be performed by government officials, family elders, popular ritual masters and Taoists, the latter cultivating local gods to centre the forces of the universe upon a particular locality. Among all things of creation, humans themselves are "central" because they have the ability to cultivate and centre natural forces. 2076:. A shaman named Zhang Xiu was known to have led a group of followers from Shu into the uprising of the year 184. In 191, he reappeared as a military official in the province, together with the apparently unrelated Zhang Lu. During a military mission in Hanning, Xiu died in battle. Between 143 and 198, starting with the grandfather 2108:). It began to grow to become a significant influence in China proper only after the fall of the Han dynasty, in the period of political division. When Buddhism had become an established religion it began to compete with Chinese indigenous religion and Taoist movements, deprecated in Buddhist polemics. After the first stage of the 10340:

one in a pantheon of local gods among whom the rural population divides its loyalties". Similarly, Gai Ronghua and Gao Junhui noted that "Christianity in China is no longer monotheism" and tends to blend with Chinese folk religion, as many Chinese Christians take part in regional activities for the worship of gods and ancestors.

11460:, "old age teaching") was first introduced in northern China in the 4th century, or even earlier, by the Sogdians, and it developed through three stages. Some scholars provide evidences that would attest the existence of Zoroastrianism, or broader Iranian religion, in China, as early as the 2nd and 1st century BCE. Worship of 11588:. Parsi cemeteries and fire temples were built in these coastal cities, in east China. The Parsis were expelled when the CCP rose to power in 1949. A Parsi fire temple was built in Shanghai in 1866, and was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Starting in the 1980s there has been a new wave of Parsis settling in China. 13078:

of anti-religious campaigns was implemented by the Chinese Communist Party from the early 1950s to the late 1970s. As a result, in nearly 30 years between the beginning of the 1950s and the end of the 1970s, mosques (as well as churches and Chinese temples) were shut down and Imams involved in forced 're-education'.

15427:, pp. 12–13: "As for the physical and social structure of villages on this vast flat expanse; they consist of close groups of houses built on a raised area, surrounded by their fields, with a multi-surnamed population of families who own and cultivate their own land, though usually not much more than twenty 6522:

its fathers, but not its divinised fathers". Among the ancient Chinese, the God of the Zhou dynasty appeared to have been an ancestor of the ruling house. "The belief in Tian (Heaven) as the great ancestral spirit differed from the Judeo-Christian, and later Islamic belief in a creator God". Early Christianity's

2220:. At that time China was being gradually invaded by European and American powers, and since 1860 Christian missionaries had had the right to build or rent premises, and they appropriated many temples. Churches with their high steeples and foreigners' infrastructures, factories and mines were viewed as disrupting 2765:, but only 16% claiming to "believe in the existence" of the ancestor; 12.9% or 173 million practised Taoism on a level indistinguishable from the folk religion; 0.9% or 12 million people identified exclusively as Taoists; 13.8% or 185 million identified as Buddhists, of whom 1.3% or 17.3 million had received 16278: 21222: 13077:

Subsequently, a new China was found on the basis of Communist ideology, i.e. atheism. Within the framework of this ideology, religion was treated as a 'contorted' world-view and people believed that religion would necessarily disappear at the end, along with the development of human society. A series

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Protestants in the early 21st century, including both official and unofficial churches, had between 25 and 35 million adherents. Catholics were not more than 10 million. In the 2010s the scholarly estimate was of approximately 30 million Christians, of whom fewer than 4 million were Catholics. In the

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Christianity began to take root in a significant way in the late imperial period, during the Qing dynasty, and although it has remained a minority religion in China, it influenced late imperial history. Waves of missionaries came to China in the Qing period as a result of contact with foreign powers.

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are the custodians of Qiang theology, history and mythology. They also administer the coming of age ceremony for 18 years-old boys, called the "sitting on top of the mountain", which involves the boy's entire family going to mountain tops, to sacrifice a sheep or cow and to plant three cypress trees.

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Although the two types of priests, daoshi and fashi, have the same roles in Chinese society—in that they may marry and they perform rituals for communities' temples or private homes—Zhengyi daoshi emphasise their Taoist tradition, distinguished from the vernacular tradition of the fashi. Some Western

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By the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) the various sources of Taoism coalesced into a coherent tradition of religious organizations and orders of ritualists. In earlier China, Taoists were thought of as hermits or ascetics who did not participate in political life. Zhuangzi was the best known of them,

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selected Confucius from many possible sages to serve as the counterpart to Christ or Muhammad in order to meet European religion categories. They used a variety of writings by Confucius and his followers to coin a new "-ism"—"Confucianism"—which they presented as a "rationalist secular-ethical code",

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often identified as "folk Taoists", operate in folk religion but outside the jurisdiction of the state's Taoist Church or schools clearly identified as Taoist. Confucianism advocates the worship of gods and ancestors through appropriate rites. Folk temples and ancestral shrines, on special occasions,

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Chinese concepts of religion differ from concepts in Judaism and Christianity, says scholar Julia Ching, which were "religions of the fathers", that is, patriarchal religions, whereas Chinese religion was not only "a patriarchal religion but also an ancestral religion". Israel believed in the "God of

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flourished. Chinese thinkers then diverged in a "Hundred Schools of Thought", each proposing its own theories for the reconstruction of the Zhou moral order. Confucius appeared in this period of decadence and questioning. He was educated in Shang–Zhou theology, and his new formulation gave centrality

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After the 1980s Islam experienced a renewal in China, with an upsurge in Islamic expression and the establishment Islamic associations aimed to coordinate inter-ethnic activities among Muslims. Muslims are found in every province of China, but they constitute a majority only in Xinjiang, and a large

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In recent decades the CCP has remained intolerant of Christian churches outside party control, looking with distrust on organizations with international ties. The government and Chinese intellectuals tend to associate Christianity with subversive Western values, and many churches have been closed or

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According to the most recent demographic analyses, an average 80% of the population of China, approximately 1 billion people, practises cults of gods and ancestors or belongs to folk religious movements. Moreover, according to one survey approximately 14% of the population claims different levels of

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The present-day government of China, like the erstwhile imperial dynasties of the Ming and Qing, tolerates popular religious cults if they bolster social stability, but suppresses or persecutes cults and deities which threaten moral order. After the fall of the empire in 1911, governments and elites

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Yang defined it as an "embedded capitalism", which preserves local identity and autonomy, and an "ethical capitalism" in which the drive for individual accumulation of money is tempered by religious and kinship ethics of generosity that foster the sharing and investment of wealth in the construction

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Understanding religion primarily as an ancestral tradition, the Chinese have a relationship with the divine that functions socially, politically as well as spiritually. The Chinese concept of "religion" draws the divine near to the human world. Because "religion" refers to the bond between the human

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or primordial stuff), there is no gap or barrier between good and bad spirits or between these spirits and human beings. There is no ontological difference between gods and demons, and humans may emulate the gods and join them in the pantheon. If these spirits are neglected or abandoned, or were not

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2012-2014: analyses published in a study by Fenggang Yang and Anning Hu found that 55.5% of the adult population (15+) of China, or 578 million people in absolute numbers, believed and practised folk religions, including a 20% who practised ancestor veneration or communal worship of deities, and the

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Counting the number of religious people anywhere is hard; counting them in China is even harder. Low response rates, non-random samples, and adverse political and cultural climates are persistent problems. One scholar concludes that statistics on religious believers in China "cannot be accurate in a

2367:. For several decades, the CCP acquiesced or even encouraged religious revival. During the 1980s, the government took a permissive stance regarding foreign missionaries entering the country under the guise of teachers. Likewise, the government has been more tolerant of folk religious practices since 12743: 12247:

The statistics for Chinese ancestorism, that is the worship of ancestor-gods within the lineage system, are from the Chinese Spiritual Life Survey of 2010. The statistics for Buddhism and Christianity are from the China Family Panel Studies survey of 2012. The statistics for Islam are from a survey

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Two of the most important religious holidays are the Qiang New Year, falling on the 24th day of the sixth month of the lunar calendar (though now it is fixed on 1 October), and the Mountain Sacrifice Festival, held between the second and the sixth month of the lunar calendar. The former festival is

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Since the 1980s the practice and study of shamanism has undergone a great revival in Chinese religion as a mean to repair the world to a harmonious whole after industrialization. Shamanism is viewed by many scholars as the foundation for the emergence of civilisation, and the shaman as "teacher and

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predictions, these phenomena suggest that drastic economic development in the Pearl River Delta may not lead to total disenchantment with beliefs concerning magic in the cosmos. On the contrary, the revival of folk religions in the Delta region is serving as a countervailing re-embedding force from

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Goossaert talks of this distinction, although recognizing it as an oversimplification, between a "Taoist south" and a "village-religion/Confucian centre-north", with the northern context also characterized by important orders of "folk Taoist" ritual masters, one order being that of the yinyangsheng

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Three surveys conducted respectively in 2005, 2006 and 2007 by the Horizon Research Consultancy Group on a disproportionately urban and suburban sample, found that Buddhists constituted between 11% and 16% of the total population, Christians were between 2% and 4%, and Muslims approximately 1%. The

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promoted the teachings of Confucius as the textual tradition superior to all others. The Qing made their laws more severely patriarchal than any previous dynasty, and Buddhism and Taoism were downgraded. Despite this, Tibetan Buddhism began in this period to have significant presence in China, with

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became the center of the "southern tradition" of Celestial Masters' Taoism, which developed a meditation technique known as "guarding the One"—visualizing the unity God in the human organism. Representatives of Jiangnan responded to the spread of Celestial Masters' Taoism by reformulating their own

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Scholar Kenneth Dean estimates 680 million people involved in folk temples and rituals. Quote: "According to Dean, 'in the rural sector... if one takes a rough figure of 1000 people per village living in 680,000 administrative villages and assume an average of two or three temples per village, one

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Christianity, especially in its Protestant form, gained momentum in China between the 1980s and the 1990s, but, in the following years, folk religion recovered more rapidly and in greater numbers than Christianity (or Buddhism). The scholar Richard Madsen noted that "the Christian God then becomes

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are mostly followers of a native Qiang folk religion. It is pantheistic, involving the worship of a variety of gods of nature and of human affairs, including Qiang progenitors. White stones are worshipped as it is believed that they may be invested with the power of the gods through rituals. Qiang

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the dead. Unlike the Abrahamic traditions in which living beings are created by God out of nothing, in Chinese religions all living beings descend from beings that existed before. These ancestors are the roots of current and future beings. They continue to live in the lineage which they begot, and

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argues that the term "Chinese religion", therefore, does not imply that there is only one religious system, but that the "different ways of believing and practicing... are rooted in and can be defined by culturally common themes and features", and that "different religious streams and strands have

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pp. i–ii: "Their revival is most evident in South-east China, where annual festivals for local and regional gods often mobilize the entire village population for elaborate rites and rituals. The deep and rich ritual traditions share close similarities with those of Taiwan and overseas Chinese and

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same years, about 40 million Chinese said they believed in Jesus Christ or had attended Christian meetings, but did not identify themselves with the Christian religion. Demographic analyses usually find an average 2–3% of the population of China declaring a Christian affiliation. According to the

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The reason of such strong identification of Yao religion with Taoism is that in Yao society every male adult is initiated as a Taoist. Yao Taoism is therefore a communal religion, not identifying just a class of priests but the entire body of the society; this contrasts with Chinese Taoism, which

8702:

With the rise of Confucian orthodoxy in the Han period (206 BCE – 220 CE), shamanic traditions found an institutionalized and intellectualized form within the esoteric philosophical discourse of Taoism. According to Chirita (2014), Confucianism itself, with its emphasis on hierarchy and ancestral

5764:

The continuity of Chinese civilisation across thousands of years and thousands of square miles is made possible through China's religious traditions understood as systems of knowledge transmission. A worthy Chinese is expected to remember a vast amount of information from the past, and to draw on

2183:

played a significant role in opening dialogue between China and the West. The Jesuits brought Western sciences, becoming advisers to the imperial court on astronomy, taught mathematics and mechanics, but also adapted Chinese religious ideas such as admiration for Confucius and ancestor veneration

1957:

is immanent, and responds positively to the sincere heart driven by the qualities of humaneness, rightness, decency and altruism that Confucius conceived of as the foundation needed to restore socio-political harmony. He also thought that a prior state of meditation was necessary to engage in the

15974:

p. 20, quoting: "Most ethnic Tibetans practice Tibetan Buddhism, although a sizeable minority practices Bon, an indigenous religion, and very small minorities practice Islam, Catholicism, or Protestantism. Some scholars estimate that there are as many as 400,000 Bon followers across the Tibetan

10364:

found the same socio-economic characteristics, with the addition that Christians were more likely than the general population to suffer from physical and mental illness. In 2018, the government published a report saying that there are over 44 million Christians (38M Protestants; 6M Catholics) in

20068:

China tops the list of the world's least religious nations by far; it's followed by countries in Europe – about three fourth of all Swedish and Czech also said that they were either atheists or not religious. Although China's society has deep religious traditions, decades of Communist rule have

20014:

Seeking a complete annihilation of religion, places of worship were shut down; temples, synagogues, churches, and mosques were destroyed; artifacts were smashed; sacred texts were burnt; and it was a criminal offence even to possess a religious artifact or sacred text. Atheism had long been the

15431:

or about three acres. Families of different surnames living in one small community meant that lineages were not strong enough to maintain lineage shrines and cross-village organizations, so, at best, they owned small burial plots and took part only in intra-village activities. The old imperial

12050:

These numerical results for practitioners of the folk religions exclude those who identified with one of the institutional religions, even the 173 million folk Taoists. p. 34 of Wenzel-Teuber (2011): "The CSLS questioned people on popular religious beliefs and practices as well, and came to the

5858:

are religious microcosms which are part of a larger organism, that is the cults of the ancestor-gods of regional and ethnic groups, which in turn are part of a further macrocosm, the cults of virtuous historical figures that have had an important impact in the history of China, notable examples

11980:

CFPS 2014 found that 5.94% of the population declared that they belonged to "other" religious categories besides the five state-sanctioned religions. An additional 0.85% of the population responded that they were "Taoists". Note that the title of "Taoist", in common Chinese usage, is generally

7537:"martial field"), that is the practice of bodily cultivation, usually shown as the "public face" of the sect. These martial folk religions were outlawed by Ming imperial decrees which continued to be enforced until the fall of the Qing dynasty in the 20th century. An example of martial sect is 2838:

2023 : According to studies published in 2023, compiling reliable demographic analyses holden throughout the 2010s and the early 2020s, 70% of the Chinese population believes in or practices Chinese folk religion; among them, with an approach of non-exclusivity, 33.4% may be identified as

2834:

The CFPS 2014 survey, published in early 2017, found that 15.87% of the Chinese declare to be Buddhists, 5.94% to belong to unspecified other religions, 0.85% to be Taoists, 0.81% to be members of the popular sects, 2.53% to be Christians (2.19% Protestants and 0.34% Catholics) and 0.45% to be

2052:

struggled with both internal instability and menace by non-Chinese peoples from the outer edges of the empire. In such harsh conditions, while the imperial cult continued the sacrifices to the cosmological gods, common people estranged from the rationalism of the state religion found solace in

11313:

in 840, Manichaeism's fortune vanished as anti-foreign sentiment arose among the Chinese. Manichaean properties were confiscated, the temples were destroyed, the scriptures were burnt and the clergy was laicised, or killed, as was the case of seventy nuns who were executed at the Tang capital

1915:

was based on the worship of ancestors and god-kings, who survived as unseen forces after death. They were not transcendent entities, since the universe was "by itself so", not created by a force outside of it but generated by internal rhythms and cosmic powers. The later Zhou dynasty was more

11970:

CFPS 2014 surveyed a sample of 13,857 families and 31,665 individuals. As noted by Katharina Wenzel-Teuber of China Zentrum, a German institute for research on religion in China, compared to CFPS 2012, CFPS 2016 asked the Chinese about personal belief in certain conceptions of divinity (i.e.

7806:

in its structure. Individuals may realize their humanity and become one with Heaven through the contemplation of this order. This transformation of the self may be extended to the family and society to create a harmonious fiduciary community. Confucianism conciliates both the inner and outer

4898:, or northeast China in the 1930s, making up about 25% of the total population of the area (the state of Manchuria also included the eastern end of modern-day Inner Mongolia). Folk religious movements of a Confucian nature, or Confucian churches, were in fact very successful in the northeast. 6488:"ancestor", "model", "mode", "master", "pattern", but also "purpose") implies that the understanding of the ultimate derives from the transformed figure of great ancestors or progenitors, who continue to support—and correspondingly rely on—their descendants, in a mutual exchange of benefit. 2881:

Yu Tao's survey of the year 2008 provided a detailed analysis of the social characteristics of the religious communities. It found that the proportion of male believers was higher than the average among folk religious people, Taoists, and Catholics, while it was lower than the average among

1705:

do not consider their spiritual beliefs and practices to be a "religion" as such, and do not feel that they must practice any one of them to the exclusion of others, it is difficult to gather clear and reliable statistics. According to one scholar, the "great majority of China's population"

6542:

The mutual support of elders and youth is needed for the continuity of the ancestral tradition, that is communicated from generation to generation. With an understanding of religion as teaching and education, the Chinese have a staunch confidence in the human capacity of transformation and

7902:

and the end of the Chinese empire. Kang modeled his ideal "Confucian Church" after European national Christian churches, as a hierarchic and centralized institution, closely bound to the state, with local church branches devoted to the worship of Confucius and the spread of his teachings.

5755:

This primordial sense of ritual united the moral and the religious and drew no boundaries between family, social, and political life. From earliest times, the Chinese tended to be all-embracing rather than to treat different religious traditions as separate and independent. The scholar

2044:, while outside the state religion the Yellow God was the focus of Huang-Lao religious movements which influenced primitive Taoism. Before the Confucian turn of Emperor Wu and after him, the early and latter Han dynasty had Huang-Lao as the state doctrine under various emperors, where 11985:. CFPS 2014 found that a further 0.81% declared that they belonged to the popular sects, while CFPS 2012 found 2.2%, and CGSS 2006-2010 surveys found an average 3% of the population declaring that they belonged to such religions, while government estimates give higher figures (see " 6101:. Yin and yang are the invisible and the visible, the receptive and the active, the unshaped and the shaped; they characterise the yearly cycle (winter and summer), the landscape (shady and bright), the sexes (female and male), and even sociopolitical history (disorder and order). 7698:"Heaven"), the search for a middle way in order to preserve social harmony and on respect through teaching and a set of ritual practices. Joël Thoraval finds that Confucianism expresses on a popular level in the widespread worship of five cosmological entities: Heaven and Earth ( 2531:, Jiangsu. Is it Taoism or folk religion? To the general Chinese public they are not distinguished, but a lay practitioner would hardly claim to be a "Taoist", as Taoism is a set of doctrinal and liturgical functions that work as specialising patterns for the indigenous religion. 8401:, was established to govern the activity of Taoist orders and temples. According to demographic analyses, approximately 13% of the population of China claims a loose affiliation with Taoist practices, while self-proclaimed "Taoists" (a title traditionally attributed only to the 2869:

in 2010. This study estimated 21.9% of the population of China believed in folk religions, 18.2% were Buddhists, 5.1% were Christians, 1.8% were Muslims, 0.8% believed in other religions, while unaffiliated people constituted 52.2% of the population. According to the surveys by

9959:

Zhuang religion is intertwined with Taoism. Chinese scholars divide the Zhuang religion into several categories including Shigongism, Moism, Daogongism, and shamanism, according to the type of specialists conducting the rites. "Shigongism" refers to the dimension led by the

7736:). Confucians cultivate family bonds and social harmony rather than pursuing a transcendental salvation. The scholar Joseph Adler concludes that Confucianism is not so much a religion in the Western sense, but rather "a non-theistic, diffused religious tradition", and that 7645:

Kǒngjiào, the "teaching of Confucius". It is both a teaching and a set of ritual practices. Yong Chen calls the question on the definition of Confucianism "probably one of the most controversial issues in both Confucian scholarship and the discipline of religious studies".

6847:

Because this common religion is embedded in Chinese social relations, it historically has never had an objectifying name. Since the 2000s, Chinese scholars have proposed names to identify it more clearly, including "Chinese native religion" or "Chinese indigenous religion"

4934:

According to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2012, about 2.2% of the total population of China (around 30 million people) claims membership in the folk religious sects, which have likely maintained their historical dominance in central-northern and northeastern China.

12080:

Overmyer (2009, p. 73), says that from the late 19th to the 20th century few professional priests (i.e. licensed Taoists) were involved in local religion in the central and northern provinces of China, and discusses various types of folk ritual specialists including: the

11329:

The religion never recovered from the persecutions, but it has persisted as a distinct syncretic, and underground movement at particularly in southeastern China. Manichaean sects historically have been known for resurfacing from their hiding from time to time, supporting

7421:

and later People's Republic. Many of them still remain underground or unrecognized in China, while others—for instance the Church of Virtue, Tiandiism, Xuanyuanism, Weixinism and Yiguandao—operate in China and collaborate with academic and non-governmental organizations.

1608:: old habits, old ideas, old customs, and old culture. The Cultural Revolution destroyed or forced many observances and religious organisations underground. Following the death of Mao, subsequent leaders have allowed Chinese religious organisations to have more autonomy. 7669:, wrote that Confucianism "functioned as a religion without actually being one". Western scholarship generally accepted this understanding. In the decades following the Second World War, however, many Chinese intellectuals and academic scholars in the West, among whom 1949:

to self-cultivation, human agency, and the educational power of the self-established individual in assisting others to establish themselves. As the Zhou collapsed, traditional values were abandoned. Disillusioned with the widespread vulgarization of rituals to access

12406:

The image is a good synthesis of the basic virtues of Chinese religion and Confucian ethics, that is to say "to move and act according to the harmony of Heaven". The Big Dipper or Great Chariot in Chinese culture (as in other traditional cultures) is a symbol of the

2012:. The idea of the incarnation of God was not new, as the Shang also regarded themselves as divine. Besides these development, the latter Han dynasty was characterised by new religious phenomena: the emergence of Taoism outside state orthodoxy, the rise of indigenous 8469:, although the 63rd Celestial Master Zhang Enpu fled to Taiwan in the 1940s during the Chinese Civil War. Taoism, both in registered and unregistered forms, has experienced a strong development since the 1990s, and dominates the religious life of coastal provinces. 21241: 12437:"Life and death, separation and convergence, all derive from the seven stars. Thus when the Big Dipper impinges on someone, he dies, and when it moves, he lives. That is why the seven stars are Heaven's chancellor, the yamen where the gate is opened to give life." 2601:

real scientific sense", since definitions of "religion" exclude people who do not see themselves as members of a religious organisation but are still "religious" in their daily actions and fundamental beliefs. The forms of Chinese religious expression tend to be

7132:

opposed or attempted to eradicate folk religion in order to promote "modern" values while overcoming "feudal superstition". These attitudes began to change in the late 20th century, and contemporary scholars generally have a positive vision of popular religion.

11066:("Chinese Practice"), and the Shakta tantras that discuss them trace their origin to Taoism. Two of these tantras report that the Shakta master Vaśiṣṭha paid visit to China specifically with the purpose of learning Cīnācāra from the Taoists. According to the 6555:("doctrines"). The lack of an overarching name conceptualising Chinese local and indigenous cults has led to some confusion in the terminology employed in scholarly literature. In Chinese, with the terms usually translated in English as "folk religion" (i.e. 9122:"Tang Mysteries"), as it flourished in China during the Tang dynasty (618–907) just before the great suppression of Buddhism by imperial decision. Another name for this body of traditions is "Han Chinese Transmission of the Esoteric (or Mystery) Tradition" ( 7688:", Confucianism transcends the dichotomy between religion and humanism. Confucians experience the sacred as existing in this world as part of everyday life, most importantly in family and social relations. Confucianism focuses on a this worldly awareness of 12905: 12720: 2438:

made fighting moral void and corruption through a return to traditional culture one of the primary tasks of the his government. In 2023, the government decreed that all places of worship must uphold the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party, implement

9298:

and the shamans is the way through which they acquire their authority. While both are regarded as the "mediators between humanity and the divine", the shamans are initiated through a "spiritual inspiration" (which involves illness or vision) whereas the

10233:

of the Tang in 845 ordained that all foreign religions (Buddhism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism) had to be eradicated from the Chinese nation. Christianity was reintroduced in China in the 13th century, in the form of Nestorianism, during the Mongol

10216:

Christianity existed in China as early as the 7th century, living multiple cycles of significant presence for centuries, then disappearing for other centuries, and then being re-introduced by foreign missionaries. The arrival of the Persian missionary

2402:

in 2006, a number of international Taoist meetings, and local conferences on folk religions. Aligning with Chinese anthropologists' emphasis on "religious culture", the government considers these as integral expressions of national "Chinese culture".

7128:) coincides with the middle way between the two states, that is the inchoate order of creation. It is the force establishing responsive communication between yin and yang, and is the power of gods, masters of building and healing, rites and sages. 2835:

Muslims. 73.56% of the population does not belong to the state-sanctioned religions. CFPS 2014 asked the Chinese about belief in a certain conception of divinity rather than membership in a religious group in order to increase its survey accuracy.

2609:. Traditionally, the Chinese language has not included a term for a lay follower of Taoism, since the concept of being "Taoist" in this sense is a new word that derives from the Western concept of "religion" as membership in a church institution. 9365:) is the post-Buddhist name of the pre-Buddhist folk religion of Tibet. Buddhism spread into Tibet starting in the 7th and 8th century, and the name "Bon" was adopted as the name of the indigenous religion in Buddhist historiography. Originally, 1937:

had become "diffuse" and claimed by different potentates in the Zhou states to legitimize political ambitions, but might be bought by anyone able to afford the elaborate ceremonies and the old and new rites required to access the authority of

12116:

masters (as " folk Zhengyi Daoists of the Lingbao scriptural tradition, living as ordinary peasants. They earn their living both as a group from performing public rituals, and individually by doing geomancy and calendrical consultations for

11232:

and eastward to China. Historical sources speak of the religion being introduced in China in 694, though this may have happened much earlier. Manichaeans in China at the time held that their religion was first brought to China by Mōzak under

6960:, "masters of the Tao", otherwise commonly translated simply the "Taoists", since common followers and folk believers who are not part of Taoist orders are not identified as such) performing rituals for local temples and communities. Various 5717:, which are based on the belief in an omnipotent God who exists outside the world and human race and has complete power over them. Chinese religions, in general, do not place as much emphasis as Christianity does on exclusivity and doctrine. 12836:). The tables also contain the results of CFPS 2012 (sample 20,035) and Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) results for 2006, 2008, and 2010 (samples ~10.000/11,000). For comparison, see 卢云峰：当代中国宗教状况报告——基于CFPS（2012）调查数据 (CFPS 2012 report), 10376:, in Jilin. Yanbian Koreans' Christianity has a patriarchal character; Korean churches are usually led by men, in contrast to Chinese churches that most often have female leadership. For instance, of the twenty-eight registered churches of 4596:

have historically been more successful in the central plains and in the northeastern provinces than in southern China, and central-northern popular religion shares characteristics of some of the sects, such as the great importance given to

9984:), vernacular ritual specialists able to transcribe and read texts written in Zhuang characters and lead the worship of Buluotuo and the goddess Muliujia. "Daogongism" is Zhuang Taoism, the indigenous religion of Zhuang Taoists, known as 11256:) it was not outlawed, provided that it remained confined to them not spreading among Chinese. In 731 a Manichaean priest was asked by the current Chinese emperor to make a summary of Manichaean religious doctrines, so that he wrote the 7794:(a Confucian reformer of the early 20th century), Confucianism revolves around the pursuit of the unity of the individual self and Heaven, or, otherwise said, around the relationship between humanity and Heaven. The principle of Heaven ( 9952:, centred on a creator god, usually expressed as the mythical Buluotuo, progenitor of the Zhuang. Beliefs are codified into mythology and the sacred he "Buluotuo Epic" scripture. A similar religion by the same name is practised by the 1883:

worldviews. Shamans mediated prayers, sacrifices, and offerings directly to the spiritual world; this heritage survives in various modern forms of religion throughout China. These traits are especially connected to cultures such as the

11830:. He wrote that the soul is merely an effect or function of the body, and that there is no soul without the body—after the death and destruction of the body. He considered that cause-and-effect relationships claimed to be evidence of 8846:, but also by minorities of Han. The vast majority of Buddhists in China, counted in the hundreds of millions, are Chinese Buddhists, while Tibetan Buddhists are in the number of the tens of millions. Small communities following the 6724:

In China, many religious believers practice or draw beliefs from multiple religions simultaneously and are not exclusively associated with a single faith. Generally, such syncretic practices fuse Taoism, Buddhism, and folk religion.

5720:

Han Chinese culture is marked by a "harmonious holism" in which religious expression is syncretic and religious systems encompass elements that grow, change, and transform but remain within an organic whole. The performance of rites

7810:

In Confucian thought, human beings are always teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor of self-cultivation and self-creation. Some of the basic Confucian ethical and practical concepts include

2718:

taking into account people from different regions of China, concluded that there were approximately 300 million religious believers (≈31% of the total population), of whom the vast majority ascribable to Buddhism, Taoism and folk

2612:

Analysing Chinese traditional religions is further complicated by discrepancies between the terminologies used in Chinese and Western languages. While in the English current usage "folk religion" means broadly all forms of common

15728:. «Drawing on empirical data obtained from three consecutive territory-wide household surveys conducted in 2005, 2007, and 2009 respectively, this paper attempts to shed light on the current religious profile of Macao residents.» 14930: 2769:; 2.4% or 33 million identified as Christians, of whom 2.2% or 30 million as Protestants (of whom only 38% baptised in the official churches) and 0.02% or 3 million as Catholics; and an additional 1.7% or 23 million were Muslims. 12060:

However, there is considerable discrepancy between what Chinese and Western cultures intend with the concepts of "belief", "existence" and "practice". The Chinese folk religion is often considered one of "belonging" rather than

11752:. Many churches, temples and mosques were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution, which also criminalized the possession of religious texts. Monks were also beaten or killed. As such, China has the most atheists in the world. 7833:

is translated as "humaneness", or the essence proper of a human being, which is characterized by compassionate mind; it is the virtue endowed by Heaven and at the same time what allows man to achieve oneness with Heaven—in the

4872:: According to Heberer and Jakobi (2000) Henan has been for centuries a hub of folk religious sects (p. 7) that constitute significant focuses of the religious life of the province. Sects present in the region include the 10430:

in China. The Vatican spokesman Greg Burke described the agreement as "not political but pastoral, allowing the faithful to have bishops who are in communion with Rome but at the same time recognized by Chinese authorities".

7897:

of China has roots in the thought of Kang Youwei (1858–1927), an exponent of the early New Confucian search for a regeneration of the social relevance of Confucianism at a time when it fell out of favour with the fall of the

2761:'s Center on Religion and Chinese Society concluded that many types of Chinese folk religions and Taoism are practised by possibly hundreds of millions of people; 56.2% of the total population or 754 million people practised 2665:, criticises the data and narratives put forward by these authors. He notices that these authors work in the wake of a "Western evangelical bias" reflected in the coverage carried forward by popular media, especially in the 13686: 6547:

defined Chinese religions as the "religions of wisdom", thereby distinguishing them from the "religions of prophecy" (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) and from the "religions of mysticism" (Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism).

4904:: The province is traditionally a stronghold of Confucianism and is the area of origin of many folk religious sects and Confucian churches of the modern period, including the Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue, the 13333: 13269: 8735:

represent the voice of spirits, repair the natural disfunctions, foretell the future based on dreams and the art of divination ... "a historical science of the future", whereas shamans are able to observe the yin and the

9734:

as ancestral shrines. Han Chinese of Inner Mongolia have easily assimilated into the spiritual heritage of the region. The cult of Genghis is also shared by the Han, claiming his spirit as the founding principle of the

8137:, also "refined businessman") is a recently rediscovered concept defining people of the economic-entrepreneurial elite who recognise their social responsibility and therefore apply Confucian culture to their business. 20043:

Yet in the first years after Liberation there were places in China where monasteries were destroyed, monks were beaten or killed, copies of the Buddhist canon were burned, and sacred images were melted down for their

16287:, pp. 30 ("Introduction"), 73 (Ch. Eno, Robert. "Shang State Religion"), 240 (Ch. Cook, Constance A. "Ancestor Worship During the Eastern Zhou"), 985 (Ch. Pirazzoli-T'serstevens, Michèle. "Death and the Dead"). 12920: 9725:

Since the 1980s there has been an unprecedented development of Mongolian folk religion in Inner Mongolia, including böge, the cult of Genghis Khan and the Heaven in special temples, many of which built to resemble

7514:) to distinguish positively-viewed peasant secret societies of the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, from the negatively-viewed secret societies of the early republic which were regarded as anti-revolutionary forces. 6577:, and not to the local and indigenous cults of gods and ancestors. To resolve this issue, some Chinese intellectuals have proposed to formally adopt "Chinese native religion" or "Chinese indigenous religion" (i.e. 8332:. Early Taoist movements developed their own institution in contrast to shamanism, but absorbing fundamental shamanic elements. Shamans revealed texts of Taoism from early times down to at least the 20th century. 2669:, which rely upon a "considerable romanticisation" of Chinese Christians. Their data are mostly ungrounded or manipulated through undue interpretations, as "survey results do not support the authors' assertions". 11350:(1368–1644) renewed discriminations against them. Despite this, small Manichaean communities are still active in modern China. Manichaeism is thought to have exerted a strong influence on some of the currents of 2673:

According to the results of an official census provided in 1995 by the Information Office of the State Council of China, at that time the Chinese traditional religions were already popular among nearly 1 billion

2141:, based on revelations of the years between 397 and 402 and re-codified by Lu Xiujing. Lingbao incorporated from Buddhism the ideas of "universal salvation" and ranked "heavens", and focused on communal rituals. 24742: 2205:, official policies pursued the elimination of Chinese religions to substitute them with forms of Christianity. In this effort, the libraries of the Buddhist monasteries were destroyed, almost completely in the 7135:

Since the 1980s Chinese folk religions experienced a revival in both mainland China and Taiwan. Some forms have received official approval as they preserve traditional Chinese culture, including the worship of

10380:, only three of which are Chinese congregations, all the Korean churches have a male pastor while all the Chinese churches have a female pastor. Also, Korean church buildings are stylistically very similar to 2660:

There has been much speculation by some Western authors about the number of Christians in China. Chris White, in a 2017 work for the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Religious and Ethnic Diversity of the

2279:

was part of a rejection of Christianity as an instrument of foreign imperialism. Despite all this, the interest of Chinese reformers for spiritual and occult matters continued to thrive through the 1940s. The

5765:

this past to form his moral reasoning. The remembrance of the past and of ancestors is important for individuals and groups. The identities of descent-based groups are molded by stories, written genealogies (

2271:, the issue for the new intellectual class was no longer the worship of gods as it was the case in imperial times, but the de-legitimization of religion itself as an obstacle to modernization. Leaders of the 10965:

reaching northwest China, which was the main route through which Buddhism spread into China. Archeological remains of Hindu temples and typical Hindu icons have been found in coastal cities of China and in

10627:

from 1862 to 1877. The Manchu government ordered the execution of all rebels, killing a million Muslims after the Panthay Rebellion, and several million after the Dungan Revolt. However, many Muslims like

2823:

found an average 6.2% of the Chinese identifying as Buddhists, 2.3% as Christians (of whom 2% Protestants and 0.3% Catholics), 2.2% as members of folk religious sects, 1.7% as Muslims, and 0.2% as Taoists.

7779:(206 BCE–220 CE), to match the developments in Buddhism and Taoism which were dominant among the populace. By the same period, Confucianism became the core idea of Chinese imperial politics. According to 2390:. In the early 2000s, the Chinese government became open especially to traditional religions such as Mahayana Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religion, emphasizing the role of religion in building a Confucian 2008:, previously held at different locations, in unified temple complexes. The universal religion of the Han was focused on the idea of the incarnation of God as the Yellow Emperor, the central figure of the 2288:

intensified the suppression of local religion, destroyed or appropriated temples, and formally abolished all cults of gods with the exception of human heroes such as Yu the Great, Guan Yu and Confucius.

7296:

and progenitors, as well as from the communal worship of deities of village temples, neighborhood, corporation, or national temples. The 20th-century expression of such religions has been studied under

5879:, the latter three considered ancestor-gods of the Han Chinese (Huangdi and Yandi) and of western minority ethnicities and foreigners (Chiyou). This hierarchy proceeds up to the gods of the cosmos, the 1580:" that have shaped Chinese culture. There are no clear boundaries between these intertwined religious systems, which do not claim to be exclusive, and elements of each enrich popular folk religion. The 4858:, since their "energetic revival since the 1970s" (p. 13), in the religious life of the counties of Hebei. Religious life in rural Hebei is also characterized by a type of organization called the 10819:, Henan province. In the 20th century many Jews arrived in Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Harbin, during a period of great economic development of these cities. Many of them sought refuge from anti-Semitic 9893:

since the 13th century, so much that it is frequently defined as "Yao Taoism". Yao folk religion was described by a Chinese scholar of the half of the 20th century as an example of deep "Taoisation" (

8615:

embody wild forces, vernacular ritual masters represent order like the Taoists. Unlike the Taoists, who represent a tradition of high theology which is interethnic, both vernacular ritual masters and

7783:, Confucianism may be identified as a continuation of the Shang-Zhou (~1600 BCE–256 BCE) official religion, or the Chinese aboriginal religion which has lasted uninterrupted for three thousand years. 19734: 15016: 14688: 14618: 11483:' period (220–589), when Sogdian Zoroastrians advanced into China. They did not proselytise among Chinese, and from this period there are only two known fragments of Zoroastrian literature, both in 6832:

Chinese popular religion is "diffused", rather than "institutional", in the sense that there are no canonical scriptures or unified clergy—though it relies upon the vast heritage represented by the

6690:) among prosperous businessmen representing their family committees. This association resembles the local government of a village, with responsibilities for popular rituals as well as public order." 24752: 10857:

Since the late 20th century, along with the study of religion in general, the study of Judaism and Jews in China as an academic subject has blossomed with the establishment of institutions such as

8405:, i.e. the priests, who are experts of Taoist doctrines and rites, and to their closest disciples) might be 12 million (c. 1%). The definition of "Taoist" is complicated by the fact that many 19757: 15785:, p. 13. The report compares the data of the China Family Panel Studies 2012 with those of the Renmin University's Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) of the years 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2011. 5883:

and Heaven itself. In other words, ancestors are regarded as the equivalent of Heaven within human society, and are therefore the means connecting back to Heaven as the "utmost ancestral father" (

4742:

constitute a significant part of the population, and has a strong influence in Inner Mongolia in the north. The Tibetan tradition has also been gaining a growing influence among the Han Chinese.

9472:), many of whom, in times of persecution when Buddhism became the dominant religion in Tibet, were expelled and dispersed to the eastern marches settling among Nakhi and other eastern peoples. 8501:), or "Red Taoism" (in southeast China and Taiwan), are orders of priests that operate within the Chinese folk religion but outside any institution of official Taoism. Such "masters of rites", 6176:—who represent the centre of the universe and its two modalities of manifestation. Even Chinese Buddhism adapted to common Chinese cosmology by paralleling its concept of a triune supreme with 18122: 11617:, the same as in Chinese). At the time it was rare for the Chinese to create a character for a foreign religion, and this is an evidence of the effect of Zoroastrians in Tang Chinese society. 9583:, with healing powers so that he became the first shaman. After his death, Siv Yis ascended to heaven, but he left behind his ritual tools that became the equipment of the shaman class. They ( 8397:

Taoism was suppressed during the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s and early 1970s but its traditions endured in secrecy and revived in following decades. In 1956 a national organisation, the

6551:

The cults of gods and ancestors that in recent (originally Western) literature have been classified as "Chinese popular religion", traditionally neither have a common name nor are considered

17458:

Ambrosi, Raymond P. (2015). "Interconnections amongst Folk Religions, Civil Society and Community Development: Meihua Boxers as Constructors of Social Trust and the Agrarian Public Sphere".

8446:

who may marry and have other jobs besides the sacerdotal office; they live among the population and perform Taoist rituals within common Chinese religion, for local temples and communities.

12697: 11613:, meaning the "worship of Heaven". Curiously, in the Far East the Zoroastrians were regarded as "Heaven worshippers" rather than "fire worshippers" (in Japanese the name of the religion is 6460:

circles to define the Buddhist doctrine. It was chosen to translate the Western concept "religion" only at the end of the 19th century, when Chinese intellectuals adopted the Japanese term

1922:. The Shang's identification of Shangdi as their ancestor-god had asserted their claim to power by divine right; the Zhou transformed this claim into a legitimacy based on moral power, the 14500: 9994:'lords of the Tao') in Zhuang. Zhuang shamanism entails the practices of mediums who provide direct communication between the material and the spiritual worlds; these shamans are known as 2167:

The principle of reciprocity between the human and the divine led to changes in the pantheon that reflected changes in the society. The late Tang dynasty saw the spread of the cult of the

23412: 10384:

churches, with big spires surmounted by red crosses. Yanbian Korean churches have been a matter of controversy for the Chinese government because of their links to South Korean churches.

8706:

In the Shang and later Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 BCE – 256 BCE), shamans had an important role in the political hierarchy, and were represented institutionally by the Ministry of Rites (

6656:"Similar to the case in Taiwan, the practice of folk religion in rural southern China, particularly in the Pearl River Delta, has thrived as the economy has developed. ... In contrast to 4715:

with the explicit support of the Chinese government, Gesar being a cross-ethnic Han-Tibetan, Mongol and Manchu deity—the Han identify him as an aspect of the god of war analogically with

14961: 10078: 6543:

perfection, enlightenment or immortality. In the Chinese religions, humans are confirmed and reconfirmed with the ability to improve themselves, in a positive attitude towards eternity.

2605:

and following one religion does not necessarily mean the rejection or denial of others. In surveys, few people identify as "Taoists" because to most Chinese this term refers to ordained

2256:

as their spiritual and temporal leader. Popular cults were regulated by imperial policies, promoting certain deities while suppressing others. During the anti-foreign and anti-Christian

2171:

in direct bond to the development of the cities as centers of commerce and the rise in influence of merchant classes. Commercial travel opened China to influences from foreign cultures.

14771:, p. 8, citing: Dean, Kenneth (2011). "Local Ritual Traditions of Southeast China: A Challenge to Definitions of Religion and Theories of Ritual". In Yang, Fenggang; Lang, Graeme. 2874:

published on Adherents.com, 59% of the Chinese population was not religious in 1993, and in 2005 between 8% and 14% was atheist (from over 100 to 180 million). A survey held in 2012 by

17108: 11767:

stated in the 1920s what has been translated in Western terminology as "China is a country without religion and the Chinese are a people who are not bound by religious superstitions".

11501:(756–763), Sogdians and Chinese lived as segregated ethnic groups; however, after the rebellion intermarriage became common and the Sogdians were gradually assimilated by the Chinese. 9392:. Since the late 10th century, the religion then designated as "Bon" started to organise itself adopting the style of Tibetan Buddhism, including a monastic structure and a Bon Canon ( 6327:

animates all beings, whether rocks, trees, and planets, or animals and human beings. In this sense, "animism" may be said to characterise the Chinese worldview. Further, since humans,

2084:

church. Zhang died in 216 or 217, and between 215 and 219 the people of Hanzhong were gradually dispersed northwards, spreading Celestial Masters' Taoism to other parts of the empire.

24049: 1588:

and participated in Chinese religious practices. In the early 20th century, reform-minded officials and intellectuals attacked religion in general as superstitious. Since 1949, the

14852: 7854:

is the ability to see what is right and what is wrong, in the behavior exhibited by others. Confucianism holds one in contempt when he fails to uphold the cardinal moral values of

6323:("ghosts and spirits") includes both good and bad, those that are lucky or unlucky, benevolent or malevolent, the heavenly and the demonic aspect of living beings. This duality of 13259: 12640:

The man (with the physical features of an Indo-European) wearing a distinctive cap and face veil, is possibly a camel rider or even a Zoroastrian priest engaging in a ritual at a

11224:

Míngjiào, "bright transmission") was introduced in China together with Christianity in the 7th century, by land from Central Asia and by sea through south-eastern ports. Based on

11091:

The effect of Hinduism in China is also evident in various gods, originally of Hindu origin, which have been absorbed into the Chinese folk religion. A glaring example is the god

4847:

Historical record and contemporary scholarly fieldwork testify certain central and northern provinces of China as hotbeds of folk religious sects and Confucian religious groups.

2216:

at the turn of the century would have been inspired by indigenous Chinese movements against the influence of Christian missionaries—"devils" as they were called by the Boxers—and

15130:

Sun, Shangyang; Li, Ding. "Chinese Traditional Culture Study Fever, Scarcity of Meaning and the Trend of University Students' Attitudes towards Religions: A Survey in Beijing".

19277:

The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life: "Global Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population - Appendix C: Methodology for China"

10953:) entered China around the same time as Buddhism, generally imported by Indian merchants, from different routes. One of them was the "Silk Route by Sea" that started from the 9970:) ritual specialists, variously translated as 'ancestral father' or 'teaching master', and which refers both to the principle of the Universe and to men able to represent it. 1926:. Zhou kings declared that their victory over the Shang was because they were virtuous and loved their people, while the Shang were tyrants and thus were deprived of power by 14256: 18187: 13376:

Nelson, Sarah M.; Matson, Rachel A.; Roberts, Rachel M.; Rock, Chris; Stencel, Robert E. (2006). "Archaeoastronomical Evidence for Wuism at the Hongshan Site of Niuheliang".

9001:

period (500–1200 CE), along with numerous native Tibetan developments. In the pre-modern era, Tibetan Buddhism spread outside of Tibet primarily due to the influence of the

15812: 13500: 13476: 10316:

from the primary to the university level. Some of the most prominent Chinese universities began as religious institutions. Missionaries worked to abolish practices such as

6640:

socio-economic capital for the welfare of local communities, fostering the circulation of wealth and its investment in the "sacred capital" of temples, gods and ancestors.

15751: 8285:(1986), as a doctrinal and liturgical framework or structure for developing the local cults of indigenous religion. Taoist traditions emphasize living in harmony with the 7168:

affiliation with Taoist practices. Other figures from the micro-level testify the wide proliferation of folk religions: in 1989 there were 21,000 male and female shamans (

15583: 10161:

and some Chinese in the far northeast and far northwest, is officially recognized in Heilongjiang. The category of "Protestantism" in China also comprehends a variety of

2890:

found the same socio-economic characteristics, with the addition that Christians were more likely to suffer from physical and mental illness than the general population.

2057:

in the northeastern provinces. From the elites' point of view, the movement was connected to a series of abnormal cosmic phenomena seen as characteristic of an excess of

24197: 7652:

points out that there was "literally no equivalent for the Western (and later worldwide) concept of 'Confucianism' in traditional Chinese discourse". He argues that the

4524:

Many scholars see "north Chinese religion" as distinct from practices in the south. The folk religion of southern and southeastern provinces is primarily focused on the

2426:. Modern Chinese political leaders have been deified into the common Chinese pantheon. The international community has become concerned about allegations that China has 17054: 9902:). In the 1980s it was found that the Yao clearly identified themselves with Chinese-language Taoist theological literature, seen as a prestigious statute of culture. 9322:

in 1996. The founding of the centre received substantial support from local authorities, especially those whose families were directly affiliated with one of the many

14428:. The immediate association this term caused in the minds of many Taiwanese and practically all mainland Chinese participants in the conference was of popular sects ( 9475:

Dongbaism historically formed as beliefs brought by Bon masters commingled with older indigenous Nakhi beliefs. Dongba followers believe in a celestial shaman called

7358:

eschatology and voluntary path of salvation, an embodied experience of the numinous through healing and cultivation, and an expansive orientation through good deeds,

2248:

China entered the 20th century under the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, whose rulers favored traditional Chinese religions and participated in public religious ceremonies.

15809:

Data from the Chinese Spiritual Life Survey (CSLS) 2010 for Chinese ancestorists, and from the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) 2009 for Christians. Reported in

11278:, a Taoist work polemical towards Buddhism, holds the same view of the Manichaean Compendium, presenting Mani as Laozi's reincarnation among the Western barbarians. 6472:

are "organised doctrines", that is "superstructures consisting of superstitions, dogmas, rituals and institutions". Most academics in China use the term "religion" (

1698:

population. China is also often considered a home to humanism and secularism, with these ideologies beginning to take hold in the area during the time of Confucius.

13342:, pp. 73–83, Vol. II, comprising the sections "The Taotie and the Northern Celestial Pole" and "The Significance of the Rectangle and Square in Shang Bronzes". 10391:, from the 1980s onwards, more people in China and other Asian countries have converted to Christianity, and these new converts are mostly "upwardly mobile, urban, 8302:

means "way", "path" or "principle", and may also be found in Chinese philosophies and religions other than Taoism, including Confucian thought. In Taoism, however,

7369:

Many redemptive religions of the 20th and 21st century aspire to embody and reform Chinese tradition in the face of Western modernism and materialism. They include

12002:

ethnicity. This may have resulted in an underestimation of Muslims. CGSS 2006–2010 surveys found an average 2–3% of the population of China declaring to be Muslim.

