1142:
1166:
1040:
519:
654:
343:
840:
618:, collecting the mineral was once as easy as simply picking it up from the ground. In fact, native copper is no longer as easy to find in that state these days. The treatment of this native mineral was also uncomplicated through cold-hammering. This only permitted the production of a limited range of artifacts like awls, pins, or beads. In larger objects, the metal cracks when it is cold-hammered.
753:, it was estimated that they extracted the astonishing number of 32,570.15 tonnes (35,902.44 tons) of rock, gangue and ore. The usable amount of copper was 162.85 tonnes and the final smelting finished metal was 146.56 tonnes (Jackson 1980; 24). The entire process was thoroughly described in 1744 by Lewis Morris, Crown Mineral Agent for Cardiganshire, and, incidentally,
510:
it easy to recognize, and even flashier if converted into jewelry, a possible motivation for humankind to start metallurgy with it. An evolutive technological process has been described, although there are authors like
Javinovic, who think that it is not necessary to pass through the first stages to reach the last one.
378:) took place, while stone was still the main resource utilized. Recent archaeology has found that the metal was not introduced so gradually and that this entailed significant social changes, such as developments in the type of habitation (larger villages, launching of fortifications), long-distance trade, and copper
773:
The most frequent find are the stone hammers, normally made of hard rocks accessible to the mine, beach or river pebbles. There is no standardization of these mauls but is common a system of hafting, usually a groove carved in the middle for where a rope was tied to the handle, like the twisted hazel
761:
Their method seems to be this. They make a great fire of wood in the bottom of their rakes which were always open up on that account, and when the rock was sufficiently hot they cast water upon it, which shiver’d it; and then with stone wedges, which they drove in with other stones, they work’d their
509:
Copper is the eighth most abundant metal in the Earth's crust, is available all over the world, and is one of the few that can appear in a pure state. It is not complicated to work with, and a bare hammering can be enough to transform a nugget into a bead. The eye-catching look of native copper makes
464:
Currently, the general opinion is that the development of metallurgy took place independently in different places, at different times, with various techniques. One fact that supports this interpretation is that, although the final products (beads, rings, sickles, swords, axes, etc.) are quite similar
456:
was imported into Europe from the Near East has been practically ruled out. A second hypothesis, that there were two main points of origin of metallurgy in Europe, in southern Spain and in West
Bulgaria, is also doubtful due to the existence of sites outside the centers of diffusion where metallurgy
736:
The techniques observed in all of them are quite similar. Basically they used the thermic alteration or firesetting (Mohen 1992, Craddock 1995, Eiroa et al. 1996, Timberlake 2003). This consists of applying fire to the rock and then pouring water over it: the rapid changes of temperature will cause
1445:
Mohen J.P, Peroni, R, Katinchorov R. and Tasié R, Eccedy I. and Kovacs T, Merpert J.M, Briard J., Thrane H., Kaelas L. (1996) Europe in the Copper Age, in
History of humanity: scientific and cultural development Vol.2, From the third millennium to the seventh century BC, edited by Dani A.H., J.-P.
676:
Therefore, the minerals were not collected because people were looking for copper but for virtues like those mentioned or simply because of its brightness and colour, but this knowledge of the minerals is critical since they already knew how to recognize them and where to collect them when, later,
476:
Consequently, the way in which metallurgy was initiated differs considerably depending on the region. There are areas in which copper seems to play a crucial role (i.e., the
Balkans), whereas other areas show no interest in it at all. Then there are societies that use copper artifacts, but do not
748:
The mines were exploited in extremely efficient and clever ways, according to the technology available (Jovanovic 1980, Craddock 1995, Timberlake 2003). The entire convenient mineral was collected and the abandoned shafts carefully refilled with gangue and rocks (Mohen 1992; 85). For example, at
855:
has not substantially increased along with the number of archaeological sites. Several ideas have been proffered, one of the most followed is that the metal itself did not bring abrupt transformation into the people's life, or even more that early copper does not produce anything useful at all,
860:
and, overall, weapons that obviously were not within reach of the majority of the population but only to privileged individuals. In other words, the real importance of the metal is not utilitarian but social. This is a suitable explanation about the rising of Great
Cultures of Metal such as
1517:
Shennan, S., "Cost, benefit and value in the organization of early
European copper production" in Antiquity by Crawford, Osbert Guy Stanhope, 73(280), Princeton University Press for the Research Institute on International Change, Columbia University, 1999, pages
624:
Annealing the metal on an open fire (200–300 °C or 390–570 °F is hot enough) reduces its hardness considerably and gives in malleability. This permits the manufacture of slightly more sophisticated objects, like bracelets, but is still a rather limited
635:
that does not actually need specialized technology. Probably, due to the situation that native copper was increasingly difficult to find, copper ore is used in this third step. This is a very significant development. In fact, this is truly the beginning of the
1513:
Ruiz-Taboada, A. & Montero-Ruiz, I., "The oldest metallurgy in western Europe" in
Antiquity by Crawford, Osbert Guy Stanhope, 73(282), Princeton University Press for the Research Institute on International Change, Columbia University, 1999, pages
1307:
Notes on the
Prehistoric Metallurgy of Copper and Bronze in the Old World, Including an examination of specimens from the Pitt Rivers Museum and bronze casting in ancient moulds by E. Voce and contributions by P.R.S. Moorey and T.K.