5844:

no longer just through tablets with their names, but through statues. Statuary effigies were previously exclusively used for Buddhist bodhisattva and Taoist gods.

4513:

had their main seat. Along the southeastern coast, Taoism reportedly dominates the ritual activity of popular religion, both in registered and unregistered forms (

12331:, bringing its order into reality. The ancient kings or emperors of the Chinese civilisation were shamans or priests, that is to say mediators of the divine rule. 11248:

Manichaeism had a bad reputation among Tang dynasty authorities, who regarded it as an erroneous form of Buddhism. However, as a religion of the Western peoples (

10558:

During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Muslims continued to have an influence among the high classes. Hongwu Emperor's most trusted generals were Muslim, including

9540:) enliven every aspect of nature, and the worship of these gods is believed to bring favour, health and prosperity. Many of the deities are original Manchu kins' 23305: 9373:

of the Tibetan indigenous religion. This is in analogy with the names of the priests of the folk religions of other peoples related to the Tibetans, such as the

2427: 21934: 7527:"cultural field"), which is a doctrinal aspect characterised by elaborate cosmologies, theologies, and liturgies, and usually taught only to initiates; and the 2410:. Not only were traditions that had been interrupted for decades resumed, but ceremonies forgotten for centuries were reinvented. The annual worship of the god 11749: 11739: 2332: 2197:

influence in the west, and with the Mongols and Manchus in the north. Later, many folk religious and institutional religious temples were destroyed during the

1597: 1473: 19078: 12786: 11604:, which in the Wei-Jin period became the appellation of all northern nomads. In the early Tang, a new character was invented specifically for Zoroastrianism, 23649: 23344: 10858: 9906:

mostly developed as a collection of sacerdotal orders. The shared sense of Yao identity is further based on tracing back Yao origins to a mythical ancestor,

19742: 15039: 14711: 14641: 6996:), who in many cases are the elders of a local community. Confucian liturgies are alternated with Taoist liturgies and popular ritual styles. Taoism in its 24338: 12796: 7991:, as well as of cults and temples of natural gods and national heroes within broader Chinese traditional religion, as part of the renewal of Confucianism. 2264:, numbers of reform-minded Chinese turned to Christianity. Between 1898 and 1904, the government issued a measure to "build schools with temple property". 1652:. During the later Zhou, the philosophy and ritual teachings of Confucius began spreading throughout China, while Taoist institutions had developed by the 19761: 18516: 12710: 8310:: "The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao" says the first verse of the Tao Te Ching. According to the scholar Stephan Feuchtwang, the concept of 2320:

institutionalized Protestant churches as official organizations. Catholics resisted the move towards state control and independence from the Vatican. The

23452: 12833: 11293:

at the half of the century, the Tangs' attitude towards the religion relaxed and under the Uyghur Khaganate's patronage Manichaean churches prospered in

8690:; southern mediumship, in which the practitioner does not control the force of the god but is guided by it), and from non-Han Chinese Altaic shamanisms ( 6152:, the "reason", "order" of Heaven, which unfolds in the polarity of yin and yang. In Taoist theology, the God of Heaven is discussed as the Jade Purity ( 2922: 16689: 11342:

was believed to have been caused by Manichaeans, and widespread crackdown of unauthorised religious assemblies took place. During the subsequent Mongol

4478:

have experienced the most evident revival of Chinese folk religion, although it is present all over China in a great variety of forms, intertwined with

2847:, and 17.7% as adherents of other types of folk religion. Of the remaining population, 25.2% are fully non-believers or atheists, 2.5% are adherents of 23377: 23263: 15272: 15172: 13830: 11497:. The Tang dynasty (618–907) prohibited Chinese people to profess Zoroastrianism, so it remained primarily a religion of foreign residents. Before the 15242: 14453:(such as Xiantiandao in southern China and Hongyangism in Hebei) also successfully registered with the Taoist association, thus gaining legitimacy.". 6840:

as told in popular forms of literature, theatre, and visual arts, and are embedded in rituals which define the microcosm of the nuclear families, the

6650:

According to Law (2005), in his study about the relationship between the revival of folk religion and the reconstruction of patriarchal civilisation:

23268: 21869: 21126: 20428:

The Religious System of China: Its Ancient Forms, Evolution, History and Present Aspect, Manners, Customs and Social Institutions Connected Therewith

18137: 15912: 15890: 10415:

destroyed. In addition, Western and Korean missionaries are being expelled. Since the 2010s policies against Christianity have been extended also to

2336: 9714:

is considered one of the embodiments, if not the most important, of the Tenger. In worship, communities of lay believers are led by shamans (called

8461:

in the mid-1990s, while the total number of Zhengyi priests including the unregistered ones was estimated at 200.000 in the same years. The Zhengyi

7941:

In contemporary China, the Confucian revival has developed into various interwoven directions: the proliferation of Confucian schools or academies (

4854:: Fieldwork by Thomas David Dubois testifies the dominance of folk religious movements, specifically the Church of the Heaven and the Earth and the 2201:. It was organised by Christian movements which established a separate state in southeast China against the Qing dynasty. In the Christian-inspired 1942:. The population no longer perceived the official tradition as an effective way to communicate with Heaven. The traditions of the "Nine Fields" and 23327: 20057: 8209:"Mother of the Chariot"), representing the originating principle of the universe in masculine and feminine form in some Taoist cosmologies, in the 7554:

which has become very popular throughout northern China. In Taiwan, virtually all folk salvationist movements operate freely since the late 1980s.

4765:

since 1841. As of 2010 there are 843,000 Christians in Hong Kong (11.8% of the total population). As of 2010 approximately 5% of the population of

2379:

were banned and practitioners have been persecuted since 1999, local authorities were likely to follow a hands-off policy towards other religions.

2340: 1564:

Chinese civilization has historically long been a cradle and host to a variety of the most enduring religio-philosophical traditions of the world.

392: 19370: 19288: 12690: 9566:

representing, respectively, the realm of the gods in potentiality and the manifested or actual world of living things as a complementary duality.

8712:). The emperor was considered the supreme shaman, intermediating between the three realms of heaven, earth and humanity. The mission of a shaman ( 4549:

of creation and nature as identity symbols, by villages populated by families of different surnames, structured into "communities of the god(s)" (

14523: 7220: 20583:

Fan, Lizhu; Chen, Na (2014). "'Conversion' and the Resurgence of Indigenous Religion in China". In Lewis R. Rambo; Charles E. Farhadian (eds.).

19495: 19196: 9636: 8945: 13536: 13524: 11272:. As time went on, Manichaeism conflicted with Buddhism but appears to have had good relations with the Taoists; an 8th-century version of the 7673:, reversed this assessment. Confucianism, for this new generation of scholars, became a "true religion" that offered "immanent transcendence". 7517:

A further type of folk religious movements, possibly overlapping with the "secret sects", are the martial sects. They combine two aspects: the

7188:

of Shaanxi counted over 10,000 folk temples on its territory alone, for a population of 3.1 million, an average of one temple per 315 persons.

5938:. Various interpretations have been elaborated by Confucians, Taoists, and other schools of thought. A popular representation of Heaven is the 1311: 18769: 16017:

Note that the article, in an evident mistranslation from Chinese, reports 30 million Tibetan Buddhists in Inner Mongolia instead of 3 million.

10648:, defected to the Qing dynasty side and helped the Qing general Zuo Zongtang to exterminate the rebels. These Muslim generals belonged to the 1614:, the country's most widespread system of beliefs and practices, has evolved and adapted since at least the second millennium BCE, during the 23873: 17440: 17139: 9824: 7434:) of Fujian where it is legally recognized. Some of these movements began to register as branches of the Taoist Association since the 1990s. 6074:

religions. By the words of Stephan Feuchtwang, in Chinese cosmology "the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy" (

19445: 14816: 12825: 11237:(650–83). Later, the Manichaean bishop Mihr-Ohrmazd, who was Mōzak's pupil, also came to China, where he was granted an audience by empress 10535:

killed large numbers of these traders, and a century later, in the years 878–879, Chinese rebels fatally targeted the Arab community in the

9562:

in China have retained their traditional folk religion. It is pantheistic and deeply influenced by Chinese religion, sharing the concept of

8277:"Book of the Way and its Virtue") of Laozi being regarded as its keystone. Taoism may be described, as does the scholar and Taoist initiate 7437:

Another category that has been sometimes confused with that of the folk salvationist movements by scholars is that of the secret societies (

23531: 22768: 22492: 20015:

official doctrine of the Chinese Communist Party, but this new form of militant atheism made every effort to eradicate religion completely.

19798: 8925:

and Mahāyāna treatises and draws its main doctrines from these sources. Some of the most important scriptures in Chinese Buddhism include:

8653: 7098:

constitute the polarity that describes the order of the universe, held in balance by the interaction of principles of growth or expansion (

1261: 20554:

Espesset, Grégoire (2008), "Latter Han Mass Religious Movements and the Early Daoist Church", in Lagerwey, John; Kalinowski, Marc (eds.),

20465:

Didier, John C. (2009). "In and Outside the Square: The Sky and the Power of Belief in Ancient China and the World, c. 4500 BC – AD 200".

17565: 15512:

are bodhisattvas normally considered 'male', though in Buddhist theory such gender categories don't really apply. This practice of adding

14012: 10320:, and the unjust treatment of maidservants, as well as launching charitable work and distributing food to the poor. They also opposed the 9579:

who created reality and left it to develop according to its ways, but nonetheless may be appealed in times of need. He entrusted a human,

6897:, "religion of deities and immortals"). This search for a precise name is meant to solve terminological confusion, since "folk religion" ( 6476:) to include formal institutions, specific beliefs, a clergy, and sacred texts, while Western scholars tend to use the term more loosely. 22778: 22093: 21308: 20811:

Kao, Yaning (2014). "Religious Revival among the Zhuang People in China: Practising "Superstition" and Standardizing a Zhuang Religion".

17156: 14859: 10407:, "Protestant Christianity is booming in China". If the current trend continues, China will have the largest Christian population in the 8453:

of Beijing, that also functions as the headquarters of the Quanzhen sects, from the 1990s onwards it started to open registration to the

6530:

injunction, "thou shalt have no other gods before me", reserved all worship for one God, and that prayers therefore might not be offered

2224:

and caused "tremendous offense" to the Chinese. The Boxers' action was aimed at sabotaging or outright destroying these infrastructures.

20516: 19513: 15204: 7582: 6647:, and is seen as a driving force in the rapid economic development in parts of rural China, especially the southern and eastern coasts. 6104:

While Confucian theology emphasises the need to realise the starry order of the Heaven in human society, Taoist theology emphasises the

23108: 21079: 15082: 12874: 12842: 10957:

in southeast India and reached Southeast Asia and then southeastern Chinese cities; another route was that from the ancient kingdom of

9099:

streams found within Chinese Buddhism, Vajrayana Buddhism is practised in China in some other forms. For instance, Azhaliism (Chinese:

5833:. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine. 4891: 4758: 4610: 1466: 14792: 9318:. Since the 1990s, Bimoism has undergone an institutionalization, starting with the foundation of the Bimo Culture Research Center in 9310:

Since the 1980s, Bimoism has undergone a comprehensive revitalization, both on the popular level and on the scholarly level, with the

8359:, longevity or immortality. Ethics and appropriate behavior may vary depending on the particular school, but in general all emphasize 6621: 5730:) is the key characteristic of common Chinese religion, which scholars see as going back to Neolithic times. According to the scholar 2819:

Four surveys conducted respectively in the years 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2011 as part of the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) of the

22487: 19260: 18245: 17255: 16773:. Realising Eurasia: Civilisation and Moral Economy in the 21st Century. Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology. Archived from 11699:. With the end of the Second World War and of the Manchu Country (Manchukuo) in 1945, and the return of Manchuria to China under the 9974:

specialists dance in masks and worship the Three Primordials: the generals Tang, Ge and Zhou. "Moism" refers to the dimension led by

2563: 22071: 20434: 15299: 9806: 7865:

Confucianism never developed an institutional structure similar to that of Taoism, and its religious body never differentiated from

7237: 6115:("Way"), which in one word denotes both the source and its spontaneous arising in nature. In the Confucian text "On Rectification" ( 537: 23447: 23432: 23332: 23189: 23147: 16290: 12592:) of Qiang folk religion was consecrated in 2014. It is a complex of temples dedicated to various gods: it hosts a Great Temple of 10293:

in 1842. Christian missionaries and their schools, under the protection of the Western powers, went on to play a major role in the

9273:, the largest ethnic group in Yunnan after the Han Chinese. This faith is represented by three types of religious specialists: the 8457:

of the Zhengyi branch, who are more numerous than the Quanzhen monks. The Chinese Taoist Association had already 20.000 registered

1985: 377: 20208:"Carrying the Confucian Torch to the Masses: The Challenge of Structuring the Confucian Revival in the People's Republic of China" 20146: 19402: 18184: 9598:, the latter defining those who work with shamans) enliven the world. Among them, the most revered are the water god Dragon King ( 8253:

in Chinese religion. They share elements that go back to the 4th century BCE and to the prehistoric culture of China, such as the

6668:

of civil society. Hao (2017) defined lineage temples as nodes of economic and political power which work through the principle of

24691: 15819: 15056: 14579: 11909: 10982:. Remains of Hindu temples have also been discovered in Xinjiang, and they are of an earlier date than those in southeast China. 8883:

With the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, religion came under the control of the new government, and the

6527: 2915: 2036: 16436: 16314: 16302: 15975:

Plateau. Scholars also estimate that there are up to 5,000 ethnic Tibetan Muslims and 700 ethnic Tibetan Catholics in the TAR".

15758: 8677:; properly shamanic, in which the practitioner has control over the force of the god and may travel to the underworld) from the 8081:). The first spiritual leader of the church is the scholar Jiang Qing, the founder and manager of the Yangming Confucian Abode ( 7838:

it is defined as "to form one body with all things" and "when the self and others are not separated ... compassion is aroused".

1792:

motif. According to Didier, both the cauldrons and the taotie symmetrical faces originate as symbols of Di as the squared north

24202: 23353: 22681: 22418: 19464: 16770: 15589: 14419:, p. 393: " The problem started when the Taiwanese translator of my paper chose to render 'popular religion' literally as 12715:

A compilation of statistics from reliable surveys held throughout the 2010s and early 2020s, with an emphasis on the CFPS 2018.

11554: 10345: 8951: 8783: 7223:

was formally established with the approval of the government of China and under the aegis of the Ministry of Cultural Affairs.

7164:. In mid-2015 the government of Zhejiang began the registration of the province's tens of thousands of folk religious temples. 21446: 19543: 14744:

China Family Panel Studies 2012. Reported and compared with Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2011 in

13004: 10547:(1271–1368), when hundreds of thousands of Muslims were relocated throughout China for their administrative skills. A Muslim, 8585:

rituals of "universal salvation" (although historically they were excluded from performing such rites). They are not shamans (

2901:

and individual, non-institutional forms of folk religiosity are particularly successful among the contemporary Chinese youth.

24054: 23442: 22504: 22482: 21923: 21884: 21847: 21828: 21764: 21598: 21521: 21487: 21383: 21342: 21271: 21235: 21208: 21115: 21068: 21047: 20979: 20958: 20937: 20916: 20895: 20801: 20754: 20733: 20712: 20668: 20646: 20565: 20413: 20375: 20349: 20330: 20311: 20237: 20196: 20180:. (Conference paper) Toward a Reasonable World: The Heritage of Western Humanism, Skepticism, and Freethought. San Diego, CA. 20036: 20007: 19978: 19951: 19708:

Huang, Xinchuan (1986). "Hinduism and China". In K. Satchidananda Murty; R. Balasubramanian; Sibajiban Bhattacharyya (eds.).

19156: 18753: 18725: 18642: 18499: 18474: 18449: 18416: 18008: 17983: 17497: 17239: 17213: 17077: 16996: 16974: 16955: 16849: 16517: 15949: 15638: 15612: 14778: 14663: 14195: 14170: 14145: 14120: 14083: 14054: 14022: 13754: 13731: 13102: 13070: 9081:

through Burma. Currently, Theravada Buddhism in Yunnan can be divided into four schools: Run, Baozhuang, Duolie, and Zuozhi.

6129:, Confucius is regarded as a "throne-less king" of the God of Heaven and a savior of the world. Otherwise, the school of the 6061:

is rendered as "deity" or "emperor" and describes a divine principle that exerts a fatherly dominance over what it produces.

2711:

surveys also found that ~60% of the population believed in concepts such as fate and fortune associated to the folk religion.

1459: 397: 12071:

arrives at a figure of over 680 million villagers involved in some way with well over a million temples and their rituals'."

11763:, in it the "thisworldliness" being the priority. Given the differences between Western and Chinese concepts of "religion", 1988:. The state ritual of the Qin was similar to that of the following Han dynasty. Qin Shi Huang personally held sacrifices to 24666: 24416: 23689: 23422: 22919: 11755:

China has a history of schools of thought not relying upon conceptions of an absolute, or putting absolutes into question.

10543:(960–1279). The office of Director General of Shipping was consistently held by a Muslim. Immigration increased during the 10373: 10332:, were converts to Christianity and were influenced by its teachings. By 1921, Harbin, the northeast's largest city, had a 10309: 8044:) of northern Fujian, and ancestral temples of the Kong (Confucius') lineage operating as churches for Confucian teaching. 1984:

as the state ideology, banning and persecuting all other schools of thought. Confucianism was harshly suppressed, with the

1933:

By the 6th century BCE, divine right was no longer an exclusive privilege of the Zhou royal house. The rhetorical power of

864: 13199:

Gladney, Dru C. (2003). "The China Quarterly - Islam in China: Accommodation or Separatism? - Cambridge Journals Online".

9770:

for worship of ancestral gods may be private shrines of an extended family or kin, otherwise they are common to villages,

9181:

protects and valorises the indigenous religions of minority ethnicities as the foundations of their culture and identity.

9073:

to Yunnan in the mid-7th century. At first, the classics were transmitted only by word of mouth. Around the 11th century,

8097:

Chinese folk religious temples and kinship ancestral shrines may, on peculiar occasions, choose Confucian liturgy (called

2816:

while the remaining 81% (≈1 billion people) prayed to or worshipped gods and ancestors in the manner of the folk religion.

2617:

of gods and ancestors, in Chinese usage and in academia these cults have not had an overarching name. By "folk religion" (

23417: 22788: 22537: 18492:

Bø and Bön: Ancient Shamanic Traditions of Siberia and Tibet in Their Relation to the Teachings of a Central Asian Buddha

15752:"Henan – The Model: From Hegemonism to Fragmentism. Portrait of the Political Culture of China's Most Populated Province" 12879:

p. 13, reporting the results of the CGSS 2006, 2008, 2010, and 2011, and their average (fifth column of the first table).

10313: 8634: 8619:

find their institutional base in local cults to particular deities, even though vernacular ritual masters are itinerant.

8306:

denotes the principle that is both the source and the pattern of development of everything that exists. It is ultimately

8068:

City. It was the first of a nationwide movement of congregations and civil organisations that was unified in 2015 in the

6506:), as it implies the transmission of knowledge from the elders to the youth and of support from the youth to the elders. 1682:

arrived in China during the 7th century. Christianity did not take root until it was reintroduced in the 16th century by

984: 20157: 12644:, since face veils were used to avoid contaminating the holy fire with breath or saliva. The statue is preserved at the 11228:

teachings and able to adapt to different cultural contexts, the Manichaean religion spread rapidly both westward to the

10434:

As of 2023, there are approximately 44 million Chinese Christians registered with government-approved Christian groups.

9761:

dedicated to heavenly gods, mountain gods, other gods of nature, and also to gods of human lineages and agglomerations.

2406:

A turning point was reached in 2005, when folk religious cults began to be protected and promoted under the policies of

24711: 23317: 23152: 22532: 21958:"Old Chinese "*tees" and Proto-Indo-European "*deus": Similarity in Religious Ideas and a Common Source in Linguistics" 21609: 18785: 15154: 15113:"A Solo, a Duet, or an Ensemble? Analysing the Recent Development of Religious Communities in Contemporary Rural China" 14604:"A Solo, a Duet, or an Ensemble? Analysing the Recent Development of Religious Communities in Contemporary Rural China" 4582:) who are often hereditary and linked to secular authority. Northern and southern folk religions also have a different 2908: 1196: 924: 804: 21780:

Religion in Chinese Society: A Study of Contemporary Social Functions of Religion and Some of Their Historical Factors

21224:

Local Religion in North China in the Twentieth Century the Structure and Organization of Community Rituals and Beliefs

20458: 20454: 20450: 20446: 20442: 20438: 16836:

Klára, Dubravčíková (2023). "Religions, Traditions, and Values". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.).

9755:

that are traditionally used for worship by Mongols and related ethnic groups. Every aobao represents a god; there are

8723:) is "to repair the dysfunctionalities occurred in nature and generated after the sky had been separated from earth": 23162: 23139: 23103: 22959: 22954: 22751: 22358: 22135: 22061: 22032: 22013: 21978: 21940: 21939:(Thesis). Open Access Theses and Dissertations. Hong Kong Baptist University Institutional Repository. Archived from 21788: 21664: 21577: 21557: 21402: 21292: 21187: 20848: 20777: 20689: 20529: 20505: 20098: 19846: 19717: 19658: 19610: 19578: 19354: 19187: 18956: 18927: 18865: 18833: 18615: 18588: 18558: 18214: 18033: 17886: 16812: 16239: 15184: 14317: 13780: 13312: 13141: 11882: 11013:. Various Chinese Buddhist monks dedicated themselves to the study of Hindu scriptures, thought and practice. In the 8478: 8391: 8335:

Taoist institutional orders evolved in strains that in recent times are conventionally grouped in two main branches:

6961: 6739: 5840:

managed by the Kong kin (the lineage of the descendants of Confucius himself), is the representation of ancestors in

4483: 4475: 2372: 1251: 15588:(Master in East Asian Studies thesis). Montreal: McGill University, Department of East Asian Studies. Archived from 10562:, who led a decisive victory over the Mongols, effectively ending the Mongol dream to re-conquer China. The admiral 8328:

traditions. Women shamans played an important role in this tradition, which was particularly strong in the state of

24130: 24125: 23900: 23437: 23093: 22499: 22385: 21957: 19089: 18666: 12755: 10250:

overthrew the Yuan dynasty in the 14th century, Christianity was again expelled from China as a foreign influence.

10082: 6355:

and are trapped in places where they met their death, becoming dangerous for living beings and requiring exorcism.

1596:, has been in power in the country, and prohibits CCP members from religious practice while in office. A series of 1306: 18090: 10698:, led by the general Dong Fuxiang, fought for the Qing dynasty against the foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion. 10368:

A significant number of members of churches unregistered with the government, and of their pastors, belong to the

6468:

in Chinese). Under the influence of Western rationalism and later Marxism, what most of the Chinese today mean as

24816: 24120: 23868: 23612: 23541: 23098: 22826: 22793: 22666: 22474: 22216: 22086: 15013:

2010 Chinese Spiritual Life Survey, Purdue University's Center on Religion and Chinese Society. Data reported in

14685:

2010 Chinese Spiritual Life Survey, Purdue University's Center on Religion and Chinese Society. Data reported in

13183: 11801: 11547: 11480: 11319: 10388: 10325: 9161:

forms of religion) has undergone a revitalisation since the 1980s together with the overall revival of Buddhism.

8185: 7418: 2474: 2285: 2276: 1266: 1156: 12321:, ten thousand things, all being, universe). A king is a man or an entity who is able to merge himself with the 12284:("king"), as well as others pertaining to the same semantic field, have a common denominator in the concepts of 11399: 9307:, have a tradition of theological and ritual scriptures, and are initiated through a tough educational process. 8412:

There are two types of Taoists, following the distinction between the Quanzhen and Zhengyi traditions. Quanzhen

7850:

is a system of ritual norms and propriety of behavior which determine how a person should act in everyday life.

6923:

devoted to deities and progenitors, and it is also meant to identify a "national Chinese religion" similarly to

6314:

may be the spirit or soul of an ancestor called back to live in the family's spirit tablet. Yet the combination

4730:

The Han Chinese schools of Buddhism are mostly practiced in the eastern part of the country. On the other hand,

1740: 24177: 23817: 22140: 21731: 19276: 18527: 15353:

Dean, Kenneth (2003). "Local Communal Religion in Contemporary Southeast China". In Overmyer, Daniel L. (ed.).

14450: 14075: 13772:

The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic Story of China's War on Foreigners That Shook the World in the Summer of 1900

13509:, p. 766, chapter: Nylan, Michael. "Classics Without Canonization: Learning and Authority in Qin and Han". 13485:, p. 771, chapter: Nylan, Michael. "Classics Without Canonization: Learning and Authority in Qin and Han". 12706: 12645: 12536:), bringing the divine order into physical reality and thus opening the gateways to immortality. The character 11351: 10470: 10427: 9326:

hereditary lineages. Since then, large temples and ceremonial complexes for Bimoist practices have been built.

8406: 8320:, "nature", that is the vision of the process of generation and regeneration of things and of the moral order. 7232: 6916: 6574: 4930:), and others. Alex Payette (2016) testifies the rapid growth of Confucian groups in the province in the 2010s. 4784: 4598: 4593: 2636: 2348: 1669: 1114: 939: 198: 21414:"Local Confucian Revival in China: Ritual Teachings, 'Confucian' Learning and Cultural Resistance in Shandong" 19079:"'Geheimgesellschaften' in der VR China: Christlich inspirierte, spirituell-religiöse Gruppierungen seit 1978" 14374:, p. 12, quoting: "Chinese sectarianism, millennialism and heterodoxy, called 'popular religious sects' ( 12829: 9948:, the largest ethnic minority of China, who live mainly throughout Guangxi. It is polytheistic, monistic, and 8390:, "masters of the Tao") usually take care to mark the distinction between their ritual tradition and those of 6643:

This religious economy already played a role in periods of imperial China, plays a significant role in modern

4939:

Religions in each province, major city, and autonomous region of China according to the latest available data

3624:

Demographic, political and socioeconomic characteristics of religious believers in six provinces, Yu Tao—CCAP—

2827:

rest who practised what Yang and Hu define "individual" folk religions like devotion to specific gods such as

1953:, Confucius began to preach an ethical interpretation of traditional Zhou religion. In his view, the power of 24501: 23300: 23290: 23088: 23083: 16704: 15315:

financial help from these connections make coastal Fujian a frontrunner in reviving local communal religion."

11919: 10612: 8884: 8169: 8161: 7995: 7974:), and the birth of new forms of Confucian activity on the popular level, such as the Confucian communities ( 4855: 4633: 4609:

organizations have historically found much resonance among the population of the northeast; in the 1930s the

4451: 2364: 2360: 2317: 1981: 1912: 1513: 1271: 677: 412: 22231: 21675: 20574:

Fan, Lizhu; Chen, Na (18–23 March 2015a), "Revival of Confucianism and Reconstruction of Chinese Identity",

20172: 17568:. Occasional Papers. No. 5. Paris, France: Centre for Studies on China, Korea and Japan. Archived from 15655:

Jones, A. D. (2011). "Contemporary Han Chinese Involvement in Tibetan Buddhism: A Case Study from Nanjing".

15284: 15190: 14514:. MMG Working Paper 17-03. Göttingen: Max Planck Institute for the Study of Religious and Ethnic Diversity. 13841: 10870: 10401:

the "number of Chinese Protestants has grown by an average of 10 percent annually since 1979". According to

9314:

now celebrated as an "intellectual class" whose role is that of creators, preservers and transmitters of Yi

7844:

is "righteousness", which consists in the ability to always maintain a moral disposition to do good things.

7366:. Their practices are focused on improving morality, body cultivation, and on the recitation of scriptures. 6786: 2092:

Buddhism was introduced during the latter Han dynasty, and first mentioned in 65 CE, entering China via the

24747: 24300: 24295: 23707: 23020: 22966: 22934: 22761: 22353: 22261: 22130: 19880: 19314: 17441:"Towards the City! Towards the Country! Old Martial Art Strengthens Social Cohesion in Chinese Rural Areas" 15254: 13036: 11819: 10770: 10423: 10397: 10312:, and provided the first modern training for nurses. Both Roman Catholics and Protestants founded numerous 10286: 7906: 7041: 5847: 5836:

A practice developed in the Chinese folk religion of post-Maoist China, that started in the 1990s from the

4529: 4506: 2715: 2407: 2352: 2344: 1730: 1331: 1124: 21890: 21157: 15923: 15901: 12795:

Cite error: The named reference "religion2023" was defined multiple times with different content (see the

10580:

in praise of Muhammad. Muslims who were descended from earlier immigrants began to assimilate by speaking

9525:("man of knowledge"), later applied by Western scholars to similar religious practices in other cultures. 6661:

the local cultural context, leading to the coexistence of the world of enchantments and the modern world."

6133:

regards Confucius as a sage who gave a new interpretation to the tradition from previous great dynasties.

6095:

which characterises any thing and life. Creation is therefore a continuous ordering; it is not a creation

24706: 24611: 24207: 24085: 24070: 23677: 23634: 23570: 23553: 23427: 22949: 22696: 22459: 22327: 21354:"Chinese Redemptive Societies and Salvationist Religion: Historical Phenomenon or Sociological Category?" 18893:(1–2). White Horse Press for the Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit, University of Cambridge: 134–148. 13238: 12518: 11939: 11714:, proselytised in Manchuria establishing hundreds of congregations. Most of the missions belonged to the 10734: 10659: 9021: 8788: 5816: 2785: 1341: 1044: 1039: 809: 232: 21638: 20277: 13887:"Revealing Secrets: Talismans, Healthcare and the Market of the Occult in Early Twentieth-century China" 10039: 4779:

Muslims, particularly the province of Ningxia, and in the province of Xinjiang that is inhabited by the

1899:

called "Wuism", that is Chinese shamanism. Libbrecht distinguishes two layers in the development of the

24821: 24811: 23722: 23602: 23358: 23312: 23295: 23278: 23025: 22989: 22836: 22411: 22332: 22189: 22079: 21498: 19999: 19292: 18779: 17206:

Socialist China, Capitalist China: Social tension and political adaptation under economic globalization

15076: 12817: 12683: 11924: 10706: 10225:, is considered by some to be the first entry of Christianity in China. What Westerners referred to as 9170: 9058: 8398: 8156: 6806: 5708: 4859: 4685: 2894: 2883: 2820: 2773: 2762: 2399: 2356: 1707: 1641: 160: 17161:[Zhejiang started yesterday to award registration certificates to folk religious activities]. 14212: 10737:. During the Cultural Revolution, mosques were often defaced, closed or demolished, and copies of the 10308:(1899–1901) was in part a reaction against Christianity in China. Christians in China established the 7417:

schools are developments of folk salvationist movements. All these movements were banned in the early

7292:

character. They generally emerged from the common religion but are separate from the lineage cults of

24716: 24325: 23917: 23741: 23622: 23575: 23519: 22984: 22929: 22656: 22542: 22469: 22373: 22368: 22101: 21936:

A Reconstruction of Zhū Xī's Religious Philosophy Inspired by Leibniz: The Natural Theology of Heaven

20659:(2016), "Chinese religions", in Woodhead, Linda; Kawanami, Hiroko; Partridge, Christopher H. (eds.), 20360: 17566:"Heaven, Earth, Sovereign, Ancestors, Masters: Some Remarks on the Politico-Religious in China Today" 12961: 11476: 10447: 9771: 8804: 8776: 8540: 7577: 6920: 5797: 2614: 2113: 1916:

agricultural in its world-view; they instead emphasised a universal concept of Heaven referred to as

1369: 1149: 1004: 452: 20990: 16272:

Science and Civilisation in China. Volume III: Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and Earth

12821: 8372:

Taoism has had profound influence on Chinese culture over the course of the centuries, and Taoists (

6393:("Chief Star"), the god of exams, composed of the characters describing the four Confucian virtues ( 6125:, the God of Heaven is discussed as an active power setting in motion creation. In the tradition of 4474:

The varieties of Chinese religion are spread across the map of China in different degrees. Southern

2260:, thousands of Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries were killed, but in the aftermath of the 24661: 24626: 24581: 24433: 24409: 24283: 23912: 23858: 23783: 23459: 23394: 23236: 23219: 23197: 23030: 23005: 22944: 22846: 22599: 22514: 21774: 20422: 17109:"The Politics of Legitimation and the Revival of Popular Religion in Shaanbei, North-Central China" 15079:

2012. Reported and compared with Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2011 in

12906:"Statistics on Religions and Churches in the People's Republic of China – Update for the Year 2016" 12721:"Statistics on Religions and Churches in the People's Republic of China – Update for the Year 2022" 12372: 11711: 11138:

has been recently translated and published in China) have appeared in many urban centres including

11115:. In the last decades there has been a growth of modern, transnational forms of Hinduism in China: 10645: 10030: 9944:; 'religion of the ancestral father'), after two of its forms, is practised by most of the 9536:("God of Heaven") that is the omnipotent and omnipresent source of all life and creation. Deities ( 8366: 8165:

Priests of the Zhengyi order bowing while officiating a rite at the White Cloud Temple of Shanghai.

7764: 6205: 5775: 5713:

Han Chinese culture embodies a concept of religion that differs from the one that is common in the

5671: 2298: 2202: 2054: 1964: 1896: 859: 819: 774: 562: 552: 357: 257: 22616: 21550:

The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives

21353: 20090: 19446:"China cracks down on religion, crosses burned at Christian churches, Xi Jinping photos installed" 17444: 14827: 11542:

and elsewhere. In the Tang period it is attested that there were at least twenty-nine Zoroastrian

11088:

and Pulipani, were ethnically Chinese. Shaktism itself was practised in China in the Tang period.

10846:

Shanghai was particularly notable for its numerous Jewish refugees, who gathered in the so-called

9854:

in Chinese. They are shamans who acquire their position through years of training with a teacher.

8465:

are trained by other priests of the same sect, and historically received formal ordination by the

2398:

in 2004 to promote Chinese culture. China hosted religious meetings and conferences including the

2347:

to create a national conference for religious groups. The participating religious groups were the

24551: 24546: 24441: 24333: 24115: 23831: 23717: 23712: 23617: 23592: 23536: 23370: 23322: 23157: 23078: 23073: 23015: 22939: 22924: 22783: 22564: 22379: 22286: 22194: 21798:

Yang, Fenggang; Hu, Anning (2012). "Mapping Chinese Folk Religion in Mainland China and Taiwan".

21639:"Kang Youwei: The Martin Luther of Confucianism and His Vision of Confucian Modernity and Nation" 21018:"The Revival of Folk Religion and Gender Relationships in Rural China: A Preliminary Observation" 19885: 19839:

Polemics Against Manichaeism as a Subversive Cult in Sung China (A.D. c. 960 – c. 1200)

19261:"Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population" 14038: 11800:

also criticised contemporaneous religious practices. During the efflorescence of Buddhism in the

11234: 10585: 10584:

and by adopting Chinese names and culture, mixing with the Han Chinese. They developed their own

10576: 10532: 10521: 10282: 10034: 9691:), is the native and major religion among the Mongols of China, mostly residing in the region of 9664: 9657: 8521:), popular in southeast China, meaning "redhead" or "redhat" daoshi, in contradistinction to the 8449:

While the Chinese Taoist Association started as a Quanzhen institution, and remains based at the

7116: 6811: 6038:—"Highest Heaven" or "First Heaven", for it is the primordial being supervising all-under-Heaven; 5761:

formed a culturally unitary single tradition" in which basic concepts and practices are related.

4700: 2797: 2156:, continuing a tendency that started in the Han dynasty. Both also expanded their meanings, with 2069: 1636: 1589: 1545: 1321: 1256: 1201: 1161: 1104: 737: 732: 622: 567: 457: 387: 280: 57: 22738: 21531: 19806: 18903: 15966: 15725: 14308:

Zuckerman, Phil (2006). "Atheism: Contemporary Numbers and Patterns". In Martin, Michael (ed.).

12051:

following estimates (excluding those who identified themselves with an institutional religion)."

9487:(spirits of the earth represented in the form of chimera-dragon-serpent beings), and ancestors. 9203:(Three Star Gods) represented in Bai iconographic style at a Benzhu temple on Jinsuo Island, in 6755: 5649: 4313:

Although a lower 215 million, or 16% said they "believed in the existence" of ancestral spirits.

2535: 2160:

now more frequently used as suffix of a deity's name rather than to refer to the supreme power.

299: 24671: 24646: 24561: 24541: 24491: 24461: 24451: 24288: 24095: 23929: 23885: 23863: 23560: 23010: 22914: 22721: 22464: 22184: 20555: 20361:"Conceptualizations of "Popular Religion" in Recent Research in the People's Republic of China" 18885:

Wang, Mingke (2002). "Searching for Qiang Culture in the First Half of the Twentieth Century".

18272: 17569: 15987:"Study on the Protection of the Lama Temple Heritage in Inner Mongolia as a Cultural Landscape" 12190: 11877: 11707: 11338:(960–1279) continued to suppress Manichaeism as a subversive cult. In 1120, a rebellion led by 11323: 10517: 10289:

began entering China in 1807. The pace of missionary activity increased considerably after the

10230: 10026: 9243: 8918: 8678: 8576: 7874: 7567: 2861:

Besides the surveys based on fieldwork, estimates using projections have been published by the

2479: 2281: 2217: 1181: 1074: 1034: 1014: 869: 844: 749: 722: 672: 642: 632: 547: 512: 497: 482: 437: 372: 65: 41: 21546:"Myths of Descent, Racial Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in the People's Republic of China" 18583:. Religious Studies in Contemporary China Collection. Vol. 1. Stanford University Press. 18185:

The Battle for China's Spirit: Religious Revival, Repression, and Resistance under Xi Jinping.

17166: 13831:"The Anthropological Study of Religion in China: Contexts, Collaborations, Debates and Trends" 9483:. They worship nature and generation, in the form of many heavenly gods and spirits, chthonic 2726:

with a survey scheme led and supervised by the Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy and the

2499: 1800: 24757: 24636: 24631: 24511: 24278: 24273: 24228: 24164: 24075: 23778: 23727: 23665: 23387: 23224: 23212: 23202: 22971: 22604: 22404: 22317: 22179: 22125: 21979:"To Inherit the Ancient Teachings of Confucius and Mencius and Establish Modern Confucianism" 21397:. Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series. Scarecrow Press. 20592: 20535: 18872: 15813:"Explaining Christianity in China: Why a Foreign Religion has Taken Root in Unfertile Ground" 15216: 12983: 12522: 12328: 12108:("godly families", hereditary specialists of gods and their rites; p. 77), then (p. 179) the 11929: 11185: 10020: 9389: 8409:

and their members began to be registered as branches of the Taoist association in the 1990s.

8254: 7866: 7653: 7024: 6734: 6143: 6126: 5923: 5808: 4957: 4696: 4390: 2368: 2261: 2180: 1751: 1683: 1675: 1611: 1506: 1431: 1376: 1291: 1241: 1216: 1206: 1009: 829: 824: 692: 682: 502: 174: 137: 127: 21093: 15094: 14897:"Urban Residents' Religious Beliefs and Influencing Factors on Christianity in Wuhan, China" 14213:"A Sacred Trinity: God, Mountain and Bird. Cultic Practices of the Bronze Age Chengdu Plain" 12849: 12562:, "august", "creator" and "radiant", other attributes that identify the Yellow Emperor with 12367:(Great Chariot), is defined by many other names attested in the Chinese literary tradition. 10925: 10790: 10512:) in China is traditionally dated back to a diplomatic mission in 651, eighteen years after 9303:—who are always males with few exceptions—are literates, who may read and write traditional 7426:

is another folk religious organization founded in the 16th century, which is present in the

6188:

representing respectively enlightenment, salvation and post-apocalyptic paradise, while the

5771:, "books of ancestors"), temple activities, and village theatre which link them to history. 24701: 24651: 24606: 24586: 24576: 24476: 24004: 23952: 23812: 23607: 23582: 23509: 23504: 23339: 23231: 23207: 23065: 22547: 21986: 21965: 20467: 20285: 19996:

The Price of Freedom Denied: Religious Persecution and Conflict in the Twenty-First Century

14802: 14220: 14017:. Translated by Sun, Li; Bryant, Shelly. Montreal, Quebec: Royal Collins Publishing Group. 11914: 11519: 11245:("Text of the Two Principles") that became the most popular Manichaean scripture in China. 10581: 10464: 9919: 9496: 7700: 7658: 6027:—"Compassionate Heaven", for it hears and corresponds with justice to the all-under-Heaven; 5880: 5675: 4832: 2723: 2272: 1421: 1411: 1396: 1301: 1226: 1191: 1166: 1129: 1089: 1084: 1059: 929: 849: 799: 779: 769: 657: 602: 577: 427: 422: 402: 367: 352: 321: 288: 276: 20602:"The Religiousness of "Confucianism" and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today" 20207: 19970:

Prophet Motive: Deguchi Onisaburō, Oomoto, and the Rise of New Religions in Imperial Japan

18249: 17265: 14437:), rather than the local and communal religious life that was the main focus of my paper." 13234: 10876: 9587:) regard Siv Yis as their archetype and identify as him when they are imbued by the gods. 8292: 8243: 4629:), and sectarian traditions, and also by a low influence of Buddhism and official Taoism. 1648:

of human groups, concepts of civility, or culture heroes, of whom many feature throughout

8: 24731: 24676: 24591: 24571: 24456: 24446: 24402: 24305: 24150: 24044: 24039: 24009: 23967: 23890: 23853: 23773: 23758: 23587: 23548: 23255: 22869: 22773: 22524: 22363: 22291: 22271: 20247:

Chan, Kim-Kwong (2005). "Religion in China in the Twenty-first Century: Some Scenarios".

20062: 15306: 15060: 14823: 14583: 14046: 11835: 11780:

questioning the authority or existence of the God of Heaven. Later, philosophers such as

11735: 11498: 11290: 11171: 11111: 9801: 9631: 9381:

of Mongolians and other Siberian peoples. Bonpo ("believers of Bon") claim that the word

9178: 8888: 8558: 7666: 7586: 6946:

as a doctrinal and liturgical framework for the development of indigenous religions. The

6770: 6751:, Fujian. The compound has a small ancient pavilion and a larger modern one behind of it. 5837: 5714: 4947: 4824: 4442: 4218: 2862: 2469: 2395: 2321: 2206: 1601: 1544:. All religious institutions in the country are required to uphold the leadership of the 1426: 1401: 1381: 1356: 1284: 1231: 1211: 1119: 1109: 1064: 1024: 979: 974: 964: 954: 949: 944: 934: 919: 914: 909: 904: 899: 874: 784: 759: 637: 627: 587: 557: 542: 527: 517: 507: 472: 467: 417: 362: 337: 107: 53: 12039:), "religion of gods and immortals", partly inspired to Allan J. A. Elliott's "Shenism". 10324:

trade and brought treatment to many who were addicted. Some of the early leaders of the

9135:

is the Chinese for Vajrayana). Tangmi, together with the broader religious tradition of

7000:, either comprehended or not within Chinese folk religion, has some of its origins from 2016:

religious movements, and the introduction of Buddhism. By the Han dynasty, the mythical

24721: 24656: 24621: 24556: 24536: 24526: 24486: 24471: 24466: 24192: 24187: 24172: 24024: 23992: 23987: 23880: 23802: 23790: 23699: 23365: 23285: 23273: 23241: 22896: 22891: 22809: 22509: 22276: 22172: 21853: 21718: 21710: 21433: 21218: 21149: 21084:[Report on Religions in Contemporary China – Based on CFPS (2012) Survey Data] 20656: 20264: 19205:, p. 171, ch. "The Impact of Contemporary Chinese Folk Religions on Christianity". 18686: 18637:. Religious Studies in Contemporary China Collection. Vol. 1. Brill. p. 381. 17682: 17131: 16008: 15672: 15407: 15085:[Report on Religions in Contemporary China – Based on CFPS (2012) Survey Data] 14995: 14953: 14557: 13919: 13886: 13264: 13216: 11944: 11756: 11075: 10742: 10548: 10536: 9553: 9519: 8639: 8566: 8450: 8278: 7999: 7828: 7677: 7625: 7573: 6943: 6701: 5935: 5731: 4820: 4602: 2777: 2662: 2440: 2391: 1718: 1549: 1406: 1386: 1351: 1246: 1236: 1176: 1171: 1099: 1079: 1069: 1054: 1049: 1029: 999: 994: 969: 959: 892: 854: 839: 744: 717: 707: 667: 652: 647: 597: 592: 532: 487: 447: 342: 330: 61: 47: 19: 21747: 20487:

Volume III: Terrestrial and Celestial Transformations in Zhou and Early-Imperial China

20481:

Volume II: Representations and Identities of High Powers in Neolithic and Bronze China

19420: 19384: 18028:. Cambridge Studies in Religious Traditions. Vol. 8. Cambridge University Press. 15563:

Jones, Stephen (2011). "Yinyang: Household Daoists of North China and Their Rituals".

7751:

Broadly speaking, however, scholars agree that Confucianism may be also defined as an

1986:

burning of Confucian classics and killing of scholars who espoused the Confucian cause

24786: 24762: 24681: 24641: 24616: 24596: 24531: 24506: 24496: 24251: 23957: 23824: 23795: 23753: 23682: 23639: 23597: 23464: 23404: 23176: 23113: 22975: 22756: 22726: 22552: 22337: 22322: 22301: 22256: 22157: 22057: 22028: 22009: 21919: 21880: 21843: 21824: 21811: 21784: 21760: 21722: 21690: 21660: 21594: 21573: 21553: 21517: 21483: 21437: 21398: 21379: 21338: 21288: 21267: 21231: 21204: 21183: 21153: 21111: 21064: 21043: 20975: 20954: 20933: 20912: 20891: 20844: 20820: 20797: 20787: 20773: 20766: 20750: 20729: 20708: 20685: 20664: 20642: 20623: 20561: 20525: 20501: 20409: 20385: 20371: 20345: 20326: 20307: 20290: 20233: 20192: 20094: 20032: 20003: 19974: 19947: 19842: 19713: 19654: 19606: 19600: 19574: 19350: 19183: 19152: 18952: 18923: 18861: 18829: 18749: 18721: 18638: 18611: 18584: 18554: 18495: 18470: 18445: 18412: 18210: 18029: 18004: 17979: 17882: 17686: 17493: 17235: 17209: 17135: 17069: 16845: 16808: 16513: 16371: 16364: 16235: 15945: 15867: 15846:"Multiple-Perspective Analysis on the Geological Distribution of Christians in China" 15721: 15676: 15634: 15608: 15411: 15399: 15180: 15150: 15031: 14999: 14957: 14703: 14633: 14561: 14515: 14313: 14225: 14191: 14166: 14141: 14116: 14079: 14050: 14018: 13924: 13906: 13776: 13770: 13750: 13380: 13308: 13220: 13108: 13098: 13066: 12868: 12778: 12735: 11949: 11934: 11772: 11681: 11592: 11465: 11331: 10920: 10608: 10301: 10274: 10201: 10158: 10106: 10071: 10051: 9872: 9863:

to worship the God of Heaven, while the latter is dedicated to the god of mountains.

9200: 9053:

Buddhism is the oldest existing school of Buddhism, which is practiced mainly in the

8938: 8754: 8665: 8628: 8356: 8128:) to worship the gods, instead of Taoist or popular ritual. "Confucian businessmen" ( 8048: 8023: 7988: 7845: 7839: 7001: 6837: 6791: 6510:

and the divine, there is always a danger that this bond be broken. However, the term

6429: 5804: 4884:, and many others. Henan also has a strong popular Confucian orientation (p. 5). 4828: 4754: 4587: 4542: 4510: 4498: 4494: 4412: 4378: 4364:

Mostly Catholicism (0.6%), while nobody declared affiliation with Protestantism (0%).

3625: 2758: 2727: 2268: 2241: 2237: 2198: 2081: 2031: 2021: 1923: 1649: 1627: 1585: 1581: 1391: 1346: 1336: 1326: 1316: 1221: 1134: 1094: 1019: 989: 879: 834: 814: 789: 764: 727: 712: 687: 572: 522: 477: 462: 442: 432: 407: 347: 184: 97: 21857: 21612:[The Spontaneous Religious Practices of Han Chinese Peoples – Shenxianism]. 20486: 20480: 20474: 20268: 19710:

Freedom, Progress, and Society: Essays in Honour of Professor K. Satchidananda Murty

19472: 16774: 16012: 15520:'precious volumes' from the north, does not occur in the names of southern deities." 14978:

Yao, Xinzhong (May 2007). "Religious Belief and Practice in Urban China 1995-2005".

14540:

Yao, Xinzhong (May 2007). "Religious Belief and Practice in Urban China 1995-2005".

12430:), is widely used in esoteric and mystical literature. For example, an excerpt from 8759: 2519: 24601: 24566: 24521: 24516: 24425: 24369: 24362: 24261: 24256: 24182: 24110: 24029: 23944: 23934: 23905: 23841: 23836: 23670: 23644: 23629: 23514: 23492: 23476: 23382: 22831: 22821: 22661: 22454: 22439: 22431: 22296: 22266: 22167: 22162: 22049: 21807: 21743: 21702: 21457: 21425: 21317: 21141: 21033: 21002: 20870: 20613: 20588: 20256: 20086: 19179: 18894: 18678: 18440:(2013). "The Bon Religion of Tibet". In Tuttle, Gray; Schaeffer, Kurtis R. (eds.). 17674: 17123: 16893: 15998: 15862: 15857: 15845: 15664: 15391: 14987: 14945: 14908: 14549: 13914: 13898: 13208: 12987: 12770: 12431: 11696: 11691:

They were part of the project of cultural assimilation of Manchuria into Japan, or

11673: 11558: 11484: 11404: 11282: 11193: 10954: 10567: 10559: 10525: 10369: 10270: 9775: 9506: 9340: 8973: 8933: 8910: 8900: 8843: 8835: 8831: 8466: 8373: 8221: 7984: 7890: 7617: 7398: 7271:

China has a long history of sectarian traditions, called "salvationist religions" (

7008: 6833: 6709: 6515: 6412:) turtle (an expression for coming first in the examinations), and pointing at the 6382: 6257:) are agents who generate phenomena which reveal or reproduce the order of Heaven. 6068: 6001:—"Yellow Heaven" or "Shining Heaven", when it is venerated as the lord of creation; 5841: 5812: 5691: 5663: 4836: 4731: 4641: 4637: 4455: 4402: 2524: 2325: 2249: 2168: 2130: 1959: 1900: 1892: 1885: 1820: 1711: 1661: 1623: 1416: 1296: 1186: 794: 754: 702: 697: 615: 582: 492: 382: 294: 284: 21588: 20145:

Adler, Joseph A. (2005), "Chinese Religion: An Overview", in Lindsay Jones (ed.),

16299:, pp. 63–66. Ch. Zhuo, Xinping. "Theories of Religion in Contemporary China". 15942:

China's Governance Model: Flexibility and Durability of Pragmatic Authoritarianism

15516:

to the names of deities, found already in Ming period sectarian scriptures called

13545:, p. 784, chapter: Bujard, Marianne. "State and Local Cults in Han Religion". 13533:, p. 783, chapter: Bujard, Marianne. "State and Local Cults in Han Religion". 13031: 11395:, Shanxi, considered the sole surviving building with Zoroastrian origins in China 11241:(684–704), and according to later Buddhist sources he presented at the throne the 10807:) was introduced during the Tang dynasty (618–907) or earlier, by small groups of 10132: 9544:, and people with the same surname are viewed as being generated by the same god. 7492:). They were very active in the early republican period, and often identified as " 7063:), moral reciprocity; together with two traditional concepts of fate and meaning: 23977: 23972: 23895: 23846: 23807: 23471: 23053: 22859: 22746: 21913: 21778: 21654: 21567: 21545: 21511: 21477: 21413: 21373: 21332: 21282: 21261: 21198: 21177: 21105: 21058: 21037: 20969: 20948: 20927: 20906: 20885: 20859:"Of Canons and Commodities: The Cultural Predicaments of Nuosu-Yi "Bimo Culture"" 20836: 20832: 20791: 20744: 20723: 20700: 20681:

An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality

20679: 20636: 20495: 20426: 20227: 20186: 19968: 19941: 19646: 19344: 19173: 19088:(8). Trier University's Center for East Asian and Pacific Studies. Archived from 18917: 18632: 18605: 18578: 18273:"Research Review of Bai Esoteric Buddhist Azhali Religion Since the 20th Century" 18191: 17874: 15689: 14773:

Social Scientific Study of Religion in China: Methodology, Theories, and Findings

13009: 11892: 11887: 11869: 11505: 11346:(1271–1368), foreign religions were generally granted freedom, but the following 11023: 10847: 10604:

of Islam in China, also saw Nanjing become an important center of Islamic study.

10589: 10452: 10333: 10305: 10290: 10266: 9706: 9174: 9033: 8922: 8336: 8324:

and it is significant that he lived in the south, where he was involved in local

8174: 7962: 7298: 6705: 6173: 6168: 5851: 5667: 4887: 4877: 4681: 4583: 4541:) and the worship of ancestor-gods. The folk religion of central-northern China ( 4502: 2294: 2257: 2213: 2124:

in 311 led the royal court and Celestial Masters' clerics to migrate southwards.

2097: 2072:

against the Han. Later Taoist religious movements flourished in the Han state of

1577: 1449: 20069:

installed a widespread atheistic materialism that still surprises many visitors.

19758:"Manichaean and (Nestorian) Christian Remains in Zayton (Quanzhou, South China)" 11200: 11176: 10539:. Yet, Muslims virtually came to dominate the import and export industry by the 8960:. Currently, there are an estimated 185 to 250 million Chinese Buddhists in the 7657:

not as a religion. This secular understanding of Confucianism inspired both the

7007:

Despite this great diversity, all experiences of Chinese religion have a common

4578:), involving processions and pilgrimages, and led by indigenous ritual masters ( 2382:

In the late 20th century there was a reactivation of state cults devoted to the

252: 24378: 24310: 24233: 24080: 24034: 24019: 24014: 23997: 23982: 23768: 23123: 23118: 23048: 22634: 22201: 21007: 20875: 20858: 19130: 18898: 16508:

Bai Bin (2014). "Daoism in Graves". In Marsone, Pierre; Lagerwey, John (eds.).

16267: 15395: 14138:

New Confucianism in Twenty-First Century China: The Construction of a Discourse

12941: 11723: 11719: 11715: 11494: 11367: 11181: 11067: 10824: 10571: 10443: 10294: 10157:) also has a tiny presence. The Orthodox Church, which has believers among the 9692: 9469: 9461: 9416: 9353: 9195: 9074: 9025: 8998: 8957: 8839: 8536: 8483:

Chinese vernacular ritual masters, also referred to as practitioners of Faism (

8340: 8250: 8210: 8152: 7930: 7926: 7894: 7355: 7351: 7185: 7177: 7149: 6997: 6947: 6717: 6523: 6262: 5931: 5909: 5868: 5603: 4962: 4808: 4708: 4659: 4546: 4424: 2871: 2789: 2577: 2383: 2138: 2109: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 1868: 1810: 1793: 1747: 1679: 1664:

became widely popular in China, and Confucian thinkers responded by developing

1490: 147: 20260: 16897: 16445:, p. 71. Ch. Zhuo, Xinping. "Theories of Religion in Contemporary China". 16323:, p. 64. Ch. Zhuo, Xinping. "Theories of Religion in Contemporary China". 16311:, p. 65. Ch. Zhuo, Xinping. "Theories of Religion in Contemporary China". 15382:

Goossaert, Vincent (2011). "Is There a North China Religion? A Review Essay".

15283:] (in Chinese). Beijing: National Publishing House (民族出版社). Archived from 15253:] (in Chinese). Changchun: Jilin Education Press (吉林教育出版社). Archived from 15017:"People's Republic of China: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011" 14991: 14689:"People's Republic of China: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011" 14619:"People's Republic of China: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011" 14553: 14113:

Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival

13212: 12774: 12289: 12280: 12271: 12262: 9641: 8557:

scholars have described vernacular Taoist traditions as "cataphatic" (i.e. of

7661:

in Europe in the 18th century, and Chinese intellectuals of the 20th century.

7354:, charismatic founding figures claiming to have received divine revelation, a 7310:), while modern Chinese scholarship describes them as "folk religious sects" ( 7207:

According to Yiyi Lu, discussing the reconstruction of Chinese civil society:

6836:—, and its practices and beliefs are handed down over the generations through 6720:(the "Yellow Deity of the Chariot Shaft") at the ideal sacred centre of China. 5960:). Tian is defined in many ways, with many names, other well-known ones being 4636:

has unique characteristics deriving from the interaction of Han religion with

24805: 24780: 24343: 24090: 23924: 23763: 23565: 22886: 22874: 22716: 22577: 22281: 21974: 21541: 21447:"Shenzhen's Kongshengtang: Religious Confucianism and Local Moral Governance" 21429: 20824: 20627: 20294: 20159:

Confucianism as a Religious Tradition: Linguistic and Methodological Problems

17127: 17073: 16183: 15871: 15668: 15403: 15119:. ECRAN – Europe-China Research and Advice Network, University of Nottingham. 15035: 14949: 14707: 14637: 14606:. ECRAN – Europe-China Research and Advice Network, University of Nottingham. 14519: 14229: 13910: 13112: 12978:

In the early 21st century, there has been increasing official recognition of

12782: 12739: 12390: 11982: 11745: 11659: 11629: 11310: 11286: 11134: 10985:

Hindu texts were translated into Chinese, including a large number of Indian

10808: 10629: 10593: 10403: 10119: 9945: 9502: 9421: 9078: 9062: 9002: 8921:

as well as numerous Chinese traditions. Chinese Buddhism focuses on studying

8852:

exist among minority ethnic groups who live in the southwestern provinces of

8799: 8421: 8344: 7662: 7431: 6817: 6534:

the dead, even though Judaism, Christianity, and Islam did encourage prayers

6457: 6240: 6134: 4780: 4704: 2898: 2766: 2666: 2606: 2305: 2185: 2077: 1904: 1772: 1665: 1615: 1593: 1537: 1517: 21621: 20368:

Yanjiu xin shijie: "Mazu yu Huaren minjian xinyang" guoji yantaohui lunwenji

19371:"Understanding the rapid rise of Charismatic Christianity in Southeast Asia" 18795: 18580:

The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China

18437: 18404: 15757:. Duisburg Working Papers on East Asian Studies. No. 32. Archived from 11550:

under Emperor Wuzong of Tang also Zoroastrianism was target of suppression.

11289:

were traditional allies of the Chinese, also supporting the Tang during the

10607:

The rise of the Qing dynasty saw numerous Islamic rebellions, including the

8741:

spirit" of peoples. The Chinese Society for Shamanic Studies was founded in

7880:

In 2005, the Center for the Study of Confucian Religion was established and

7621:

One of the many modern statues of Confucius that have been erected in China.

6801:

Chinese popular or folk religion, usually referred to as traditional faith (

4466: 1690:

are the most numerous subgroup, the greatest concentration of Muslims is in

24383: 24268: 24140: 24105: 22711: 22706: 22701: 22691: 22686: 22676: 22594: 22589: 22147: 21909: 21865: 21610:"中国汉人自发的宗教实践 – 神仙教 (Zhongguo Hanren zifadi zongjiao shijian: Shenxianjiao)" 19346:

Christianity in Chinese Public Life: Religion, Society, and the Rule of Law

19149:

China's Millions: The China Inland Mission and Late Qing Society, 1832-1905

19125: 13928: 13093:

Woodhead, Linda; Kawanami, Hiroko; Partridge, Christopher H., eds. (2009).

12979: 12756:"Exploring Chinese folk religion: Popularity, diffuseness, and diversities" 12606: 12355: 12235: 11855: 11834:

were merely the result of coincidence and bias. For this, he was exiled by

11692: 11663: 11472: 11347: 11343: 11335: 11229: 11054: 11018: 10812: 10695: 10663: 10637: 10544: 10540: 10392: 10317: 10262: 10247: 10235: 10226: 10222: 10093: 9953: 9844: 9831: 9736: 9711: 9653: 9645: 9575: 9563: 9445: 9345: 9319: 9315: 9229: 9020:. In the modern era, practitioners of Tibetan Buddhism can be found in the 9005: 8995: 8830:, divided between two different cultural traditions, namely the schools of 8581:

practitioners (southern mediumship), healers, exorcists and they officiate

8307: 8267: 8226: 8069: 7918: 7899: 7870: 7563: 7363: 7095: 6669: 6633: 6499: 6453: 6352: 6189: 6121: 6092: 5939: 5774:

This reliance on group memory is the foundation of the Chinese practice of

5757: 5284: 4816: 4720: 4490: 4394: 4258: 4228: 4183: 4173: 2943: 2848: 2698: 2677:

2005: a survey of the religiosity of urban Chinese from the five cities of

2544: 2444: 2189: 2145: 2058: 2048:

was identified as the Yellow Emperor and received imperial sacrifices. The

1908: 1805: 1759: 1755: 1657: 1619: 1565: 1553: 1529: 1502: 237: 208: 21145: 20618: 20601: 20278:"Understanding Di and Tian: Deity and Heaven from Shang to Tang Dynasties" 19651:

Encyclopedia of Diasporas. Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World

17678: 15913:"The Present Situation and Characteristics of Contemporary Islam in China" 14188:

Religion and Authoritarianism: Cooperation, Conflict, and the Consequences

14163:

China's New Confucianism: Politics and Everyday Life in a Changing Society

13902: 12379:, manifesting in the three forms of dominance, destiny and nature. In the 11281:

In the early 8th century, Manichaeism became the official religion of the

11048:

In the 7th century there was an intellectual exchange between Taoists and

10336:

of around 100,000, constituting a large part of Christianity in the city.

10304:(1850–1871) was influenced to some degree by Christian teachings, and the 10066: 7468:

and secretive character, including rural militias such as the Red Spears (

6544: 5811:, but veneration of ancestors is held in many other ceremonies, including 2588: 24790: 23962: 22879: 22864: 22671: 22629: 22624: 22572: 21877:

Cultural Politics in a Global Age: Uncertainty, Solidarity and Innovation

20768:

The Temple of Memories: History, Power, and Morality in a Chinese Village

20518:

The Sacred Village: Social Change and Religious Life in Rural North China

12641: 12593: 12299: 11999: 11543: 11523: 11382: 11355: 11315: 11265: 11014: 10702: 10671: 10641: 10531:

Muslims, mainly Arabs, travelled to China to trade. In the year 760, the

10457: 10381: 10329: 10277:. Roman Catholic missions struggled in obscurity for decades afterwards. 9785: 9649: 9559: 9009: 8927: 8906: 8772: 8719: 8661: 8587: 8329: 8262: 7914: 7910: 7791: 7776: 7768: 7406: 7374: 7289: 7285: 7088: 6841: 5872: 5855: 5644: 4759:

intense Protestant missionary activity in the 19th and early 20th century

4689: 4525: 4514: 2781: 2548: 2415: 2387: 2301:

many temples were used as barracks by soldiers and destroyed in warfare.

2290: 2049: 1997: 1977: 1702: 1653: 1533: 307: 271: 21304:"Sect and Secularism in Reading the Modern Chinese Religious Experience" 18694: 14257:"China is harvesting organs from Falun Gong members, finds expert panel" 13981:

Woodhead, Linda; Partridge, Christopher; Kawanami, Hiroko, eds. (2016).

13428: 10961:, through upper Burma, reaching Yunnan; a third route is the well-known 10811:

settled in China. The most prominent early community were the so-called

4753:

and Zhejiang. The latter two provinces were in the area affected by the

4738:, and significantly present in other westernmost provinces where ethnic 1644:. These may be natural deities belonging to the environment, or ancient 240:(12th century) painting portraying three men representing Confucianism, 24135: 23043: 22854: 22582: 22206: 21714: 21530:

Riegel, Jeffrey (Summer 2013). "Confucius". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).

21322: 21303: 21017: 20435:

Les classiques des sciences sociales, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi

18690: 18123:"Shamanistic Studies in China: A Preliminary Survey of the Last Decade" 18101: 17485: 16882:"Religion and Society. A Summary of French Studies on Chinese Religion" 16375: 16003: 15986: 14913: 14896: 12619: 12513: 12478: 12409: 12364: 12323: 11797: 11700: 11633: 11489: 11225: 11129: 11106: 10962: 10775: 10718: 10687: 10679: 10667: 10633: 10601: 10243: 10162: 9878: 9820: 9752: 9457: 9221: 9109: 9069:. According to historical records, Theravada Buddhism was brought from 9066: 8792: 8742: 8348: 8214: 8116: 7787: 7780: 7740:

is not so much a personal God but rather "an impersonal absolute, like

7681: 7680:'s conceptualization of Confucianism as a religion which proposes "the 7670: 7649: 7465: 7359: 7152:

worship, and other forms of local worship, for instance the worship of

6984: 6822: 6637: 6413: 6213: 6177: 5830: 4792: 4776: 4621:

has been analysed as an area of rapid growth of folk Confucian groups.

4459: 2602: 2435: 2430:

practitioners and other religious minorities, including Christians and

2419: 2376: 2253: 2232: 2133:, based on revelations that occurred between 364 and 370 in modern-day 2101: 2080:

and culminating with Zhang Lu, the Zhang lineage established the early

1860: 1750:

of the Hongshan culture. The dragon, associated with the constellation

1687: 1645: 170: 17260:[Folk Temples' Management Association Registration Ceremony]. 13747:

The Cultural Practices of Modern Chinese Buddhism: Attuning the Dharma

13695:, p. 43. Cit. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, and Peter N. Gregory, ed. 13005:"US: China still arresting 'thousands' each year for practicing faith" 12312: 10422:

In September 2018, the Holy See and the Chinese government signed the

9246:

of the Bai nation. Benzhuism is very similar to Han Chinese religion.

8990:

elements). It thus preserves many Nepali Buddhist and Indian Buddhist

6636:(2007) studied how rituals and temples interweave to form networks of 6244:, "are the spirits of Heaven. They draw out the ten thousand things". 4521:

orders). Since the 1990s, Taoism has been well-developed in the area.

2707:

or belief in celestial powers, and only 32.9% were convinced atheists.

1996:, a site dedicated to the worship of the supreme God since before the 24145: 24100: 23038: 22979: 22251: 22236: 20991:"Religion and the State in China: The Limits of Institutionalization" 20929:

Early Chinese Religion, Part Two: The Period of Division (220-589 AD)

16841: 15305:. East Asian Institute Background Brief. No. 368. Archived from 14801:(500). Pu Shi Institute for Social Science. July 2014. Archived from 14072:

Chinese Village Life Today: Building Families in an Age of Transition

14043:

China Incorporated: The Politics of a World Where China is Number One

12550: 12546: 12376: 11793: 11655: 11650: 11585: 11581: 11274: 11238: 11205: 11189: 10967: 10930: 10779: 10730: 10552: 10416: 10258: 10145: 10060: 9501:

Manchu folk religion is the ethnic religion practised by most of the

9411: 9402:

is worshipped in Bon as a holy king, master of magic and divination.

9399: 9304: 9270: 9204: 9190: 9096: 9090: 9050: 9045: 8987: 8873: 8848: 8365:(effortless action), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity, and the 8325: 8225:

Wen Chang, Chinese god of literature, carved in ivory, c. 1550–1644,

7922: 7772: 7760: 7538: 7410: 7402: 7370: 7281: 7260: 6764: 6760: 6713: 6657: 6452:), which now corresponds to "religion", was in circulation since the 6217: 6209: 6130: 6097: 6071: 5860: 5821: 5454: 5032: 4918: 4895: 4881: 4812: 4800: 4788: 4762: 4724: 4614: 4470:

Geographic distributions and major communities of religions in China.

2986: 2805: 2703: 2512: 2313: 2221: 2093: 2065: 1993: 1876: 1631: 1605: 21706: 20908:

Early Chinese Religion: Part One: Shang Through Han (1250 BC-220 AD)

20557:

Early Chinese Religion: Part One: Shang Through Han (1250 BC-220 AD)

18682: 17816: 14931:"Non-institutional Religious Re-composition among the Chinese Youth" 11035:. The Tibetans contributed with the translation into Chinese of the 8531:), "blackhead" or "blackhat" daoshi, as vernacular Taoists call the 7176:

respectively, as they are named locally), 60% of them young, in the

24394: 24220: 24213: 23526: 19863: 19106:

Gulick, Edward V. (1975). "Peter Parker and the Opening of China".

18551:

Na-khi Religion: An Analytical Appraisal of the Na-khi Ritual Texts

16881: 15112: 14603: 12317: 12308:("shaman, medium") in its archaic form ☩, with the same meaning of 12024: 11863: 11785: 11760: 11535: 11306: 11302: 11298: 11268:(1862–1943); in this text Mani is interpreted as an incarnation of 11261: 11151: 11143: 11059: 11049: 11041: 10979: 10941: 10934: 10691: 10683: 10650: 10616: 10563: 10513: 10357: 10188: 10184: 10056: 9949: 9789: 9541: 9158: 9136: 9029: 9013: 8983: 8979: 8914: 8865: 8826: 8812: 8764: 8592: 8352: 8178: 8177:, the main gods of Taoist theology, at the Wudang Taoist Temple in 8061: 7934: 7802:) is the order of the creation and the source of divine authority, 7756: 7551: 7423: 7394: 7293: 7153: 7141: 7077: 7065: 7053: 6924: 6632:

The economic dimension of Chinese folk religion is also important.

6625:

Folk temple on the rooftop of a commercial building in the city of

6201:, "suchness") is generally identified as the supreme being itself. 6185: 6181: 5695: 5540: 5475: 5326: 5137: 4990: 4905: 4901: 4873: 4863: 4739: 4618: 4289: 4238: 4163: 2840: 2801: 2682: 2194: 2125: 2001: 1851: 1691: 1573: 1521: 1494: 1444: 311: 245: 21870:"Ritual Economy and Rural Capitalism with Chinese Characteristics" 19628:

The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

19048: 19046: 17388: 17386: 15842:

Data from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) 2012. Reported in

13345: 10528:(Memorial Mosque) at Guangzhou, in memory of the Prophet himself. 5686: 1634:. In general, Chinese folk religion involves an allegiance to the 1630:

hearken back to this period, and became more elaborate during the

1600:, which had begun during the late 19th century, culminated in the 22649: 22644: 22639: 22396: 22241: 22025:

The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion

20837:"The Making of the Ancestors: Late Shang Religion and Its Legacy" 20304:

Miraculous Response: Doing Popular Religion in Contemporary China

19521: 18043: 15179:. Atlas/Monde (in French). Paris, France: Autrement. p. 34. 14895:

Han, Junqiang; Meng, Yingying; Xu, Chengcheng; Qin, Siqi (2017).

13452: 12686:(CFPS) of the year 2018, as contained in the following analyses: 12564: 12394: 12349: 11823: 11789: 11764: 11539: 11531: 11527: 11339: 11294: 11249: 11147: 11139: 11092: 10958: 10836: 10816: 10726: 10722: 10714: 10710: 10675: 10620: 10044: 9882: 9453: 9425: 9394: 9370: 9255: 9070: 9017: 8861: 8857: 8768: 8664:

Chinese indigenous religion. The Chinese usage distinguishes the

8596: 8562: 8249:

in the current pinyin spelling) encompasses a variety of related

8190: 8091: 7943: 7590: 7505:). Recent scholarship has coined the category of "secret sects" ( 7264: 7181: 7161: 6876: 6775: 6626: 6390: 6012:—"Vast Heaven", with regard to the vastness of its vital breath ( 5971: 5905: 5864: 5826: 5582: 5561: 5496: 5433: 5347: 5305: 5116: 5095: 5074: 5011: 4796: 4745:

Christians are especially concentrated in the three provinces of

4716: 4569: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4301: 4293: 4285: 4147: 2878:

found that in China the atheists comprise 47% of the population.

2875: 2828: 2813: 2793: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2694: 2686: 2678: 2593: 2581: 2552: 2508: 2431: 2423: 2411: 2309: 2244:

that occurred in the country at the beginning of the 20th century

2134: 2121: 2117: 2073: 1872: 1856: 1831: 1695: 20843:, vol. 1, Shatin: Chinese University Press, pp. 3–63, 19562: 19363: 19322: 18409:

The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture

18232:

Indian Esoteric Buddhism: Social History of the Tantric Movement

17792: 16688:

Lang, Graeme; Chan, Selina Ching; Ragvald, Lars Ragvald (2005).

16248: 15271:

Yin 殷, Haishan 海山; Li 李, Yaozong 耀宗; Guo 郭, Jie 洁, eds. (1991).

15147:

Confucianism and Spiritual Traditions in Modern China and Beyond

12293:("work, art, craft, artisan, bladed weapon, square and compass; 12125:). He also describes shamans or media known by different names: 11309:

and other places. When the Uyghur Khaganate was defeated by the

9850:

Religious ceremonies and rituals are directed by priests called

9839:("God of Heaven"), which is related with the Chinese concept of 8956:. Chinese Buddhism is the largest institutionalized religion in 7011:

that may be summarized in four cosmological and moral concepts:

6950:

school is especially intertwined with local cults, with Zhengyi

6358: 4613:

alone aggregated at least 25% of the population of the state of

4586:, of which the northern one is composed of more ancient gods of 4505:

is mostly present in the north, while Sichuan is the area where

4433: 227: 24315: 22152: 21039:

Within the Four Seas...: Introduction to Comparative Philosophy

20386:"Confucius and the Mediums: Is There a "Popular Confucianism"?" 19058: 19043: 18802: 17931: 17383: 12503: 12294: 12231: 11897: 11781: 11625: 11573: 11504:

In addition to the Sogdian Zoroastrians, after the fall of the

11461: 11408: 11392: 11373: 11253: 11159: 11080: 11062:. Some breathing techniques practised in Shaktism are known as 10986: 10851: 10840: 10828: 10820: 10783: 10524:

is said to have shown esteem for Islam and to have founded the

10254: 10239: 10218: 10086: 9890: 9843:

and clearly identified by the Qiang with the Taoist-originated

9675: 9224:, an ethnic group of Yunnan. It consists in the worship of the 9220:, "religion of the patrons") is the indigenous religion of the 9113: 9054: 8991: 8877: 8853: 8443: 8381: 8361: 8316: 8146: 7882: 7803: 7752: 7685: 7493: 7427: 7414: 7390: 7145: 7125: 6932: 6779: 6748: 6744: 6644: 6346: 6138: 6076: 6063: 5876: 5410: 5179: 5053: 4969: 4655: 4479: 4398: 4343: 4248: 4193: 2844: 2751: 2556: 2528: 1944: 1845: 1783: 1569: 1525: 1498: 265: 261: 241: 194: 117: 21331:

Palmer, David A.; Shive, Glenn L.; Wickeri, Philip L. (2011).

19675: 18155:

The Wiley Blackwell Companion to East and Inner Asian Buddhism

18091:"Antagonistic Discourses on Shamanic Folklore in Modern China" 16171: 15585:

Action-Taking Gods: Animal Spirit Shamanism in Liaoning, China

11966: 11964: 11493:

recovered by Aurel Stein in Dunhuang and now preserved at the

11378: 11258:

Compendium of the Teachings of Mani, the Awakened One of Light

10478: 8424:

of the Quanzhen school are monasteries. Contrariwise, Zhengyi

7201:

legitimate religion, alongside the five authorized religions."

4601:

and shamanism, as well as their scriptural transmission. Also

1766: 22427: 22104: 20661:

Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations

18718:

Religion and Tourism: Crossroads, Destinations and Encounters

17600: 17030: 16786: 16784: 16656: 16654: 16652: 16402: 16400: 16333: 16331: 16329: 16071: 16069: 13983:

Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations

13095:

Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations

12649: 12631:), considered the most important deities of the Qiang people. 12508: 11827: 11759:

observes that Confucianism itself is primarily pragmatic and

11645: 11637: 11577: 11569: 11562: 11269: 11155: 11085: 10990: 10975: 10971: 10758: 10738: 10624: 10491: 10483: 10408: 10377: 10361: 10353: 10349: 10321: 9907: 9886: 9700: 9670: 8961: 8258: 8200: 7280:) by some scholars, which are characterized by a concern for 7157: 7121: 6936: 6928: 6826: 6795: 6539:

are cultivated as models and exemplars by their descendants.

5679: 5624: 5519: 5389: 5368: 5263: 5242: 5221: 5200: 5158: 4869: 4851: 4772: 4766: 4750: 4746: 4735: 4712: 4339: 4335: 4297: 4203: 2887: 2852: 2809: 2747: 2743: 2690: 2418:, for instance, was resumed at a ceremonial complex near the 2045: 1880: 1826: 1541: 303: 218: 20475:

Volume I: The Ancient Eurasian World and the Celestial Pivot

18949:

Other Chinas: The Yao and the Politics of National Belonging

18819: 18817: 18302: 18300: 18298: 18283: 18147: 17738: 17545: 16916: 16904: 16671: 16669: 11021:(618–907), Hindu texts translated into Chinese included the 9819:) is a major centre of Qiang folk religion on Qiangshan, in 8343:. Taoist schools traditionally feature reverence for Laozi, 7284:(moral fulfillment) of the person and the society, having a 6613:), as single names for the local indigenous cults of China. 6351:

treated with death rituals if they were humans, they become

4890:: According to official records by the then-government, the 4839:

shamanism or Tengerism, and Manchu shamanism among Manchus.

2543:("River Lord"), the god (Heshen, "River God") of the sacred 2096:, transmitted by the Buddhist populations who inhabited the 2064:

Between 184 and 205 CE, the Way of the Supreme Peace in the

1863:, are all representations of Di as the north celestial pole. 1758:, represents the "protean" primordial power, which embodies 20950:

Modern Chinese Religion I: Song-Liao-Jin-Yuan (960-1368 AD)

20074: 19649:. In Ember, Melvin; Ember, Carol R.; Skoggard, Ian (eds.). 19571:

Familiar Strangers, a History of Muslims in Northwest China

17978:]. Wenjin, Taipei: Taiwan Folk Religion Society. 2011. 16510:

Modern Chinese Religion I: Song-Liao-Jin-Yuan (960-1368 AD)

16467: 16465: 16463: 15709:

Religious beliefs and life experiences of Macao's residents

15057:"Religion in China on the Eve of the 2008 Beijing Olympics" 14580:"Religion in China on the Eve of the 2008 Beijing Olympics" 13160: 12532: 11961: 11729: 11514: 11509: 11116: 10832: 10750: 9727: 8869: 8824:) is represented by a large number of people following the 8599:. Rather, they represent an intermediate level between the 8553:"sages of yin and yang"), and by a variety of other names. 8417: 8065: 7603:), that is to say a temple where Confucius is worshiped as 7137: 7039:), the breath or energy–matter that animates the universe; 7013: 6616: 5901: 5819:

initiations. Worshippers generally offer prayers through a

5803:

The two major festivals involving ancestor worship are the

5767: 2540: 2504: 2105: 1918: 1744: 20725:

Popular Belief in Contemporary China: A Discourse Analysis

20497:

Vietnamese Supernaturalism: Views from the Southern Region

19940:

Stausberg, Michael; Vevaina, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw (2015).

19544:"Vatican announces deal with China on bishop appointments" 19241: 17576: 16781: 16649: 16489: 16397: 16366:

The Sacred Books of Confucius and Other Confucian Classics

16326: 16066: 15418: 13403: 13401: 13399: 12221:; p. 91). Further (p. 76), he discusses, for example, the 11471:

The first phase of Zoroastrianism in China started in the

9164: 8795:, in Sichuan. Emei is another sacred mountain of Buddhism. 2730:, analysing the rural populations of the six provinces of 2494: 22246: 20366:, in Wang, Chien-chuan; Li, Shiwei; Hong, Yingfa (eds.), 19769: 19514:"Vatican and China sign agreement on bishop appointments" 18814: 18363: 18295: 17782: 17780: 17767: 17765: 17088: 16986: 16984: 16666: 16563: 16211: 15720:

by Center for Modern China, 2010, v. 17 n. 4, p. 91-126.

14236: 13980: 13952: 13950: 13856: 13854: 13702: 13623: 13563: 13284: 13092: 12413:, Heaven in its way of manifestation, order of creation ( 10843:

and other eastern European countries in the early 1940s.

10827:(early 1900s), the communist revolution and civil war in 10474:(shrine) of the Sufi master Yu Baba in Linxia City, Gansu 9529: 9465: 9335: 8913:

since then, Han or Chinese Buddhism is a Chinese form of

8287: 8064:, affiliated with the Federation of Confucian Culture of 6106: 5927: 5895: 4804: 4695:

Across China, Han religion has even adopted deities from

2592:

A neighbourhood folk shrine festooned for a festival, in

2331:

The policy relaxed considerably in the late 1970s. Since

2004:. The emperors of Qin also concentrated the cults of the 1520:, but the government formally recognizes five religions: 21552:, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, pp. 75–95, 20323:

Confucianism as Religion: Controversies and Consequences

20191:. Chichester, West Sussex; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. 19898: 19896: 19820: 19818: 19816: 19494:

Hernández, Javier C.; Tseaug, Crystal (27 August 2015).

19220: 18380: 18378: 18317: 18315: 17919: 17828: 17750: 17417: 17415: 17413: 17398: 17287: 17277: 17275: 17018: 16933: 16931: 16726: 16460: 16147: 16135: 16123: 16056: 16054: 15500:, etc., based on the name of the chief sectarian deity, 15435: 15342: 15177:

Atlas des religions. Croyances, pratiques et territoires

15117:

4th International Forum for Contemporary Chinese Studies

14456: 14092: 13611: 13063:

Muslim Education in the 21st Century: Asian Perspectives

10839:(1937–1940). The last wave of Jewish refugees came from 9889:, follow a folk religion that is deeply integrated with 9682:

Mongolian folk religion, alternatively named Tengerism (

9464:

of the Nakhi. They originated as masters of the Tibetan

9112:. The Vajrayana current of Chinese Buddhism is known as 7759:

system, developed from the teachings of the philosopher

7480:), and fraternal organizations such as the Green Gangs ( 7226: 4322:

The populations surveyed were those of the provinces of

4146:

Religious self-identification of university students in

2757:

2010: the Chinese Spiritual Life Survey directed by the

18:

For religion in the contemporary Republic of China, see

20968:

Lagerwey, John; Goossaert, Vincent; Kiely, Jan (2015).

20701:"Problematizing Contemporary Confucianism in East Asia" 20229:

The Sage and the People: The Confucian Revival in China

20081:

Juergensmeyer, Mark (2005). Juergensmeyer, Mark (ed.).

19016: 18055: 17999:

Davis, Edward L. (2009). "Daoism (Zhengyi tradition)".

17716: 17714: 17701: 17699: 17697: 17523: 17521: 17506: 17008: 17006: 16943: 16620: 16608: 16387: 16385: 16159: 15543: 15541: 15471: 15447: 15318: 14353: 13989: 13866: 13721: 13719: 13717: 13652: 13650: 13599: 13587: 13396: 13375: 13357: 13321: 12212:(possessed by immortals; pp. 88–89); or "godly sages" ( 11703:, Shinto was abolished and the shrines were destroyed. 11553:

The second phase of Zoroastrianism in China was in the

10729:

came under the control of Muslim warlords known as the

9518:) by virtue of the word "shaman" being originally from 9398:), which made it a codified religion. The Chinese sage 9108:) is a Vajrayana Buddhist religion practised among the 8472: 8265:. Taoism has a distinct scriptural tradition, with the 7029: 6942:

Taoism has been defined by scholar and Taoist initiate

6087: 2722:

2008: a survey conducted in that year by Yu Tao of the

2637:

folk religious organisations and salvationist movements

21510:

Ruokanen, Miikka; Huang, Paulos Zhanzhu, eds. (2011),

20967: 20058:"Map: These are the world's least religious countries" 19496:"Hong Kong Christians Draw New Scrutiny From Mainland" 19033: 19031: 19006: 19004: 17954: 17952: 17950: 17948: 17946: 17909: 17907: 17905: 17903: 17901: 17899: 17777: 17762: 17726: 17623: 17621: 17619: 17617: 17615: 17359: 16981: 16962: 16858: 16539: 16101: 16099: 16086: 16084: 15991:

Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering

15459: 14750: 14286: 14274: 14014:

An Ideological History of the Communist Party of China

13962: 13947: 13935: 13851: 13789: 13662: 13635: 13575: 13418: 13416: 13192: 12501:"Great Deity of the Central Peak"), is the creator of 12123:

Ritual and Music of North China: Shawm Bands in Shanxi

11740:

Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party

10970:, Yunnan. It is recorded that in 758 there were three 10906:) has had a presence in China since the 19th century. 10794:

Shanghai Jewish Refugees Museum with former synagogue.

10551:, led the construction project of the Yuan capital of 10310:

first clinics and hospitals practising modern medicine

10165:

sects of Christian inspiration, including Zhushenism (

9710:, the highest such deity. In Mongolian folk religion, 9509:, in China. It may also be called "Manchu Shamanism" ( 9388:

The spiritual source of Bon is the mythical figure of

5645:

Definition of what in China is spiritual and religious

4876:

or Tianli ("Order of Heaven") sect, the Dadaohui, the

4769:

self-identifies as Christian, predominantly Catholic.

4723:

whose mythology is embodied in a culturally important

2184:

into the religious doctrine they taught in China. The

1962:

inherited from the pre-imperial era, and composed the

1895:

traces the origins of some features of Taoism to what

1493:

are either non-religious or practice a combination of

20663:(3nd ed.), London: Routledge, pp. 143–172, 19935: 19933: 19931: 19893: 19813: 19735:"Lord Krishna's popularity rising in Communist China" 19626:

Goldman, Merle (1986). "Religion in Post-Mao China".

19605:. Vol. 2. New York: Cambridge University Press. 19208: 18919:

A History of Daoism and the Yao People of South China

18858:

A Grammar of Qiang: With Annotated Texts and Glossary

18375: 18351: 18339: 18327: 18312: 18136:(1–2). Ohio State University: 104–106. Archived from 17854: 17588: 17410: 17371: 17347: 17335: 17323: 17311: 17299: 17272: 16928: 16639: 16637: 16635: 16586: 16584: 16582: 16580: 16578: 16448: 16412: 16343: 16199: 16051: 16029: 16027: 16025: 16023: 15528: 15526: 14878: 14876: 14874: 14872: 14503:

A star in the East: The rise of Christianity in China

14501:"Counting Christians in China: A critical reading of 13801: 13124: 13122: 13061:

Buang, Sa'eda; Chew, Phyllis Ghim-Lian (9 May 2014).

12397:

explains that the designation of Heaven is quintuple:

12170:("practitioners of the incense way"; p. 85); village 11644:

Between 1931 and 1945, with the establishment of the

10859:

Diane and Guilford Glazer Institute of Jewish Studies

10426:, a historic agreement concerning the appointment of 9779: 9765: 9756: 9528:

It is a pantheistic system, believing in a universal

8543:. In some provinces of north China they are known as 8492:, "rites/laws' traditions"), also named Folk Taoism ( 8437: 8431: 8425: 8035:) or the phoenix churches, the Confucian Fellowship ( 7983:). Some scholars also consider the reconstruction of 7790:

and other Confucian scholars who recover the work of

7091:", good and bad chances and potential relationships. 6428:

There was no term that corresponded to "religion" in

6161:), the "Heavenly Honourable of the First Beginning" ( 6049:—"Deep-Green Heaven", for it being unfathomably deep. 4217:

Religious self-identification of participants of the

2324:

involved a systematic effort to destroy religion and

20793:

The Souls of China: The Return of Religion after Mao

20107: 19929: 19927: 19925: 19923: 19921: 19919: 19917: 19915: 19913: 19911: 19756:

Lieu, Samuel N. C.; Perry, Ken (26 September 2013).

17804: 17711: 17694: 17533: 17518: 17173: 17003: 16750: 16714: 16382: 15538: 14797:[Mainland folk religion management change]. 14651: 14468: 14410: 14011:

Guoyou, Wu; Xuemei, Ding (2020). Zheng, Qian (ed.).

13714: 13699:. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993. p. 29. 13647: 13553: 13551: 11845: 10611:

which occurred in Yunnan from 1855 to 1873, and the

10253:

At the end of the Ming dynasty in the 16th century,

10001: 9995: 7389:"Way of the Nine Palaces"), the various branches of 6829:

of stars, earthly phenomena, and of human behavior.

4567:, "association"), which organise temple ceremonies ( 4545:), otherwise, is focused on the communal worship of 1958:

ritual acts. Confucius amended and re-codified the

22043:

Ways of Heaven. An Introduction to Chinese Thought.

21593:. Council for Research in Values & Philosophy. 19732: 19373:. Singapore Management University. 27 October 2017. 19238:

Francis Ching-Wah Yip in Miller, 2006, p. 185.

19028: 19001: 18989: 18977: 17943: 17896: 17633: 17612: 17185: 16596: 16424: 16111: 16096: 16081: 16039: 15731: 15014: 14686: 14616: 14331: 14329: 13674: 13413: 12511:. He represents the man who embodies or grasps the 9722:if females), who are intermediaries of the divine. 7337:), overcoming the ancient derogatory definition of 4775:is the majority religion in areas inhabited by the 22027:. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. 21330: 21200:The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions 21110:. Religious Studies in Contemporary China. Brill. 20904: 20765: 19343:Carpenter, Joel; Den Dulk, Kevin R., eds. (2004). 19338: 19336: 19334: 19332: 19232: 19129: 18049: 17466: 16738: 16632: 16575: 16551: 16527: 16477: 16363: 16284: 16020: 15523: 15072: 15070: 14869: 13884: 13542: 13530: 13506: 13482: 13119: 12507:, the spiritual foundation of the civilisation of 12363:("Great Oneness"), identified as the ladle of the 10246:missionaries in 1294. When the native Han Chinese 9656:. The worship of Genghis is shared by Chinese and 9232:word for "patrons" or "source lords", rendered as 8347:or ancestors, along with a variety of rituals for 7763:(551–479 BCE). Confucianism originated during the 7184:alone; and by the mid-1990s the government of the 4692:into the traditional folk religion of the region. 256:Altar to the five officials worshipped inside the 20576:The Presence and Future of Humanity in the Cosmos 20029:Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu's Reforms 19908: 19841:. John Rylands University Library of Manchester. 19342: 17248: 16697:Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion 15602: 14341: 13885:Bernardi Junqueira, Luis Fernando (8 June 2021). 13548: 13512: 13488: 13464: 13440: 11568:The third phase started in the 18th century when 10835:policy in central Europe, chiefly in Germany and 7961:, "Confucian learning halls"), the resurgence of 4757:, and Zhejiang along with Henan were hubs of the 2304:The People's Republic of China holds a policy of 2112:(220–280), China was partially unified under the 24803: 21783:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 21757:Religious Diversity and Public Religion in China 21536:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 21263:Religions of China: The World as a Living System 20225: 20151:(2nd ed.), Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA 19939: 18965: 18828:. China Intercontinental Press. pp. 58–59. 18098:Annals of Dimitrie Cantemir Christian University 17822: 17798: 16690:"Folk Temples and the Chinese Religious Economy" 15850:PEOPLE: International Journal of Social Sciences 15844:Gai, Rong Hua; Gao, Jun Hui (22 December 2016). 15377: 15375: 15373: 15371: 15369: 15367: 15365: 15104: 15015:Wenzel-Teuber, Katharina; Strait, David (2012). 14687:Wenzel-Teuber, Katharina; Strait, David (2012). 14617:Wenzel-Teuber, Katharina; Strait, David (2012). 14326: 13056: 13054: 12953: 12334: 12121:and auspicious days"; quoting: S. Jones (2007), 10694:. A few years later, an Islamic army called the 8834:followed by the Han Chinese, and the schools of 6686:), which are formed through a 'civil election' ( 6212:, inherent in the multiple phenomena of nature ( 2341:Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party 2299:Japanese invasion of China between 1937 and 1945 1710:are particular to specific religions, including 21361:Journal of Chinese Ritual, Theatre and Folklore 20946: 20742: 19943:The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism 19868:. Worldwide Conference for Historical Research. 19493: 19329: 19064: 19052: 18808: 18195:Freedom House Report. Rowman & Littlefield. 18084: 18082: 18080: 18078: 18076: 18074: 18072: 18070: 17937: 17663:"Cultural Dynamics in China: Today and in 2020" 17490:Contemporary Confucianism in Thought and Action 17434: 17432: 17430: 17392: 17055:"Religions & Christianity in Today's China" 16687: 15818:. Baylor University. p. 15. Archived from 15683: 15575: 15067: 15007: 14882:Francis Ching-Wah Yip, in Miller, 2006. p. 186. 14785: 14480: 14446: 13302: 13134: 12682:2023 approximations of the statistics from the 12421:). The symbol, also called the Gate of Heaven ( 5653:Worship at the Great Temple of Lord Zhang Hui ( 4787:follow their own traditional ethnic religions: 1717:According to American sinologist and historian 21821:Social Scientific Studies of Religion in China 19987: 19573:. University of Washington Press. p. 25. 18116: 18114: 17234:. China Policy Series. Routledge. p. 21. 15883: 15881: 15603:Juergensmeyer, Mark; Roof, Wade Clark (2011). 15270: 15049: 13260:"China halts mosque demolition due to protest" 12754:Zhang, Chunni; Lu, Yunfeng; He, Sheng (2021). 12678: 12676: 12674: 12672: 9924:Zhuang folk religion, sometimes called Moism ( 8622: 8561:) in character, while professional Taoism as " 8314:is equivalent to the ancient Greek concept of 6790:People forgathering at an ancestral shrine in 4383:Geographic distribution of religions in China. 2337:Constitution of the People's Republic of China 2087: 2024:Fubao, who was impregnated by the radiance of 24410: 24063: 22412: 22087: 22008:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 21659:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 21509: 20080: 19403:"Protestant Christianity is booming in China" 19202: 18942: 18940: 18851: 18849: 18847: 18845: 18432: 18430: 18428: 18399: 18397: 18395: 18393: 15967:"Internazional Religious Freedom Report 2012" 15891:"Study on Current Muslim Population in China" 15749: 15711: 15558: 15556: 15362: 15024:Religions & Christianity in Today's China 14696:Religions & Christianity in Today's China 14626:Religions & Christianity in Today's China 14432: 14423: 14402: 14396: 14387: 14378: 13088: 13086: 13051: 12913:Religions & Christianity in Today's China 12728:Religions & Christianity in Today's China 12718: 12623: 12610: 12597: 12584: 12569: 12554: 12537: 12526: 12521:), the hub of creation, identifying with the 12496: 12486: 12472: 12462: 12452: 12422: 12384: 12303: 12225: 12216: 12207: 12198: 12183: 12174: 12165: 12156: 12147: 12138: 12129: 12103: 12094: 12085: 12031: 12015: 11667: 11605: 11596: 11452: 11443: 11434: 11425: 11416: 11386: 11219: 11213: 11128:, literally the "Jade Maiden"), Tantric, and 11120: 11100: 11001:, or through phonetic transliteration as the 10945: 10898: 10889: 10880: 10799: 10504: 10495: 10205: 10192: 10175: 10166: 10149: 10136: 10131:, "New-Christianity"), and a small number of 10123: 10110: 10097: 10055:Christ the King Church, a Catholic church in 9989: 9979: 9965: 9894: 9835:people believe in an overarching God, called 9811: 9698:It is centered on the worship of gods called 9683: 9569:The Miao believe in a supreme universal God, 9510: 9432: 9357: 9278: 9261: 9237: 9212: 9149: 9140: 9123: 9117: 9100: 8816: 8713: 8707: 8699:) which are practiced in northern provinces. 8691: 8685: 8669: 8644: 8548: 8526: 8516: 8511:), are known by a variety of names including 8506: 8493: 8484: 8272: 8234: 8204: 8194: 8129: 8120: 8107: 8098: 8082: 8073: 8052: 8036: 8027: 8017: 8007: 7978: 7969: 7953: 7947: 7731: 7722: 7713: 7704: 7693: 7640: 7634: 7608: 7598: 7542: 7532: 7522: 7506: 7497: 7487: 7481: 7475: 7469: 7456: 7447: 7438: 7384: 7378: 7342: 7329: 7320: 7311: 7302: 7272: 7251: 7242: 7082: 7070: 7058: 7046: 7034: 7018: 6988: 6975: 6966: 6955: 6907: 6898: 6889: 6880: 6867: 6858: 6849: 6605: 6596: 6587: 6578: 6565: 6556: 6493: 6483: 6447: 6437: 6417: 6407: 6397: 6368: 6359:Concepts of religion, tradition, and doctrine 6336: 6315: 6305: 6292: 6279: 6249: 6233: 6224: 6193: 6162: 6153: 6147: 6110: 6080: 6056: 6044: 6033: 6022: 6007: 5996: 5984: 5975: 5964: 5952: 5943: 5932:northern culmen and starry vault of the skies 5917: 5884: 5788: 5779: 5744: 5735: 5722: 5654: 4922: 4909: 4894:or Morality Society had 8 million members in 4672: 4663: 4649: 4573: 4562: 4553: 4536: 2916: 2649: 2640: 2627: 2618: 2568: 2339:guarantees freedom of religion. In 1980, the 1838: 1787: 1776: 1467: 64:. Please discuss this issue on the article's 21800:Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 21565: 20890:. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Press. 20226:Billioud, Sébastien; Thoraval, Joël (2015). 20174:The Heritage of Non-Theistic Belief in China 20020: 18855: 18603: 18067: 18001:Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture 17656: 17654: 17652: 17650: 17648: 17427: 17062:Religion & Christianity in Today's China 17049: 17047: 17045: 16771:"Crowdfunding and the Family Temple Economy" 16660: 15805: 15803: 15801: 15799: 15797: 15795: 15793: 15791: 14894: 14740: 14738: 14736: 14734: 14732: 14730: 14728: 14726: 14724: 14597: 14595: 14593: 14303: 14301: 14010: 13838:Asia Research Institute Working Paper Series 13824: 13822: 13820: 13818: 13816: 12935: 12933: 12230:, ceremonies of thanksgiving to the gods in 10372:. Christianity has a strong presence in the 10238:, which also established relations with the 9479:, with little doubt the same as the Tibetan 9420:Dongba priest writing oracles with calam in 8787:The temple complex with the Ten Directions' 8660:Shamanism was the prevalent modality of pre- 7221:Chinese Folk Temples' Management Association 5702: 4688:there has been a significant integration of 4662:, and of the Great Lord of the Three Foxes ( 4654:"riding for the immortals"), the worship of 21875:. In Held, David; Moore, Henrietta (eds.). 21685:, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 21648:. University of Tokyo Center of Philosophy. 21590:Confucian Ethics in Retrospect and Prospect 21454:International Political Science Association 21309:Archives de sciences sociales des religions 21179:Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies 20721: 20585:The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion 19973:. University of Hawaii Press. p. 164. 19703: 19701: 19699: 19697: 19695: 19693: 19691: 19689: 19687: 19685: 19653:. Vol. I. Springer. pp. 152–163. 19175:Memories of Dr. Wu Lien-teh, Plague Fighter 18572: 18570: 18544: 18542: 18540: 18111: 17203: 17036: 16995:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFFanChen2013 ( 16973:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFFanChen2013 ( 16954:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFFanChen2013 ( 15878: 15838: 15836: 15834: 15832: 14890: 14888: 14853:"Global Index of Religion and Atheism 2012" 14826:. December 2012. p. 46. Archived from 14777:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFFanChen2013 ( 14681: 14679: 14677: 14675: 14673: 14662:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFFanChen2013 ( 14135: 13730:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFFanChen2013 ( 13697:Religion and Society in Tang and Song China 12669: 11998:CFPS 2014 surveyed predominantly people of 10105:, "Religion of Christ") in China comprises 8982:Buddhism stemming from the later stages of 7102:) and principles of waning or contraction ( 7075:), the personal destiny or burgeoning; and 6728: 2468:It has been suggested that this section be 1505:worldview, which is collectively termed as 201:, and other religious organisations, (7.6%) 24417: 24403: 22419: 22405: 22094: 22080: 21879:. Oxford, England: Oneworld Publications. 21569:Unruly Gods: Divinity and Society in China 21566:Shahar, Meir; Weller, Robert Paul (1996). 21505:(Fall 2016 ed.). Stanford University. 21056: 20925: 20743:Goossaert, Vincent; Palmer, David (2011). 20655: 20634: 20049: 19792: 19790: 19788: 19786: 19784: 19594: 19592: 19590: 19247: 18937: 18878: 18842: 18746:Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection 18607:Social Organization of the Northern Tungus 18604:Shirokogorov, Sergeĭ Mikhaĭlovich (1929). 18425: 18407:(2013). "Bon". In Kitagawa, Joseph (ed.). 18390: 18270: 18209:. Princeton University Press. p. 21. 18153:Jiang Wu, "The Chinese Buddhist Canon" in 17582: 17551: 17512: 16910: 16875: 16873: 16495: 16406: 16337: 16075: 15701: 15553: 15144: 14858:. Win-Gallup International. Archived from 14574: 14572: 14254: 14242: 14165:. Princeton University Press. p. 14. 13708: 13290: 13177: 13175: 13083: 12959: 12812: 12810: 12808: 11776:contains several catechistic poems in the 11595:, Zoroastrianism was first referred to as 11518:, migrated to northern China. Fleeing the 10861:and the China Judaic Studies Association. 9625: 9084: 4892:Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue 4611:Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue 4373: 2923: 2909: 2227: 1640:('spirits'), which encompass a variety of 1474: 1460: 22003: 21371: 21321: 21032: 21006: 20988: 20905:Lagerwey, John; Kalinowski, Marc (2008). 20874: 20831: 20617: 20125: 20091:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195188356.001.0001 19993: 19755: 18946: 18856:LaPolla, Randy; Huang, Chenglong (2003). 18715: 17645: 17042: 16002: 15861: 15788: 15631:Religion and Biography in China and Tibet 15381: 15251:Chinese Dictionary of Minorities' History 15170: 14912: 14721: 14590: 14307: 14298: 14210: 14190:. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. 13918: 13813: 13407: 13327: 13060: 13002: 12930: 12903: 12899: 12897: 12895: 12893: 12891: 12889: 12887: 12885: 12753: 12545:, for the color "yellow", also means, by 12023:), viewed as comparable to the usage of " 12011:Other names that have been proposed are: 11695:, the same policy that was being applied 11508:(651), through the 7th and 8th centuries 11451:, "fire-worshippers' transmission"; also 11204:A Manichaean inscription, dated 1445, at 10297:of China in the 19th and 20th centuries. 8777:Four Sacred Mountains of Chinese Buddhism 8611:identify with their deity, but while the 7301:'s definition of "redemptive societies" ( 4711:, there has been a growth of the cult of 4671:) and the Great Lady of the Three Foxes ( 21818: 21587:Shen, Qingsong; Shun, Kwong-loi (2007). 21586: 21496: 21475: 21280: 21259: 21217: 20947:Lagerwey, John; Marsone, Pierre (2014). 20883: 20573: 20553: 20421: 20205: 19878: 19861: 19733:Sutirtho Patranobis (1 September 2016). 19682: 19226: 19108:Journal of the American Oriental Society 18660: 18658: 18656: 18654: 18567: 18537: 18289: 18229: 18120: 18061: 17925: 17834: 17756: 17744: 17732: 17563: 16922: 16802: 16361: 16217: 15829: 15750:Heberer, Thomas; Jakobi, Sabine (2000). 15477: 15465: 15453: 15441: 15424: 15348: 15266: 15264: 15236: 15234: 14885: 14809: 14670: 14449:, p. 347, quoting: " a number of 14359: 14292: 13968: 13956: 13941: 13860: 13795: 13656: 13641: 13629: 13617: 13605: 13593: 13581: 13569: 13386: 13363: 13307:. Harvard University Press. p. 17. 11730:Irreligion and antireligious persecution 11624: 11512:Zoroastrians, including aristocrats and 11433:, "Heaven worship teaching"; also named 11398: 11377: 11199: 11175: 10924: 10789: 10774: 10477: 10463: 10451: 10077: 10065: 10050: 10038: 9805: 9663: 9635: 9622:), and various deified human ancestors. 9415: 9339: 9194: 8798: 8782: 8758: 8638: 8539:that were traditionally ordained by the 8369:: compassion, moderation, and humility. 8220: 8184: 8168: 8160: 7905: 7624: 7616: 7581: 7236: 7110:) usually preferred over receptiveness ( 6785: 6769: 6754: 6738: 6700: 6620: 6617:Religious economy of temples and rituals 5685: 5648: 4842: 4465: 4377: 2587: 2562: 2534: 2518: 2498: 2231: 1799: 1765: 1739: 293: 270: 251: 226: 21915:Chinese Religion: A Contextual Approach 21732:"Religious Revivals in Communist China" 21729: 21540: 21533:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 21444: 21411: 20971:Modern Chinese Religion II: 1850 – 2015 20786: 20599: 20582: 20085:. Oxford University Press. p. 70. 20026: 19966: 19781: 19749: 19625: 19587: 19124: 19070: 18915: 18739: 18737: 18576: 18548: 18489: 18271:Huang, Zhengliang; Zhang, Xilu (2013). 18170:, pp. 29–70. University of Hawaii Press 18088: 18023: 17872: 17810: 17786: 17771: 17457: 17443:. Goethe-Institut China. Archived from 17438: 17232:Non-Governmental Organisations in China 17204:Wu, Guoguang; Lansdowne, Helen (2009). 17094: 16990: 16968: 16949: 16870: 16831: 16829: 16827: 16825: 16507: 16266: 15565:Daoism: Religion, History & Society 15547: 15324: 15297: 15145:Yang, Fenggang; Tamney, Joseph (2011). 14768: 14657: 14569: 14280: 14098: 13985:(3rd ed.). Routledge. p. 159. 13768: 13744: 13725: 13303:Fairbank, John; Goldman, Merle (2006). 13198: 13181: 13172: 12805: 12713:from the original on 30 September 2023. 12696:. Pew Research Center. 30 August 2023. 12457:"Yellow Emperor" or "Yellow Deity") or 11910:Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia 11654:("Manchu Country") in northeast China ( 10346:Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life 10221:in 635, during the early period of the 9913: 9784:are made offering slaughtered animals, 9751:are sacrificial altars of the shape of 9490: 9344:The Narshi Gompa, a Bonpo monastery in 9165:Ethnic minorities' indigenous religions 8894: 8436:("scattered" or "diffused" Taoists) or 7654:Jesuit missionaries of the 16th century 7639:Rújiào, the "teaching of scholars", or 6716:, Shaanxi, dedicated to the worship of 4862:and the salvationist movement known as 4434:Ethnic minorities' indigenous religions 4120:Traditional worship or "not religious" 3598:Traditional worship or "not religious" 2776:(CFPS) conducted a survey of 25 of the 2495:Demoscopic analyses and general results 2275:revolted against Confucianism, and the 2037:Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind 24804: 23354:Socialism with Chinese characteristics 22048: 22006:Buddhism in China, a Historical Survey 21797: 21689: 21673: 21652: 21646:Secularization, Religion and the State 21529: 21375:Astrology and Cosmology in Early China 21351: 21196: 21175: 21124: 21103: 20746:The Religious Question in Modern China 20677: 20593:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195338522.013.024 20514: 20464: 20188:A New History of Christianity in China 19760:. Macquarie University. Archived from 19644: 19598: 19568: 19315:"Uncovering China's Korean Christians" 19214: 19146: 19105: 19076: 18826:Festivals of China's Ethnic Minorities 18630: 18436: 18403: 18178: 18176: 17860: 17484: 17421: 17404: 17377: 17365: 17353: 17341: 17329: 17305: 17293: 17281: 17024: 16886:Review of Religion and Chinese Society 16864: 16790: 16471: 16454: 16442: 16418: 16349: 16320: 16308: 16296: 16254: 16189: 15985:Wu, Jiayu; Fang, Yong (January 2016). 15984: 15843: 15737: 15110: 14928: 14756: 14601: 14371: 14185: 14069: 14006: 14004: 13458: 13434: 13351: 13339: 13128: 12949:. Minority Rights Group International. 12939: 12882: 12873:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 12703:from the original on 9 September 2023. 11555:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period 11546:in northern urban centres. During the 11487:. One of them is a translation of the 11052:in India, with the translation of the 10174:, "Church of Lord God"), Linglingism ( 10009: 9795: 9242:) in Chinese. They are local gods and 9032:, in addition to the areas around the 8978:Tibetan Buddhism evolved as a form of 8591:), with the exception of the order of 6987:") led by Confucian "sages of rites" ( 6759:Temple of the God of the South Sea in 6586:), or "Chinese ethnic religion" (i.e. 5896:Theological and cosmological discourse 4355:Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy 2635:) Chinese scholars have usually meant 2174: 24398: 22400: 22075: 22022: 21932: 21819:Yang, Fenggang; Lang, Graeme (2012). 21301: 20856: 20560:, Leiden: Brill, pp. 1117–1158, 20408:, vol. 7, Taylor & Francis, 20403: 20383: 20358: 20339: 20275: 20170: 20155: 20144: 20055: 19994:Grim, Brian J.; Finke, Roger (2010). 19902: 19824: 19775: 19707: 18651: 18464: 18384: 18369: 18357: 18345: 18333: 18321: 18306: 18204: 17998: 17594: 17539: 17527: 17317: 16937: 16838:Contemporary China: a New Superpower? 16835: 16675: 16614: 16569: 16430: 16391: 16229: 16205: 16177: 16165: 16045: 15654: 15628: 15562: 15532: 15261: 15240: 15231: 15197: 15164: 14498: 14474: 14462: 14416: 14110: 14037: 13828: 13692: 13680: 13668: 12792:from the original on 15 October 2023. 11464:was indeed performed at the court of 10662:broke out, and loyalist Muslims like 10568:seven expeditions to the Indian Ocean 10118:, "Religion of the Lord of Heaven"), 9547: 9039: 8905:First introduced to China during the 8763:Unwilling-to-Leave Guanyin Temple in 7996:folk religious movements of salvation 7464:). They are religious communities of 7383:"Way of Former Heaven"), Jiugongdao ( 7350:These religions are characterized by 7227:Folk religious movements of salvation 6962:vernacular orders of ritual ministers 6823:founders of human groups and lineages 6575:folk religious movements of salvation 4761:. Christianity has been practiced in 4594:Folk religious movements of salvation 2472:out into another article titled 2152:became more common at the expense of 2100:, then Indo-Europeans (predominantly 24424: 21973: 21955: 21864: 21837: 21773: 21656:The Ghost Festival in Medieval China 20926:Lagerwey, John; Lü, Pengzhi (2009). 20763: 20698: 20406:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy 20370:, Taipei: Boyang, pp. 391–412, 20320: 20301: 20246: 20184: 20113: 19836: 19796: 18884: 18734: 18664: 18168:Chinese Buddhism: A Thematic History 17913: 17720: 17705: 17606: 17472: 17191: 17179: 16822: 16756: 16732: 16720: 16545: 16232:Writing and Authority in Early China 16153: 16129: 16117: 16105: 16090: 15888: 15810: 15581: 15488:, Mother or Venerable Mother, as in 15352: 15336: 15298:Zhao, Litao; Tan, Soon Heng (2008). 15080: 15059:. Religion and Public Life Project. 14582:. Religion and Public Life Project. 14160: 14115:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 239. 14063: 13995: 13872: 13807: 13775:. New York: Walker. pp. 25–30. 13557: 13518: 13494: 13470: 13446: 13422: 13166: 12998: 12996: 12960:Albert, Eleanor; Maizland, Lindsay. 10993:, which are known in Chinese as the 10974:temples in Guangzhou, with resident 10600:). This era, sometimes considered a 10374:Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture 9866: 9405: 9283:, "ritual masters", "priests"), the 9269:) is the indigenous religion of the 9171:Chinese non-Han minority populations 8473:Vernacular ritual mastery traditions 8394:which are not recognised as Taoist. 8119:") led by Confucian ritual masters ( 7709:), the sovereign or the government ( 7051:), the veneration of ancestors; and 5825:rite, with offerings of food, light 4866:has returned active since the 1990s. 4680:) usually positioned at the head of 4156: Not religious or other (80.3%) 2454: 2000:, and in the suburbs of the capital 90:Religion in China (studies in 2023) 24: 24050:Major Historical and Cultural Sites 21908: 21754: 21636: 21607: 21503:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 21392: 21015: 20810: 20500:. Anthropology of Asia. Routledge. 19037: 19022: 19010: 18995: 18983: 18971: 18743: 18514: 18173: 17958: 17639: 17627: 16768: 16744: 16643: 16626: 16602: 16590: 16557: 16533: 16483: 16141: 16060: 16033: 15939: 15910: 15281:Chinese Minorities' Arts Dictionary 14977: 14539: 14486: 14347: 14335: 14001: 13272:from the original on 11 August 2018 13142:"Six facts about Buddhism in China" 13097:(2nd ed.). London: Routledge. 12794: 12491:"Master of the Chariot Shaft") and 11095:, who gave rise to the Chinese god 10682:massacred the rebel Muslims led by 10654:sect, while rebels belonged to the 10261:. The most famous amongst them was 8967: 8731:as well as the male shamans called 7633:Confucianism in Chinese is called, 7629:Prayer flairs at a Confucian temple 7397:, and more recent ones such as the 5922:("Heaven" or "Sky") is the idea of 5690:Statue of Confucius at a temple in 4686:religious context of Inner Mongolia 1714:, and Islam among Hui and Uyghurs. 1622:dynasties. Fundamental elements of 298:Shrine dedicated to the worship of 13: 23188: 22426: 21996: 21516:, William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 21266:. New York, NY: Harper & Row. 21127:"The Upsurge of Religion in China" 21077: 20995:Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 20863:Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 20813:Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 20493: 20344:. Houndsmills; London: Macmillan. 19879:Lawrence, Lee (3 September 2011). 19676:"China Judaic Studies Association" 19171: 18823: 18050:Palmer, Shive & Wickeri (2011) 17850:. Translated by Kohn, Livia. 1993. 17264:. 17 December 2015. Archived from 17229: 17208:. China Policy Series. Routledge. 17012: 16879: 16362:Chai, Ch'u; Chai, Winberg (1965). 15782: 15083:"卢云峰：当代中国宗教状况报告——基于CFPS（2012）调查数据" 14745: 14310:The Cambridge Companion to Atheism 13437:, pp. xxxvii–xxxviii, Vol. I. 12749:from the original on 23 June 2023. 11620: 11354:, such as that which gave rise to 10909: 9184: 8442:(Taoists "who live at home"), are 6204:In Chinese religion, Tian is both 6141:(1130–1200) developed the idea of 3895:Religions by age group, CFPS 2012 2942:Religions in five Chinese cities, 2784:majority, and did not include the 2428:harvested the organs of Falun Gong 1871:in East Asia, local tribes shared 14: 24833: 23345:Political Consultative Conference 22359:Heterodox teachings (Chinese law) 21676:"The Spirits of Chinese Religion" 19712:. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher. 19602:A History of Chinese Civilization 19462: 19321:(46). Winter 2012. Archived from 18631:Ma, Xisha; Meng, Huiying (2011). 18234:. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 2. 18205:White, David Gordon, ed. (2000). 18157:, p. 299, Wiley-Blackwell (2014). 15129: 14944:(4). SAGE Publications: 535–549. 13749:, London: Routledge, p. 48, 12993: 12769:(4). SAGE Publications: 575–592. 12719:Wenzel-Teuber, Katharina (2023). 11883:Chinese ritual mastery traditions 11361: 11320:foreign religions were suppressed 10721:. In the 1920s, the provinces of 10314:educational institutions in China 9329: 9095:Besides Tibetan Buddhism and the 8479:Chinese ritual mastery traditions 7913:(25-220 AD) Chinese stone-carved 7373:and other sects belonging to the 6866:), or simply "Chinese religion" ( 6696: 6367:"Chief Star pointing the Dipper" 6269:—when it inspires awe or wonder. 6091:), organising as the polarity of 2931:Distribution of religious beliefs 2297:were both Christians. During the 24785: 24776: 24775: 24131:Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty 24126:Four Masters of the Ming dynasty 22386:Huichang Persecution of Buddhism 22215: 22103: 21812:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2012.01660.x 21681:, in Donald S. Lopez Jr. (ed.), 21513:Christianity and Chinese Culture 21104:Lü, Daji; Gong, Xuezeng (2014). 21081:卢云峰：当代中国宗教状况报告——基于CFPS（2012）调查数据 20796:. New York, NY: Pantheon Books. 20638:Confucius: The Secular as Sacred 20119: 20083:Religion in Global Civil Society 19960: 19881:"A Mysterious Stranger in China" 19872: 19855: 19830: 19726: 19667: 19638: 19619: 19569:Lipman, Jonathan Newman (1997). 19536: 19506: 19487: 19456: 19438: 19413: 19395: 19377: 19307: 19281: 19270: 19253: 19165: 19140: 19118: 19099: 19077:Kupfer, Kristin (October 2001). 18909: 18762: 18709: 18624: 18597: 18517:"The Tibetan Image of Confucius" 18508: 18483: 18458: 18264: 18238: 18223: 18198: 18160: 18017: 17992: 17964: 17866: 17840: 17557: 17478: 17451: 17223: 17197: 17149: 17100: 16796: 16762: 16681: 16501: 16355: 16285:Lagerwey & Kalinowski (2008) 16260: 16234:. SUNY Press. pp. 205–206. 16223: 15978: 15959: 15933: 15776: 15743: 15648: 15622: 15596: 15504:, the Eternal Venerable Mother. 15291: 15138: 15123: 14980:Journal of Contemporary Religion 14971: 14922: 14845: 14817:"The Global Religious Landscape" 14542:Journal of Contemporary Religion 14211:Te Winkle, Kimberley S. (2005). 13543:Lagerwey & Kalinowski (2008) 13531:Lagerwey & Kalinowski (2008) 13507:Lagerwey & Kalinowski (2008) 13483:Lagerwey & Kalinowski (2008) 13032:"The State of Religion in China" 13003:Willemyns, Alex (26 June 2024). 12634: 12577: 12442: 12400: 12275:("emperor, sovereign, august"), 12251: 12241: 12074: 12064: 11862: 11848: 11688:) were established in the area. 11548:great purge of foreign religions 11522:, they settled in the cities of 10733:, who served as generals in the 10229:flourished for centuries, until 8887:was founded in 1953. During the 7025:"transcendently immanent" source 6917:sectarian movements of salvation 6915:) have historically defined the 6381: 5980:(the "Highest Deity") or simply 4644:; these include the practice of 4634:folk religion of northeast China 4358: 4349: 4316: 4307: 4279: 4221:movement in the mainland (2011) 2714:2007: a survey conducted by the 2648:) or "Chinese ethnic religion" ( 2523:Worshipers at the Temple of the 2459: 1903:, derived respectively from the 1540:are recognized separately), and 1443: 1262:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 393:Democratic Republic of the Congo 44:to read and navigate comfortably 29: 24121:Four Paragons of the Early Tang 23318:Political parties and movements 22682:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms 22667:Northern and Southern dynasties 21412:Payette, Alex (February 2016). 21395:Historical Dictionary of Taoism 20749:. University of Chicago Press. 20431:. Leiden, South Holland: Brill. 20399:. Leiden, South Holland: Brill. 20165:, Gambier, Ohio: Kenyon College 19865:Monijiao (Manichaeism) in China 19452:. Australia. 25 September 2018. 19136:. New York, Dutton. p. 47. 18411:. Routledge. pp. 217–218. 17165:. 16 April 2015. Archived from 16807:. University of Chicago Press. 16769:Hao, Lizhou (12 January 2017). 15605:Encyclopedia of Global Religion 15132:Journal of Sino-Western Studies 14610: 14533: 14492: 14248: 14204: 14179: 14154: 14129: 14104: 14031: 13974: 13878: 13762: 13738: 13369: 13296: 13252: 13227: 13185:A Short History of Christianity 13024: 12054: 12044: 12005: 11986: 11802:Southern and Northern dynasties 11706:During Japanese rule also many 11481:Northern and Southern dynasties 11033:Prescriptions of Brahmin Rishis 10864: 10389:Singapore Management University 10204:or the Church of Almighty God ( 10014: 9606:), the gods of life and death ( 9444:") is the main religion of the 9249: 8355:, and techniques for achieving 7557: 7550:, "Plum Flowers"), a branch of 7241:Temple of the Founding Father ( 7191:According to Wu and Lansdowne: 6743:Temple of the Great Goddess in 6595:), or even "Chinese religion" ( 6402:), standing on the head of the 6275:are opposed in several ways to 5934:in Chinese common religion and 4785:ethnic minority groups in China 4447: 4438: 4429: 4420: 4408: 4386: 3889: 2976:Believe in fate and divination 2935: 2780:. The provinces surveyed had a 2576:), a rural Buddhist convent in 2475:Religious demographics of China 2450: 2240:, whose origins are based on a 2034:formulated the doctrine of the 1735: 46:. When this tag was added, its 24743:British Indian Ocean Territory 22141:Chinese salvationist religions 21838:——— (2018). 21683:Religions of China in Practice 21572:. University of Hawaii Press. 21378:. Cambridge University Press. 21287:. Cambridge University Press. 20524:. University of Hawaii Press. 20137: 20031:. University of Hawaii Press. 19291:. 3 April 2018. Archived from 19151:. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. 18634:Popular Religion and Shamanism 17823:Billioud & Thoraval (2015) 17799:Billioud & Thoraval (2015) 15863:10.20319/pijss.2016.s21.809817 14312:. Cambridge University Press. 14076:University of Washington Press 12968:. Council on Foreign Relations 12943:Religious Minorities and China 12707:"Measuring Religions in China" 12646:Turin's Museum of Oriental Art 11992: 11974: 11814: 11744:Presently, the PRC government 11165: 10831:(1917–1918), and anti-Semitic 9940: 9930: 9747: 8386: 7233:Chinese salvationist religions 6857:), "Chinese ethnic religion" ( 6573:) they generally refer to the 5670:lineage corporation, at their 4501:and other religious currents. 3033:Religions in China, CSLS 2010 2968:Buddhism or worship of Buddha 2349:Catholic Patriotic Association 1971: 1911:dynasties (1046–256 BCE). The 1670:Chinese salvationist religions 1: 22056:. Stanford University Press. 22004:Ch'en, Kenneth K. S. (1972). 21748:10.1016/S0030-4387(98)90009-6 21501:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). 21230:. Leiden; Boston, MA: Brill. 21060:Confucianism: An Introduction 20772:. Stanford University Press. 20612:(1). De Gruyter Open: 27–43. 20600:Fan, Lizhu; Chen, Na (2015). 20515:Dubois, Thomas David (2005). 20306:. Stanford University Press. 20249:Religion, State & Society 20056:Noack, Rick (14 April 2015). 19065:Goossaert & Palmer (2011) 19053:Goossaert & Palmer (2011) 18809:Goossaert & Palmer (2011) 18526:(12): 105–129. Archived from 18444:. Columbia University Press. 17976:Faism and Folk Religion: 2009 17938:Goossaert & Palmer (2011) 17393:Goossaert & Palmer (2011) 15357:. Cambridge University Press. 15241:Gao 高, Wende 文德, ed. (1995). 14447:Goossaert & Palmer (2011) 12691:"Measuring Religion in China" 12658: 12467:"Yellow God"), also known as 12389:, "Different Meanings in the 11920:Northeast China folk religion 11806:On the Extinction of the Soul 10424:2018 Holy See-China Agreement 10387:According to a report by the 9385:means "truth" and "reality". 8885:Buddhist Association of China 8251:orders of philosophy and rite 7486:) and the Elders' Societies ( 7250:) of the principal holy see ( 6067:is the equivalent of Tian in 4856:Church of the Highest Supreme 4699:, especially wealth gods. In 4452:Northeast China folk religion 3660:Annual family income in yuan 3005:Are not members of religions 2507:, the goddess of the sea, in 2394:. The government founded the 2365:Buddhist Association of China 2361:Three-Self Patriotic Movement 2318:Three-Self Patriotic Movement 1650:Chinese history and mythology 23423:Ministry of National Defense 22762:Chinese Communist Revolution 22354:Freedom of religion in China 22045:New York: Basic Books, 2019. 21693:(1995). "Popular Religion". 21620:(3): 146–150. Archived from 21548:, in Dikötter, Frank (ed.), 21372:Pankenier, David W. (2013). 21260:Overmyer, Daniel L. (1986). 20841:Religion and Chinese Society 20722:Gaenssbauer, Monika (2015). 20703:, in Richey, Jeffrey (ed.), 20635:Fingarette, Herbert (1972). 20206:Billioud, Sébastien (2010). 19837:Lieu, Sammuel L. C. (1980). 19524:. Reuters. 22 September 2018 19425:Council on Foreign Relations 19389:Council on Foreign Relations 18947:Litzinger, Ralph A. (2000). 18230:Davidson, Ronald M. (2004). 17661:Yang, Fenggang (July 2007). 17439:Ambrosi, Raymond P. (2013). 15384:Journal of Chinese Religions 15300:"Religious Revival in China" 15171:Dumortier, Brigitte (2002). 13037:Council on Foreign Relations 12838:The World Religious Cultures 12763:Chinese Journal of Sociology 12663: 11403:An 8th-century Tang dynasty 10771:History of the Jews in China 10707:the country belonged equally 10701:After the fall of the Qing, 10398:Council on Foreign Relations 10285:was introduced in 1715, and 8917:Buddhism which draws on the 8767:, Zhejiang, is dedicated to 6498:"teaching") is connected to 6261:, as defined by the scholar 4906:Way of the Return to the One 4734:is the dominant religion in 3180:Religions in China, Horizon 3049:Cults of gods and ancestors 2997:Believe in celestial powers 2960:Cults of gods and ancestors 2865:as part of its study of the 2851:, and 1.6% are adherents of 2716:East China Normal University 2408:intangible cultural heritage 2353:Islamic Association of China 2345:United Front Work Department 1731:History of religion in China 7: 24086:Flowers of the Four Seasons 24071:Four Treasures of the Study 23690:Water supply and sanitation 23418:Central Military Commission 23413:Outline of military history 23163:Province-level subdivisions 22054:Buddhism in Chinese History 21674:Teiser, Stephen F. (1996), 21653:Teiser, Stephen F. (1988). 21497:Pregadio, Fabrizio (2016). 21476:Pregadio, Fabrizio (2013). 21337:. Oxford University Press. 21057:Littlejohn, Ronnie (2010). 20839:, in Lagerwey, John (ed.), 20707:, Oxford University Press, 20678:Fowler, Jeanine D. (2005). 20606:Cultural Diversity in China 20232:. Oxford University Press. 20027:Pittman, Don Alvin (2001). 19797:Lieu, Sammuel L.C. (2002). 19289:"《中国保障宗教信仰自由的政策和实践》白皮书（全文）" 19203:Ruokanen & Huang (2011) 18716:Stausberg, Michael (2010). 17873:Despeux, Catherine (2000). 15582:Deng, Claire Qiuju (2014). 15215:]. 1965. Archived from 14255:Sonia Elks (19 June 2021). 14136:Solé-Farràs, Jesús (2013). 14111:Marsh, Christopher (2011). 13745:Tarocco, Francesca (2008), 13354:, p. 137 ff, Vol. III. 13239:Central Intelligence Agency 12014:Simply "Chinese religion" ( 11940:Religion in Northeast China 11841: 11746:officially promotes atheism 11442:, "Persian teaching"; also 11180:The Awakened One of Light ( 10914: 10897:, or, in old translations, 10735:National Revolutionary Army 10615:, which occurred mostly in 10592:, martial arts' styles and 10395:Chinese". According to the 10002: 9996: 9881:, who reside in and around 9780: 9766: 9757: 9440:, "religion of the eastern 8748: 8623:Chinese shamanic traditions 8565:" and "apophatic" (i.e. of 8438: 8432: 8426: 7998:with a Confucian focus, or 7994:Other forms of revival are 7419:Republic of China (1912–49) 6965:may use Confucian liturgy ( 3657:Average education in years 2088:Three Kingdoms through Tang 1559: 233:Three laughs at Tiger Brook 56:content into sub-articles, 10: 24838: 23359:Primary stage of socialism 23301:National People's Congress 22769:People's Republic of China 21840:Atlas of Religion in China 21479:The Encyclopedia of Taoism 21197:Nadeau, Randal L. (2012). 21008:10.1177/186810261104000201 20876:10.1177/186810261404300209 20000:Cambridge University Press 19967:Stalker, Nancy K. (2008). 19647:"Jewish Diaspora in China" 18899:10.1163/146481702793647588 18720:. Routledge. p. 162. 18469:. Routledge. p. 272. 18442:The Tibetan History Reader 18277:Journal of Dali University 17492:. Springer. pp. 2–3. 17068:(1). China Zentrum. 2014. 16661:Shahar & Weller (1996) 15396:10.1179/073776911806153907 15213:Ethnic Groups of East Asia 15077:China Family Panel Studies 14186:Koesel, Karrie J. (2014). 13891:Social History of Medicine 13461:, p. xxxviii, Vol. I. 13182:Blainey, Geoffrey (2011). 12919:(2): 26–53. Archived from 12904:Wenzel-Teuber, Katharina. 12818:China Family Panel Studies 12684:China Family Panel Studies 12583:The Silver Turtle Temple ( 12179:("incense heads"; p. 86); 11925:Religion in Inner Mongolia 11733: 11371: 11365: 11169: 10918: 10868: 10768: 10764: 10555:, in present-day Beijing. 10441: 10024: 10018: 9917: 9870: 9799: 9652:in Inner Mongolia, in the 9629: 9551: 9494: 9424:, at a Dongba temple near 9409: 9333: 9253: 9188: 9088: 9043: 9022:Chinese autonomous regions 8971: 8962:People's Republic of China 8898: 8872:, but also some among the 8752: 8727:The female shamans called 8632: 8626: 8603:and the Taoists. Like the 8476: 8399:Chinese Taoist Association 8157:Chinese Taoist Association 8150: 8144: 8090:), a Confucian academy in 7571: 7561: 7230: 6732: 5899: 5709:Chinese ancestral religion 5706: 3665:Traditional folk religion 3654:% Communist Party members 3645:% agricultural households 3176: 2937: 2895:China Family Panel Studies 2867:Global Religious Landscape 2821:Renmin University of China 2774:China Family Panel Studies 2763:Chinese ancestral religion 2400:first World Buddhist Forum 2357:Chinese Taoist Association 2343:approved a request by the 1728: 1724: 1708:ethnic minorities in China 1694:, which has a significant 1514:People's Republic of China 281:153 metres (502 ft) statue 17: 24771: 24730: 24690: 24432: 24356: 24324: 24242: 24163: 23943: 23749: 23740: 23698: 23658: 23500: 23491: 23403: 23254: 23184: 23175: 23138: 23109:UNESCO Biosphere Reserves 23064: 22998: 22907: 22845: 22817: 22808: 22737: 22615: 22563: 22523: 22447: 22438: 22374:Ghosts in Chinese culture 22369:Regional Religious System 22346: 22310: 22224: 22213: 22116: 22023:Paper, Jordan D. (1995). 21918:. London: A&C Black. 21352:Palmer, David A. (2011). 21281:Overmyer, Daniel (2003). 21203:. Malden, MA: Blackwell. 20989:Laliberté, André (2011). 20684:. Sussex Academic Press. 20261:10.1080/09637490500118570 20171:Adler, Joseph A. (2011). 20156:Adler, Joseph A. (2014), 19946:. John Wiley & Sons. 18951:. Duke University Press. 18577:Elliott, Mark C. (2001). 18549:Jackson, Anthony (1979). 18524:Revue d'Études Tibétaines 18089:Chirita, Andreea (2014). 16898:10.1163/22143955-04102008 15712: 15081:Lu 卢, Yunfeng 云峰 (2014). 14992:10.1080/13537900701331031 14554:10.1080/13537900701331031 14433: 14424: 14403: 14397: 14388: 14379: 14140:. Routledge. p. 56. 13840:(250): 25. Archived from 13213:10.1017/S0009443903000275 13065:. Routledge. p. 75. 12988:China's cultural heritage 12820:2014 survey results, see 12775:10.1177/2057150X211042687 12624: 12611: 12598: 12585: 12570: 12555: 12538: 12527: 12523:principle of the universe 12497: 12487: 12473: 12463: 12453: 12423: 12385: 12304: 12288: 12279: 12270: 12261: 12226: 12217: 12208: 12199: 12184: 12175: 12166: 12157: 12148: 12139: 12130: 12104: 12095: 12086: 12032: 12016: 11809: 11668: 11606: 11597: 11453: 11444: 11435: 11426: 11417: 11387: 11220: 11214: 11121: 11105:"Monkey King"), known as 11101: 10946: 10899: 10890: 10881: 10800: 10505: 10496: 10448:History of Islam in China 10206: 10193: 10176: 10167: 10150: 10137: 10124: 10111: 10098: 9990: 9980: 9966: 9935: 9925: 9895: 9812: 9742: 9684: 9511: 9448:. The "dongba" ("eastern 9433: 9358: 9279: 9262: 9238: 9213: 9150: 9141: 9124: 9118: 9101: 8909:and promoted by multiple 8817: 8714: 8708: 8692: 8686: 8670: 8666:Chinese "Wuism" tradition 8645: 8549: 8527: 8517: 8507: 8494: 8485: 8377: 8273: 8235: 8205: 8195: 8140: 8130: 8121: 8108: 8099: 8083: 8074: 8053: 8037: 8028: 8018: 8008: 7979: 7970: 7954: 7948: 7732: 7723: 7714: 7705: 7694: 7641: 7635: 7609: 7599: 7578:Confucian ritual religion 7543: 7533: 7523: 7507: 7498: 7488: 7482: 7476: 7470: 7457: 7448: 7439: 7385: 7379: 7343: 7330: 7321: 7312: 7303: 7273: 7252: 7243: 7083: 7071: 7059: 7047: 7035: 7019: 6989: 6976: 6967: 6956: 6908: 6899: 6890: 6881: 6868: 6859: 6850: 6606: 6597: 6588: 6579: 6566: 6557: 6494: 6484: 6448: 6438: 6418: 6408: 6398: 6389: 6380: 6369: 6365: 6337: 6316: 6306: 6293: 6284:("ghosts", or "demons"). 6280: 6250: 6234: 6225: 6194: 6163: 6154: 6148: 6111: 6081: 6057: 6045: 6034: 6023: 6008: 5997: 5985: 5976: 5965: 5953: 5944: 5918: 5885: 5829:and candles, and burning 5789: 5780: 5745: 5736: 5723: 5703:Centring and ancestrality 5655: 5514: 5428: 4923: 4910: 4673: 4664: 4650: 4574: 4563: 4554: 4537: 4454:influenced by Tungus and 3363:Religions in China, CGSS 3013:Are members of religions 2697:, conducted by professor 2650: 2641: 2628: 2619: 2569: 2179:In the 16th century, the 1839: 1788: 1777: 1754:winding around the north 1672:and local cults thrived. 24492:East Timor (Timor-Leste) 24284:Catholic Church in China 23428:People's Liberation Army 23395:One country, two systems 22118:Major religions in China 21730:Waldron, Arthur (1998). 21695:Journal of Asian Studies 21608:Shi, Yilong 石奕龍 (2008). 21430:10.1177/0009445515613867 21125:Madsen, Richard (2010). 21090:World Religious Cultures 21080: 21078:Lu, Yunfeng 卢云峰 (2014). 20887:China: A Religious State 20641:. New York, NY: Harper. 20302:Chau, Adam Yuet (2005). 20185:Bays, Daniel H. (2012). 20148:Encyclopedia of Religion 20130:. ABC-CLIO. p. 213. 20126:Zuckerman, Phil (2009). 19799:"Manicheism v. in China" 19599:Gernet, Jacques (1996). 18873:Chapter 1.3.6 "Religion" 18786: 18770: 18748:. London: Bantam Press. 18610:. Garland. p. 204. 18490:Ermakov, Dmitry (2008). 18465:Tucci, Giuseppe (2012). 18248:. 中國佛教協會. Archived from 18003:. Taylor & Francis. 17971: 17877:. In Kohn, Livia (ed.). 17256: 17158:浙江省启动民间信仰活动场所登记编号昨颁首张证书 17157: 17128:10.1177/0097700404274038 17107:Chau, Adam Yuet (2005). 16257:, p. 268, Vol. III. 15669:10.1177/0037768611421134 15629:Penny, Benjamin (2013). 15276: 15246: 15091:World Religious Cultures 14950:10.1177/0037768606070418 14793: 14775:. Leiden: Brill. p. 134. 14161:Bell, Daniel A. (2010). 14070:Santos, Gonçalo (2021). 12940:Dillon, Michael (2001). 12734:. China Zentrum: 18–44. 12618:) and a Great Temple of 11955: 11903: 11818:) to criticise ideas of 11318:. In the same years all 10929:Relief of the Hindu god 10437: 10411:as some have estimated. 10031:Catholic Church in China 9008:(1271–1368), founded by 8791:statue at the summit of 7925:that once belonged to a 7765:Spring and Autumn period 6729:Chinese popular religion 6564:) or "folk faith" (i.e. 5969:(the "Great Deity") and 4509:developed and the early 2203:Taiping Heavenly Kingdom 2055:Queen Mother of the West 2020:was understood as being 1965:Spring and Autumn Annals 1897:Jan Jakob Maria de Groot 1891:The Flemish philosopher 1834:, Han diviner's boards ( 1604:(1966–1976) against the 1598:anti-religious campaigns 378:Central African Republic 258:Temple of the Five Lords 24753:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 24116:Four Pillars of Destiny 23901:Regional discrimination 23323:Chinese Communist Party 22380:Three Persian religions 22287:Mongolian folk religion 21637:Tay, Wei Leong (2010). 21393:Pas, Julian F. (1998). 21284:Religion in China Today 20884:Lagerwey, John (2010). 20699:Fung, Yiu-ming (2008), 20289:(108). Victor H. Mair. 20276:Chang, Ruth H. (2000). 19886:The Wall Street Journal 19421:"Christianity in China" 19385:"Christianity in China" 18665:Tapp, Nicholas (1989). 18024:Coakley, Sarah (2000). 17609:, p. 105, note 45. 17564:Thoraval, Joël (2016). 16803:Bonnefoy, Yves (1993). 16180:, p. 84, note 282. 15922:(8): 29. Archived from 15355:Religion in China Today 14451:lay salvationist groups 14224:(149). Victor H. Mair. 13829:Liang, Yongjia (2016). 13769:Preston, Diana (2000). 13169:, pp. 7–15, 18–21. 12203:(possessed by gods) or 11981:attributed only to the 11750:antireligious campaigns 11235:Emperor Gaozong of Tang 11119:("Yoga" is rendered as 10978:, and Hindu temples in 10933:shown at the museum of 10660:Dungan Revolt (1895–96) 10658:sect. In 1895, another 10577:The Hundred-word Eulogy 10257:arrived in Beijing via 10189:Church of the Disciples 10043:A Protestant church in 10035:Chinese Orthodox Church 9668:A woman worships at an 9658:Mongolian folk religion 9626:Mongolian folk religion 9573:, who may be defined a 9294:What distinguishes the 9287:(male shamans) and the 9085:Other forms of Buddhism 8880:follow such tradition. 8407:folk sects of salvation 7665:, a philosopher of the 4443:Mongolian folk religion 4374:Geographic distribution 4267: Don't know (9.4%) 3021:Are convinced atheists 2607:priests of the religion 2422:archaeological site in 2277:Anti-Christian Movement 2228:20th century to present 2129:traditions, leading to 2070:Yellow Turban Rebellion 2022:conceived by the virgin 1867:Prior to the spread of 1781:(ritual cauldron) with 1590:Chinese Communist Party 1546:Chinese Communist Party 24817:Religious demographics 23869:Science and technology 23542:Special economic zones 22794:persecution of Uyghurs 22722:Century of humiliation 22136:Folk ritual ministries 21990:(226). Victor H. Mair. 21969:(167). Victor H. Mair. 21759:. Ashgate Publishing. 21445:Payette, Alex (2014). 21334:Chinese Religious Life 21176:Miller, James (2006). 21042:. Peeters Publishers. 21022:Asian Folklore Studies 20857:Kraef, Olivia (2014). 20471:(192). Victor H. Mair. 20404:Craig, Edward (1998), 20384:Clart, Philip (2003). 20359:Clart, Philip (2014), 20128:Atheism and Secularity 19266:. Pew Research Center. 19147:Austin, Alvyn (2007). 18671:Asian Folklore Studies 18494:. Vajra Publications. 18290:Yang & Lang (2012) 18166:Chün-fang Yü (2020). 18121:Kun, Shi (1993–2007). 17733:Fan & Chen (2015a) 16923:Shen & Shun (2007) 16880:Wu, Nengchang (2014). 15209:Narody Vostochnoi Asii 13364:Yang & Lang (2012) 12329:centre of the universe 12188:(the same as southern 11878:Chinese lists of cults 11708:Japanese new religions 11641: 11572:merchants sailed from 11412: 11407:of who was possibly a 11396: 11324:Emperor Wuzong of Tang 11209: 11197: 11084:of southern Shaktism, 11078:, two of the eighteen 10938: 10795: 10787: 10741:were destroyed by the 10487: 10475: 10461: 10183:, "Numinous Church"), 10090: 10085:(Russian Orthodox) in 10083:Saint Sophia Cathedral 10075: 10063: 10048: 10027:Protestantism in China 9828: 9810:Silver Turtle Temple ( 9679: 9661: 9452:") are masters of the 9428: 9349: 9208: 8919:Chinese Buddhist canon 8808: 8796: 8780: 8738: 8657: 8255:School of Yin and Yang 8230: 8218: 8182: 8166: 7938: 7630: 7622: 7614: 7568:Religious Confucianism 7474:) and the Big Knives ( 7268: 7219:In December 2015, the 6798: 6783: 6767: 6752: 6721: 6629: 6238:, as explained in the 6172:), the central of the 5699: 5683: 4599:mother goddess worship 4471: 4463: 3082:Taoist folk religions 2597: 2585: 2560: 2532: 2516: 2282:Nationalist government 2245: 1864: 1797: 1763: 925:Bosnia and Herzegovina 315: 291: 268: 249: 24076:Four Great Inventions 23460:People's Armed Police 22126:Chinese folk religion 21933:Zhong, Xinzi (2014). 21866:Yang, Mayfair Mei-hui 21302:Ownby, David (2008). 21146:10.1353/jod.2010.0013 21016:Law, Pui-Lam (2005). 20705:Teaching Confucianism 20619:10.1515/cdc-2015-0005 20340:Ching, Julia (1993). 19465:"Expelled from China" 18916:Alberts, Eli (2006). 18860:. Walter de Gruyter. 18553:. Walter de Gruyter. 18533:on 13 September 2017. 18515:Lin, Shen-yu (2005). 18143:on 26 September 2017. 18026:Religion and the Body 17972:法教與民俗信仰學術研討會論文集: 2009 17787:Fan & Chen (2015) 17772:Fan & Chen (2015) 17679:10.1353/asp.2007.0012 16991:Fan & Chen (2013) 16969:Fan & Chen (2013) 16950:Fan & Chen (2013) 15911:Min, Junqing (2013). 15889:Yang, Zongde (2010). 15825:on 25 September 2015. 15811:Wang, Xiuhua (2015). 15707:Zheng, VWT; Wan, PS. 15693:(2011): Chapter 18 – 15607:. SAGE Publications. 14769:Fan & Chen (2013) 14658:Fan & Chen (2013) 14499:White, Chris (2017). 13726:Fan & Chen (2013) 12984:Chinese folk religion 12605:), a Great Temple of 11930:Religion in Hong Kong 11748:, and has engaged in 11628: 11402: 11381: 11372:Further information: 11203: 11179: 10928: 10871:Baháʼí Faith in China 10793: 10778: 10481: 10467: 10455: 10242:, especially through 10081: 10070:The Lord's Prayer in 10069: 10054: 10042: 10025:Further information: 10021:Christianity in China 9809: 9667: 9639: 9419: 9390:Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche 9369:was the title of the 9343: 9198: 8986:(which included many 8934:Flower Ornament Sutra 8802: 8786: 8762: 8725: 8642: 8633:Further information: 8224: 8199:"Highest Deity") and 8188: 8172: 8164: 7909: 7867:Chinese folk religion 7628: 7620: 7593:, Guangxi. This is a 7585: 7240: 6888:) and "Shenxianism" ( 6789: 6778:, the god of war, in 6773: 6758: 6742: 6735:Chinese folk religion 6704: 6624: 6604:) and "Shenxianism" ( 6526:pointed out that the 6432:. The combination of 6127:New Text Confucianism 5900:Further information: 5809:Double Ninth Festival 5689: 5660:Zhāng Huī gōng dàdiàn 5652: 4843:Religions by province 4697:Tibetan folk religion 4469: 4391:Chinese folk religion 4381: 3642:Average age in years 3428:Folk religious sects 2626:) or "folk beliefs" ( 2591: 2567:Incense Snow Temple ( 2566: 2538: 2522: 2502: 2369:Reform and Opening Up 2235: 2181:Jesuit China missions 1803: 1769: 1743: 1612:Chinese folk religion 1507:Chinese folk religion 1252:Saint Kitts and Nevis 538:São Tomé and Príncipe 398:Republic of the Congo 297: 274: 255: 230: 175:Chinese folk religion 24667:United Arab Emirates 24055:World Heritage Sites 23583:Foreign aid received 23291:Environmental policy 23089:Environmental policy 23084:Environmental issues 21987:Sino-Platonic Papers 21966:Sino-Platonic Papers 21858:10.1163/j.ctv29sfv39 21755:Xie, Zhibin (2006). 21134:Journal of Democracy 21107:Marxism and Religion 20468:Sino-Platonic Papers 20286:Sino-Platonic Papers 19809:on 17 November 2017. 19803:Encyclopædia Iranica 19409:. 15 September 2020. 19325:on 26 December 2016. 18182:Cook, Sarah (2017). 16710:on 30 December 2017. 16443:Lü & Gong (2014) 16419:Lü & Gong (2014) 16370:. University Books. 16350:Lü & Gong (2014) 16321:Lü & Gong (2014) 16309:Lü & Gong (2014) 16297:Lü & Gong (2014) 16230:Lewis, Mark (1999). 16144:, pp. 114, 177. 15940:Lai, Hongyi (2016). 15718:Modern China Studies 15273:"Religions in China" 15243:"Religions in China" 15205:"Religions in China" 15173:"Religions en Chine" 14833:on 24 September 2015 14757:Yang & Hu (2012) 14221:Sino-Platonic Papers 13305:China: A New History 13235:"The World Factbook" 12359:("Jade Deity"), and 12347:("Great Deity") and 12297:, interpreter") and 11915:East Asian religions 11520:Islamisation of Iran 11017:(581–618) and later 10490:The introduction of 9920:Zhuang folk religion 9914:Zhuang folk religion 9778:. Sacrifices to the 9602:), the Thunder God ( 9497:Manchu folk religion 9491:Manchu folk religion 9377:of the Nakhi or the 9175:indigenous religions 9157:; which may include 9057:region of China, by 8895:Han Chinese Buddhism 8420:, and therefore the 7613:), "God of Culture". 7347:), "evil religion". 7094:In Chinese religion 6906:) or "folk belief" ( 5715:Abrahamic traditions 4833:Zhuang folk religion 4684:. Otherwise, in the 4219:cultural nationalist 3633:Religious community 2724:University of Oxford 2416:ancient state of Shu 2273:New Culture Movement 2262:retaliatory invasion 1913:Shang state religion 1907:(1600–1046 BCE) and 1489:is diverse and most 865:United Arab Emirates 289:Lushan County, Henan 277:Spring Temple Buddha 24694:limited recognition 24301:History of religion 24296:Freedom of religion 24151:Four Pests campaign 24096:Four Classic Novels 23708:Automotive industry 23588:Foreign aid program 23279:Pro-democratisation 22774:Cultural Revolution 22364:Irreligion in China 22292:Qiang folk religion 22131:Ancestor veneration 21956:Zhou, Jixu (2005). 21614:中南民族大学学报 – 人文社会科学版 21219:Overmyer, Daniel L. 21092:(1). Archived from 20833:Keightley, David N. 20657:Feuchtwang, Stephan 20587:. Oxford Academic. 20433:6 volumes. Online: 20321:Chen, Yong (2012). 20063:The Washington Post 19778:, pp. 172–174. 19745:on 14 January 2018. 19550:. 22 September 2018 19095:on 12 October 2013. 19025:, pp. 116–117. 18372:, pp. 158–159. 18309:, pp. 146–147. 18292:, pp. 181–194. 18100:(1). Archived from 17825:, pp. 152–156. 17747:, pp. 203–214. 17572:on 16 January 2018. 16925:, pp. 278–279. 16793:, pp. 200–201. 16777:on 16 January 2018. 16735:, pp. 226–230. 16678:, pp. 393–409. 16629:, pp. 114–116. 16572:, pp. 394–395. 16156:, pp. 152–153. 16132:, pp. 144–153. 15900:(2). Archived from 15695:Religion and Custom 15691:Hong Kong Year Book 15592:on 16 January 2018. 15222:Zhongguo Minsu Dili 15093:(1). Archived from 15061:Pew Research Center 14824:Pew Research Center 14584:Pew Research Center 14465:, pp. 402–406. 14047:Bloomsbury Academic 13998:, pp. 159–166. 13903:10.1093/shm/hkab035 13875:, pp. 107–113. 13847:on 23 October 2017. 13201:The China Quarterly 13148:. 21 September 2023 13146:Pew Research Center 12962:"Religion in China" 12477:"Yellow God of the 12353:("Highest Deity"), 11836:Emperor Wu of Liang 11736:Irreligion in China 11565:until those years. 11499:An Lushan Rebellion 11411:Zoroastrian priest. 11291:An Lushan Rebellion 11172:Chinese Manichaeism 11112:Journey to the West 10518:Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas 10328:(1912–49), such as 10287:Protestant missions 10133:Orthodox Christians 10010:Abrahamic religions 9802:Qiang folk religion 9796:Qiang folk religion 9632:Mongolian shamanism 9505:, the major of the 9179:government of China 9077:were introduced to 9012:, who ruled China, 8889:Cultural Revolution 8257:and the thought of 8070:Church of Confucius 8047:Also the Hong Kong 7667:May Fourth Movement 7587:Temple of Confucius 5951:) or Jade Emperor ( 5930:manifesting as the 5850:of the founders of 4940: 4860:benevolent churches 4825:Qiang folk religion 3896: 3629: 3364: 3181: 3071:Buddhist initiates 3034: 2952:Religion or belief 2948: 2863:Pew Research Center 2657:), or other names. 2396:Confucius Institute 2373:heterodox teachings 2322:Cultural Revolution 2312:viewed religion as 2236:Venerated image of 2218:Western colonialism 2212:As a reaction, the 2207:Yangtze River Delta 2175:Early modern period 2040:, and of prominent 1684:Jesuit missionaries 1602:Cultural Revolution 1450:Religion portal 1267:Trinidad and Tobago 1157:Antigua and Barbuda 322:Religion by country 159:Religion in China ( 48:readable prose size 24208:Population history 24188:Internal migration 23803:Harmonious Society 23678:Telecommunications 23635:Standard of living 23554:Online advertising 23306:Standing Committee 22277:Miao folk religion 22173:Theravada Buddhism 21691:Teiser, Stephen F. 21499:"Religious Daoism" 21463:on 23 October 2017 21323:10.4000/assr.17633 20764:Jing, Jun (1996). 20728:. Projekt Verlag. 20541:on 10 January 2017 20494:Do, Thien (2003). 19673:Official website: 19500:The New York Times 19349:. Palgrave Pivot. 19172:Wu, Yulin (1995). 18798:on 12 August 2017. 18744:Man, John (2004). 18467:Religions of Tibet 18252:on 4 November 2020 18207:Tantra in Practice 18190:2021-08-08 at the 17462:. Sage Publishing. 17447:on 4 January 2015. 17037:Gaenssbauer (2015) 16004:10.3130/jaabe.15.9 15764:on 19 January 2021 15312:on 1 January 2018. 14967:on 1 January 2018. 14914:10.3390/rel8110244 14865:on 12 August 2012. 13265:The Times of India 12709:. 30 August 2023. 12234:with roots in the 11945:Religion in Taiwan 11757:Mark Juergensmeyer 11642: 11413: 11397: 11332:peasant rebellions 11260:, rediscovered at 11210: 11198: 11184:) carved from the 11076:Pashupata Shaivism 10939: 10796: 10788: 10537:Guangzhou massacre 10488: 10476: 10462: 10334:Russian population 10091: 10076: 10064: 10049: 9829: 9730:, and the cult of 9680: 9662: 9612:Nyuj Vaj Tuam Teem 9554:Miao folk religion 9548:Miao folk religion 9468:religion ("Ba" in 9429: 9350: 9291:(female shamans). 9209: 9040:Theravada Buddhism 8809: 8797: 8781: 8658: 8635:Shamanism in China 8451:White Cloud Temple 8293:also romanised as 8279:Kristofer Schipper 8244:also romanised as 8231: 8219: 8183: 8167: 8012:) of Beijing, the 8002:, for example the 8000:Confucian churches 7939: 7678:Herbert Fingarette 7631: 7623: 7615: 7574:Confucian churches 7269: 7140:and the school of 7027:of moral meaning; 6944:Kristofer Schipper 6919:and not the local 6807:gods and immortals 6799: 6784: 6768: 6753: 6722: 6630: 5924:absolute principle 5732:Stephan Feuchtwang 5700: 5684: 4938: 4821:Miao folk religion 4660:zoomorphic deities 4603:Confucian churches 4472: 4464: 3894: 3857:All non-religious 3648:% ethnic minority 3623: 3362: 3345:Refused to answer 3179: 3032: 2940: 2786:autonomous regions 2778:provinces of China 2663:Max Planck Society 2598: 2586: 2561: 2533: 2517: 2443:, and promote the 2441:Xi Jinping Thought 2434:Muslims. In 2012, 2392:Harmonious Society 2293:and his successor 2246: 1865: 1855:, and the derived 1804:Tibetan chart for 1798: 1796:, with four faces. 1764: 1719:John King Fairbank 1642:gods and immortals 1592:(CCP), officially 1576:, constitute the " 1572:, later joined by 1552:, and promote the 1550:Xi Jinping Thought 1197:Dominican Republic 316: 292: 269: 250: 20:Religion in Taiwan 24822:Politics of China 24812:Religion in China 24799: 24798: 24736:other territories 24426:Religion in Asia 24392: 24391: 24352: 24351: 24159: 24158: 23736: 23735: 23723:Shipping industry 23487: 23486: 23453:Strategic Support 23328:General Secretary 23313:National security 23296:Foreign relations 23250: 23249: 23171: 23170: 23134: 23133: 22837:Natural disasters 22804: 22803: 22757:Chinese Civil War 22752:Republic of China 22727:Taiping Rebellion 22600:Spring and Autumn 22505:Foreign relations 22394: 22393: 22302:Yao folk religion 22110:Religion in China 22050:Wright, Arthur F. 21925:978-1-84706-475-2 21886:978-1-85168-550-9 21849:978-90-04-35885-0 21842:. Boston: Brill. 21830:978-90-04-18246-2 21766:978-0-7546-5648-7 21624:on 31 August 2019 21600:978-1-56518-245-5 21523:978-0-8028-6556-4 21489:978-1-135-79634-1 21385:978-1-107-00672-0 21344:978-0-19-973138-1 21273:978-1-4786-0989-6 21237:978-90-474-2936-4 21210:978-1-4443-6143-8 21117:978-90-474-2802-2 21099:on 9 August 2014. 21070:978-1-84885-174-0 21049:978-90-429-1812-2 21034:Libbrecht, Ulrich 20981:978-90-04-30464-2 20960:978-90-04-27164-7 20939:978-90-474-2929-6 20918:978-90-04-16835-0 20897:978-988-8028-04-7 20803:978-1-101-87005-1 20756:978-0-226-30416-8 20735:978-0-226-30416-8 20714:978-0-19-804256-3 20670:978-1-317-43960-8 20648:978-1-4786-0866-0 20567:978-90-04-16835-0 20415:978-0-415-07310-3 20377:978-0-19-959653-9 20351:978-0-333-53174-7 20342:Chinese Religions 20332:978-90-04-24373-6 20313:978-0-8047-5160-5 20239:978-0-19-025814-6 20198:978-1-4051-5954-8 20038:978-0-8248-2231-6 20009:978-1-139-49241-6 19980:978-0-8248-3226-1 19953:978-1-118-78627-7 19862:Char Yar (2012). 19764:on 8 August 2014. 19248:Feuchtwang (2016) 19158:978-0-8028-2975-7 18922:. Cambria Press. 18824:Li, Xing (2006). 18755:978-0-553-81498-9 18727:978-0-415-54932-5 18644:978-90-04-17455-9 18501:978-9937-506-11-3 18476:978-1-136-17952-5 18451:978-0-231-51354-8 18418:978-1-136-87597-7 18010:978-0-415-77716-2 17985:978-957-668-945-1 17881:. Leiden: Brill. 17875:"Women in Daoism" 17583:Fingarette (1972) 17554:, pp. 34–36. 17552:Littlejohn (2010) 17513:Fingarette (1972) 17499:978-3-662-47750-2 17407:, pp. 12–13. 17296:, pp. 19–20. 17268:on 27 April 2017. 17262:minjiansimiao.com 17241:978-0-415-45858-0 17230:Lu, Yiyi (2008). 17215:978-0-415-48226-4 17169:on 27 April 2017. 17145:on 8 August 2017. 17097:, pp. 80–81. 17083:on 27 April 2017. 17039:, pp. 28–37. 17027:, pp. 62–64. 17015:, pp. 10–11. 16913:, pp. 35–37. 16911:Littlejohn (2010) 16851:978-1-03-239508-1 16805:Asian Mythologies 16617:, pp. 18–19. 16548:, pp. 14–15. 16519:978-90-04-27164-7 16496:Feuchtwang (2016) 16474:, pp. 31–32. 16407:Feuchtwang (2016) 16338:Feuchtwang (2016) 16168:, pp. 76–77. 16076:Feuchtwang (2016) 16063:, pp. 10–11. 15951:978-1-317-85952-9 15907:on 27 April 2017. 15640:978-1-136-11394-9 15614:978-1-4522-6656-5 15287:on 27 April 2017. 15257:on 27 April 2017. 15219:on 27 April 2017. 15193:on 27 April 2017. 15100:on 9 August 2014. 15045:on 27 April 2017. 14717:on 27 April 2017. 14647:on 27 April 2017. 14512:MMG Working Paper 14243:Feuchtwang (2016) 14197:978-1-139-86779-5 14172:978-0-691-14585-3 14147:978-1-134-73915-8 14122:978-1-4411-1247-7 14101:, pp. 79–84. 14085:978-0-295-74738-5 14056:978-1-350-26724-4 14024:978-1-4878-0392-6 13810:, pp. 84–87. 13756:978-0-415-59617-6 13709:Feuchtwang (2016) 13671:, pp. 40–41. 13632:, pp. 11–15. 13572:, pp. 22–28. 13291:Feuchtwang (2016) 13104:978-0-415-45890-0 13072:978-1-317-81500-6 11950:Religion in Tibet 11935:Religion in Macau 11820:body-soul dualism 11804:, Fan Zhen wrote 11773:Classic of Poetry 11710:, or independent 11593:Classical Chinese 11479:dynasties of the 11466:Emperor Wu of Han 11208:(modern replica). 10921:Hinduism in China 10609:Panthay Rebellion 10533:Yangzhou massacre 10516:'s death, led by 10456:Laohua Mosque in 10302:Taiping Rebellion 10283:Russian Orthodoxy 10202:Eastern Lightning 10107:Roman Catholicism 10072:Classical Chinese 9934:) or Shigongism ( 9873:Yao folk religion 9867:Yao folk religion 9618:) and Lord Moon ( 9406:Dongbaism (Nakhi) 9356:: བོན་; Chinese: 9244:deified ancestors 9059:ethnic minorities 8994:practices of the 8940:Vimalakirtī Sutra 8755:Buddhism in China 8629:Chinese shamanism 8567:negative theology 8559:positive theology 8392:vernacular orders 8049:Confucian Academy 8024:Confucian Shenism 7989:ancestral temples 7929:dedicated to the 7002:Chinese shamanism 6838:Chinese mythology 6803:chuantong xinyang 6528:First Commandment 6430:Classical Chinese 6426: 6425: 6376: 6137:thinkers such as 5842:ancestral shrines 5838:Confucian temples 5805:Qingming Festival 5662:), the cathedral 5642: 5641: 4829:Yao folk religion 4755:Taiping Rebellion 4703:, across broader 4642:Manchu shamanisms 4617:and contemporary 4588:Chinese mythology 4543:North China Plain 4517:and unrecognized 4511:Celestial Masters 4462: 4445: 4436: 4427: 4418: 4406: 4384: 4275: 4274: 4139: 4138: 4095: 4088: 4081: 4074: 4067: 4060: 4050: 4043: 4036: 4029: 4022: 4015: 3925: 3920: 3915: 3910: 3905: 3888: 3887: 3621: 3620: 3617: 3616: 3573: 3566: 3559: 3552: 3545: 3538: 3528: 3521: 3514: 3507: 3500: 3493: 3358: 3357: 3312: 3305: 3298: 3291: 3281: 3274: 3267: 3260: 3173: 3172: 3158: 3151: 3144: 3134: 3127: 3120: 3028: 3027: 2884:ethnic minorities 2767:formal initiation 2759:Purdue University 2728:Peking University 2492: 2491: 2487: 2286:Republic of China 2269:Xinhai Revolution 2250:Tibetan Buddhists 2242:Marian apparition 2238:Our Lady of China 2199:Taiping Rebellion 2082:Celestial Masters 2032:Emperor Wu of Han 2006:five forms of God 1924:Mandate of Heaven 1586:Mandate of Heaven 1582:emperors of China 1516:is officially an 1487:Religion in China 1484: 1483: 413:Equatorial Guinea 248:laughing together 83: 82: 50:was 19,000 words. 24829: 24789: 24779: 24778: 24748:Christmas Island 24434:Sovereign states 24419: 24412: 24405: 24396: 24395: 24372: 24365: 24262:Tibetan Buddhism 24257:Chinese Buddhism 24111:Four Holy Beasts 24061: 24060: 23913:Social relations 23842:Standard Chinese 23837:Chinese language 23747: 23746: 23532:Economic history 23498: 23497: 23477:Maritime Militia 23186: 23185: 23182: 23181: 23153:Border crossings 23148:Baseline islands 22843: 22842: 22815: 22814: 22779:Tiananmen Square 22662:Sixteen Kingdoms 22470:Military history 22445: 22444: 22421: 22414: 22407: 22398: 22397: 22267:Manchu shamanism 22219: 22168:Tibetan Buddhism 22163:Chinese Buddhism 22108: 22107: 22096: 22089: 22082: 22073: 22072: 22067: 22038: 22019: 21991: 21983: 21970: 21962: 21952: 21950: 21948: 21929: 21905: 21903: 21901: 21895: 21889:. Archived from 21874: 21861: 21834: 21815: 21794: 21770: 21751: 21726: 21686: 21680: 21670: 21649: 21643: 21633: 21631: 21629: 21604: 21583: 21562: 21537: 21526: 21506: 21493: 21472: 21470: 21468: 21462: 21456:. Archived from 21451: 21441: 21408: 21389: 21368: 21358: 21348: 21327: 21325: 21298: 21277: 21256: 21254: 21252: 21246: 21240:. Archived from 21229: 21214: 21193: 21172: 21170: 21168: 21162: 21156:. Archived from 21131: 21121: 21100: 21098: 21087: 21074: 21063:. I. B. Tauris. 21053: 21029: 21012: 21010: 20985: 20964: 20943: 20922: 20901: 20880: 20878: 20853: 20828: 20807: 20783: 20771: 20760: 20739: 20717: 20695: 20673: 20652: 20631: 20621: 20596: 20579: 20570: 20550: 20548: 20546: 20540: 20534:. Archived from 20523: 20511: 20472: 20432: 20423:De Groot, J.J.M. 20418: 20400: 20390: 20380: 20365: 20355: 20336: 20317: 20298: 20282: 20272: 20243: 20222: 20212: 20202: 20181: 20179: 20166: 20164: 20152: 20132: 20131: 20123: 20117: 20111: 20105: 20104: 20078: 20072: 20071: 20053: 20047: 20046: 20024: 20018: 20017: 19991: 19985: 19984: 19964: 19958: 19957: 19937: 19906: 19900: 19891: 19890: 19876: 19870: 19869: 19859: 19853: 19852: 19834: 19828: 19822: 19811: 19810: 19805:. Archived from 19794: 19779: 19773: 19767: 19765: 19753: 19747: 19746: 19741:. Archived from 19730: 19724: 19723: 19705: 19680: 19679: 19671: 19665: 19664: 19642: 19636: 19635: 19623: 19617: 19616: 19596: 19585: 19584: 19566: 19560: 19559: 19557: 19555: 19540: 19534: 19533: 19531: 19529: 19510: 19504: 19503: 19491: 19485: 19484: 19482: 19480: 19471:. Archived from 19460: 19454: 19453: 19442: 19436: 19435: 19433: 19431: 19417: 19411: 19410: 19399: 19393: 19392: 19381: 19375: 19374: 19367: 19361: 19360: 19340: 19327: 19326: 19311: 19305: 19304: 19302: 19300: 19285: 19279: 19274: 19268: 19267: 19265: 19257: 19251: 19245: 19239: 19236: 19230: 19224: 19218: 19212: 19206: 19200: 19194: 19193: 19180:World Scientific 19169: 19163: 19162: 19144: 19138: 19137: 19135: 19122: 19116: 19115: 19103: 19097: 19096: 19094: 19083: 19074: 19068: 19062: 19056: 19050: 19041: 19035: 19026: 19020: 19014: 19008: 18999: 18993: 18987: 18981: 18975: 18969: 18963: 18962: 18944: 18935: 18933: 18913: 18907: 18902: 18882: 18876: 18871: 18853: 18840: 18839: 18821: 18812: 18806: 18800: 18799: 18794:. Archived from 18783: 18782:on 24 July 2013. 18778:. Archived from 18766: 18760: 18759: 18741: 18732: 18731: 18713: 18707: 18706: 18704: 18702: 18693:. Archived from 18667:"Hmong Religion" 18662: 18649: 18648: 18628: 18622: 18621: 18601: 18595: 18594: 18574: 18565: 18564: 18546: 18535: 18534: 18532: 18521: 18512: 18506: 18505: 18487: 18481: 18480: 18462: 18456: 18455: 18434: 18423: 18422: 18401: 18388: 18382: 18373: 18367: 18361: 18355: 18349: 18343: 18337: 18331: 18325: 18319: 18310: 18304: 18293: 18287: 18281: 18280: 18268: 18262: 18261: 18259: 18257: 18242: 18236: 18235: 18227: 18221: 18220: 18202: 18196: 18180: 18171: 18164: 18158: 18151: 18145: 18144: 18142: 18127: 18118: 18109: 18108: 18107:on 30 June 2017. 18106: 18095: 18086: 18065: 18059: 18053: 18047: 18041: 18039: 18021: 18015: 18014: 17996: 17990: 17989: 17968: 17962: 17956: 17941: 17935: 17929: 17923: 17917: 17911: 17894: 17892: 17870: 17864: 17858: 17852: 17851: 17844: 17838: 17832: 17826: 17820: 17814: 17808: 17802: 17796: 17790: 17784: 17775: 17769: 17760: 17754: 17748: 17742: 17736: 17730: 17724: 17718: 17709: 17703: 17692: 17690: 17658: 17643: 17637: 17631: 17625: 17610: 17604: 17598: 17592: 17586: 17580: 17574: 17573: 17561: 17555: 17549: 17543: 17537: 17531: 17525: 17516: 17510: 17504: 17503: 17482: 17476: 17470: 17464: 17463: 17455: 17449: 17448: 17436: 17425: 17419: 17408: 17402: 17396: 17390: 17381: 17375: 17369: 17363: 17357: 17351: 17345: 17339: 17333: 17327: 17321: 17315: 17309: 17303: 17297: 17291: 17285: 17279: 17270: 17269: 17252: 17246: 17245: 17227: 17221: 17219: 17201: 17195: 17189: 17183: 17177: 17171: 17170: 17153: 17147: 17146: 17144: 17138:. Archived from 17113: 17104: 17098: 17092: 17086: 17084: 17082: 17076:. Archived from 17059: 17051: 17040: 17034: 17028: 17022: 17016: 17010: 17001: 17000: 16988: 16979: 16978: 16966: 16960: 16959: 16947: 16941: 16935: 16926: 16920: 16914: 16908: 16902: 16901: 16877: 16868: 16862: 16856: 16855: 16833: 16820: 16818: 16800: 16794: 16788: 16779: 16778: 16766: 16760: 16754: 16748: 16742: 16736: 16730: 16724: 16718: 16712: 16711: 16709: 16703:. Archived from 16694: 16685: 16679: 16673: 16664: 16658: 16647: 16641: 16630: 16624: 16618: 16612: 16606: 16600: 16594: 16588: 16573: 16567: 16561: 16555: 16549: 16543: 16537: 16531: 16525: 16523: 16505: 16499: 16493: 16487: 16481: 16475: 16469: 16458: 16452: 16446: 16440: 16434: 16428: 16422: 16416: 16410: 16404: 16395: 16389: 16380: 16379: 16369: 16359: 16353: 16347: 16341: 16335: 16324: 16318: 16312: 16306: 16300: 16294: 16288: 16282: 16276: 16275: 16264: 16258: 16252: 16246: 16245: 16227: 16221: 16215: 16209: 16203: 16197: 16187: 16181: 16175: 16169: 16163: 16157: 16151: 16145: 16139: 16133: 16127: 16121: 16115: 16109: 16103: 16094: 16088: 16079: 16073: 16064: 16058: 16049: 16043: 16037: 16031: 16018: 16016: 16006: 15982: 15976: 15973: 15972:. US Government. 15971: 15963: 15957: 15955: 15937: 15931: 15930: 15929:on 24 June 2017. 15928: 15917: 15908: 15906: 15895: 15885: 15876: 15875: 15865: 15840: 15827: 15826: 15824: 15817: 15807: 15786: 15780: 15774: 15773: 15771: 15769: 15763: 15756: 15747: 15741: 15735: 15729: 15715: 15714: 15705: 15699: 15687: 15681: 15680: 15652: 15646: 15644: 15626: 15620: 15618: 15600: 15594: 15593: 15579: 15573: 15572: 15560: 15551: 15545: 15536: 15530: 15521: 15475: 15469: 15463: 15457: 15451: 15445: 15439: 15433: 15422: 15416: 15415: 15379: 15360: 15358: 15346: 15340: 15334: 15328: 15322: 15316: 15313: 15311: 15304: 15295: 15289: 15288: 15268: 15259: 15258: 15238: 15229: 15220: 15201: 15195: 15194: 15189:. Archived from 15168: 15162: 15160: 15142: 15136: 15135: 15127: 15121: 15120: 15108: 15102: 15101: 15099: 15088: 15074: 15065: 15064: 15053: 15047: 15046: 15044: 15038:. Archived from 15021: 15011: 15005: 15003: 14975: 14969: 14968: 14966: 14960:. Archived from 14935: 14926: 14920: 14918: 14916: 14892: 14883: 14880: 14867: 14866: 14864: 14857: 14849: 14843: 14842: 14840: 14838: 14832: 14821: 14813: 14807: 14806: 14805:on 4 March 2016. 14789: 14783: 14782: 14766: 14760: 14754: 14748: 14742: 14719: 14718: 14716: 14710:. Archived from 14693: 14683: 14668: 14667: 14655: 14649: 14648: 14646: 14640:. Archived from 14623: 14614: 14608: 14607: 14599: 14588: 14587: 14576: 14567: 14565: 14537: 14531: 14530: 14529:on 13 June 2018. 14528: 14522:. Archived from 14509: 14496: 14490: 14484: 14478: 14472: 14466: 14460: 14454: 14444: 14438: 14436: 14435: 14427: 14426: 14421:minjian zongjiao 14414: 14408: 14406: 14405: 14400: 14399: 14391: 14390: 14382: 14381: 14376:minjian zongjiao 14369: 14363: 14357: 14351: 14345: 14339: 14333: 14324: 14323: 14305: 14296: 14290: 14284: 14278: 14272: 14271: 14269: 14267: 14252: 14246: 14240: 14234: 14233: 14217: 14208: 14202: 14201: 14183: 14177: 14176: 14158: 14152: 14151: 14133: 14127: 14126: 14108: 14102: 14096: 14090: 14089: 14067: 14061: 14060: 14035: 14029: 14028: 14008: 13999: 13993: 13987: 13986: 13978: 13972: 13966: 13960: 13954: 13945: 13939: 13933: 13932: 13922: 13897:(4): 1068–1093. 13882: 13876: 13870: 13864: 13858: 13849: 13848: 13846: 13835: 13826: 13811: 13805: 13799: 13793: 13787: 13786: 13766: 13760: 13759: 13742: 13736: 13735: 13723: 13712: 13706: 13700: 13690: 13684: 13678: 13672: 13666: 13660: 13654: 13645: 13639: 13633: 13627: 13621: 13620:, pp. 6–10. 13615: 13609: 13603: 13597: 13591: 13585: 13579: 13573: 13567: 13561: 13555: 13546: 13540: 13534: 13528: 13522: 13516: 13510: 13504: 13498: 13492: 13486: 13480: 13474: 13468: 13462: 13456: 13450: 13444: 13438: 13432: 13426: 13420: 13411: 13408:Libbrecht (2007) 13405: 13394: 13384: 13378: 13377: 13373: 13367: 13361: 13355: 13349: 13343: 13337: 13331: 13328:Pankenier (2013) 13325: 13319: 13318: 13300: 13294: 13288: 13282: 13281: 13279: 13277: 13256: 13250: 13249: 13247: 13245: 13231: 13225: 13224: 13196: 13190: 13189: 13179: 13170: 13164: 13158: 13157: 13155: 13153: 13138: 13132: 13126: 13117: 13116: 13090: 13081: 13080: 13058: 13049: 13048: 13046: 13044: 13028: 13022: 13021: 13019: 13017: 13000: 12991: 12977: 12975: 12973: 12957: 12951: 12950: 12948: 12937: 12928: 12927: 12926:on 22 July 2017. 12925: 12910: 12901: 12880: 12878: 12872: 12864: 12862: 12860: 12855:on 9 August 2014 12854: 12848:. Archived from 12847: 12814: 12803: 12800: 12793: 12791: 12760: 12750: 12748: 12725: 12714: 12704: 12702: 12695: 12680: 12653: 12638: 12632: 12629:Lǐyuánhào dàdiàn 12627: 12626: 12614: 12613: 12601: 12600: 12588: 12587: 12581: 12575: 12573: 12572: 12558: 12557: 12541: 12540: 12530: 12529: 12500: 12499: 12490: 12489: 12476: 12475: 12469:Huángshén Běidǒu 12466: 12465: 12456: 12455: 12446: 12440: 12432:Shangqing Taoism 12426: 12425: 12404: 12398: 12388: 12387: 12338: 12332: 12307: 12306: 12292: 12283: 12274: 12265: 12255: 12249: 12245: 12239: 12229: 12228: 12220: 12219: 12211: 12210: 12202: 12201: 12187: 12186: 12178: 12177: 12169: 12168: 12160: 12159: 12151: 12150: 12142: 12141: 12133: 12132: 12107: 12106: 12098: 12097: 12089: 12088: 12078: 12072: 12068: 12062: 12058: 12052: 12048: 12042: 12035: 12034: 12019: 12018: 12009: 12003: 11996: 11990: 11978: 11972: 11968: 11872: 11867: 11866: 11858: 11853: 11852: 11851: 11816: 11811: 11671: 11670: 11609: 11608: 11600: 11599: 11485:Sogdian language 11456: 11455: 11447: 11446: 11438: 11437: 11429: 11428: 11422:Suǒluōyàsīdéjiào 11420: 11419: 11415:Zoroastrianism ( 11390: 11389: 11283:Uyghur Khaganate 11223: 11222: 11217: 11216: 11124: 11123: 11104: 11103: 10955:Coromandel Coast 10949: 10948: 10902: 10901: 10893: 10892: 10884: 10883: 10852:Chabad-Lubavitch 10803: 10802: 10705:proclaimed that 10582:Chinese dialects 10526:Huaisheng Mosque 10508: 10507: 10499: 10498: 10486:shop in Shanghai 10482:Huxi Mosque and 10370:Koreans of China 10211:Quánnéngshénjiào 10209: 10208: 10196: 10195: 10179: 10178: 10170: 10169: 10159:Russian minority 10153: 10152: 10140: 10139: 10129:Jīdūjiào Xīnjiào 10127: 10126: 10114: 10113: 10101: 10100: 10005: 9999: 9993: 9992: 9983: 9982: 9969: 9968: 9942: 9937: 9932: 9927: 9898: 9897: 9815: 9814: 9783: 9769: 9760: 9749: 9744: 9687: 9686: 9678:, Inner Mongolia 9514: 9513: 9507:Tungusic peoples 9436: 9435: 9361: 9360: 9282: 9281: 9265: 9264: 9241: 9240: 9216: 9215: 9199:The pan-Chinese 9173:practise unique 9153: 9152: 9144: 9143: 9127: 9126: 9121: 9120: 9104: 9103: 8974:Tibetan Buddhism 8968:Tibetan Buddhism 8901:Chinese Buddhism 8836:Tibetan Buddhism 8832:Chinese Buddhism 8820: 8819: 8717: 8716: 8711: 8710: 8695: 8694: 8689: 8688: 8673: 8672: 8648: 8647: 8552: 8551: 8541:Celestial Master 8530: 8529: 8520: 8519: 8510: 8509: 8497: 8496: 8488: 8487: 8467:Celestial Master 8441: 8435: 8430:, also known as 8429: 8388: 8379: 8276: 8275: 8238: 8237: 8208: 8207: 8198: 8197: 8133: 8132: 8124: 8123: 8111: 8110: 8102: 8101: 8088:Yángmíng jīngshě 8086: 8085: 8077: 8076: 8056: 8055: 8040: 8039: 8031: 8030: 8021: 8020: 8011: 8010: 7985:lineage churches 7982: 7981: 7973: 7972: 7957: 7956: 7951: 7950: 7915:que pillar gates 7891:Confucian Church 7786:By the words of 7775:elements in the 7735: 7734: 7726: 7725: 7717: 7716: 7708: 7707: 7697: 7696: 7644: 7643: 7638: 7637: 7612: 7611: 7602: 7601: 7546: 7545: 7536: 7535: 7526: 7525: 7510: 7509: 7501: 7500: 7491: 7490: 7485: 7484: 7479: 7478: 7473: 7472: 7460: 7459: 7451: 7450: 7442: 7441: 7399:Church of Virtue 7388: 7387: 7382: 7381: 7346: 7345: 7333: 7332: 7324: 7323: 7317:mínjiān zōngjiào 7315: 7314: 7306: 7305: 7276: 7275: 7255: 7254: 7246: 7245: 7186:Yulin Prefecture 7086: 7085: 7074: 7073: 7062: 7061: 7050: 7049: 7038: 7037: 7022: 7021: 7009:theological core 6998:various currents 6992: 6991: 6979: 6978: 6970: 6969: 6959: 6958: 6911: 6910: 6904:mínjiān zōngjiào 6902: 6901: 6893: 6892: 6884: 6883: 6871: 6870: 6862: 6861: 6853: 6852: 6842:kins or lineages 6834:Chinese classics 6718:Xuanyuan Huangdi 6609: 6608: 6600: 6599: 6591: 6590: 6582: 6581: 6569: 6568: 6562:mínjiān zōngjiào 6560: 6559: 6516:ancestral temple 6497: 6496: 6487: 6486: 6451: 6450: 6441: 6440: 6421: 6420: 6411: 6410: 6401: 6400: 6385: 6374:Kuíxīng diǎn Dòu 6372: 6371: 6366: 6363: 6362: 6340: 6339: 6335:are all made of 6319: 6318: 6309: 6308: 6296: 6295: 6283: 6282: 6253: 6252: 6237: 6236: 6228: 6227: 6197: 6196: 6166: 6165: 6157: 6156: 6151: 6150: 6114: 6113: 6084: 6083: 6060: 6059: 6048: 6047: 6037: 6036: 6026: 6025: 6011: 6010: 6000: 5999: 5988: 5987: 5979: 5978: 5968: 5967: 5956: 5955: 5947: 5946: 5921: 5920: 5888: 5887: 5815:, funerals, and 5792: 5791: 5783: 5782: 5776:ancestor worship 5748: 5747: 5739: 5738: 5726: 5725: 5664:ancestral shrine 5658: 5657: 4941: 4937: 4926: 4925: 4913: 4912: 4732:Tibetan Buddhism 4676: 4675: 4667: 4666: 4653: 4652: 4577: 4576: 4566: 4565: 4557: 4556: 4547:tutelary deities 4540: 4539: 4456:Manchu shamanism 4450: 4449: 4441: 4440: 4432: 4431: 4423: 4422: 4411: 4410: 4403:Chinese Buddhism 4401:, and groups of 4389: 4388: 4382: 4365: 4362: 4356: 4353: 4347: 4320: 4314: 4311: 4305: 4283: 4266: 4256: 4246: 4236: 4226: 4201: 4191: 4181: 4171: 4161: 4155: 4091: 4084: 4077: 4070: 4063: 4056: 4046: 4039: 4032: 4025: 4018: 4011: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3897: 3893: 3890: 3636:% of population 3630: 3622: 3569: 3562: 3555: 3548: 3541: 3534: 3524: 3517: 3510: 3503: 3496: 3489: 3365: 3361: 3308: 3301: 3294: 3287: 3277: 3270: 3263: 3256: 3182: 3178: 3154: 3147: 3140: 3130: 3123: 3116: 3035: 3031: 2949: 2947: 2939: 2936: 2925: 2918: 2911: 2653: 2652: 2644: 2643: 2631: 2630: 2624:mínjiān zōngjiào 2622: 2621: 2572: 2571: 2483: 2463: 2462: 2455: 2326:New Confucianism 2131:Shangqing Taoism 1976:The short-lived 1901:Chinese theology 1893:Ulrich Libbrecht 1886:Hongshan culture 1842: 1841: 1791: 1790: 1780: 1779: 1712:Tibetan Buddhism 1624:Chinese theology 1476: 1469: 1462: 1448: 1447: 1332:Papua New Guinea 1307:Marshall Islands 1125:Northern Ireland 318: 317: 285:Vairocana Buddha 216: 206: 192: 182: 168: 145: 135: 125: 115: 105: 95: 78: 75: 69: 33: 32: 25: 24837: 24836: 24832: 24831: 24830: 24828: 24827: 24826: 24802: 24801: 24800: 24795: 24767: 24735: 24726: 24707:Northern Cyprus 24693: 24686: 24428: 24423: 24393: 24388: 24375: 24368: 24361: 24348: 24320: 24238: 24198:Life expectancy 24155: 24059: 23939: 23859:Public holidays 23847:Written Chinese 23832:Intellectualism 23784:Sex trafficking 23732: 23694: 23654: 23483: 23399: 23246: 23237:Nationality law 23220:Law enforcement 23198:Judicial system 23167: 23130: 23104:Nature reserves 23094:Protected areas 23060: 23031:Water resources 22994: 22903: 22841: 22800: 22784:Economic reform 22747:1911 Revolution 22733: 22697:Jin (1115–1234) 22611: 22559: 22519: 22434: 22425: 22395: 22390: 22342: 22306: 22225:Other religions 22220: 22211: 22112: 22102: 22100: 22070: 22064: 22041:Sterckx, Roel. 22035: 22016: 21999: 21997:Further reading 21994: 21981: 21960: 21946: 21944: 21926: 21899: 21897: 21896:on 3 March 2016 21893: 21887: 21872: 21850: 21831: 21791: 21767: 21707:10.2307/2058743 21678: 21667: 21641: 21627: 21625: 21601: 21580: 21560: 21524: 21490: 21466: 21464: 21460: 21449: 21405: 21386: 21356: 21345: 21295: 21274: 21250: 21248: 21247:on 16 June 2015 21244: 21238: 21227: 21211: 21190: 21166: 21164: 21163:on 14 July 2017 21160: 21129: 21118: 21096: 21085: 21082: 21071: 21050: 20982: 20961: 20940: 20919: 20898: 20851: 20804: 20780: 20757: 20736: 20715: 20692: 20671: 20649: 20568: 20544: 20542: 20538: 20532: 20521: 20508: 20416: 20388: 20378: 20363: 20352: 20333: 20314: 20280: 20240: 20210: 20199: 20177: 20162: 20140: 20135: 20124: 20120: 20112: 20108: 20101: 20079: 20075: 20054: 20050: 20039: 20025: 20021: 20010: 19992: 19988: 19981: 19965: 19961: 19954: 19938: 19909: 19901: 19894: 19877: 19873: 19860: 19856: 19849: 19835: 19831: 19823: 19814: 19795: 19782: 19774: 19770: 19754: 19750: 19739:Hindustan Times 19731: 19727: 19720: 19706: 19683: 19674: 19672: 19668: 19661: 19645:Xu Xin (2004). 19643: 19639: 19634:(486): 145–156. 19624: 19620: 19613: 19597: 19588: 19581: 19567: 19563: 19553: 19551: 19542: 19541: 19537: 19527: 19525: 19512: 19511: 19507: 19492: 19488: 19478: 19476: 19475:on 2 April 2019 19461: 19457: 19444: 19443: 19439: 19429: 19427: 19419: 19418: 19414: 19401: 19400: 19396: 19383: 19382: 19378: 19369: 19368: 19364: 19357: 19341: 19330: 19313: 19312: 19308: 19298: 19296: 19287: 19286: 19282: 19275: 19271: 19263: 19259: 19258: 19254: 19246: 19242: 19237: 19233: 19227:Overmyer (2003) 19225: 19221: 19213: 19209: 19201: 19197: 19190: 19170: 19166: 19159: 19145: 19141: 19132:The Small Woman 19123: 19119: 19104: 19100: 19092: 19081: 19075: 19071: 19063: 19059: 19051: 19044: 19036: 19029: 19021: 19017: 19009: 19002: 18994: 18990: 18982: 18978: 18970: 18966: 18959: 18945: 18938: 18930: 18914: 18910: 18883: 18879: 18868: 18854: 18843: 18836: 18822: 18815: 18807: 18803: 18788: 18784: 18772: 18768: 18767: 18763: 18756: 18742: 18735: 18728: 18714: 18710: 18700: 18698: 18697:on 3 March 2016 18683:10.2307/1178534 18663: 18652: 18645: 18629: 18625: 18618: 18602: 18598: 18591: 18575: 18568: 18561: 18547: 18538: 18530: 18519: 18513: 18509: 18502: 18488: 18484: 18477: 18463: 18459: 18452: 18435: 18426: 18419: 18402: 18391: 18383: 18376: 18368: 18364: 18356: 18352: 18344: 18340: 18332: 18328: 18320: 18313: 18305: 18296: 18288: 18284: 18269: 18265: 18255: 18253: 18244: 18243: 18239: 18228: 18224: 18217: 18203: 18199: 18192:Wayback Machine 18181: 18174: 18165: 18161: 18152: 18148: 18140: 18125: 18119: 18112: 18104: 18093: 18087: 18068: 18062:Lagerwey (2010) 18060: 18056: 18048: 18044: 18036: 18022: 18018: 18011: 17997: 17993: 17986: 17973: 17970: 17969: 17965: 17957: 17944: 17936: 17932: 17926:Overmyer (2003) 17924: 17920: 17912: 17897: 17889: 17879:Daoism Handbook 17871: 17867: 17859: 17855: 17846: 17845: 17841: 17835:Billioud (2010) 17833: 17829: 17821: 17817: 17809: 17805: 17797: 17793: 17785: 17778: 17770: 17763: 17757:Billioud (2010) 17755: 17751: 17745:Billioud (2010) 17743: 17739: 17731: 17727: 17719: 17712: 17704: 17695: 17660: 17659: 17646: 17638: 17634: 17626: 17613: 17605: 17601: 17593: 17589: 17585:, pp. 1–2. 17581: 17577: 17562: 17558: 17550: 17546: 17538: 17534: 17526: 17519: 17511: 17507: 17500: 17483: 17479: 17471: 17467: 17456: 17452: 17437: 17428: 17420: 17411: 17403: 17399: 17391: 17384: 17376: 17372: 17368:, pp. 4–6. 17364: 17360: 17352: 17348: 17340: 17336: 17328: 17324: 17316: 17312: 17304: 17300: 17292: 17288: 17280: 17273: 17258: 17254: 17253: 17249: 17242: 17228: 17224: 17216: 17202: 17198: 17190: 17186: 17178: 17174: 17159: 17155: 17154: 17150: 17142: 17111: 17106: 17105: 17101: 17093: 17089: 17080: 17057: 17053: 17052: 17043: 17035: 17031: 17023: 17019: 17011: 17004: 16994: 16989: 16982: 16972: 16967: 16963: 16953: 16952:, pp. 5–6. 16948: 16944: 16940:, pp. 3–5. 16936: 16929: 16921: 16917: 16909: 16905: 16878: 16871: 16863: 16859: 16852: 16834: 16823: 16815: 16801: 16797: 16789: 16782: 16767: 16763: 16755: 16751: 16743: 16739: 16731: 16727: 16719: 16715: 16707: 16692: 16686: 16682: 16674: 16667: 16659: 16650: 16642: 16633: 16625: 16621: 16613: 16609: 16601: 16597: 16589: 16576: 16568: 16564: 16556: 16552: 16544: 16540: 16532: 16528: 16520: 16506: 16502: 16494: 16490: 16482: 16478: 16470: 16461: 16453: 16449: 16441: 16437: 16429: 16425: 16417: 16413: 16405: 16398: 16390: 16383: 16360: 16356: 16348: 16344: 16336: 16327: 16319: 16315: 16307: 16303: 16295: 16291: 16283: 16279: 16268:Needham, Joseph 16265: 16261: 16253: 16249: 16242: 16228: 16224: 16220:, p. 1197. 16218:Pregadio (2013) 16216: 16212: 16208:, pp. 4–5. 16204: 16200: 16188: 16184: 16176: 16172: 16164: 16160: 16152: 16148: 16140: 16136: 16128: 16124: 16116: 16112: 16104: 16097: 16089: 16082: 16074: 16067: 16059: 16052: 16044: 16040: 16032: 16021: 15983: 15979: 15969: 15965: 15964: 15960: 15952: 15938: 15934: 15926: 15915: 15904: 15893: 15886: 15879: 15841: 15830: 15822: 15815: 15808: 15789: 15781: 15777: 15767: 15765: 15761: 15754: 15748: 15744: 15736: 15732: 15706: 15702: 15688: 15684: 15653: 15649: 15641: 15627: 15623: 15615: 15601: 15597: 15580: 15576: 15561: 15554: 15546: 15539: 15531: 15524: 15478:Overmyer (2009) 15476: 15472: 15466:Overmyer (2009) 15464: 15460: 15454:Overmyer (2009) 15452: 15448: 15442:Overmyer (2009) 15440: 15436: 15425:Overmyer (2009) 15423: 15419: 15380: 15363: 15349:Overmyer (2009) 15347: 15343: 15335: 15331: 15323: 15319: 15309: 15302: 15296: 15292: 15278: 15269: 15262: 15248: 15239: 15232: 15203: 15202: 15198: 15187: 15169: 15165: 15157: 15143: 15139: 15128: 15124: 15111:Yu Tao (2012). 15109: 15105: 15097: 15086: 15075: 15068: 15055: 15054: 15050: 15042: 15019: 15012: 15008: 14976: 14972: 14964: 14933: 14929:Ji Zhe (2006). 14927: 14923: 14893: 14886: 14881: 14870: 14862: 14855: 14851: 14850: 14846: 14836: 14834: 14830: 14819: 14815: 14814: 14810: 14795: 14791: 14790: 14786: 14776: 14767: 14763: 14755: 14751: 14743: 14722: 14714: 14691: 14684: 14671: 14661: 14656: 14652: 14644: 14621: 14615: 14611: 14602:Yu Tao (2012). 14600: 14591: 14578: 14577: 14570: 14538: 14534: 14526: 14507: 14497: 14493: 14485: 14481: 14473: 14469: 14461: 14457: 14445: 14441: 14430:minjian jiaopai 14415: 14411: 14394:minjian jiaopai 14385:minjian jiaomen 14370: 14366: 14360:Pregadio (2013) 14358: 14354: 14346: 14342: 14334: 14327: 14320: 14306: 14299: 14293:Pregadio (2013) 14291: 14287: 14279: 14275: 14265: 14263: 14253: 14249: 14241: 14237: 14215: 14209: 14205: 14198: 14184: 14180: 14173: 14159: 14155: 14148: 14134: 14130: 14123: 14109: 14105: 14097: 14093: 14086: 14068: 14064: 14057: 14036: 14032: 14025: 14009: 14002: 13994: 13990: 13979: 13975: 13969:Overmyer (2009) 13967: 13963: 13957:Overmyer (2009) 13955: 13948: 13942:Overmyer (2009) 13940: 13936: 13883: 13879: 13871: 13867: 13861:Overmyer (2009) 13859: 13852: 13844: 13833: 13827: 13814: 13806: 13802: 13796:Overmyer (2009) 13794: 13790: 13783: 13767: 13763: 13757: 13743: 13739: 13729: 13724: 13715: 13707: 13703: 13691: 13687: 13679: 13675: 13667: 13663: 13657:Pregadio (2016) 13655: 13648: 13642:Espesset (2008) 13640: 13636: 13630:Espesset (2008) 13628: 13624: 13618:Espesset (2008) 13616: 13612: 13608:, pp. 2–3. 13606:Espesset (2008) 13604: 13600: 13596:, pp. 1–2. 13594:Espesset (2008) 13592: 13588: 13582:Espesset (2008) 13580: 13576: 13570:Espesset (2008) 13568: 13564: 13556: 13549: 13541: 13537: 13529: 13525: 13517: 13513: 13505: 13501: 13493: 13489: 13481: 13477: 13469: 13465: 13457: 13453: 13445: 13441: 13433: 13429: 13421: 13414: 13406: 13397: 13387:De Groot (1892) 13385: 13381: 13374: 13370: 13362: 13358: 13350: 13346: 13338: 13334: 13326: 13322: 13315: 13301: 13297: 13289: 13285: 13275: 13273: 13258: 13257: 13253: 13243: 13241: 13233: 13232: 13228: 13197: 13193: 13180: 13173: 13165: 13161: 13151: 13149: 13140: 13139: 13135: 13127: 13120: 13105: 13091: 13084: 13073: 13059: 13052: 13042: 13040: 13030: 13029: 13025: 13015: 13013: 13010:Radio Free Asia 13001: 12994: 12971: 12969: 12966:Foreign Affairs 12958: 12954: 12946: 12938: 12931: 12923: 12908: 12902: 12883: 12866: 12865: 12858: 12856: 12852: 12845: 12843:"Archived copy" 12841: 12815: 12806: 12789: 12758: 12746: 12723: 12705: 12700: 12693: 12689: 12681: 12670: 12666: 12661: 12656: 12639: 12635: 12582: 12578: 12519:Kunlun Mountain 12479:Northern Dipper 12447: 12443: 12405: 12401: 12339: 12335: 12257:The characters 12256: 12252: 12246: 12242: 12079: 12075: 12069: 12065: 12059: 12055: 12049: 12045: 12030:"Shenxianism" ( 12010: 12006: 11997: 11993: 11979: 11975: 11969: 11962: 11958: 11906: 11893:Three teachings 11888:Chinese temples 11870:Religion portal 11868: 11861: 11854: 11849: 11847: 11844: 11742: 11734:Main articles: 11732: 11623: 11621:Japanese Shinto 11506:Sasanid dynasty 11376: 11370: 11364: 11174: 11168: 10923: 10917: 10912: 10910:Other religions 10873: 10867: 10848:Shanghai Ghetto 10786:, Heilongjiang. 10773: 10767: 10549:Yeheidie'erding 10522:Emperor Gaozong 10450: 10442:Main articles: 10440: 10306:Boxer Rebellion 10291:First Opium War 10037: 10023: 10017: 10012: 9922: 9916: 9875: 9869: 9804: 9798: 9707:Qormusta Tengri 9648:in the town of 9634: 9628: 9556: 9550: 9516:Mǎnzú sàmǎnjiào 9499: 9493: 9414: 9408: 9338: 9332: 9258: 9252: 9193: 9187: 9185:Benzhuism (Bai) 9167: 9129:Hànchuán Mìzōng 9093: 9087: 9075:Buddhist sutras 9048: 9042: 9034:Tibetan Plateau 9016:, and parts of 8976: 8970: 8923:Mahayana sutras 8903: 8897: 8803:Gateway of the 8757: 8751: 8637: 8631: 8625: 8499:Mínjiàn Dàojiào 8481: 8475: 8367:Three Treasures 8337:Quanzhen Taoism 8283:The Taoist Body 8175:Three Pure Ones 8159: 8149: 8143: 8033:Rúzōng Shénjiào 8022:) of Shanghai, 7963:Confucian rites 7889:The idea of a " 7727:) and masters ( 7580: 7570: 7562:Main articles: 7560: 7503:zōngjiào yìduān 7335:mínjiān jiàopài 7326:mínjiān jiàomén 7299:Prasenjit Duara 7235: 7229: 7023:), Heaven, the 6913:mínjiān xìnyǎng 6737: 6731: 6706:Xuanyuan Temple 6699: 6619: 6571:mínjiān xìnyǎng 6361: 6288:are considered 6248:and ancestors ( 6174:Three Pure Ones 6169:Yuánshǐ Tiānzūn 5912: 5898: 5711: 5705: 5647: 4949: 4888:Northeast China 4878:Tianxianmiaodao 4845: 4503:Quanzhen Taoism 4446: 4437: 4428: 4419: 4407: 4385: 4376: 4371: 4370: 4369: 4368: 4363: 4359: 4354: 4350: 4321: 4317: 4312: 4308: 4284: 4280: 4271: 4270: 4269: 4268: 4264: 4262: 4254: 4252: 4244: 4242: 4234: 4232: 4224: 4210: 4209: 4208: 4207: 4199: 4197: 4189: 4187: 4179: 4177: 4169: 4167: 4159: 4157: 4153: 4100:Other religion 3578:Other religion 3317:Other religion 2941: 2933: 2932: 2929: 2633:mínjiān xìnyǎng 2497: 2488: 2485:(February 2024) 2464: 2460: 2453: 2295:Chiang Kai-shek 2258:Boxer Rebellion 2252:recognized the 2230: 2214:Boxer Rebellion 2177: 2148:the concept of 2098:Western Regions 2090: 1974: 1869:world religions 1738: 1733: 1727: 1578:three teachings 1562: 1480: 1442: 1437: 1436: 1372: 1362: 1361: 1342:Solomon Islands 1287: 1277: 1276: 1152: 1142: 1141: 1045:North Macedonia 895: 885: 884: 618: 608: 607: 333: 225: 224: 223: 222: 214: 212: 204: 202: 190: 188: 180: 178: 166: 154: 153: 152: 151: 143: 141: 133: 131: 123: 121: 113: 111: 103: 101: 93: 79: 73: 70: 51: 34: 30: 23: 12: 11: 5: 24835: 24825: 24824: 24819: 24814: 24797: 24796: 24794: 24793: 24783: 24772: 24769: 24768: 24766: 24765: 24760: 24755: 24750: 24745: 24739: 24737: 24728: 24727: 24725: 24724: 24719: 24714: 24709: 24704: 24698: 24696: 24688: 24687: 24685: 24684: 24679: 24674: 24669: 24664: 24659: 24654: 24649: 24644: 24639: 24634: 24629: 24624: 24619: 24614: 24609: 24604: 24599: 24594: 24589: 24584: 24579: 24574: 24569: 24564: 24559: 24554: 24549: 24544: 24539: 24534: 24529: 24524: 24519: 24514: 24509: 24504: 24499: 24494: 24489: 24484: 24479: 24474: 24469: 24464: 24459: 24454: 24449: 24444: 24438: 24436: 24430: 24429: 24422: 24421: 24414: 24407: 24399: 24390: 24389: 24387: 24386: 24381: 24374: 24373: 24366: 24358: 24357: 24354: 24353: 24350: 24349: 24347: 24346: 24341: 24336: 24330: 24328: 24322: 24321: 24319: 24318: 24313: 24308: 24303: 24298: 24293: 24292: 24291: 24286: 24276: 24271: 24266: 24265: 24264: 24259: 24248: 24246: 24240: 24239: 24237: 24236: 24231: 24226: 24225: 24224: 24217: 24205: 24200: 24195: 24190: 24185: 24180: 24175: 24169: 24167: 24161: 24160: 24157: 24156: 24154: 24153: 24148: 24143: 24138: 24133: 24128: 24123: 24118: 24113: 24108: 24103: 24098: 24093: 24088: 24083: 24081:Four Gentlemen 24078: 24073: 24067: 24065: 24064:Fours of China 24058: 24057: 24052: 24047: 24042: 24037: 24032: 24027: 24022: 24017: 24012: 24007: 24002: 24001: 24000: 23990: 23985: 23980: 23975: 23970: 23965: 23960: 23955: 23949: 23947: 23941: 23940: 23938: 23937: 23932: 23927: 23922: 23921: 23920: 23910: 23909: 23908: 23903: 23898: 23893: 23883: 23878: 23877: 23876: 23866: 23861: 23856: 23851: 23850: 23849: 23844: 23834: 23829: 23828: 23827: 23822: 23821: 23820: 23805: 23800: 23799: 23798: 23788: 23787: 23786: 23781: 23776: 23766: 23761: 23756: 23750: 23744: 23738: 23737: 23734: 23733: 23731: 23730: 23725: 23720: 23715: 23713:Civil aviation 23710: 23704: 23702: 23696: 23695: 23693: 23692: 23687: 23686: 23685: 23675: 23674: 23673: 23662: 23660: 23659:Infrastructure 23656: 23655: 23653: 23652: 23647: 23642: 23637: 23632: 23627: 23626: 23625: 23620: 23615: 23613:Semiconductors 23610: 23605: 23595: 23593:Historical GDP 23590: 23585: 23580: 23579: 23578: 23573: 23568: 23558: 23557: 23556: 23546: 23545: 23544: 23539: 23529: 23524: 23523: 23522: 23512: 23507: 23501: 23495: 23489: 23488: 23485: 23484: 23482: 23481: 23480: 23479: 23469: 23468: 23467: 23457: 23456: 23455: 23450: 23445: 23440: 23435: 23425: 23420: 23415: 23409: 23407: 23401: 23400: 23398: 23397: 23392: 23391: 23390: 23385: 23375: 23374: 23373: 23371:Vice President 23363: 23362: 23361: 23351: 23350: 23349: 23348: 23347: 23337: 23336: 23335: 23330: 23315: 23310: 23309: 23308: 23298: 23293: 23288: 23283: 23282: 23281: 23271: 23266: 23260: 23258: 23252: 23251: 23248: 23247: 23245: 23244: 23239: 23234: 23229: 23228: 23227: 23217: 23216: 23215: 23210: 23200: 23194: 23192: 23179: 23173: 23172: 23169: 23168: 23166: 23165: 23160: 23155: 23150: 23144: 23142: 23136: 23135: 23132: 23131: 23129: 23128: 23127: 23126: 23121: 23111: 23106: 23101: 23099:National parks 23096: 23091: 23086: 23081: 23079:Climate policy 23076: 23074:Climate change 23070: 23068: 23062: 23061: 23059: 23058: 23057: 23056: 23051: 23046: 23041: 23033: 23028: 23023: 23018: 23013: 23008: 23002: 23000: 22996: 22995: 22993: 22992: 22987: 22982: 22980:Central Plains 22969: 22964: 22963: 22962: 22957: 22947: 22942: 22937: 22932: 22927: 22922: 22917: 22911: 22909: 22905: 22904: 22902: 22901: 22900: 22899: 22894: 22884: 22883: 22882: 22877: 22867: 22862: 22857: 22851: 22849: 22840: 22839: 22834: 22829: 22827:Extreme points 22824: 22818: 22812: 22806: 22805: 22802: 22801: 22799: 22798: 22797: 22796: 22791: 22786: 22781: 22776: 22766: 22765: 22764: 22759: 22749: 22743: 22741: 22735: 22734: 22732: 22731: 22730: 22729: 22724: 22719: 22709: 22704: 22699: 22694: 22689: 22684: 22679: 22674: 22669: 22664: 22659: 22654: 22653: 22652: 22647: 22642: 22635:Three Kingdoms 22632: 22627: 22621: 22619: 22613: 22612: 22610: 22609: 22608: 22607: 22605:Warring States 22602: 22597: 22587: 22586: 22585: 22575: 22569: 22567: 22561: 22560: 22558: 22557: 22556: 22555: 22550: 22545: 22535: 22529: 22527: 22521: 22520: 22518: 22517: 22512: 22507: 22502: 22497: 22496: 22495: 22490: 22485: 22477: 22472: 22467: 22465:Historiography 22462: 22457: 22451: 22449: 22442: 22436: 22435: 22424: 22423: 22416: 22409: 22401: 22392: 22391: 22389: 22388: 22383: 22376: 22371: 22366: 22361: 22356: 22350: 22348: 22344: 22343: 22341: 22340: 22335: 22333:Inner Mongolia 22330: 22325: 22320: 22314: 22312: 22308: 22307: 22305: 22304: 22299: 22294: 22289: 22284: 22279: 22274: 22269: 22264: 22259: 22254: 22249: 22244: 22239: 22234: 22228: 22226: 22222: 22221: 22214: 22212: 22210: 22209: 22204: 22199: 22198: 22197: 22192: 22190:Roman Catholic 22187: 22177: 22176: 22175: 22170: 22165: 22155: 22150: 22145: 22144: 22143: 22138: 22133: 22122: 22120: 22114: 22113: 22099: 22098: 22091: 22084: 22076: 22069: 22068: 22062: 22046: 22039: 22033: 22020: 22014: 22000: 21998: 21995: 21993: 21992: 21975:Zhou, Youguang 21971: 21953: 21943:on 9 June 2019 21930: 21924: 21906: 21885: 21862: 21848: 21835: 21829: 21816: 21806:(3): 505–521. 21795: 21789: 21771: 21765: 21752: 21742:(2): 325–334. 21727: 21701:(2): 378–395. 21687: 21671: 21665: 21650: 21634: 21605: 21599: 21584: 21578: 21563: 21558: 21542:Sautman, Barry 21538: 21527: 21522: 21507: 21494: 21488: 21473: 21442: 21409: 21403: 21390: 21384: 21369: 21349: 21343: 21328: 21299: 21293: 21278: 21272: 21257: 21236: 21215: 21209: 21194: 21188: 21173: 21122: 21116: 21101: 21075: 21069: 21054: 21048: 21030: 21013: 20986: 20980: 20965: 20959: 20944: 20938: 20923: 20917: 20902: 20896: 20881: 20869:(2): 145–179. 20854: 20849: 20829: 20819:(2): 107–144. 20808: 20802: 20784: 20778: 20761: 20755: 20740: 20734: 20719: 20713: 20696: 20690: 20675: 20669: 20653: 20647: 20632: 20597: 20580: 20571: 20566: 20551: 20530: 20512: 20506: 20491: 20462: 20419: 20414: 20401: 20381: 20376: 20356: 20350: 20337: 20331: 20318: 20312: 20299: 20273: 20244: 20238: 20223: 20203: 20197: 20182: 20168: 20153: 20141: 20139: 20136: 20134: 20133: 20118: 20116:, p. 127. 20106: 20099: 20073: 20048: 20037: 20019: 20008: 19986: 19979: 19959: 19952: 19907: 19905:, p. 171. 19892: 19871: 19854: 19847: 19829: 19827:, p. 173. 19812: 19780: 19768: 19766:ARC DP0557098. 19748: 19725: 19718: 19681: 19666: 19659: 19637: 19618: 19611: 19586: 19579: 19561: 19535: 19505: 19486: 19455: 19437: 19412: 19394: 19376: 19362: 19355: 19328: 19306: 19280: 19269: 19252: 19250:, p. 145. 19240: 19231: 19229:, p. 185. 19219: 19207: 19195: 19188: 19182:. p. 68. 19164: 19157: 19139: 19117: 19114:(95): 561–562. 19098: 19086:China Analysis 19069: 19067:, p. 348. 19057: 19055:, p. 349. 19042: 19040:, p. 117. 19027: 19015: 19013:, p. 116. 19000: 18998:, p. 108. 18988: 18986:, p. 107. 18976: 18964: 18957: 18936: 18928: 18908: 18877: 18866: 18841: 18834: 18813: 18811:, p. 369. 18801: 18776:qianguo.gov.cn 18761: 18754: 18733: 18726: 18708: 18650: 18643: 18623: 18616: 18596: 18589: 18566: 18559: 18536: 18507: 18500: 18482: 18475: 18457: 18450: 18424: 18417: 18389: 18387:, p. 164. 18374: 18362: 18360:, p. 158. 18350: 18348:, p. 150. 18338: 18336:, p. 149. 18326: 18324:, p. 148. 18311: 18294: 18282: 18263: 18237: 18222: 18215: 18197: 18172: 18159: 18146: 18110: 18066: 18054: 18042: 18034: 18016: 18009: 17991: 17984: 17963: 17961:, p. 259. 17942: 17940:, p. 332. 17930: 17928:, p. 118. 17918: 17895: 17887: 17865: 17853: 17839: 17837:, p. 204. 17827: 17815: 17811:Payette (2014) 17803: 17801:, p. 148. 17791: 17776: 17761: 17759:, p. 219. 17749: 17737: 17725: 17723:, p. 174. 17710: 17708:, p. 175. 17693: 17644: 17642:, p. 102. 17632: 17630:, p. 100. 17611: 17599: 17597:, p. 550. 17587: 17575: 17556: 17544: 17532: 17517: 17505: 17498: 17488:, ed. (2015). 17477: 17465: 17450: 17426: 17409: 17397: 17395:, p. 347. 17382: 17370: 17358: 17346: 17334: 17322: 17320:, p. 395. 17310: 17298: 17286: 17271: 17257:民间寺庙文化管理协会挂牌仪式 17247: 17240: 17222: 17214: 17196: 17184: 17182:, p. 175. 17172: 17148: 17122:(2): 236–278. 17099: 17095:Sautman (1997) 17087: 17041: 17029: 17017: 17002: 16980: 16961: 16942: 16927: 16915: 16903: 16892:(1): 104–127. 16869: 16867:, p. 378. 16857: 16850: 16821: 16813: 16795: 16780: 16761: 16759:, p. 223. 16749: 16737: 16725: 16723:, p. 226. 16713: 16680: 16665: 16648: 16631: 16619: 16607: 16605:, p. 116. 16595: 16574: 16562: 16550: 16538: 16526: 16518: 16500: 16498:, p. 152. 16488: 16476: 16459: 16447: 16435: 16423: 16411: 16409:, p. 151. 16396: 16381: 16354: 16342: 16340:, p. 146. 16325: 16313: 16301: 16289: 16277: 16259: 16247: 16240: 16222: 16210: 16198: 16182: 16170: 16158: 16146: 16134: 16122: 16110: 16095: 16080: 16078:, p. 150. 16065: 16050: 16038: 16019: 15977: 15958: 15950: 15932: 15877: 15856:(1): 809–817. 15828: 15787: 15775: 15742: 15730: 15713:澳門居民的宗教信仰與生活經驗 15700: 15682: 15663:(4): 540–553. 15657:Social Compass 15647: 15639: 15621: 15613: 15595: 15574: 15552: 15548:Payette (2016) 15537: 15522: 15470: 15458: 15446: 15444:, p. xii. 15434: 15417: 15361: 15341: 15329: 15327:, p. 325. 15325:Waldron (1998) 15317: 15290: 15260: 15230: 15196: 15185: 15163: 15156:978-9004212398 15155: 15137: 15134:(2011): 53–68. 15122: 15103: 15066: 15048: 15006: 14986:(2): 169–185. 14970: 14938:Social Compass 14921: 14884: 14868: 14844: 14808: 14799:Phoenix Weekly 14784: 14761: 14759:, p. 514. 14749: 14720: 14669: 14650: 14609: 14589: 14568: 14548:(2): 169–185. 14532: 14491: 14479: 14477:, p. 409. 14467: 14455: 14439: 14409: 14364: 14362:, p. 326. 14352: 14340: 14325: 14318: 14297: 14285: 14283:, p. 280. 14281:Johnson (2017) 14273: 14247: 14245:, p. 162. 14235: 14203: 14196: 14178: 14171: 14153: 14146: 14128: 14121: 14103: 14099:Sautman (1997) 14091: 14084: 14062: 14055: 14030: 14023: 14000: 13988: 13973: 13961: 13946: 13934: 13877: 13865: 13850: 13812: 13800: 13788: 13781: 13761: 13755: 13737: 13713: 13711:, p. 148. 13701: 13685: 13673: 13661: 13646: 13634: 13622: 13610: 13598: 13586: 13574: 13562: 13547: 13535: 13523: 13511: 13499: 13487: 13475: 13463: 13451: 13439: 13427: 13425:, p. 163. 13412: 13395: 13379: 13368: 13366:, p. 112. 13356: 13344: 13332: 13320: 13313: 13295: 13293:, p. 144. 13283: 13251: 13226: 13191: 13171: 13159: 13133: 13118: 13103: 13082: 13071: 13050: 13023: 12992: 12952: 12929: 12881: 12840:, issue 2014. 12804: 12802: 12801: 12751: 12716: 12667: 12665: 12662: 12660: 12657: 12655: 12654: 12633: 12590:Yínguīshénmiào 12576: 12441: 12439: 12438: 12399: 12333: 12250: 12240: 12073: 12063: 12053: 12043: 12041: 12040: 12028: 12004: 11991: 11973: 11959: 11957: 11954: 11953: 11952: 11947: 11942: 11937: 11932: 11927: 11922: 11917: 11912: 11905: 11902: 11901: 11900: 11895: 11890: 11885: 11880: 11874: 11873: 11859: 11843: 11840: 11778:Decade of Dang 11731: 11728: 11724:Konko teaching 11720:Tenri teaching 11716:Omoto teaching 11622: 11619: 11495:British Museum 11468:(157-87 BCE). 11368:Zoroastrianism 11366:Main article: 11363: 11362:Zoroastrianism 11360: 11170:Main article: 11167: 11164: 10989:texts and the 10919:Main article: 10916: 10913: 10911: 10908: 10886:Bāhāyī xìnyǎng 10869:Main article: 10866: 10863: 10825:Russian Empire 10769:Main article: 10766: 10763: 10761:institutions. 10717:, Tibetan and 10574:even composed 10572:Hongwu Emperor 10444:Islam in China 10439: 10436: 10326:early republic 10295:Westernisation 10231:Emperor Wuzong 10089:, Heilongjiang 10019:Main article: 10016: 10013: 10011: 10008: 10000:if female and 9918:Main article: 9915: 9912: 9871:Main article: 9868: 9865: 9817:Yínguīshénmiào 9800:Main article: 9797: 9794: 9693:Inner Mongolia 9640:Temple of the 9630:Main article: 9627: 9624: 9590:Various gods ( 9552:Main article: 9549: 9546: 9495:Main article: 9492: 9489: 9470:Nakhi language 9410:Main article: 9407: 9404: 9334:Main article: 9331: 9330:Bon (Tibetans) 9328: 9254:Main article: 9251: 9248: 9189:Main article: 9186: 9183: 9166: 9163: 9155:Dátèluó mìjiào 9086: 9083: 9044:Main article: 9041: 9038: 9026:Inner Mongolia 8999:early medieval 8972:Main article: 8969: 8966: 8958:mainland China 8953:Amitābha Sutra 8899:Main article: 8896: 8893: 8805:Donglin Temple 8753:Main article: 8750: 8747: 8652:master of the 8627:Main article: 8624: 8621: 8537:Zhengyi Taoism 8513:hongtou daoshi 8477:Main article: 8474: 8471: 8422:Taoist temples 8341:Zhengyi Taoism 8211:Chengxu Temple 8153:Taoist schools 8145:Main article: 8142: 8139: 7967:chuántǒng lǐyí 7931:Warring States 7895:state religion 7767:and developed 7718:), ancestors ( 7559: 7556: 7352:egalitarianism 7290:eschatological 7286:soteriological 7278:jiùdù zōngjiào 7231:Main article: 7228: 7225: 7217: 7216: 7215: 7214: 7205: 7204: 7203: 7202: 7178:Pingguo County 6864:mínzú zōngjiào 6855:mínsú zōngjiào 6821:), who may be 6733:Main article: 6730: 6727: 6698: 6697:Main religions 6695: 6694: 6693: 6692: 6691: 6665: 6664: 6663: 6662: 6618: 6615: 6593:mínzú zōngjiào 6584:mínsú zōngjiào 6524:Church Fathers 6424: 6423: 6387: 6386: 6378: 6377: 6360: 6357: 6263:Stephen Teiser 6222:yǔzhòu shénlùn 6051: 6050: 6039: 6028: 6017: 6002: 5910:Wufang Shangdi 5897: 5894: 5704: 5701: 5672:ancestral home 5646: 5643: 5640: 5639: 5636: 5633: 5630: 5627: 5621: 5620: 5617: 5614: 5609: 5606: 5604:Inner Mongolia 5600: 5599: 5594: 5591: 5588: 5585: 5579: 5578: 5573: 5570: 5567: 5564: 5558: 5557: 5552: 5549: 5546: 5543: 5537: 5536: 5533: 5530: 5525: 5522: 5516: 5515: 5512: 5511: 5508: 5505: 5502: 5499: 5493: 5492: 5489: 5486: 5481: 5478: 5472: 5471: 5468: 5465: 5462: 5457: 5451: 5450: 5447: 5444: 5439: 5436: 5430: 5429: 5426: 5425: 5422: 5419: 5416: 5413: 5407: 5406: 5403: 5400: 5397: 5392: 5386: 5385: 5382: 5379: 5376: 5371: 5365: 5364: 5361: 5358: 5355: 5350: 5344: 5343: 5340: 5337: 5334: 5329: 5323: 5322: 5319: 5316: 5313: 5308: 5302: 5301: 5298: 5295: 5292: 5287: 5281: 5280: 5275: 5272: 5269: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5256: 5253: 5248: 5245: 5239: 5238: 5235: 5232: 5227: 5224: 5218: 5217: 5214: 5211: 5208: 5203: 5197: 5196: 5193: 5190: 5187: 5182: 5176: 5175: 5172: 5169: 5166: 5161: 5155: 5154: 5151: 5148: 5145: 5140: 5134: 5133: 5130: 5127: 5124: 5119: 5113: 5112: 5109: 5106: 5103: 5098: 5092: 5091: 5088: 5085: 5082: 5077: 5071: 5070: 5067: 5064: 5061: 5056: 5050: 5049: 5046: 5043: 5040: 5035: 5029: 5028: 5025: 5022: 5019: 5014: 5008: 5007: 5004: 5001: 4996: 4993: 4987: 4986: 4983: 4980: 4975: 4972: 4966: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4952: 4945: 4932: 4931: 4899: 4885: 4867: 4844: 4841: 4709:Inner Mongolia 4530:their churches 4515:Zhengyi Taoism 4507:Tianshi Taoism 4375: 4372: 4367: 4366: 4357: 4348: 4315: 4306: 4277: 4276: 4273: 4272: 4263: 4253: 4243: 4233: 4223: 4215: 4214: 4213: 4211: 4198: 4188: 4178: 4168: 4158: 4152: 4144: 4143: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4136: 4133: 4130: 4127: 4124: 4121: 4117: 4116: 4113: 4110: 4107: 4104: 4101: 4097: 4096: 4089: 4082: 4075: 4068: 4061: 4052: 4051: 4044: 4037: 4030: 4023: 4016: 4007: 4006: 4003: 4000: 3997: 3994: 3991: 3987: 3986: 3983: 3980: 3977: 3974: 3971: 3967: 3966: 3963: 3960: 3957: 3954: 3951: 3947: 3946: 3943: 3940: 3937: 3934: 3931: 3927: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3911: 3906: 3901: 3886: 3885: 3882: 3879: 3876: 3873: 3870: 3867: 3864: 3861: 3858: 3854: 3853: 3850: 3847: 3844: 3841: 3838: 3835: 3832: 3829: 3826: 3825:All religious 3822: 3821: 3818: 3815: 3812: 3809: 3806: 3803: 3800: 3797: 3794: 3790: 3789: 3786: 3783: 3780: 3777: 3774: 3771: 3768: 3765: 3762: 3758: 3757: 3754: 3751: 3748: 3745: 3742: 3739: 3736: 3733: 3730: 3729:Protestantism 3726: 3725: 3722: 3719: 3716: 3713: 3710: 3707: 3704: 3701: 3698: 3694: 3693: 3690: 3687: 3684: 3681: 3678: 3675: 3672: 3669: 3666: 3662: 3661: 3658: 3655: 3652: 3649: 3646: 3643: 3640: 3637: 3634: 3619: 3618: 3615: 3614: 3611: 3608: 3605: 3602: 3599: 3595: 3594: 3591: 3588: 3585: 3582: 3579: 3575: 3574: 3567: 3560: 3553: 3546: 3539: 3530: 3529: 3522: 3515: 3508: 3501: 3494: 3485: 3484: 3481: 3478: 3475: 3472: 3469: 3465: 3464: 3461: 3458: 3455: 3452: 3449: 3445: 3444: 3441: 3438: 3435: 3432: 3429: 3425: 3424: 3421: 3418: 3415: 3412: 3409: 3405: 3404: 3401: 3398: 3395: 3392: 3389: 3385: 3384: 3381: 3378: 3375: 3372: 3369: 3359: 3356: 3355: 3352: 3349: 3346: 3342: 3341: 3338: 3335: 3332: 3328: 3327: 3324: 3321: 3318: 3314: 3313: 3306: 3299: 3292: 3283: 3282: 3275: 3268: 3261: 3252: 3251: 3248: 3245: 3242: 3238: 3237: 3234: 3231: 3228: 3224: 3223: 3220: 3217: 3214: 3210: 3209: 3206: 3203: 3200: 3196: 3195: 3192: 3189: 3186: 3175: 3174: 3171: 3170: 3167: 3164: 3160: 3159: 3152: 3145: 3136: 3135: 3128: 3121: 3112: 3111: 3108: 3105: 3101: 3100: 3097: 3094: 3090: 3089: 3086: 3083: 3079: 3078: 3075: 3072: 3068: 3067: 3064: 3061: 3057: 3056: 3053: 3050: 3046: 3045: 3042: 3039: 3029: 3026: 3025: 3022: 3018: 3017: 3014: 3010: 3009: 3006: 3002: 3001: 2998: 2994: 2993: 2990: 2981: 2980: 2977: 2973: 2972: 2969: 2965: 2964: 2961: 2957: 2956: 2953: 2934: 2930: 2928: 2927: 2920: 2913: 2905: 2904: 2903: 2872:Phil Zuckerman 2857: 2856: 2836: 2832: 2824: 2817: 2790:Inner Mongolia 2770: 2755: 2720: 2712: 2708: 2675: 2655:mínzú zōngjiào 2646:mínsú zōngjiào 2496: 2493: 2490: 2489: 2467: 2465: 2458: 2452: 2449: 2384:Yellow Emperor 2375:" such as the 2229: 2226: 2176: 2173: 2139:Lingbao Taoism 2116:. The fall of 2110:Three Kingdoms 2089: 2086: 2068:organized the 2066:Central Plains 2018:Yellow Emperor 2010:Wufang Shangdi 1973: 1970: 1794:celestial pole 1737: 1734: 1729:Main article: 1726: 1723: 1668:philosophies. 1561: 1558: 1491:Chinese people 1482: 1481: 1479: 1478: 1471: 1464: 1456: 1453: 1452: 1439: 1438: 1435: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1373: 1368: 1367: 1364: 1363: 1360: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1344: 1339: 1334: 1329: 1324: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1304: 1299: 1294: 1288: 1283: 1282: 1279: 1278: 1275: 1274: 1269: 1264: 1259: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1239: 1234: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1214: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1153: 1148: 1147: 1144: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1138: 1137: 1132: 1127: 1122: 1115:United Kingdom 1112: 1107: 1102: 1097: 1092: 1087: 1082: 1077: 1072: 1067: 1062: 1057: 1052: 1047: 1042: 1037: 1032: 1027: 1022: 1017: 1012: 1007: 1002: 997: 992: 987: 982: 977: 972: 967: 962: 957: 952: 947: 942: 937: 932: 927: 922: 917: 912: 907: 902: 896: 891: 890: 887: 886: 883: 882: 877: 872: 867: 862: 857: 852: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 807: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 741: 740: 735: 725: 720: 715: 710: 705: 700: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 660: 655: 650: 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 619: 614: 613: 610: 609: 606: 605: 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 555: 550: 545: 540: 535: 530: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 425: 420: 415: 410: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 355: 350: 345: 340: 334: 329: 328: 325: 324: 213: 203: 189: 179: 165: 157: 156: 155: 142: 132: 122: 112: 102: 92: 88: 87: 86: 81: 80: 60:it, or adding 37: 35: 28: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 24834: 24823: 24820: 24818: 24815: 24813: 24810: 24809: 24807: 24792: 24788: 24784: 24782: 24774: 24773: 24770: 24764: 24761: 24759: 24756: 24754: 24751: 24749: 24746: 24744: 24741: 24740: 24738: 24733: 24729: 24723: 24720: 24718: 24717:South Ossetia 24715: 24713: 24710: 24708: 24705: 24703: 24700: 24699: 24697: 24695: 24689: 24683: 24680: 24678: 24675: 24673: 24670: 24668: 24665: 24663: 24660: 24658: 24655: 24653: 24650: 24648: 24645: 24643: 24640: 24638: 24635: 24633: 24630: 24628: 24625: 24623: 24620: 24618: 24615: 24613: 24610: 24608: 24605: 24603: 24600: 24598: 24595: 24593: 24590: 24588: 24585: 24583: 24580: 24578: 24575: 24573: 24570: 24568: 24565: 24563: 24560: 24558: 24555: 24553: 24550: 24548: 24545: 24543: 24540: 24538: 24535: 24533: 24530: 24528: 24525: 24523: 24520: 24518: 24515: 24513: 24510: 24508: 24505: 24503: 24500: 24498: 24495: 24493: 24490: 24488: 24485: 24483: 24480: 24478: 24475: 24473: 24470: 24468: 24465: 24463: 24460: 24458: 24455: 24453: 24450: 24448: 24445: 24443: 24440: 24439: 24437: 24435: 24431: 24427: 24420: 24415: 24413: 24408: 24406: 24401: 24400: 24397: 24385: 24382: 24380: 24377: 24376: 24371: 24367: 24364: 24360: 24359: 24355: 24345: 24342: 24340: 24337: 24335: 24332: 24331: 24329: 24327: 24323: 24317: 24314: 24312: 24309: 24307: 24304: 24302: 24299: 24297: 24294: 24290: 24289:Protestantism 24287: 24285: 24282: 24281: 24280: 24277: 24275: 24274:Folk religion 24272: 24270: 24267: 24263: 24260: 24258: 24255: 24254: 24253: 24250: 24249: 24247: 24245: 24241: 24235: 24232: 24230: 24227: 24222: 24218: 24215: 24211: 24210: 24209: 24206: 24204: 24201: 24199: 24196: 24194: 24191: 24189: 24186: 24184: 24181: 24179: 24178:Ethnic groups 24176: 24174: 24171: 24170: 24168: 24166: 24162: 24152: 24149: 24147: 24144: 24142: 24139: 24137: 24134: 24132: 24129: 24127: 24124: 24122: 24119: 24117: 24114: 24112: 24109: 24107: 24104: 24102: 24099: 24097: 24094: 24092: 24091:Four Beauties 24089: 24087: 24084: 24082: 24079: 24077: 24074: 24072: 24069: 24068: 24066: 24062: 24056: 24053: 24051: 24048: 24046: 24043: 24041: 24038: 24036: 24033: 24031: 24028: 24026: 24023: 24021: 24018: 24016: 24013: 24011: 24008: 24006: 24003: 23999: 23996: 23995: 23994: 23991: 23989: 23986: 23984: 23981: 23979: 23976: 23974: 23971: 23969: 23966: 23964: 23961: 23959: 23956: 23954: 23951: 23950: 23948: 23946: 23942: 23936: 23933: 23931: 23930:Urban society 23928: 23926: 23923: 23919: 23916: 23915: 23914: 23911: 23907: 23904: 23902: 23899: 23897: 23894: 23892: 23889: 23888: 23887: 23886:Social issues 23884: 23882: 23879: 23875: 23872: 23871: 23870: 23867: 23865: 23864:Rural society 23862: 23860: 23857: 23855: 23852: 23848: 23845: 23843: 23840: 23839: 23838: 23835: 23833: 23830: 23826: 23823: 23819: 23816: 23815: 23814: 23811: 23810: 23809: 23806: 23804: 23801: 23797: 23794: 23793: 23792: 23789: 23785: 23782: 23780: 23777: 23775: 23772: 23771: 23770: 23767: 23765: 23764:Chinese Dream 23762: 23760: 23757: 23755: 23752: 23751: 23748: 23745: 23743: 23739: 23729: 23728:Space program 23726: 23724: 23721: 23719: 23716: 23714: 23711: 23709: 23706: 23705: 23703: 23701: 23697: 23691: 23688: 23684: 23681: 23680: 23679: 23676: 23672: 23669: 23668: 23667: 23664: 23663: 23661: 23657: 23651: 23648: 23646: 23643: 23641: 23638: 23636: 23633: 23631: 23628: 23624: 23621: 23619: 23616: 23614: 23611: 23609: 23606: 23604: 23601: 23600: 23599: 23596: 23594: 23591: 23589: 23586: 23584: 23581: 23577: 23574: 23572: 23569: 23567: 23564: 23563: 23562: 23559: 23555: 23552: 23551: 23550: 23547: 23543: 23540: 23538: 23535: 23534: 23533: 23530: 23528: 23525: 23521: 23518: 23517: 23516: 23513: 23511: 23508: 23506: 23503: 23502: 23499: 23496: 23494: 23490: 23478: 23475: 23474: 23473: 23470: 23466: 23463: 23462: 23461: 23458: 23454: 23451: 23449: 23446: 23444: 23441: 23439: 23436: 23434: 23431: 23430: 23429: 23426: 23424: 23421: 23419: 23416: 23414: 23411: 23410: 23408: 23406: 23402: 23396: 23393: 23389: 23386: 23384: 23381: 23380: 23379: 23378:State Council 23376: 23372: 23369: 23368: 23367: 23364: 23360: 23357: 23356: 23355: 23352: 23346: 23343: 23342: 23341: 23338: 23334: 23331: 23329: 23326: 23325: 23324: 23321: 23320: 23319: 23316: 23314: 23311: 23307: 23304: 23303: 23302: 23299: 23297: 23294: 23292: 23289: 23287: 23284: 23280: 23277: 23276: 23275: 23272: 23270: 23267: 23265: 23264:Civil service 23262: 23261: 23259: 23257: 23253: 23243: 23240: 23238: 23235: 23233: 23230: 23226: 23223: 23222: 23221: 23218: 23214: 23211: 23209: 23206: 23205: 23204: 23201: 23199: 23196: 23195: 23193: 23191: 23187: 23183: 23180: 23178: 23174: 23164: 23161: 23159: 23156: 23154: 23151: 23149: 23146: 23145: 23143: 23141: 23137: 23125: 23122: 23120: 23117: 23116: 23115: 23112: 23110: 23107: 23105: 23102: 23100: 23097: 23095: 23092: 23090: 23087: 23085: 23082: 23080: 23077: 23075: 23072: 23071: 23069: 23067: 23063: 23055: 23052: 23050: 23047: 23045: 23042: 23040: 23037: 23036: 23034: 23032: 23029: 23027: 23024: 23022: 23019: 23017: 23014: 23012: 23009: 23007: 23004: 23003: 23001: 22997: 22991: 22988: 22986: 22983: 22981: 22977: 22973: 22970: 22968: 22965: 22961: 22958: 22956: 22953: 22952: 22951: 22948: 22946: 22943: 22941: 22938: 22936: 22933: 22931: 22928: 22926: 22923: 22921: 22918: 22916: 22913: 22912: 22910: 22906: 22898: 22895: 22893: 22890: 22889: 22888: 22885: 22881: 22878: 22876: 22873: 22872: 22871: 22870:South Central 22868: 22866: 22863: 22861: 22858: 22856: 22853: 22852: 22850: 22848: 22844: 22838: 22835: 22833: 22830: 22828: 22825: 22823: 22820: 22819: 22816: 22813: 22811: 22807: 22795: 22792: 22790: 22787: 22785: 22782: 22780: 22777: 22775: 22772: 22771: 22770: 22767: 22763: 22760: 22758: 22755: 22754: 22753: 22750: 22748: 22745: 22744: 22742: 22740: 22736: 22728: 22725: 22723: 22720: 22718: 22715: 22714: 22713: 22710: 22708: 22705: 22703: 22700: 22698: 22695: 22693: 22690: 22688: 22685: 22683: 22680: 22678: 22675: 22673: 22670: 22668: 22665: 22663: 22660: 22658: 22657:Jin (266–420) 22655: 22651: 22648: 22646: 22643: 22641: 22638: 22637: 22636: 22633: 22631: 22628: 22626: 22623: 22622: 22620: 22618: 22614: 22606: 22603: 22601: 22598: 22596: 22593: 22592: 22591: 22588: 22584: 22581: 22580: 22579: 22576: 22574: 22571: 22570: 22568: 22566: 22562: 22554: 22551: 22549: 22546: 22544: 22541: 22540: 22539: 22536: 22534: 22531: 22530: 22528: 22526: 22522: 22516: 22513: 22511: 22508: 22506: 22503: 22501: 22500:Ethnic groups 22498: 22494: 22491: 22489: 22486: 22484: 22481: 22480: 22478: 22476: 22473: 22471: 22468: 22466: 22463: 22461: 22458: 22456: 22453: 22452: 22450: 22446: 22443: 22441: 22437: 22433: 22429: 22422: 22417: 22415: 22410: 22408: 22403: 22402: 22399: 22387: 22384: 22382: 22381: 22377: 22375: 22372: 22370: 22367: 22365: 22362: 22360: 22357: 22355: 22352: 22351: 22349: 22345: 22339: 22336: 22334: 22331: 22329: 22326: 22324: 22321: 22319: 22316: 22315: 22313: 22309: 22303: 22300: 22298: 22295: 22293: 22290: 22288: 22285: 22283: 22280: 22278: 22275: 22273: 22270: 22268: 22265: 22263: 22260: 22258: 22255: 22253: 22250: 22248: 22245: 22243: 22240: 22238: 22235: 22233: 22230: 22229: 22227: 22223: 22218: 22208: 22205: 22203: 22200: 22196: 22193: 22191: 22188: 22186: 22183: 22182: 22181: 22178: 22174: 22171: 22169: 22166: 22164: 22161: 22160: 22159: 22156: 22154: 22151: 22149: 22146: 22142: 22139: 22137: 22134: 22132: 22129: 22128: 22127: 22124: 22123: 22121: 22119: 22115: 22111: 22106: 22097: 22092: 22090: 22085: 22083: 22078: 22077: 22074: 22065: 22063:0-8047-0548-8 22059: 22055: 22051: 22047: 22044: 22040: 22036: 22034:0-7914-2315-8 22030: 22026: 22021: 22017: 22015:0-691-00015-8 22011: 22007: 22002: 22001: 21989: 21988: 21980: 21976: 21972: 21968: 21967: 21959: 21954: 21942: 21938: 21937: 21931: 21927: 21921: 21917: 21916: 21911: 21910:Yao, Xinzhong 21907: 21892: 21888: 21882: 21878: 21871: 21867: 21863: 21859: 21855: 21851: 21845: 21841: 21836: 21832: 21826: 21822: 21817: 21813: 21809: 21805: 21801: 21796: 21792: 21790:0-520-01371-9 21786: 21782: 21781: 21776: 21772: 21768: 21762: 21758: 21753: 21749: 21745: 21741: 21737: 21733: 21728: 21724: 21720: 21716: 21712: 21708: 21704: 21700: 21696: 21692: 21688: 21684: 21677: 21672: 21668: 21666:0-691-05525-4 21662: 21658: 21657: 21651: 21647: 21640: 21635: 21623: 21619: 21615: 21611: 21606: 21602: 21596: 21592: 21591: 21585: 21581: 21579:0-8248-1724-9 21575: 21571: 21570: 21564: 21561: 21559:962-209-443-0 21555: 21551: 21547: 21543: 21539: 21535: 21534: 21528: 21525: 21519: 21515: 21514: 21508: 21504: 21500: 21495: 21491: 21485: 21482:. Routledge. 21481: 21480: 21474: 21459: 21455: 21448: 21443: 21439: 21435: 21431: 21427: 21423: 21419: 21415: 21410: 21406: 21404:0-8108-6637-4 21400: 21396: 21391: 21387: 21381: 21377: 21376: 21370: 21366: 21362: 21355: 21350: 21346: 21340: 21336: 21335: 21329: 21324: 21319: 21315: 21311: 21310: 21305: 21300: 21296: 21294:0-521-53823-8 21290: 21286: 21285: 21279: 21275: 21269: 21265: 21264: 21258: 21243: 21239: 21233: 21226: 21225: 21220: 21216: 21212: 21206: 21202: 21201: 21195: 21191: 21189:1-85109-626-4 21185: 21181: 21180: 21174: 21159: 21155: 21151: 21147: 21143: 21139: 21135: 21128: 21123: 21119: 21113: 21109: 21108: 21102: 21095: 21091: 21083: 21076: 21072: 21066: 21062: 21061: 21055: 21051: 21045: 21041: 21040: 21035: 21031: 21027: 21023: 21019: 21014: 21009: 21004: 21000: 20996: 20992: 20987: 20983: 20977: 20973: 20972: 20966: 20962: 20956: 20952: 20951: 20945: 20941: 20935: 20931: 20930: 20924: 20920: 20914: 20910: 20909: 20903: 20899: 20893: 20889: 20888: 20882: 20877: 20872: 20868: 20864: 20860: 20855: 20852: 20850:962-996-123-7 20846: 20842: 20838: 20834: 20830: 20826: 20822: 20818: 20814: 20809: 20805: 20799: 20795: 20794: 20789: 20785: 20781: 20779:0-8047-2756-2 20775: 20770: 20769: 20762: 20758: 20752: 20748: 20747: 20741: 20737: 20731: 20727: 20726: 20720: 20716: 20710: 20706: 20702: 20697: 20693: 20691:1-84519-086-6 20687: 20683: 20682: 20676: 20672: 20666: 20662: 20658: 20654: 20650: 20644: 20640: 20639: 20633: 20629: 20625: 20620: 20615: 20611: 20607: 20603: 20598: 20594: 20590: 20586: 20581: 20577: 20572: 20569: 20563: 20559: 20558: 20552: 20537: 20533: 20531:0-8248-2837-2 20527: 20520: 20519: 20513: 20509: 20507:0-415-30799-6 20503: 20499: 20498: 20492: 20489: 20488: 20483: 20482: 20477: 20476: 20470: 20469: 20463: 20460: 20456: 20452: 20448: 20444: 20440: 20436: 20430: 20429: 20424: 20420: 20417: 20411: 20407: 20402: 20398: 20394: 20387: 20382: 20379: 20373: 20369: 20362: 20357: 20353: 20347: 20343: 20338: 20334: 20328: 20324: 20319: 20315: 20309: 20305: 20300: 20296: 20292: 20288: 20287: 20279: 20274: 20270: 20266: 20262: 20258: 20255:(2): 87–119. 20254: 20250: 20245: 20241: 20235: 20231: 20230: 20224: 20220: 20216: 20209: 20204: 20200: 20194: 20190: 20189: 20183: 20176: 20175: 20169: 20161: 20160: 20154: 20150: 20149: 20143: 20142: 20129: 20122: 20115: 20110: 20102: 20100:0-19-518835-7 20096: 20092: 20088: 20084: 20077: 20070: 20065: 20064: 20059: 20052: 20045: 20040: 20034: 20030: 20023: 20016: 20011: 20005: 20001: 19997: 19990: 19982: 19976: 19972: 19971: 19963: 19955: 19949: 19945: 19944: 19936: 19934: 19932: 19930: 19928: 19926: 19924: 19922: 19920: 19918: 19916: 19914: 19912: 19904: 19899: 19897: 19888: 19887: 19882: 19875: 19867: 19866: 19858: 19850: 19848:0-905578-49-X 19844: 19840: 19833: 19826: 19821: 19819: 19817: 19808: 19804: 19800: 19793: 19791: 19789: 19787: 19785: 19777: 19772: 19763: 19759: 19752: 19744: 19740: 19736: 19729: 19721: 19719:81-208-0262-4 19715: 19711: 19704: 19702: 19700: 19698: 19696: 19694: 19692: 19690: 19688: 19686: 19677: 19670: 19662: 19660:0-306-48321-1 19656: 19652: 19648: 19641: 19633: 19629: 19622: 19614: 19612:0-521-49712-4 19608: 19604: 19603: 19595: 19593: 19591: 19582: 19580:0-295-97644-6 19576: 19572: 19565: 19549: 19545: 19539: 19523: 19519: 19515: 19509: 19501: 19497: 19490: 19474: 19470: 19469:world.wng.org 19466: 19463:Cheng, June. 19459: 19451: 19447: 19441: 19426: 19422: 19416: 19408: 19407:The Economist 19404: 19398: 19390: 19386: 19380: 19372: 19366: 19358: 19356:1-137-42787-6 19352: 19348: 19347: 19339: 19337: 19335: 19333: 19324: 19320: 19316: 19310: 19295:on 8 May 2018 19294: 19290: 19284: 19278: 19273: 19262: 19256: 19249: 19244: 19235: 19228: 19223: 19217:, p. 66. 19216: 19215:Madsen (2010) 19211: 19204: 19199: 19191: 19189:981-02-2287-4 19185: 19181: 19177: 19176: 19168: 19160: 19154: 19150: 19143: 19134: 19133: 19127: 19126:Burgess, Alan 19121: 19113: 19109: 19102: 19091: 19087: 19080: 19073: 19066: 19061: 19054: 19049: 19047: 19039: 19034: 19032: 19024: 19019: 19012: 19007: 19005: 18997: 18992: 18985: 18980: 18973: 18968: 18960: 18958:0-8223-2549-7 18954: 18950: 18943: 18941: 18931: 18929:1-934043-14-1 18925: 18921: 18920: 18912: 18905: 18900: 18896: 18892: 18888: 18881: 18874: 18869: 18867:3-11-017829-X 18863: 18859: 18852: 18850: 18848: 18846: 18837: 18835:7-5085-0999-4 18831: 18827: 18820: 18818: 18810: 18805: 18797: 18793: 18789: 18781: 18777: 18773: 18765: 18757: 18751: 18747: 18740: 18738: 18729: 18723: 18719: 18712: 18696: 18692: 18688: 18684: 18680: 18676: 18672: 18668: 18661: 18659: 18657: 18655: 18646: 18640: 18636: 18635: 18627: 18619: 18617:0-8240-9620-7 18613: 18609: 18608: 18600: 18592: 18590:0-8047-4684-2 18586: 18582: 18581: 18573: 18571: 18562: 18560:3-11-080411-5 18556: 18552: 18545: 18543: 18541: 18529: 18525: 18518: 18511: 18503: 18497: 18493: 18486: 18478: 18472: 18468: 18461: 18453: 18447: 18443: 18439: 18433: 18431: 18429: 18420: 18414: 18410: 18406: 18400: 18398: 18396: 18394: 18386: 18381: 18379: 18371: 18366: 18359: 18354: 18347: 18342: 18335: 18330: 18323: 18318: 18316: 18308: 18303: 18301: 18299: 18291: 18286: 18278: 18274: 18267: 18251: 18247: 18241: 18233: 18226: 18218: 18216:0-691-05779-6 18212: 18208: 18201: 18194: 18193: 18189: 18186: 18179: 18177: 18169: 18163: 18156: 18150: 18139: 18135: 18131: 18124: 18117: 18115: 18103: 18099: 18092: 18085: 18083: 18081: 18079: 18077: 18075: 18073: 18071: 18064:, p. 80. 18063: 18058: 18052:, p. 46. 18051: 18046: 18037: 18035:0-521-78386-0 18031: 18027: 18020: 18012: 18006: 18002: 17995: 17987: 17981: 17977: 17967: 17960: 17955: 17953: 17951: 17949: 17947: 17939: 17934: 17927: 17922: 17916:, p. 93. 17915: 17910: 17908: 17906: 17904: 17902: 17900: 17890: 17888:90-04-11208-1 17884: 17880: 17876: 17869: 17863:, p. 42. 17862: 17861:Nadeau (2012) 17857: 17849: 17843: 17836: 17831: 17824: 17819: 17812: 17807: 17800: 17795: 17789:, p. 34. 17788: 17783: 17781: 17774:, p. 29. 17773: 17768: 17766: 17758: 17753: 17746: 17741: 17734: 17729: 17722: 17717: 17715: 17707: 17702: 17700: 17698: 17688: 17684: 17680: 17676: 17672: 17668: 17664: 17657: 17655: 17653: 17651: 17649: 17641: 17636: 17629: 17624: 17622: 17620: 17618: 17616: 17608: 17603: 17596: 17591: 17584: 17579: 17571: 17567: 17560: 17553: 17548: 17542:, p. 10. 17541: 17536: 17530:, p. 12. 17529: 17524: 17522: 17514: 17509: 17501: 17495: 17491: 17487: 17481: 17474: 17469: 17461: 17454: 17446: 17442: 17435: 17433: 17431: 17424:, p. 13. 17423: 17422:Palmer (2011) 17418: 17416: 17414: 17406: 17405:Palmer (2011) 17401: 17394: 17389: 17387: 17380:, p. 11. 17379: 17378:Palmer (2011) 17374: 17367: 17366:Palmer (2011) 17362: 17356:, p. 29. 17355: 17354:Palmer (2011) 17350: 17344:, p. 23. 17343: 17342:Palmer (2011) 17338: 17332:, p. 12. 17331: 17330:Palmer (2011) 17326: 17319: 17314: 17308:, p. 17. 17307: 17306:Palmer (2011) 17302: 17295: 17294:Palmer (2011) 17290: 17284:, p. 19. 17283: 17282:Palmer (2011) 17278: 17276: 17267: 17263: 17259: 17251: 17243: 17237: 17233: 17226: 17217: 17211: 17207: 17200: 17194:, p. 49. 17193: 17188: 17181: 17176: 17168: 17164: 17163:Zhejiang News 17160: 17152: 17141: 17137: 17133: 17129: 17125: 17121: 17117: 17110: 17103: 17096: 17091: 17079: 17075: 17071: 17067: 17063: 17056: 17050: 17048: 17046: 17038: 17033: 17026: 17025:Madsen (2010) 17021: 17014: 17009: 17007: 16998: 16993:, p. 23. 16992: 16987: 16985: 16976: 16971:, p. 21. 16970: 16965: 16957: 16951: 16946: 16939: 16934: 16932: 16924: 16919: 16912: 16907: 16899: 16895: 16891: 16887: 16883: 16876: 16874: 16866: 16865:Teiser (1995) 16861: 16853: 16847: 16843: 16839: 16832: 16830: 16828: 16826: 16819:pp. 241, 246. 16816: 16814:0-226-06456-5 16810: 16806: 16799: 16792: 16791:Fowler (2005) 16787: 16785: 16776: 16772: 16765: 16758: 16753: 16747:, p. 90. 16746: 16741: 16734: 16729: 16722: 16717: 16706: 16702: 16698: 16691: 16684: 16677: 16672: 16670: 16662: 16657: 16655: 16653: 16646:, p. 41. 16645: 16640: 16638: 16636: 16628: 16623: 16616: 16611: 16604: 16599: 16593:, p. 40. 16592: 16587: 16585: 16583: 16581: 16579: 16571: 16566: 16560:, p. 28. 16559: 16554: 16547: 16542: 16536:, p. 25. 16535: 16530: 16521: 16515: 16511: 16504: 16497: 16492: 16486:, p. 81. 16485: 16480: 16473: 16472:Teiser (1996) 16468: 16466: 16464: 16457:, p. 33. 16456: 16455:Teiser (1996) 16451: 16444: 16439: 16432: 16427: 16421:, p. 71. 16420: 16415: 16408: 16403: 16401: 16394:, p. 13. 16393: 16388: 16386: 16377: 16373: 16368: 16367: 16358: 16352:, p. 64. 16351: 16346: 16339: 16334: 16332: 16330: 16322: 16317: 16310: 16305: 16298: 16293: 16286: 16281: 16274:. p. 23. 16273: 16269: 16263: 16256: 16255:Didier (2009) 16251: 16243: 16241:0-7914-4114-8 16237: 16233: 16226: 16219: 16214: 16207: 16202: 16195: 16191: 16190:Didier (2009) 16186: 16179: 16174: 16167: 16162: 16155: 16150: 16143: 16138: 16131: 16126: 16120:, p. 53. 16119: 16114: 16108:, p. 18. 16107: 16102: 16100: 16093:, p. 17. 16092: 16087: 16085: 16077: 16072: 16070: 16062: 16057: 16055: 16047: 16042: 16036:, p. 39. 16035: 16030: 16028: 16026: 16024: 16014: 16010: 16005: 16000: 15996: 15992: 15988: 15981: 15968: 15962: 15953: 15947: 15944:. Routledge. 15943: 15936: 15925: 15921: 15914: 15903: 15899: 15892: 15884: 15882: 15873: 15869: 15864: 15859: 15855: 15851: 15847: 15839: 15837: 15835: 15833: 15821: 15814: 15806: 15804: 15802: 15800: 15798: 15796: 15794: 15792: 15784: 15779: 15760: 15753: 15746: 15739: 15738:Dubois (2005) 15734: 15727: 15723: 15719: 15710: 15704: 15697: 15696: 15692: 15686: 15678: 15674: 15670: 15666: 15662: 15658: 15651: 15642: 15636: 15633:. Routledge. 15632: 15625: 15616: 15610: 15606: 15599: 15591: 15587: 15586: 15578: 15570: 15566: 15559: 15557: 15549: 15544: 15542: 15534: 15529: 15527: 15519: 15515: 15511: 15507: 15503: 15502:Wusheng Laomu 15499: 15495: 15491: 15490:Guanyin Laomu 15487: 15483: 15479: 15474: 15467: 15462: 15455: 15450: 15443: 15438: 15430: 15426: 15421: 15413: 15409: 15405: 15401: 15397: 15393: 15389: 15385: 15378: 15376: 15374: 15372: 15370: 15368: 15366: 15356: 15350: 15345: 15338: 15333: 15326: 15321: 15308: 15301: 15294: 15286: 15282: 15274: 15267: 15265: 15256: 15252: 15244: 15237: 15235: 15227: 15226:Zhongguo Dili 15223: 15218: 15214: 15210: 15206: 15200: 15192: 15188: 15186:2-7467-0264-9 15182: 15178: 15174: 15167: 15158: 15152: 15148: 15141: 15133: 15126: 15118: 15114: 15107: 15096: 15092: 15084: 15078: 15073: 15071: 15062: 15058: 15052: 15041: 15037: 15033: 15029: 15025: 15018: 15010: 15001: 14997: 14993: 14989: 14985: 14981: 14974: 14963: 14959: 14955: 14951: 14947: 14943: 14939: 14932: 14925: 14915: 14910: 14906: 14902: 14898: 14891: 14889: 14879: 14877: 14875: 14873: 14861: 14854: 14848: 14829: 14825: 14818: 14812: 14804: 14800: 14796: 14788: 14780: 14774: 14770: 14765: 14758: 14753: 14747: 14741: 14739: 14737: 14735: 14733: 14731: 14729: 14727: 14725: 14713: 14709: 14705: 14701: 14697: 14690: 14682: 14680: 14678: 14676: 14674: 14665: 14659: 14654: 14643: 14639: 14635: 14631: 14627: 14620: 14613: 14605: 14598: 14596: 14594: 14585: 14581: 14575: 14573: 14563: 14559: 14555: 14551: 14547: 14543: 14536: 14525: 14521: 14517: 14513: 14506: 14504: 14495: 14488: 14483: 14476: 14471: 14464: 14459: 14452: 14448: 14443: 14431: 14422: 14418: 14413: 14395: 14386: 14377: 14373: 14372:Palmer (2011) 14368: 14361: 14356: 14350:, p. 10. 14349: 14344: 14337: 14332: 14330: 14321: 14319:1-139-82739-1 14315: 14311: 14304: 14302: 14295:, p. xv. 14294: 14289: 14282: 14277: 14262: 14258: 14251: 14244: 14239: 14231: 14227: 14223: 14222: 14214: 14207: 14199: 14193: 14189: 14182: 14174: 14168: 14164: 14157: 14149: 14143: 14139: 14132: 14124: 14118: 14114: 14107: 14100: 14095: 14087: 14081: 14077: 14073: 14066: 14058: 14052: 14048: 14044: 14040: 14034: 14026: 14020: 14016: 14015: 14007: 14005: 13997: 13992: 13984: 13977: 13971:, p. 45. 13970: 13965: 13959:, p. 51. 13958: 13953: 13951: 13944:, p. 43. 13943: 13938: 13930: 13926: 13921: 13916: 13912: 13908: 13904: 13900: 13896: 13892: 13888: 13881: 13874: 13869: 13863:, p. 50. 13862: 13857: 13855: 13843: 13839: 13832: 13825: 13823: 13821: 13819: 13817: 13809: 13804: 13798:, p. 46. 13797: 13792: 13784: 13782:0-8027-1361-0 13778: 13774: 13773: 13765: 13758: 13752: 13748: 13741: 13733: 13727: 13722: 13720: 13718: 13710: 13705: 13698: 13694: 13689: 13683:, p. 42. 13682: 13677: 13670: 13665: 13658: 13653: 13651: 13644:, p. 18. 13643: 13638: 13631: 13626: 13619: 13614: 13607: 13602: 13595: 13590: 13584:, p. 19. 13583: 13578: 13571: 13566: 13559: 13554: 13552: 13544: 13539: 13532: 13527: 13520: 13515: 13508: 13503: 13496: 13491: 13484: 13479: 13472: 13467: 13460: 13459:Didier (2009) 13455: 13448: 13443: 13436: 13435:Didier (2009) 13431: 13424: 13419: 13417: 13410:, p. 43. 13409: 13404: 13402: 13400: 13392: 13388: 13383: 13372: 13365: 13360: 13353: 13352:Didier (2009) 13348: 13341: 13340:Didier (2009) 13336: 13330:, p. 55. 13329: 13324: 13316: 13314:0-674-11673-9 13310: 13306: 13299: 13292: 13287: 13271: 13267: 13266: 13261: 13255: 13240: 13236: 13230: 13222: 13218: 13214: 13210: 13206: 13202: 13195: 13187: 13186: 13178: 13176: 13168: 13163: 13147: 13143: 13137: 13130: 13129:Teiser (1996) 13125: 13123: 13114: 13110: 13106: 13100: 13096: 13089: 13087: 13079: 13074: 13068: 13064: 13057: 13055: 13039: 13038: 13033: 13027: 13012: 13011: 13006: 12999: 12997: 12989: 12985: 12981: 12967: 12963: 12956: 12945: 12944: 12936: 12934: 12922: 12918: 12914: 12907: 12900: 12898: 12896: 12894: 12892: 12890: 12888: 12886: 12876: 12870: 12851: 12844: 12839: 12835: 12831: 12830:release No. 2 12827: 12823: 12822:release No. 1 12819: 12813: 12811: 12809: 12798: 12788: 12784: 12780: 12776: 12772: 12768: 12764: 12757: 12752: 12745: 12741: 12737: 12733: 12729: 12722: 12717: 12712: 12708: 12699: 12692: 12688: 12687: 12685: 12679: 12677: 12675: 12673: 12668: 12651: 12647: 12643: 12637: 12630: 12621: 12617: 12608: 12604: 12595: 12591: 12580: 12567: 12566: 12561: 12552: 12548: 12544: 12535: 12534: 12524: 12520: 12516: 12515: 12510: 12506: 12505: 12494: 12484: 12480: 12470: 12460: 12450: 12445: 12436: 12435: 12433: 12429: 12420: 12416: 12412: 12411: 12403: 12396: 12392: 12391:Five Classics 12382: 12378: 12374: 12370: 12366: 12362: 12358: 12357: 12352: 12351: 12346: 12342: 12337: 12330: 12326: 12325: 12320: 12319: 12314: 12311: 12302: 12301: 12296: 12291: 12287: 12282: 12278: 12273: 12269: 12264: 12260: 12254: 12244: 12237: 12233: 12224: 12215: 12206: 12197: 12193: 12192: 12182: 12173: 12164: 12155: 12146: 12137: 12128: 12124: 12120: 12115: 12111: 12102: 12099:(p. 74), the 12093: 12084: 12077: 12067: 12057: 12047: 12038: 12029: 12026: 12022: 12013: 12012: 12008: 12001: 11995: 11988: 11984: 11983:Taoist clergy 11977: 11967: 11965: 11960: 11951: 11948: 11946: 11943: 11941: 11938: 11936: 11933: 11931: 11928: 11926: 11923: 11921: 11918: 11916: 11913: 11911: 11908: 11907: 11899: 11896: 11894: 11891: 11889: 11886: 11884: 11881: 11879: 11876: 11875: 11871: 11865: 11860: 11857: 11846: 11839: 11837: 11833: 11829: 11825: 11821: 11817: 11807: 11803: 11799: 11795: 11791: 11787: 11783: 11779: 11775: 11774: 11768: 11766: 11762: 11758: 11753: 11751: 11747: 11741: 11737: 11727: 11725: 11721: 11717: 11713: 11709: 11704: 11702: 11698: 11694: 11689: 11687: 11683: 11679: 11675: 11665: 11661: 11657: 11653: 11652: 11647: 11639: 11635: 11631: 11630:Shinto shrine 11627: 11618: 11616: 11612: 11603: 11594: 11589: 11587: 11583: 11579: 11575: 11571: 11566: 11564: 11560: 11556: 11551: 11549: 11545: 11541: 11537: 11533: 11529: 11525: 11521: 11517: 11516: 11511: 11507: 11502: 11500: 11496: 11492: 11491: 11486: 11482: 11478: 11474: 11469: 11467: 11463: 11459: 11450: 11441: 11432: 11423: 11410: 11406: 11405:clay figurine 11401: 11394: 11384: 11380: 11375: 11369: 11359: 11357: 11353: 11352:popular sects 11349: 11345: 11341: 11337: 11333: 11327: 11325: 11321: 11317: 11312: 11308: 11304: 11300: 11296: 11292: 11288: 11284: 11279: 11277: 11276: 11271: 11267: 11263: 11259: 11255: 11251: 11246: 11244: 11240: 11236: 11231: 11227: 11212:Manichaeism ( 11207: 11202: 11195: 11191: 11187: 11183: 11178: 11173: 11163: 11161: 11157: 11153: 11149: 11145: 11141: 11137: 11136: 11135:Bhagavad Gita 11131: 11127: 11118: 11114: 11113: 11108: 11098: 11094: 11089: 11087: 11083: 11082: 11077: 11073: 11069: 11065: 11061: 11057: 11056: 11051: 11046: 11044: 11043: 11038: 11034: 11030: 11026: 11025: 11020: 11016: 11012: 11008: 11004: 11000: 10996: 10992: 10988: 10983: 10981: 10977: 10973: 10969: 10964: 10960: 10956: 10952: 10943: 10936: 10932: 10927: 10922: 10907: 10905: 10896: 10887: 10878: 10872: 10862: 10860: 10855: 10853: 10849: 10844: 10842: 10838: 10834: 10830: 10826: 10822: 10818: 10814: 10810: 10806: 10792: 10785: 10781: 10777: 10772: 10762: 10760: 10756: 10752: 10746: 10744: 10740: 10736: 10732: 10728: 10724: 10720: 10716: 10712: 10708: 10704: 10699: 10697: 10693: 10689: 10685: 10681: 10677: 10673: 10669: 10665: 10661: 10657: 10653: 10652: 10647: 10643: 10639: 10635: 10631: 10626: 10622: 10618: 10614: 10613:Dungan Revolt 10610: 10605: 10603: 10599: 10595: 10591: 10587: 10583: 10579: 10578: 10573: 10569: 10565: 10561: 10556: 10554: 10550: 10546: 10542: 10538: 10534: 10529: 10527: 10523: 10519: 10515: 10511: 10502: 10493: 10485: 10480: 10473: 10472: 10466: 10459: 10454: 10449: 10445: 10435: 10432: 10429: 10425: 10420: 10418: 10412: 10410: 10406: 10405: 10404:The Economist 10400: 10399: 10394: 10390: 10385: 10383: 10379: 10375: 10371: 10366: 10363: 10359: 10355: 10351: 10347: 10341: 10337: 10335: 10331: 10327: 10323: 10319: 10315: 10311: 10307: 10303: 10298: 10296: 10292: 10288: 10284: 10278: 10276: 10272: 10268: 10264: 10260: 10256: 10251: 10249: 10245: 10241: 10237: 10232: 10228: 10224: 10220: 10214: 10212: 10203: 10199: 10190: 10186: 10182: 10173: 10164: 10160: 10156: 10147: 10143: 10134: 10130: 10121: 10120:Protestantism 10117: 10108: 10104: 10095: 10088: 10084: 10080: 10073: 10068: 10062: 10058: 10053: 10046: 10041: 10036: 10032: 10028: 10022: 10007: 10004: 9998: 9987: 9977: 9973: 9963: 9957: 9955: 9951: 9947: 9946:Zhuang people 9943: 9933: 9921: 9911: 9909: 9903: 9901: 9892: 9888: 9884: 9880: 9874: 9864: 9860: 9857: 9853: 9848: 9846: 9842: 9838: 9833: 9826: 9822: 9818: 9808: 9803: 9793: 9791: 9787: 9782: 9777: 9773: 9768: 9762: 9759: 9754: 9750: 9740: 9738: 9733: 9729: 9723: 9721: 9717: 9713: 9709: 9708: 9703: 9702: 9696: 9694: 9690: 9677: 9673: 9672: 9666: 9659: 9655: 9651: 9647: 9643: 9638: 9633: 9623: 9621: 9617: 9614:), Lady Sun ( 9613: 9609: 9605: 9601: 9597: 9593: 9588: 9586: 9582: 9578: 9577: 9572: 9567: 9565: 9561: 9555: 9545: 9543: 9539: 9535: 9531: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9517: 9508: 9504: 9503:Manchu people 9498: 9488: 9486: 9482: 9478: 9473: 9471: 9467: 9463: 9459: 9455: 9451: 9447: 9443: 9439: 9427: 9423: 9422:Dongba script 9418: 9413: 9403: 9401: 9397: 9396: 9391: 9386: 9384: 9380: 9376: 9372: 9368: 9364: 9355: 9347: 9342: 9337: 9327: 9325: 9321: 9317: 9313: 9308: 9306: 9302: 9297: 9292: 9290: 9286: 9276: 9272: 9268: 9257: 9247: 9245: 9235: 9231: 9227: 9223: 9219: 9206: 9202: 9197: 9192: 9182: 9180: 9176: 9172: 9162: 9160: 9156: 9147: 9139:(in Chinese: 9138: 9134: 9130: 9115: 9111: 9107: 9098: 9092: 9082: 9080: 9079:Xishuangbanna 9076: 9072: 9068: 9064: 9060: 9056: 9052: 9047: 9037: 9035: 9031: 9027: 9023: 9019: 9015: 9011: 9007: 9004: 9000: 8997: 8993: 8989: 8985: 8981: 8975: 8965: 8963: 8959: 8955: 8954: 8949: 8947: 8946:Nirvana Sutra 8942: 8941: 8936: 8935: 8930: 8929: 8924: 8920: 8916: 8912: 8908: 8902: 8892: 8890: 8886: 8881: 8879: 8875: 8871: 8867: 8863: 8859: 8855: 8851: 8850: 8845: 8841: 8837: 8833: 8829: 8828: 8823: 8814: 8806: 8801: 8794: 8790: 8789:Samantabhadra 8785: 8778: 8775:, one of the 8774: 8770: 8766: 8761: 8756: 8746: 8744: 8737: 8736:yang ... 8734: 8730: 8724: 8722: 8721: 8704: 8700: 8698: 8683: 8681: 8676: 8667: 8663: 8655: 8651: 8641: 8636: 8630: 8620: 8618: 8614: 8610: 8606: 8602: 8598: 8594: 8590: 8589: 8584: 8580: 8579: 8574: 8570: 8568: 8564: 8560: 8554: 8546: 8542: 8538: 8534: 8524: 8514: 8504: 8500: 8491: 8480: 8470: 8468: 8464: 8460: 8456: 8452: 8447: 8445: 8440: 8434: 8428: 8423: 8419: 8416:are celibate 8415: 8410: 8408: 8404: 8400: 8395: 8393: 8389: 8383: 8375: 8370: 8368: 8364: 8363: 8358: 8354: 8350: 8346: 8342: 8338: 8333: 8331: 8327: 8321: 8319: 8318: 8313: 8309: 8305: 8301: 8297: 8296: 8290: 8289: 8284: 8280: 8270: 8269: 8264: 8260: 8256: 8252: 8248: 8247: 8241: 8228: 8223: 8216: 8212: 8202: 8192: 8187: 8180: 8176: 8173:Altar of the 8171: 8163: 8158: 8154: 8148: 8138: 8136: 8127: 8118: 8114: 8105: 8095: 8093: 8089: 8080: 8071: 8067: 8063: 8059: 8058:Kǒngshèngtáng 8050: 8045: 8043: 8042:Rújiào Dàotán 8034: 8025: 8015: 8005: 8004:Yidan xuetang 8001: 7997: 7992: 7990: 7986: 7977: 7968: 7964: 7960: 7946: 7945: 7936: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7920: 7917:of Dingfang, 7916: 7912: 7908: 7904: 7901: 7896: 7892: 7887: 7885: 7884: 7878: 7876: 7872: 7868: 7863: 7861: 7857: 7853: 7849: 7848: 7843: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7831: 7826: 7822: 7818: 7814: 7808: 7805: 7801: 7797: 7793: 7789: 7784: 7782: 7778: 7774: 7770: 7766: 7762: 7758: 7754: 7749: 7747: 7743: 7739: 7730: 7721: 7712: 7703: 7702: 7691: 7687: 7683: 7679: 7676:According to 7674: 7672: 7668: 7664: 7663:Liang Shuming 7660: 7659:Enlightenment 7655: 7651: 7647: 7627: 7619: 7606: 7596: 7592: 7588: 7584: 7579: 7575: 7569: 7565: 7555: 7553: 7549: 7540: 7530: 7520: 7515: 7513: 7504: 7495: 7467: 7463: 7454: 7445: 7435: 7433: 7429: 7425: 7420: 7416: 7412: 7408: 7404: 7400: 7396: 7392: 7376: 7372: 7367: 7365: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7348: 7340: 7336: 7327: 7318: 7309: 7308:jiùshì tuántǐ 7300: 7295: 7291: 7287: 7283: 7279: 7266: 7262: 7258: 7249: 7239: 7234: 7224: 7222: 7212: 7211: 7210: 7209: 7208: 7200: 7196: 7195: 7194: 7193: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7183: 7179: 7175: 7171: 7165: 7163: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7133: 7129: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7118: 7113: 7109: 7106:), with act ( 7105: 7101: 7097: 7092: 7090: 7080: 7079: 7068: 7067: 7056: 7055: 7044: 7043: 7032: 7031: 7026: 7016: 7015: 7010: 7005: 7003: 6999: 6995: 6986: 6982: 6973: 6963: 6953: 6949: 6945: 6940: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6926: 6922: 6918: 6914: 6905: 6896: 6887: 6878: 6874: 6865: 6856: 6845: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6830: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6819: 6814: 6813: 6808: 6804: 6797: 6793: 6788: 6781: 6777: 6772: 6766: 6762: 6757: 6750: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6726: 6719: 6715: 6711: 6707: 6703: 6689: 6685: 6681: 6680: 6679: 6678: 6677: 6675: 6671: 6659: 6655: 6654: 6653: 6652: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6641: 6639: 6635: 6628: 6623: 6614: 6612: 6603: 6594: 6585: 6576: 6572: 6563: 6554: 6549: 6546: 6540: 6537: 6533: 6529: 6525: 6519: 6517: 6513: 6507: 6505: 6501: 6491: 6481: 6477: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6463: 6459: 6455: 6445: 6435: 6431: 6415: 6405: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6379: 6375: 6364: 6356: 6354: 6349: 6348: 6343: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6313: 6304: 6300: 6291: 6287: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6268: 6264: 6260: 6256: 6247: 6243: 6242: 6241:Shuowen Jiezi 6232: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6202: 6200: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6170: 6160: 6146: 6145: 6140: 6136: 6135:Neo-Confucian 6132: 6128: 6124: 6123: 6118: 6109: 6108: 6102: 6100: 6099: 6094: 6090: 6089: 6079: 6078: 6073: 6070: 6066: 6065: 6055: 6043: 6040: 6032: 6029: 6021: 6018: 6015: 6006: 6003: 5995: 5992: 5991: 5990: 5983: 5974: 5973: 5963: 5959: 5950: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5916: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5893: 5891: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5848:Lineage cults 5845: 5843: 5839: 5834: 5832: 5828: 5824: 5823: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5801: 5799: 5795: 5786: 5777: 5772: 5770: 5769: 5762: 5759: 5753: 5751: 5742: 5733: 5729: 5718: 5716: 5710: 5697: 5693: 5688: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5651: 5637: 5634: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5622: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5601: 5598: 5595: 5592: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5580: 5577: 5574: 5571: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5559: 5556: 5553: 5550: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5538: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5506: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5494: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5473: 5469: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5452: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5420: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5408: 5404: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5387: 5383: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5366: 5362: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5345: 5341: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5324: 5320: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5303: 5299: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5282: 5279: 5276: 5273: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5261: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5240: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5219: 5215: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5198: 5194: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5177: 5173: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5156: 5152: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5135: 5131: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5114: 5110: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5093: 5089: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5072: 5068: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5051: 5047: 5044: 5041: 5039: 5036: 5034: 5031: 5030: 5026: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5009: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4988: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4967: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4946: 4943: 4942: 4936: 4929: 4920: 4916: 4907: 4903: 4900: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4886: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4868: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4850: 4849: 4848: 4840: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4743: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4728: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4705:western China 4702: 4698: 4693: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4670: 4661: 4657: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4630: 4628: 4622: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4595: 4591: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4572: 4571: 4561: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4535: 4534:zōngzú xiéhuì 4531: 4527: 4522: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4486: 4481: 4477: 4468: 4461: 4458:, widespread 4457: 4453: 4444: 4435: 4426: 4417: 4414: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4380: 4361: 4352: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4319: 4310: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4282: 4278: 4260: 4250: 4240: 4230: 4222: 4220: 4212: 4205: 4195: 4185: 4175: 4165: 4151: 4149: 4141: 4134: 4131: 4128: 4125: 4122: 4119: 4118: 4114: 4111: 4108: 4105: 4102: 4099: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4087: 4083: 4080: 4076: 4073: 4069: 4066: 4062: 4059: 4058:Protestantism 4054: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4042: 4038: 4035: 4031: 4028: 4024: 4021: 4017: 4014: 4009: 4008: 4004: 4001: 3998: 3995: 3992: 3990:Christianity 3989: 3988: 3984: 3981: 3978: 3975: 3972: 3969: 3968: 3964: 3961: 3958: 3955: 3952: 3949: 3948: 3944: 3941: 3938: 3935: 3932: 3929: 3928: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3902: 3899: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3883: 3880: 3877: 3874: 3871: 3868: 3865: 3862: 3859: 3856: 3855: 3851: 3848: 3845: 3842: 3839: 3836: 3833: 3830: 3827: 3824: 3823: 3819: 3816: 3813: 3810: 3807: 3804: 3801: 3798: 3795: 3792: 3791: 3787: 3784: 3781: 3778: 3775: 3772: 3769: 3766: 3763: 3760: 3759: 3755: 3752: 3749: 3746: 3743: 3740: 3737: 3734: 3731: 3728: 3727: 3723: 3720: 3717: 3714: 3711: 3708: 3705: 3702: 3699: 3696: 3695: 3691: 3688: 3685: 3682: 3679: 3676: 3673: 3670: 3667: 3664: 3663: 3659: 3656: 3653: 3650: 3647: 3644: 3641: 3638: 3635: 3632: 3631: 3627: 3612: 3609: 3606: 3603: 3600: 3597: 3596: 3592: 3589: 3586: 3583: 3580: 3577: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3565: 3561: 3558: 3554: 3551: 3547: 3544: 3540: 3537: 3536:Protestantism 3532: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3520: 3516: 3513: 3509: 3506: 3502: 3499: 3495: 3492: 3487: 3486: 3482: 3479: 3476: 3473: 3470: 3468:Christianity 3467: 3466: 3462: 3459: 3456: 3453: 3450: 3447: 3446: 3442: 3439: 3436: 3433: 3430: 3427: 3426: 3422: 3419: 3416: 3413: 3410: 3407: 3406: 3402: 3399: 3396: 3393: 3390: 3387: 3386: 3382: 3379: 3376: 3373: 3370: 3367: 3366: 3360: 3353: 3350: 3347: 3344: 3343: 3339: 3336: 3333: 3330: 3329: 3325: 3322: 3319: 3316: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3304: 3300: 3297: 3293: 3290: 3289:Protestantism 3285: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3273: 3269: 3266: 3262: 3259: 3254: 3253: 3249: 3246: 3243: 3241:Christianity 3240: 3239: 3235: 3232: 3229: 3226: 3225: 3221: 3218: 3215: 3212: 3211: 3207: 3204: 3201: 3198: 3197: 3193: 3190: 3187: 3184: 3183: 3177: 3168: 3165: 3162: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3150: 3146: 3143: 3138: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3126: 3122: 3119: 3118:Protestantism 3114: 3113: 3109: 3106: 3104:Christianity 3103: 3102: 3098: 3095: 3092: 3091: 3087: 3084: 3081: 3080: 3076: 3074:17,3 million 3073: 3070: 3069: 3065: 3062: 3059: 3058: 3054: 3051: 3048: 3047: 3043: 3040: 3037: 3036: 3030: 3023: 3020: 3019: 3015: 3012: 3011: 3007: 3004: 3003: 2999: 2996: 2995: 2991: 2989: 2988: 2983: 2982: 2978: 2975: 2974: 2970: 2967: 2966: 2962: 2959: 2958: 2954: 2951: 2950: 2945: 2938: 2926: 2921: 2919: 2914: 2912: 2907: 2906: 2902: 2900: 2899:Chan Buddhism 2896: 2891: 2889: 2885: 2879: 2877: 2873: 2868: 2864: 2859: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2837: 2833: 2830: 2825: 2822: 2818: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2706: 2705: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2671: 2670: 2668: 2667:United States 2664: 2658: 2656: 2647: 2638: 2634: 2625: 2616: 2610: 2608: 2604: 2595: 2590: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2565: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2537: 2530: 2526: 2521: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2501: 2486: 2481: 2477: 2476: 2471: 2466: 2457: 2456: 2448: 2447:of religion. 2446: 2442: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2404: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2380: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2329: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2306:state atheism 2302: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2287: 2283: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2265: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2243: 2239: 2234: 2225: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2210: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2191: 2187: 2182: 2172: 2170: 2165: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2142: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2085: 2083: 2079: 2078:Zhang Daoling 2075: 2071: 2067: 2062: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2038: 2033: 2029: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1969: 1967: 1966: 1961: 1956: 1952: 1947: 1946: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1920: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1889: 1887: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1862: 1859:, as well as 1858: 1854: 1853: 1848: 1847: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1828: 1823: 1822: 1817: 1813: 1812: 1808:based on the 1807: 1802: 1795: 1786: 1785: 1775: 1774: 1768: 1761: 1757: 1756:ecliptic pole 1753: 1749: 1746: 1742: 1732: 1722: 1720: 1715: 1713: 1709: 1704: 1701:Because many 1699: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1671: 1667: 1666:neo-Confucian 1663: 1659: 1656:. During the 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1638: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1594:state atheist 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1557: 1556:of religion. 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1538:Protestantism 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1518:atheist state 1515: 1510: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1477: 1472: 1470: 1465: 1463: 1458: 1457: 1455: 1454: 1451: 1446: 1441: 1440: 1433: 1430: 1428: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1415: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1371: 1370:South America 1366: 1365: 1358: 1355: 1353: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1343: 1340: 1338: 1335: 1333: 1330: 1328: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1318: 1315: 1313: 1310: 1308: 1305: 1303: 1300: 1298: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1289: 1286: 1281: 1280: 1273: 1272:United States 1270: 1268: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1258: 1255: 1253: 1250: 1248: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1238: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1208: 1205: 1203: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1154: 1151: 1150:North America 1146: 1145: 1136: 1133: 1131: 1128: 1126: 1123: 1121: 1118: 1117: 1116: 1113: 1111: 1108: 1106: 1103: 1101: 1098: 1096: 1093: 1091: 1088: 1086: 1083: 1081: 1078: 1076: 1073: 1071: 1068: 1066: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1056: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1046: 1043: 1041: 1038: 1036: 1033: 1031: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1016: 1013: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1005:Liechtenstein 1003: 1001: 998: 996: 993: 991: 988: 986: 983: 981: 978: 976: 973: 971: 968: 966: 963: 961: 958: 956: 953: 951: 948: 946: 943: 941: 938: 936: 933: 931: 928: 926: 923: 921: 918: 916: 913: 911: 908: 906: 903: 901: 898: 897: 894: 889: 888: 881: 878: 876: 873: 871: 868: 866: 863: 861: 858: 856: 853: 851: 848: 846: 843: 841: 838: 836: 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 816: 813: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 788: 786: 783: 781: 778: 776: 773: 771: 768: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 751: 748: 746: 743: 739: 736: 734: 731: 730: 729: 726: 724: 721: 719: 716: 714: 711: 709: 706: 704: 701: 699: 696: 694: 691: 689: 686: 684: 681: 679: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 659: 656: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 620: 617: 612: 611: 604: 601: 599: 596: 594: 591: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 549: 546: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 453:Guinea-Bissau 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 346: 344: 341: 339: 336: 335: 332: 327: 326: 323: 320: 319: 313: 309: 305: 301: 296: 290: 286: 282: 278: 273: 267: 263: 259: 254: 247: 243: 239: 235: 234: 229: 220: 210: 200: 196: 186: 176: 172: 164: 162: 149: 139: 129: 119: 109: 99: 91: 85: 77: 67: 63: 59: 55: 49: 45: 43: 38:This article 36: 27: 26: 21: 16: 24732:Dependencies 24662:Turkmenistan 24627:Saudi Arabia 24481: 24279:Christianity 24269:Confucianism 24243: 24229:Urbanization 24165:Demographics 24141:Gang of Four 24106:Four Symbols 24005:Martial arts 23779:Prostitution 23666:Architecture 23520:Central bank 23388:Vice Premier 23340:United front 23269:Constitution 23225:Penal system 23203:Human rights 23140:Subdivisions 22978: / 22974: / 22897:Southwestern 22892:Northwestern 22595:Western Zhou 22543:Yellow River 22493:1949–present 22378: 22232:Baháʼí Faith 22180:Christianity 22148:Confucianism 22117: 22109: 22053: 22042: 22024: 22005: 21985: 21964: 21945:. Retrieved 21941:the original 21935: 21914: 21898:. Retrieved 21891:the original 21876: 21839: 21820: 21803: 21799: 21779: 21756: 21739: 21735: 21698: 21694: 21682: 21655: 21645: 21626:. Retrieved 21622:the original 21617: 21613: 21589: 21568: 21549: 21532: 21512: 21502: 21478: 21465:. Retrieved 21458:the original 21453: 21421: 21418:China Report 21417: 21394: 21374: 21364: 21360: 21333: 21313: 21307: 21283: 21262: 21249:. Retrieved 21242:the original 21223: 21199: 21182:. ABC-CLIO. 21178: 21165:. Retrieved 21158:the original 21140:(4): 58–71. 21137: 21133: 21106: 21094:the original 21089: 21059: 21038: 21025: 21021: 20998: 20994: 20970: 20949: 20928: 20907: 20886: 20866: 20862: 20840: 20816: 20812: 20792: 20788:Johnson, Ian 20767: 20745: 20724: 20704: 20680: 20660: 20637: 20609: 20605: 20584: 20578:, Tokyo: ICU 20575: 20556: 20543:. Retrieved 20536:the original 20517: 20496: 20485: 20479: 20473: 20466: 20427: 20405: 20396: 20392: 20367: 20341: 20322: 20303: 20284: 20252: 20248: 20228: 20218: 20214: 20187: 20173: 20158: 20147: 20127: 20121: 20109: 20082: 20076: 20067: 20061: 20051: 20042: 20028: 20022: 20013: 19995: 19989: 19969: 19962: 19942: 19903:Ching (1993) 19884: 19874: 19864: 19857: 19838: 19832: 19825:Ching (1993) 19807:the original 19802: 19776:Ching (1993) 19771: 19762:the original 19751: 19743:the original 19738: 19728: 19709: 19669: 19650: 19640: 19631: 19627: 19621: 19601: 19570: 19564: 19552:. Retrieved 19547: 19538: 19526:. Retrieved 19518:the Guardian 19517: 19508: 19499: 19489: 19477:. Retrieved 19473:the original 19468: 19458: 19449: 19440: 19428:. Retrieved 19424: 19415: 19406: 19397: 19388: 19379: 19365: 19345: 19323:the original 19318: 19309: 19297:. Retrieved 19293:the original 19283: 19272: 19255: 19243: 19234: 19222: 19210: 19198: 19174: 19167: 19148: 19142: 19131: 19120: 19111: 19107: 19101: 19090:the original 19085: 19072: 19060: 19018: 18991: 18979: 18967: 18948: 18918: 18911: 18890: 18886: 18880: 18857: 18825: 18804: 18796:the original 18791: 18780:the original 18775: 18764: 18745: 18717: 18711: 18699:. Retrieved 18695:the original 18677:(1): 59–94. 18674: 18670: 18633: 18626: 18606: 18599: 18579: 18550: 18528:the original 18523: 18510: 18491: 18485: 18466: 18460: 18441: 18408: 18385:Kraef (2014) 18370:Kraef (2014) 18365: 18358:Kraef (2014) 18353: 18346:Kraef (2014) 18341: 18334:Kraef (2014) 18329: 18322:Kraef (2014) 18307:Kraef (2014) 18285: 18276: 18266: 18254:. Retrieved 18250:the original 18246:"南傳上座部佛教在云南" 18240: 18231: 18225: 18206: 18200: 18183: 18167: 18162: 18154: 18149: 18138:the original 18133: 18129: 18102:the original 18097: 18057: 18045: 18025: 18019: 18000: 17994: 17975: 17966: 17933: 17921: 17893:pp. 403–404. 17878: 17868: 17856: 17848:Tao Te Ching 17847: 17842: 17830: 17818: 17806: 17794: 17752: 17740: 17735:, p. 7. 17728: 17673:(4): 41–52. 17670: 17666: 17635: 17602: 17595:Craig (1998) 17590: 17578: 17570:the original 17559: 17547: 17540:Adler (2014) 17535: 17528:Adler (2014) 17508: 17489: 17480: 17475:, p. 9. 17468: 17460:Modern China 17459: 17453: 17445:the original 17400: 17373: 17361: 17349: 17337: 17325: 17318:Clart (2014) 17313: 17301: 17289: 17266:the original 17261: 17250: 17231: 17225: 17205: 17199: 17187: 17175: 17167:the original 17162: 17151: 17140:the original 17119: 17116:Modern China 17115: 17102: 17090: 17078:the original 17065: 17061: 17032: 17020: 16964: 16945: 16938:Clart (2003) 16918: 16906: 16889: 16885: 16860: 16837: 16804: 16798: 16775:the original 16764: 16752: 16740: 16728: 16716: 16705:the original 16700: 16696: 16683: 16676:Clart (2014) 16663:, p. 1. 16622: 16615:Ching (1993) 16610: 16598: 16570:Clart (2014) 16565: 16553: 16541: 16529: 16509: 16503: 16491: 16479: 16450: 16438: 16433:, p. 5. 16431:Adler (2011) 16426: 16414: 16392:Adler (2011) 16365: 16357: 16345: 16316: 16304: 16292: 16280: 16271: 16262: 16250: 16231: 16225: 16213: 16206:Adler (2011) 16201: 16193: 16185: 16178:Zhong (2014) 16173: 16166:Zhong (2014) 16161: 16149: 16137: 16125: 16113: 16048:, p. 2. 16046:Adler (2005) 16041: 15994: 15990: 15980: 15961: 15941: 15935: 15924:the original 15919: 15909:Reported in 15902:the original 15898:Jinan Muslim 15897: 15853: 15849: 15820:the original 15778: 15766:. Retrieved 15759:the original 15745: 15733: 15717: 15708: 15703: 15694: 15690: 15685: 15660: 15656: 15650: 15645:pp. 185–187. 15630: 15624: 15604: 15598: 15590:the original 15584: 15577: 15571:(1): 83–114. 15568: 15564: 15533:Ownby (2008) 15517: 15513: 15509: 15505: 15501: 15497: 15493: 15489: 15485: 15481: 15473: 15461: 15449: 15437: 15428: 15420: 15390:(1): 83–93. 15387: 15383: 15354: 15344: 15332: 15320: 15307:the original 15293: 15285:the original 15280: 15255:the original 15250: 15225: 15221: 15217:the original 15212: 15208: 15199: 15191:the original 15176: 15166: 15146: 15140: 15131: 15125: 15116: 15106: 15095:the original 15090: 15051: 15040:the original 15030:(3): 29–54. 15027: 15023: 15009: 15004:pp. 169-185. 14983: 14979: 14973: 14962:the original 14941: 14937: 14924: 14907:(244): 244. 14904: 14900: 14860:the original 14847: 14835:. Retrieved 14828:the original 14811: 14803:the original 14798: 14787: 14772: 14764: 14752: 14712:the original 14702:(3): 29–54. 14699: 14695: 14660:, p. 5. 14653: 14642:the original 14632:(3): 29–54. 14629: 14625: 14612: 14566:pp. 169-185. 14545: 14541: 14535: 14524:the original 14511: 14502: 14494: 14482: 14475:Clart (2014) 14470: 14463:Clart (2014) 14458: 14442: 14429: 14420: 14417:Clart (2014) 14412: 14393: 14384: 14375: 14367: 14355: 14343: 14338:, p. 9. 14309: 14288: 14276: 14264:. Retrieved 14260: 14250: 14238: 14219: 14206: 14187: 14181: 14162: 14156: 14137: 14131: 14112: 14106: 14094: 14071: 14065: 14042: 14039:Brown, Kerry 14033: 14013: 13991: 13982: 13976: 13964: 13937: 13894: 13890: 13880: 13868: 13842:the original 13837: 13803: 13791: 13771: 13764: 13746: 13740: 13728:, p. 9. 13704: 13696: 13693:Chang (2000) 13688: 13681:Chang (2000) 13676: 13669:Chang (2000) 13664: 13637: 13625: 13613: 13601: 13589: 13577: 13565: 13560:, p. 4. 13538: 13526: 13521:, p. 5. 13514: 13502: 13497:, p. 3. 13490: 13478: 13473:, p. 1. 13466: 13454: 13449:, p. 2. 13442: 13430: 13390: 13382: 13371: 13359: 13347: 13335: 13323: 13304: 13298: 13286: 13274:. Retrieved 13263: 13254: 13242:. Retrieved 13229: 13204: 13200: 13194: 13184: 13162: 13152:21 September 13150:. Retrieved 13145: 13136: 13094: 13076: 13062: 13041:. Retrieved 13035: 13026: 13014:. Retrieved 13008: 12980:Confucianism 12970:. Retrieved 12965: 12955: 12942: 12921:the original 12916: 12912: 12857:. Retrieved 12850:the original 12837: 12766: 12762: 12731: 12727: 12636: 12628: 12615: 12603:Yándì dàdiǎn 12602: 12589: 12579: 12563: 12559: 12542: 12531: 12512: 12502: 12493:Zhōngyuèdàdì 12492: 12482: 12468: 12458: 12448: 12444: 12427: 12418: 12414: 12408: 12402: 12380: 12373:transcendent 12368: 12360: 12354: 12348: 12344: 12340: 12336: 12322: 12316: 12309: 12298: 12285: 12276: 12267: 12258: 12253: 12243: 12222: 12213: 12204: 12195: 12189: 12180: 12171: 12162: 12153: 12144: 12135: 12126: 12122: 12118: 12113: 12109: 12100: 12091: 12082: 12076: 12066: 12061:"believing". 12056: 12046: 12037:Shénxiānjiào 12036: 12021:Zhōnghuájiào 12020: 12007: 11994: 11976: 11856:China portal 11831: 11813: 11805: 11777: 11771: 11769: 11754: 11743: 11712:Shinto sects 11705: 11693:Japanisation 11690: 11685: 11677: 11664:State Shinto 11649: 11648:-controlled 11643: 11614: 11610: 11601: 11590: 11567: 11552: 11544:fire temples 11513: 11503: 11488: 11470: 11457: 11448: 11439: 11430: 11421: 11414: 11348:Ming dynasty 11344:Yuan dynasty 11336:Song dynasty 11328: 11280: 11273: 11257: 11247: 11242: 11230:Roman Empire 11218:Móníjiào or 11211: 11133: 11132:groups (the 11125: 11110: 11096: 11090: 11079: 11071: 11063: 11053: 11047: 11040: 11036: 11032: 11028: 11022: 11019:Tang dynasty 11010: 11006: 11002: 10998: 10994: 10984: 10950: 10940: 10903: 10894: 10885: 10877:Baháʼí Faith 10874: 10865:Baháʼí Faith 10856: 10845: 10813:Kaifeng Jews 10804: 10797: 10754: 10747: 10725:, Gansu and 10709:to the Han, 10700: 10696:Kansu Braves 10664:Dong Fuxiang 10655: 10649: 10638:Dong Fuxiang 10606: 10597: 10590:architecture 10575: 10557: 10545:Yuan dynasty 10541:Song dynasty 10530: 10509: 10500: 10489: 10469: 10433: 10421: 10413: 10402: 10396: 10393:middle-class 10386: 10382:South Korean 10367: 10342: 10338: 10318:foot binding 10299: 10279: 10275:Benedict XIV 10263:Matteo Ricci 10252: 10248:Ming dynasty 10236:Yuan dynasty 10227:Nestorianism 10223:Tang dynasty 10215: 10210: 10197: 10181:Línglíngjiào 10180: 10171: 10154: 10141: 10128: 10115: 10102: 10094:Christianity 10092: 10015:Christianity 9985: 9975: 9971: 9961: 9958: 9954:Buyei people 9939: 9929: 9923: 9904: 9899: 9876: 9861: 9855: 9851: 9849: 9840: 9836: 9832:Qiang people 9830: 9816: 9763: 9746: 9741: 9737:Yuan dynasty 9731: 9724: 9719: 9715: 9712:Genghis Khan 9705: 9699: 9697: 9689:Ténggélǐjiào 9688: 9681: 9669: 9654:Ordos Desert 9646:Genghis Khan 9619: 9615: 9611: 9607: 9603: 9599: 9595: 9591: 9589: 9584: 9580: 9576:deus otiosus 9574: 9570: 9568: 9564:yin and yang 9557: 9537: 9533: 9527: 9522: 9515: 9500: 9484: 9481:Shenrab Miwo 9480: 9477:Shi-lo-mi-wu 9476: 9474: 9449: 9446:Nakhi people 9441: 9437: 9430: 9393: 9387: 9382: 9378: 9374: 9366: 9362: 9351: 9346:Aba, Sichuan 9323: 9320:Meigu County 9316:high culture 9311: 9309: 9300: 9295: 9293: 9288: 9284: 9274: 9266: 9259: 9250:Bimoism (Yi) 9233: 9225: 9217: 9210: 9168: 9154: 9145: 9132: 9128: 9105: 9094: 9061:such as the 9049: 9006:Yuan dynasty 8977: 8952: 8944: 8939: 8932: 8926: 8904: 8882: 8860:, bordering 8847: 8838:followed by 8825: 8821: 8810: 8807:of Shanghai. 8739: 8732: 8728: 8726: 8718: 8705: 8701: 8696: 8679: 8674: 8659: 8649: 8616: 8612: 8608: 8604: 8600: 8586: 8582: 8577: 8572: 8571: 8555: 8545:yīnyángshēng 8544: 8533:sanju daoshi 8532: 8523:wutou daoshi 8522: 8512: 8502: 8498: 8489: 8482: 8463:sanju daoshi 8462: 8459:sanju daoshi 8458: 8455:sanju daoshi 8454: 8448: 8439:huoju daoshi 8433:sanju daoshi 8413: 8411: 8402: 8396: 8385: 8371: 8360: 8334: 8322: 8315: 8311: 8303: 8299: 8298:). The term 8294: 8286: 8282: 8266: 8245: 8239: 8232: 8227:Ming dynasty 8134: 8125: 8112: 8103: 8096: 8087: 8079:Kǒngshènghuì 8078: 8057: 8046: 8041: 8032: 8013: 8003: 7993: 7975: 7966: 7958: 7942: 7940: 7933:era general 7919:Zhong County 7900:Qing dynasty 7888: 7881: 7879: 7871:state church 7864: 7859: 7855: 7851: 7846: 7840: 7835: 7829: 7824: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7809: 7799: 7795: 7785: 7773:cosmological 7769:metaphysical 7750: 7745: 7741: 7737: 7728: 7719: 7710: 7699: 7689: 7675: 7648: 7632: 7604: 7594: 7564:Confucianism 7558:Confucianism 7547: 7528: 7518: 7516: 7512:mìmì jiàomén 7511: 7502: 7496:doctrines" ( 7461: 7452: 7443: 7436: 7368: 7364:philanthropy 7349: 7338: 7334: 7325: 7316: 7307: 7277: 7270: 7256: 7247: 7218: 7206: 7198: 7190: 7173: 7169: 7166: 7134: 7130: 7115: 7111: 7107: 7103: 7099: 7096:yin and yang 7093: 7087:), "fateful 7076: 7064: 7052: 7040: 7028: 7012: 7006: 6993: 6980: 6971: 6951: 6941: 6912: 6903: 6895:Shénxiānjiào 6894: 6885: 6873:Zhōnghuájiào 6872: 6863: 6854: 6846: 6831: 6816: 6810: 6802: 6800: 6723: 6687: 6683: 6673: 6670:crowdfunding 6666: 6649: 6642: 6634:Mayfair Yang 6631: 6611:Shénxiānjiào 6610: 6602:Zhōnghuájiào 6601: 6592: 6583: 6570: 6561: 6552: 6550: 6541: 6535: 6531: 6520: 6511: 6508: 6503: 6500:filial piety 6489: 6479: 6478: 6473: 6469: 6465: 6464:(pronounced 6461: 6454:Tang dynasty 6443: 6433: 6427: 6403: 6394: 6373: 6345: 6341: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6311: 6302: 6298: 6289: 6285: 6276: 6272: 6271: 6266: 6258: 6254: 6245: 6239: 6230: 6221: 6206:transcendent 6203: 6198: 6167: 6158: 6142: 6120: 6116: 6105: 6103: 6096: 6093:yin and yang 6086: 6075: 6062: 6053: 6052: 6041: 6030: 6019: 6013: 6004: 5993: 5981: 5970: 5961: 5957: 5948: 5914: 5913: 5889: 5846: 5835: 5820: 5802: 5793: 5784: 5773: 5766: 5763: 5758:Xinzhong Yao 5754: 5749: 5740: 5727: 5719: 5712: 5659: 5611: 5596: 5575: 5554: 5527: 5483: 5459: 5441: 5394: 5373: 5352: 5331: 5310: 5289: 5285:Heilongjiang 5277: 5250: 5229: 5205: 5184: 5163: 5142: 5121: 5100: 5079: 5058: 5037: 5016: 4998: 4977: 4958:Christianity 4933: 4927: 4919:Way of Unity 4914: 4846: 4771: 4744: 4729: 4721:culture hero 4694: 4678:Húsān Tàinǎi 4677: 4668: 4645: 4631: 4627:yīnyángshēng 4626: 4623: 4606: 4592: 4579: 4568: 4559: 4550: 4533: 4523: 4518: 4491:Confucianism 4484: 4473: 4415: 4395:Confucianism 4360: 4351: 4318: 4309: 4281: 4259:Christianity 4229:Confucianism 4216: 4184:Christianity 4174:Confucianism 4145: 4092: 4085: 4078: 4071: 4064: 4057: 4047: 4040: 4033: 4026: 4019: 4012: 3793:Catholicism 3570: 3563: 3556: 3549: 3542: 3535: 3525: 3518: 3511: 3504: 3497: 3490: 3309: 3302: 3295: 3288: 3278: 3271: 3264: 3257: 3155: 3148: 3141: 3131: 3124: 3117: 3085:173 million 3063:185 million 3052:754 million 2985: 2892: 2880: 2866: 2860: 2858: 2849:Christianity 2702: 2699:Xinzhong Yao 2659: 2654: 2645: 2632: 2623: 2611: 2599: 2573: 2545:Yellow River 2484: 2473: 2451:Demographics 2445:sinicization 2405: 2381: 2371:. Although " 2330: 2303: 2266: 2247: 2211: 2190:Qing dynasty 2178: 2166: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2146:Tang dynasty 2143: 2091: 2063: 2041: 2035: 2030: 2025: 1989: 1975: 1963: 1954: 1950: 1943: 1939: 1934: 1932: 1927: 1917: 1890: 1866: 1850: 1844: 1835: 1825: 1819: 1815: 1814:square. The 1809: 1806:bloodletting 1782: 1771: 1760:yin and yang 1736:Pre-imperial 1716: 1700: 1676:Christianity 1674: 1658:Tang dynasty 1635: 1610: 1584:claimed the 1566:Confucianism 1563: 1554:sinicization 1548:, implement 1530:Christianity 1511: 1486: 1485: 860:Turkmenistan 820:Saudi Arabia 662: 563:South Africa 553:Sierra Leone 358:Burkina Faso 238:Song dynasty 231: 209:Christianity 158: 138:Christianity 128:folk beliefs 126: Other 89: 84: 71: 39: 15: 24791:Asia portal 24692:States with 24612:Philippines 24552:South Korea 24547:North Korea 24442:Afghanistan 24045:Variety art 24040:Tea culture 23968:Calligraphy 23953:Archaeology 23813:Food safety 23608:Gold mining 23510:Aquaculture 23505:Agriculture 23465:Coast Guard 23232:Naming laws 23066:Environment 23054:South China 22533:Paleolithic 22525:Prehistoric 22483:before 1912 22272:Manichaeism 21947:28 February 21424:(1): 1–18. 21001:(2): 3–15. 20545:15 February 20138:Works cited 20114:Chen (2012) 18438:Kværne, Per 18405:Kværne, Per 17914:Chan (2005) 17721:Chen (2012) 17706:Chen (2012) 17667:Asia Policy 17607:Chen (2012) 17486:Alitto, Guy 17473:Chen (2012) 17192:Chau (2005) 17180:Jing (1996) 16757:Yang (2007) 16733:Yang (2007) 16721:Yang (2007) 16546:Chen (2012) 16154:Jing (1996) 16130:Jing (1996) 16118:Yang (1961) 16106:Jing (1996) 16091:Jing (1996) 15997:(1): 9–16. 15768:15 February 15359:pp. 32–34.) 15337:Chan (2005) 14837:18 February 14261:reuters.com 14074:. Seattle: 13996:Bays (2012) 13873:Bays (2012) 13808:Bays (2012) 13558:Zhou (2012) 13519:Zhou (2005) 13495:Zhou (2012) 13471:Zhou (2012) 13447:Zhou (2012) 13423:Fung (2008) 13207:: 451–467. 13167:Bays (2012) 12986:as part of 12642:fire temple 12616:Dàyǔ dàdiàn 12549:and shared 12483:Xuānyuánshì 12381:Wujing Yiyi 11838:(502–549). 11726:of Shinto. 11383:Xianshenlou 11356:Xiantiandao 11326:(840–846). 11266:Aurel Stein 11186:living rock 11166:Manichaeism 11037:Pāṇinisūtra 11029:Śulvaśāstra 10719:Hui peoples 10703:Sun Yat-sen 10672:Ma Guoliang 10642:Ma Qianling 10594:calligraphy 10501:Yīsīlánjiào 10458:Linxia City 10330:Sun Yat-sen 10271:Clement XII 10172:Zhǔshénjiào 10116:Tiānzhǔjiào 9941:Shīgōngjiào 9786:joss sticks 9642:White Sulde 9560:Miao people 9534:Apka Enduri 9431:Dongbaism ( 9211:Benzhuism ( 9010:Kublai Khan 8928:Lotus Sutra 8907:Han dynasty 8773:Mount Putuo 8662:Han dynasty 8094:, Guizhou. 7976:shèqū rúxué 7959:Kǒngxuétáng 7911:Eastern Han 7792:Kang Youwei 7777:Han dynasty 7462:mìmì jiéshè 7453:mìmì shèhuì 7413:. Also the 7407:Xuanyuanism 7375:Xiantiandao 7356:millenarian 7261:Plum Flower 7089:coincidence 6218:cosmotheism 5989:("Deity"). 4950:ancestorism 4690:Han Chinese 4669:Húsān Tàiyé 4495:Nuo rituals 4013:Catholicism 3491:Catholicism 3258:Catholicism 3166:23 million 3142:Catholicism 3107:33 million 3096:12 million 2984:Believe in 2843:, 19.6% as 2584:, Zhejiang. 2388:Red Emperor 2291:Sun Yat-sen 2050:Eastern Han 2014:millenarian 1978:Qin dynasty 1972:Qin and Han 1861:TLV mirrors 1703:Han Chinese 1654:Han dynasty 1646:progenitors 1534:Catholicism 1322:New Zealand 1257:Saint Lucia 1202:El Salvador 1105:Switzerland 1040:Netherlands 810:Philippines 738:South Korea 733:North Korea 623:Afghanistan 568:South Sudan 458:Ivory Coast 308:Mount Putuo 287:located in 171:No religion 108:No religion 62:subheadings 24806:Categories 24672:Uzbekistan 24647:Tajikistan 24562:Kyrgyzstan 24542:Kazakhstan 24462:Bangladesh 24452:Azerbaijan 24306:Irreligion 24203:Statistics 24173:Emigration 24136:Four Wangs 24025:Philosophy 24010:Mass media 23993:Literature 23891:Patriarchy 23854:Propaganda 23774:Corruption 23759:Censorship 23549:E-commerce 23256:Government 23049:East China 23021:Waterfalls 22967:Peninsulas 22935:Grasslands 22207:Falun Gong 22185:Protestant 21775:Yang, C.K. 20437:; Scribd: 20393:T'oung Pao 19554:2 February 19528:2 February 19430:2 February 19038:Kao (2014) 19023:Kao (2014) 19011:Kao (2014) 18996:Kao (2014) 18984:Kao (2014) 18972:Kao (2014) 18887:Inner Asia 17959:Pas (1998) 17640:Tay (2010) 17628:Tay (2010) 17085:pp. 22–23. 16745:Law (2005) 16644:Yao (2010) 16627:Yao (2010) 16603:Yao (2010) 16591:Yao (2010) 16558:Yao (2010) 16534:Yao (2010) 16484:Yao (2010) 16376:B0006BN5QY 16142:Yao (2010) 16061:Yao (2010) 16034:Yao (2010) 15887:Data from 15277:中国少数民族艺术词典 15247:中国少数民族史大辞典 14794:大陆民间宗教管理变局 14487:Shi (2008) 14348:Yao (2010) 14336:Yao (2010) 14045:. London: 12659:References 12620:Li Yuanhao 12514:axis mundi 12434:'s texts: 12410:axis mundi 12365:Big Dipper 12343:, besides 12324:axis mundi 12194:), either 12163:xingdao de 11987:Statistics 11815:Shénmièlùn 11798:Wang Fuzhi 11701:Kuomintang 11634:Jilin city 11490:Ashem Vohu 11458:Báitóujiào 11449:Bàihuǒjiào 11243:Erzongjing 11130:Krishnaite 11107:Sun Wukong 11024:Śulvasūtra 10963:Silk Route 10904:Dàtóngjiào 10895:Bāhāyījiào 10854:movement. 10805:Yóutàijiào 10757:), and 10 10743:Red Guards 10688:Ma Yonglin 10680:Ma Fuxiang 10668:Ma Anliang 10634:Ma Anliang 10630:Ma Zhan'ao 10602:Golden Age 10267:Clement XI 10244:Franciscan 9900:Dàojiàohuà 9879:Yao people 9845:Jade Deity 9827:, Sichuan. 9753:axis mundi 9718:if males, 9704:, and the 9616:Nkauj Hnub 9608:Ntxwj Nyug 9458:literature 9438:Dōngbajiào 9222:Bai people 9218:Běnzhǔjiào 9110:Bai people 9106:Āzhālìjiào 9089:See also: 9067:Dai people 9065:-speaking 8996:post-Gupta 8811:In China, 8793:Mount Emei 8743:Jilin City 8349:divination 8217:, Jiangsu. 8215:Zhouzhuang 8181:, Jiangsu. 8151:See also: 8014:Mengmutang 7987:and their 7875:Jiang Qing 7836:Datong shu 7788:Tu Weiming 7781:He Guanghu 7671:Tu Weiming 7650:Guy Alitto 7572:See also: 7548:Méihuājiào 7466:initiatory 7360:evangelism 7263:school in 6774:Temple of 6638:grassroots 6414:Big Dipper 6214:polytheism 6178:Shakyamuni 6031:Shàng Tiān 5994:Huáng Tiān 5940:Jade Deity 5936:philosophy 5859:including 5831:joss paper 5707:See also: 4658:and other 4460:Shanrendao 4416:tout court 3651:% married 3125:30 million 2772:2012: the 2719:religions. 2574:Xiāngxuěsì 2539:Temple of 2503:Temple of 2436:Xi Jinping 2420:Sanxingdui 2377:Falun Gong 2363:, and the 2267:After the 2254:Dalai Lama 2102:Tocharians 1688:Hui people 1312:Micronesia 1182:Costa Rica 1075:San Marino 1035:Montenegro 1015:Luxembourg 870:Uzbekistan 845:Tajikistan 750:Kyrgyzstan 723:Kazakhstan 673:East Timor 643:Bangladesh 633:Azerbaijan 548:Seychelles 513:Mozambique 498:Mauritania 483:Madagascar 373:Cape Verde 314:, Zhejiang 283:depicting 199:folk sects 58:condensing 24758:Hong Kong 24712:Palestine 24637:Sri Lanka 24632:Singapore 24512:Indonesia 24193:Languages 24146:Four Olds 24101:Four arts 23988:Libraries 23918:Structure 23881:Sexuality 23818:incidents 23791:Education 23700:Transport 23576:Renewable 23571:Petroleum 23366:President 23333:Politburo 23286:Elections 23274:Democracy 23242:Terrorism 22990:Volcanoes 22972:Northeast 22950:Mountains 22860:Northeast 22810:Geography 22717:High Qing 22538:Neolithic 22510:Dynasties 22488:1912–1949 22479:Economic 22448:Overviews 22328:Northeast 22318:Hong Kong 22311:By region 22252:Dongbaism 22237:Benzhuism 21823:. Brill. 21723:156063450 21628:28 August 21438:147263039 21154:145160849 21028:: 89–109. 20974:. Brill. 20953:. Brill. 20932:. Brill. 20911:. Brill. 20825:2353-7795 20628:2353-7795 20325:. Brill. 20295:2157-9679 18792:gsqab.com 17687:154192782 17136:144130739 17074:2192-9289 17013:Do (2003) 16842:Routledge 16512:. Brill. 15872:2454-5899 15783:Lu (2014) 15726:2160-0295 15677:144510373 15412:170749557 15404:0737-769X 15149:. Brill. 15036:2192-9289 15000:144500936 14958:144425470 14919:pp. 9–11. 14901:Religions 14746:Lu (2014) 14708:2192-9289 14638:2192-9289 14562:144500936 14520:2192-2357 14266:6 October 14230:2157-9687 13911:0951-631X 13276:10 August 13221:154306318 13113:237880815 13043:12 August 12797:help page 12783:2057-150X 12740:2192-9289 12664:Citations 12551:etymology 12547:homophony 12459:Huángshén 12214:shensheng 12161:(p. 87); 12145:shen momo 11794:Zhang Zai 11697:to Taiwan 11656:Manchuria 11651:Manchukuo 11640:province. 11586:Guangzhou 11582:Hong Kong 11275:Huahujing 11250:Bactrians 11239:Wu Zetian 11196:, Fujian. 11072:Śaivāgama 11055:Daodejing 10951:Yìndùjiào 10931:Narasimha 10798:Judaism ( 10780:Synagogue 10731:Ma clique 10656:Jahariyya 10646:Ma Julung 10553:Khanbaliq 10417:Hong Kong 10259:Guangzhou 10163:heterodox 10155:Móménjiào 10146:Mormonism 10142:Zhèngjiào 10061:Guangdong 10006:if male. 9790:libations 9620:Nraug Hli 9585:txiv neeb 9542:ancestors 9412:Dongbaism 9400:Confucius 9305:Yi script 9271:Yi people 9260:Bimoism ( 9207:, Yunnan. 9191:Benzhuism 9097:Vajrayana 9091:Vajrayana 9051:Theravada 9046:Theravada 8988:Vajrayana 8874:Li people 8849:Theravada 8745:in 1988. 8697:sàmǎnjiào 8682:tradition 8345:immortals 8308:ineffable 8268:Dàodéjīng 8189:Altar to 8117:orthoprax 8113:zhèngtǒng 7923:Chongqing 7893:" as the 7761:Confucius 7757:political 7539:Meihuaism 7494:heretical 7444:huìdàomén 7411:Tiandiism 7403:Weixinism 7371:Yiguandao 7294:ancestors 7282:salvation 7259:) of the 7248:Shīzǔdiàn 7004:(Wuism). 6985:orthoprax 6981:zhèngtǒng 6765:Guangdong 6761:Guangzhou 6710:Huangling 6684:laorenhui 6674:zhongchou 6545:Hans Küng 6131:Old Texts 6119:) of the 6117:Zheng lun 6098:ex nihilo 6042:Cāng Tiān 5861:Confucius 5822:jingxiang 5692:Chongming 5510:<0.2% 5470:<0.2% 5455:Chongqing 5424:<0.2% 5384:<0.2% 5363:<0.2% 5237:<0.2% 5195:<0.2% 5174:<0.2% 5132:<0.2% 5111:<0.2% 5048:<0.2% 5033:Guangdong 5027:<0.2% 5006:<0.2% 4954:Buddhism 4944:Province 4928:Yīguàndào 4896:Manchuria 4882:Yiguandao 4837:Mongolian 4813:Dongbaism 4789:Benzhuism 4763:Hong Kong 4725:epic poem 4707:, and in 4682:pantheons 4646:chūmǎxiān 4615:Manchuria 4499:shamanism 4476:provinces 3930:Buddhism 3900:Religion 3697:Buddhism 3388:Buddhism 3368:Religion 3199:Buddhism 3185:Religion 3149:3 million 3060:Buddhism 3038:Religion 2987:feng shui 2841:Buddhists 2806:Hong Kong 2804:, and of 2704:feng shui 2603:syncretic 2596:, Fujian. 2513:Guangdong 2222:feng shui 2169:City Gods 2094:Silk Road 1994:Mount Tai 1873:animistic 1762:in unity. 1632:Axial Age 1628:cosmology 1606:Four Olds 1503:Confucian 1432:Venezuela 1377:Argentina 1292:Australia 1242:Nicaragua 1217:Guatemala 1207:Greenland 1010:Lithuania 830:Sri Lanka 825:Singapore 805:Palestine 693:Indonesia 683:Hong Kong 503:Mauritius 300:Maheśvara 74:June 2023 66:talk page 54:splitting 52:Consider 24781:Category 24702:Abkhazia 24652:Thailand 24607:Pakistan 24587:Mongolia 24582:Maldives 24577:Malaysia 24477:Cambodia 24379:Category 24252:Buddhism 24244:Religion 24221:Post-90s 24214:Post-80s 23958:Archives 23825:HIV/AIDS 23796:Literacy 23754:Abortion 23683:Internet 23640:Taxation 23623:Textiles 23603:Chemical 23598:Industry 23527:Currency 23405:Military 23213:in Tibet 23177:Politics 23114:Wildlife 23026:Wetlands 22789:COVID-19 22617:Imperial 22515:Monarchs 22475:Language 22460:Timeline 22432:articles 22257:Hinduism 22195:Orthodox 22158:Buddhism 22052:(1959). 21977:(2012). 21912:(2010). 21868:(2007). 21777:(1961). 21544:(1997), 21367:: 21–72. 21221:(2009). 21167:13 March 21036:(2007). 20835:(2004), 20790:(2017). 20425:(1892). 20269:73530576 19548:NBC News 19450:ABC News 19128:(1957). 18934:pp. 1–3. 18904:Excerpts 18701:5 August 18188:Archived 16270:(1959). 16013:53994697 15498:Dizangmu 15494:Puxianmu 15275:(Map). 15245:(Map). 15224:, 1999; 15161:. p. 67. 14041:(2023). 13929:34899068 13270:Archived 12869:cite web 12859:7 August 12834:archived 12826:archived 12787:Archived 12744:Archived 12711:Archived 12698:Archived 12377:immanent 12371:is both 12318:swastika 12266:(jade), 12236:Song era 12205:shenguan 12172:xiangtou 12154:shen han 12119:fengshui 12114:fengshui 12025:Hinduism 11842:See also 11786:Fan Zhen 11761:humanist 11722:and the 11682:Japanese 11658:), many 11646:Japanese 11536:Yangzhou 11524:Chang'an 11440:Bōsījiào 11431:Xiānjiào 11316:Chang'an 11307:Shaoxing 11303:Jingzhou 11299:Yangzhou 11262:Dunhuang 11254:Sogdians 11194:Jinjiang 11152:Shenzhen 11144:Shanghai 11064:Cīnācāra 11060:Sanskrit 11042:Rāmāyaṇa 11039:and the 11031:and the 10980:Quanzhou 10942:Hinduism 10935:Quanzhou 10915:Hinduism 10692:Ma Wanfu 10684:Ma Dahan 10651:Khufiyya 10617:Xinjiang 10564:Zheng He 10514:Muhammad 10358:Zhejiang 10198:Méntúhuì 10185:Fuhuodao 10103:Jīdūjiào 10057:Shenzhen 10047:, Yunnan 9950:shamanic 9856:Duāngōng 9852:duāngōng 9837:Mubyasei 9600:Zaj Laug 9520:Tungusic 9460:and the 9267:Bìmójiào 9226:ngel zex 9169:Various 9137:Tantrism 9131:, where 9030:Xinjiang 9014:Mongolia 8984:Buddhism 8980:Mahayana 8915:Mahayana 8911:emperors 8866:Thailand 8840:Tibetans 8827:Mahayana 8813:Buddhism 8765:Zhoushan 8749:Buddhism 8593:Mount Lu 8353:exorcism 8326:shamanic 8263:Zhuangzi 8233:Taoism ( 8179:Yangzhou 8062:Shenzhen 7935:Ba Manzi 7804:monistic 7552:Baguaism 7519:wénchǎng 7430:region ( 7424:Sanyiism 7395:Zailiism 7199:de facto 7170:shen han 7154:Longwang 7142:Sanyiism 7078:yuan fen 7066:ming yun 7054:bao ying 6925:Hinduism 6886:Shénjiào 6782:, Shanxi 6658:Weberian 6553:zōngjiào 6512:zōngjiào 6474:zongjiao 6470:zōngjiào 6466:zongjiao 6297:, while 6210:immanent 6186:Maitreya 6182:Amithaba 6072:shamanic 6020:Mín Tiān 6005:Hào Tiān 5890:zēngzǔfù 5852:surnames 5813:weddings 5807:and the 5696:Shanghai 5541:Xinjiang 5476:Shanghai 5327:Liaoning 5138:Shandong 4991:Zhejiang 4915:Guīyīdào 4902:Shandong 4874:Baguadao 4864:Zailiism 4809:Tibetans 4740:Tibetans 4656:Fox Gods 4619:Shandong 4584:pantheon 4526:lineages 4413:Buddhism 4290:Shanghai 4239:Buddhism 4164:Buddhism 3383:Average 3093:Taoists 2814:atheists 2802:Xinjiang 2683:Shanghai 2525:City God 2386:and the 2126:Jiangnan 2002:Xianyang 1982:Legalism 1960:classics 1877:shamanic 1852:fengshui 1832:sundials 1830:boards, 1770:Squared 1692:Xinjiang 1662:Buddhism 1574:Buddhism 1560:Overview 1522:Buddhism 1495:Buddhism 1422:Suriname 1412:Paraguay 1397:Colombia 1302:Kiribati 1227:Honduras 1192:Dominica 1167:Barbados 1130:Scotland 1090:Slovenia 1085:Slovakia 1060:Portugal 930:Bulgaria 850:Thailand 800:Pakistan 780:Mongolia 775:Maldives 770:Malaysia 658:Cambodia 603:Zimbabwe 578:Tanzania 428:Ethiopia 423:Eswatini 403:Djibouti 368:Cameroon 353:Botswana 312:Zhoushan 246:Buddhism 187:(15.87%) 185:Buddhism 177:(73.56%) 98:Buddhism 42:too long 24677:Vietnam 24592:Myanmar 24572:Lebanon 24502:Georgia 24457:Bahrain 24447:Armenia 24363:Outline 24326:Symbols 24183:Eunuchs 24030:Smoking 23978:Cuisine 23945:Culture 23935:Welfare 23906:Suicide 23874:history 23742:Society 23671:Housing 23645:Tourism 23630:Poverty 23515:Banking 23493:Economy 23472:Militia 23383:Premier 22985:Valleys 22945:Islands 22930:Deserts 22920:Canyons 22908:Terrain 22887:Western 22875:Central 22847:Regions 22832:Geology 22822:Borders 22565:Ancient 22548:Yangtze 22455:History 22440:History 22347:Related 22297:Sikhism 22262:Judaism 22242:Bimoism 21900:31 July 21715:2058743 21316:(144). 19522:Vilnius 19319:Dui Hua 18691:1178534 18040:p. 246. 16524:p. 579. 15956:p. 167. 15619:p. 202. 15518:baojuan 15228:, 2002. 15207:(Map). 15175:(Map). 15063:. 2008. 14586:. 2008. 13920:8653939 13393:Vol. 6. 13016:27 June 12565:Shàngdì 12449:Huángdì 12428:Tiānmén 12395:Xu Shen 12350:Shangdi 12110:yinyang 12101:shenjia 11824:samsara 11790:Han Fei 11765:Hu Shih 11678:shénshè 11674:Chinese 11660:shrines 11559:Hanyang 11540:Taiyuan 11532:Kaifeng 11528:Luoyang 11510:Iranian 11409:Sogdian 11340:Fang La 11295:Nanjing 11287:Uyghurs 11226:Gnostic 11148:Chengdu 11140:Beijing 11109:in the 11097:Hóuwáng 11093:Hanuman 11050:Shaktas 10995:Minglun 10987:Tantric 10959:Kamrupa 10837:Austria 10823:in the 10821:pogroms 10817:Kaifeng 10765:Judaism 10759:Quranic 10727:Ningxia 10723:Qinghai 10676:Ma Fulu 10621:Shaanxi 10586:cuisine 10510:Huíjiào 10471:gongbei 10460:, Gansu 10428:bishops 10365:China. 10255:Jesuits 10074:(1889). 10045:Kunming 9986:daogong 9972:Shigong 9962:shigong 9883:Guangxi 9781:aobaoes 9776:leagues 9772:banners 9767:aobaoes 9758:aobaoes 9581:Siv Yis 9532:called 9454:culture 9426:Lijiang 9395:Kangyur 9375:dong ba 9371:shamans 9363:Běnjiào 9354:Tibetan 9352:"Bon" ( 9256:Bimoism 9201:Sanxing 9146:Dátèluō 9071:Myanmar 9018:Siberia 8992:tantric 8862:Myanmar 8858:Guangxi 8844:Mongols 8771:of the 8769:Guanyin 8654:Xiangxi 8597:Jiangxi 8563:kenotic 8444:priests 8374:Chinese 8357:ecstasy 8240:Dàojiào 8191:Shangdi 8135:rúshāng 8126:lǐshēng 8092:Guiyang 7944:shuyuan 7746:Brahman 7682:secular 7595:wénmiào 7591:Liuzhou 7529:wǔchǎng 7432:Xinghua 7339:xiéjiào 7267:, Hebei 7265:Xingtai 7257:shèngdì 7182:Guangxi 7162:Caishen 7150:Huangdi 6994:lǐshēng 6948:Zhengyi 6877:Shenism 6827:deities 6792:Hong'an 6688:minxuan 6627:Wenzhou 6391:Kuixing 6325:guishen 6321:guǐshén 6229:). The 6190:Tathātā 5972:Shàngdì 5958:Yùhuáng 5906:Shangdi 5869:Huangdi 5827:incense 5666:of the 5583:Qinghai 5562:Ningxia 5497:Tianjin 5434:Beijing 5348:Sichuan 5306:Shaanxi 5117:Jiangxi 5105:14.17% 5096:Jiangsu 5075:Guizhou 5063:13.06% 5021:10.23% 5012:Guangxi 4995:23.02% 4974:31.31% 4948:Chinese 4917:), the 4815:of the 4807:of the 4799:of the 4797:Bimoism 4791:of the 4783:. Many 4781:Uyghurs 4607:jiaohua 4570:miaohui 4551:shénshè 4332:Shaanxi 4328:Sichuan 4324:Jiangsu 4302:Baoding 4294:Nantong 4286:Beijing 4241:(26.3%) 4231:(59.6%) 4150:(2011) 4148:Beijing 3950:Taoism 3884:26.448 3852:30.816 3820:46.010 3788:30.630 3761:Taoism 3756:24.168 3724:38.911 3692:29.772 3639:% male 3408:Taoism 3222:<1% 3219:<1% 3216:<1% 3213:Taoism 3041:Number 2876:WIN/GIA 2845:Taoists 2829:Caishen 2794:Ningxia 2740:Shaanxi 2736:Sichuan 2732:Jiangsu 2695:Baoding 2687:Nantong 2679:Beijing 2674:people. 2594:Chongwu 2582:Wenzhou 2553:Xinzhou 2509:Shanwei 2480:Discuss 2424:Sichuan 2414:of the 2412:Cancong 2310:Marxism 2284:of the 2195:Tibetan 2144:In the 2135:Nanjing 2122:Xiongnu 2120:to the 2118:Luoyang 2042:fangshi 1881:totemic 1857:compass 1725:History 1501:with a 1427:Uruguay 1402:Ecuador 1382:Bolivia 1357:Vanuatu 1285:Oceania 1232:Jamaica 1212:Grenada 1162:Bahamas 1120:England 1110:Ukraine 1065:Romania 1025:Moldova 985:Ireland 980:Iceland 975:Hungary 965:Germany 955:Finland 950:Estonia 945:Denmark 940:Czechia 935:Croatia 920:Belgium 915:Belarus 910:Austria 905:Andorra 900:Albania 875:Vietnam 785:Myanmar 760:Lebanon 678:Georgia 638:Bahrain 628:Armenia 588:Tunisia 558:Somalia 543:Senegal 528:Nigeria 518:Namibia 508:Morocco 473:Liberia 468:Lesotho 418:Eritrea 388:Comoros 363:Burundi 338:Algeria 221:(0.45%) 211:(2.53%) 130:(17.7%) 120:(19.6%) 110:(25.2%) 100:(33.4%) 40:may be 24722:Taiwan 24657:Turkey 24622:Russia 24557:Kuwait 24537:Jordan 24527:Israel 24487:Cyprus 24472:Brunei 24467:Bhutan 24384:Portal 24339:Emblem 24334:Anthem 24316:Taoism 23998:Poetry 23973:Cinema 23896:Racism 23808:Health 23561:Energy 23537:Reform 23448:Rocket 23433:Ground 23158:Cities 23044:Yellow 23016:Rivers 23006:Canals 22960:passes 22955:ranges 22739:Modern 22430: 22153:Taoism 22060: 22031: 22012: 21922: 21883: 21856: 21846: 21827: 21787: 21763: 21721: 21713: 21663: 21597: 21576: 21556: 21520: 21486: 21436: 21401: 21382: 21341: 21291: 21270: 21251:18 May 21234: 21207: 21186: 21152: 21114: 21067: 21046: 20978: 20957: 20936: 20915: 20894: 20847: 20823: 20800: 20776: 20753: 20732: 20711: 20688: 20667: 20645: 20626: 20564: 20528: 20504: 20459:Vol. 6 20455:Vol. 5 20451:Vol. 4 20447:Vol. 3 20443:Vol. 2 20439:Vol. 1 20412: 20397:LXXXIX 20374: 20348: 20329: 20310: 20293: 20267: 20236: 20195: 20097: 20044:metal. 20035: 20006: 19977: 19950: 19845: 19716: 19657: 19609: 19577: 19479:19 May 19353: 19186: 19155: 18955: 18926: 18864: 18832: 18752: 18724: 18689: 18641: 18614: 18587: 18557: 18498: 18473: 18448: 18415: 18256:11 May 18213: 18130:Shaman 18032: 18007: 17982: 17885: 17691:p. 48. 17685: 17496: 17238: 17220:p. 92. 17212: 17134: 17072: 16848: 16811: 16516: 16374: 16238: 16194:passim 16011: 15948: 15920:JISMOR 15870: 15724: 15716:. On: 15675: 15637: 15611: 15510:Dizang 15506:Puxian 15410: 15402: 15183: 15153: 15034: 14998: 14956: 14706: 14636: 14560: 14518: 14316: 14228: 14194: 14169: 14144: 14119: 14082: 14053: 14021: 13927: 13917: 13909: 13779: 13753: 13391:passim 13311: 13244:30 May 13219: 13111: 13101: 13069: 12828:) and 12781: 12738: 12504:Huaxia 12386:《五經異義》 12327:, the 12295:gnomon 12232:Shanxi 12196:wushen 12191:jitong 12181:matong 12090:, the 11898:Zhizha 11796:, and 11782:Xun Zi 11718:, the 11615:Kenkyō 11602:Hútiān 11574:Mumbai 11462:Mithra 11418:琐罗亚斯德教 11393:Jiexiu 11374:Sogdia 11334:. The 11322:under 11311:Kyrgyz 11206:Cao'an 11190:Cao'an 11160:Harbin 11081:siddha 11027:, the 11007:Feituo 11003:Weituo 10999:Zhilun 10976:Hindus 10841:Poland 10829:Russia 10784:Harbin 10715:Mongol 10711:Manchu 10690:, and 10678:, and 10570:. The 10560:Lan Yu 10240:papacy 10219:Alopen 10200:) and 10187:, the 10087:Harbin 10033:, and 10003:gemoed 9997:momoed 9976:mogong 9931:Mójiào 9891:Taoism 9788:, and 9720:iduγan 9676:Baotou 9538:enduri 9462:script 9234:benzhu 9177:. The 9133:Mizong 9114:Tangmi 9055:Yunnan 9003:Mongol 8878:Hainan 8854:Yunnan 8822:Fójiào 8680:tongji 8675:Wūjiào 8607:, the 8578:tongji 8490:Fǎjiào 8427:daoshi 8414:daoshi 8403:daoshi 8387:dàoshi 8384:: 8382:pinyin 8376:: 8362:wu wei 8317:physis 8246:Daoism 8147:Taoism 8141:Taoism 7927:temple 7883:guoxue 7823:, and 7753:ethico 7686:sacred 7428:Putian 7415:qigong 7391:Luoism 7146:Fujian 7126:sacred 7042:jingzu 6952:daoshi 6933:Shinto 6780:Datong 6776:Guandi 6749:Ningde 6745:Fuding 6714:Yan'an 6645:Taiwan 6462:shūkyō 6442:) and 6353:hungry 6347:pneuma 6331:, and 6199:zhēnrú 6159:Yùqīng 6139:Zhu Xi 6077:hundun 6069:Altaic 6064:Tengri 5908:, and 5877:Chiyou 5865:Guandi 5798:ghosts 5794:jìngzǔ 5676:Qinghe 5619:0.91% 5608:2.36% 5597:17.51% 5593:0.76% 5572:1.17% 5535:0.40% 5532:0.10% 5524:19.4% 5507:0.43% 5491:0.36% 5488:1.88% 5484:10.30% 5467:0.28% 5464:0.85% 5460:26.63% 5449:1.76% 5446:0.78% 5421:0.48% 5411:Hainan 5405:0.82% 5402:1.13% 5399:1.59% 5381:1.71% 5378:2.09% 5360:0.30% 5357:2.06% 5342:0.64% 5339:2.00% 5336:5.31% 5318:1.66% 5315:6.35% 5300:0.35% 5297:3.63% 5294:4.39% 5274:0.28% 5271:5.80% 5268:3.51% 5258:0.58% 5255:4.32% 5247:4.64% 5234:3.26% 5226:7.73% 5216:1.05% 5213:4.95% 5210:5.52% 5192:1.55% 5189:3.65% 5185:15.61% 5180:Shanxi 5171:0.49% 5168:2.44% 5164:20.19% 5153:0.55% 5150:1.54% 5147:2.90% 5143:25.28% 5129:0.66% 5126:7.96% 5122:24.05% 5108:2.67% 5101:16.67% 5090:0.48% 5087:0.49% 5084:1.86% 5080:31.18% 5069:1.52% 5066:0.68% 5059:32.22% 5054:Yunnan 5045:0.68% 5042:5.18% 5038:43.71% 5024:0.15% 5017:40.48% 5003:3.89% 4999:23.99% 4985:0.32% 4982:3.97% 4978:40.40% 4970:Fujian 4880:, the 4717:Guandi 4638:Tungus 4487:orders 4480:Taoism 4399:Taoism 4344:Fujian 4265: 4261:(0.6%) 4257: 4255: 4251:(4.1%) 4249:Taoism 4247: 4245: 4237: 4235: 4227: 4225: 4206:(2.1%) 4202: 4200: 4196:(2.7%) 4194:Taoism 4192: 4190: 4186:(3.9%) 4182: 4180: 4172: 4170: 4162: 4160: 4154: 4135:89.6% 4132:90.2% 4129:90.3% 4126:89.1% 4123:91.0% 3970:Islam 3904:<30 3866:50.62 3860:53.41 3834:49.45 3828:46.59 3802:46.33 3770:50.50 3738:49.66 3706:49.44 3700:10.85 3674:46.46 3668:31.09 3613:87.2% 3610:88.9% 3607:86.3% 3604:89.5% 3601:86.1% 3448:Islam 3272:<1% 3227:Islam 3163:Islam 3088:12.9% 3066:13.8% 3055:56.2% 3024:32.9% 3008:51.8% 3000:26.7% 2992:27.1% 2979:38.5% 2971:23.1% 2963:23.8% 2944:Yao X. 2752:Fujian 2557:Shanxi 2529:Suzhou 2432:Uyghur 2359:, the 2355:, the 2351:, the 2335:, the 2316:. The 2314:feudal 2186:Manchu 2137:, and 1980:chose 1945:Yijing 1846:luopan 1843:) and 1818:, the 1816:Luoshu 1811:Luoshu 1784:tāotiè 1748:dragon 1696:Uyghur 1570:Taoism 1526:Taoism 1499:Taoism 1407:Guyana 1387:Brazil 1352:Tuvalu 1247:Panama 1237:Mexico 1177:Canada 1172:Belize 1100:Sweden 1080:Serbia 1070:Russia 1055:Poland 1050:Norway 1030:Monaco 1000:Latvia 995:Kosovo 970:Greece 960:France 893:Europe 855:Turkey 840:Taiwan 745:Kuwait 718:Jordan 708:Israel 668:Cyprus 653:Brunei 648:Bhutan 598:Zambia 593:Uganda 533:Rwanda 488:Malawi 448:Guinea 438:Gambia 343:Angola 331:Africa 266:Hainan 262:Haikou 242:Taoism 217: 215: 207: 205: 195:Taoism 193: 191: 183: 181: 169: 167: 163:2016) 150:(1.6%) 146: 144: 140:(2.5%) 136: 134: 124: 118:Taoism 116: 114: 106: 104: 96: 94: 24763:Macau 24682:Yemen 24642:Syria 24617:Qatar 24597:Nepal 24532:Japan 24507:India 24497:Egypt 24482:China 24370:Index 24311:Islam 24234:Women 24035:Sport 24020:Names 24015:Music 23983:Dance 23769:Crime 23650:Trade 23618:Steel 23124:Flora 23119:Fauna 23039:Bohai 23035:Seas 23011:Lakes 22999:Water 22976:North 22940:Hills 22925:Caves 22880:South 22865:North 22578:Shang 22428:China 22338:Tibet 22323:Macau 22202:Islam 21982:(PDF) 21961:(PDF) 21894:(PDF) 21873:(PDF) 21854:JSTOR 21736:Orbis 21719:S2CID 21711:JSTOR 21679:(PDF) 21642:(PDF) 21467:8 May 21461:(PDF) 21450:(PDF) 21434:S2CID 21357:(PDF) 21245:(PDF) 21228:(PDF) 21161:(PDF) 21150:S2CID 21130:(PDF) 21097:(PDF) 21086:(PDF) 20539:(PDF) 20522:(PDF) 20389:(PDF) 20364:(PDF) 20281:(PDF) 20265:S2CID 20211:(PDF) 20178:(PDF) 20163:(PDF) 19299:2 May 19264:(PDF) 19093:(PDF) 19082:(PDF) 18787:成吉思汗祠 18771:成吉思汗召 18687:JSTOR 18531:(PDF) 18520:(PDF) 18141:(PDF) 18126:(PDF) 18105:(PDF) 18094:(PDF) 17974:[ 17683:S2CID 17143:(PDF) 17132:S2CID 17112:(PDF) 17081:(PDF) 17058:(PDF) 16708:(PDF) 16693:(PDF) 16009:S2CID 15970:(PDF) 15927:(PDF) 15916:(PDF) 15905:(PDF) 15894:(PDF) 15823:(PDF) 15816:(PDF) 15762:(PDF) 15755:(PDF) 15673:S2CID 15486:Laomu 15408:S2CID 15310:(PDF) 15303:(PDF) 15279:[ 15249:[ 15211:[ 15098:(PDF) 15087:(PDF) 15043:(PDF) 15020:(PDF) 14996:S2CID 14965:(PDF) 14954:S2CID 14934:(PDF) 14863:(PDF) 14856:(PDF) 14831:(PDF) 14820:(PDF) 14715:(PDF) 14692:(PDF) 14645:(PDF) 14622:(PDF) 14558:S2CID 14527:(PDF) 14508:(PDF) 14216:(PDF) 13845:(PDF) 13834:(PDF) 13217:S2CID 12972:4 May 12947:(PDF) 12924:(PDF) 12909:(PDF) 12853:(PDF) 12846:(PDF) 12790:(PDF) 12759:(PDF) 12747:(PDF) 12724:(PDF) 12701:(PDF) 12694:(PDF) 12650:Italy 12625:李元昊大殿 12594:Yandi 12560:huáng 12553:with 12543:huáng 12509:China 12361:Taiyi 12345:Taidi 12268:huang 12092:zhuli 12083:yuehu 11956:Notes 11904:Other 11832:karma 11828:karma 11686:jinja 11638:Jilin 11578:Macau 11570:Parsi 11563:Hubei 11285:. As 11270:Laozi 11192:, in 11156:Wuhan 11126:Yújiā 11117:Yogic 11086:Bogar 11070:text 11068:Tamil 11011:Pituo 10991:Vedas 10972:Hindu 10882:巴哈伊信仰 10815:, in 10755:ahong 10751:imams 10739:Quran 10625:Gansu 10492:Islam 10484:halal 10438:Islam 10409:world 10378:Yanji 10362:Wuhan 10354:Anhui 10350:Henan 10322:opium 10125:基督教新教 9908:Panhu 9887:Hunan 9825:Ngawa 9748:áobāo 9732:aobao 9728:yurts 9701:tngri 9671:aobao 9558:Most 9523:šamán 9512:满族萨满教 9289:monyi 9285:sunyi 9159:Hindu 9151:怛特罗密教 8656:area. 8609:fashi 8573:Fashi 8503:fashi 8418:monks 8259:Laozi 8201:Doumu 8060:) in 7605:Wéndì 7455:, or 7174:wu po 7158:Pangu 7122:numen 6937:Japan 6929:India 6921:cults 6796:Hubei 6122:Xunzi 5962:Tàidì 5881:Earth 5873:Yandi 5867:, or 5817:triad 5785:bàizǔ 5750:zhōng 5680:Hebei 5668:Zhang 5656:张挥公大殿 5635:2.5% 5625:China 5616:2.0% 5612:12.1% 5551:1.0% 5520:Tibet 5442:11.2% 5395:5.52% 5390:Hebei 5369:Hubei 5353:10.6% 5332:7.73% 5321:0.4% 5311:7.58% 5290:7.73% 5278:7.00% 5264:Gansu 5251:7.83% 5243:Anhui 5230:8.23% 5222:Jilin 5206:7.94% 5201:Henan 5159:Hunan 4963:Islam 4870:Henan 4852:Hebei 4817:Nakhi 4773:Islam 4767:Macau 4751:Anhui 4747:Henan 4736:Tibet 4719:—and 4713:Gesar 4701:Tibet 4625:(阴阳生 4580:fashi 4558:, or 4519:fashi 4485:fashi 4425:Islam 4393:(and 4340:Hebei 4336:Jilin 4298:Wuhan 4204:Islam 4115:0.7% 4112:0.4% 4109:0.7% 4106:0.5% 4103:0.2% 4005:2.9% 4002:2.3% 3999:2.5% 3996:1.2% 3993:1.5% 3985:0.4% 3982:0.8% 3979:0.5% 3976:0.8% 3973:0.3% 3965:0.4% 3962:0.4% 3959:0.2% 3956:0.4% 3953:0.3% 3945:6.0% 3942:6.0% 3939:5.8% 3936:7.9% 3933:6.6% 3919:50–60 3914:40–50 3909:30–40 3881:6.40 3878:15.0 3875:93.3 3869:96.3 3863:64.6 3849:5.94 3843:93.8 3837:96.2 3831:61.6 3817:7.50 3811:91.7 3805:91.7 3799:66.7 3796:0.39 3785:6.29 3782:21.4 3773:92.9 3767:64.3 3764:0.71 3753:5.83 3747:96.9 3741:89.2 3735:47.7 3732:3.54 3721:5.88 3715:92.1 3709:95.8 3703:54.4 3689:5.94 3683:94.6 3677:96.4 3671:64.8 3628:2008 3593:0.2% 3590:0.3% 3587:0.1% 3584:0.1% 3581:0.3% 3483:2.3% 3480:2.6% 3477:2.1% 3474:2.2% 3471:2.1% 3463:1.7% 3460:1.1% 3457:2.9% 3454:0.7% 3451:1.2% 3443:2.2% 3440:1.9% 3437:2.9% 3434:0.3% 3431:2.7% 3423:0.2% 3420:0.2% 3417:0.2% 3414:0.2% 3411:0.2% 3403:6.2% 3400:5.0% 3397:5.5% 3394:7.0% 3391:7.4% 3380:2011 3377:2010 3374:2008 3371:2006 3331:None 3326:0.1% 3323:0.1% 3320:0.3% 3236:2.9% 3233:0.7% 3230:1.2% 3194:2007 3191:2006 3188:2005 3169:1.7% 3110:2.4% 3099:0.9% 3077:1.3% 3016:5.3% 2888:Wuhan 2853:Islam 2810:Macau 2798:Tibet 2748:Hebei 2744:Jilin 2691:Wuhan 2615:cults 2578:Ouhai 2547:, in 2470:split 2188:-led 2046:Laozi 2026:Taiyi 1905:Shang 1827:liubo 1752:Draco 1680:Islam 1616:Shang 1542:Islam 1392:Chile 1347:Tonga 1337:Samoa 1327:Palau 1317:Nauru 1222:Haiti 1135:Wales 1095:Spain 1020:Malta 990:Italy 880:Yemen 835:Syria 815:Qatar 790:Nepal 765:Macau 728:Korea 713:Japan 688:India 663:China 573:Sudan 523:Niger 478:Libya 463:Kenya 443:Ghana 433:Gabon 408:Egypt 348:Benin 306:) on 304:Shiva 279:is a 219:Islam 148:Islam 24602:Oman 24567:Laos 24522:Iraq 24517:Iran 24344:Flag 23925:Time 23718:Rail 23566:Coal 23438:Navy 23208:LGBT 22915:Bays 22855:East 22712:Qing 22707:Ming 22702:Yuan 22692:Song 22687:Liao 22677:Tang 22590:Zhou 22583:Late 22553:Liao 22058:ISBN 22029:ISBN 22010:ISBN 21949:2018 21920:ISBN 21902:2011 21881:ISBN 21844:ISBN 21825:ISBN 21785:ISBN 21761:ISBN 21661:ISBN 21630:2016 21595:ISBN 21574:ISBN 21554:ISBN 21518:ISBN 21484:ISBN 21469:2015 21399:ISBN 21380:ISBN 21339:ISBN 21289:ISBN 21268:ISBN 21253:2015 21232:ISBN 21205:ISBN 21184:ISBN 21169:2021 21112:ISBN 21065:ISBN 21044:ISBN 20976:ISBN 20955:ISBN 20934:ISBN 20913:ISBN 20892:ISBN 20845:ISBN 20821:ISSN 20798:ISBN 20774:ISBN 20751:ISBN 20730:ISBN 20709:ISBN 20686:ISBN 20665:ISBN 20643:ISBN 20624:ISSN 20562:ISBN 20547:2016 20526:ISBN 20502:ISBN 20410:ISBN 20372:ISBN 20346:ISBN 20327:ISBN 20308:ISBN 20291:ISSN 20234:ISBN 20193:ISBN 20095:ISBN 20033:ISBN 20004:ISBN 19975:ISBN 19948:ISBN 19843:ISBN 19714:ISBN 19655:ISBN 19607:ISBN 19575:ISBN 19556:2021 19530:2021 19481:2019 19432:2021 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