1449:
Moreno A, et al. (2003) Metallurgical control and social power. The Bronze Age
Communities of High Guadalquivir in Archeometallurgy in Europe (International Conference) vol. 1 Milano: Associacione Italiana di Metallurgia, pages
737:
cracks within the rocks that can be totally broken with the help of mauls and picks. Then the useful masses were selected, crushed and transported to the production centre that could be in the surrounding area (
1299:]. Archaeometallurgy in Europe : International Conference : 24-25-26 September 2003, Milan, Italy : proceedings (pdf) (in German). Vol. 1. Milano: Associacione Italiana di Metallurgia.
530:
can be found in over 160 different minerals, but mining activities are entailed to obtain them in large quantities if a reasonable amount of copper is wanted. Some of the most commonly exploited minerals are
1342:
461:(Tyrol, Austria), while sites closer to the supposed origins of metallurgy, such as in the north of Spain, show fewer metal artifacts than sites in the south and practically no evidence of production.
1274:. Archaeometallurgy in Europe : International Conference : 24-25-26 September 2003, Milan, Italy : proceedings (pdf) (2nd ed.). Milano: Associazione Italiana di Metallurgia.
1045:
1043:
830:, crucial for the firing (fire-setting) and furnace (fuel), is habitual. Leather sacks (at Ai Bunar) and shoulder baskets (at Copa Hill) were used to transport the crushed mineral.
896:
As the period moved forward, especially around the 3rd millennium, new and complex realities would appear strongly linked to the metal, like the impressive fortified villages of
210:
577:
found in the Alps who lived around 3300 years BCE, was doing at 3,210 metres (10,530 ft) of altitude is that he could have been prospecting for new ores of minerals.
473:, but Cabrierés (France) used a primitive oxidizing non-slagging process, while in the British Isles the absence of debris, slag or ceramic suggests another technique.
709:
1453:
Ortiz T., L. et al. (1990): El hábitat en la
Prehistoria en el valle del Río Rojo (Álava) "Cuaderno de Sección Prehistoria-Arqueología", núm. 3, San Sebastián.
1465:] (1. ed.). Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, Dirección General de Bellas Artes y Archivos, Subdirección General de Arqueología y Etnología.
477:
practice metallurgy, and there are other ones that fully adopt some of the cultural innovations but ignore the rest. One example of the latter is
1971:
890:
908:
next to Copa Hill in the United Kingdom destinated to control the centres of extraction, or the equally and generalized cultural phenomenons of
202:
812:
The use of any metallic tool is rather strange and extraordinary. It seems that the copper was not used for the miners' tools. However copper
1824:
1543:
Timberlake, Simon (2003). "Early mining research in Britain: The Developments of the Last Ten Years". In Craddock, P. T; Lang, Janet (eds.).
191:
1574:
705:
564:
610:
nowadays is frequently displayed in museum showcases of mineral collections, it once occurred copiously during prehistoric times. In
720:
islands. It is remarkable that, usually, it is not a single mine but a complex, with a variable, large number of mineshafts, as in
265:
329:
766:
The tools employed are mainly presented in Lewis' observations, but other ones have been recovered in archaeological context:
478:
470:
258:
1533:
1495:
1470:
1436:
1388:
1369:
1324:
1279:
1237:
1734:
151:
1804:
385:
Some of the earliest Copper Age artifacts were found in the 5th and 6th millennia BCE archaeological sites of the
401:(including a copper axe from 5500 BCE). Somewhat later, in the 5th millennium BCE, metalwork is attested at
398:
2110:
1694:
1567:
1401:
Jackson, J.S. (1980). "Bronze Age copper mining in Counties Cork and Kerry, Ireland". In Craddock, P.T. (ed.).
125:
2125:
2070:
1271:
Chalcolithic Fahlore Smelting at Cabrières:Reconstruction of Smelting Processes by Archaeometallurgical Finds
592:. To do so, it is necessary to use a furnace that is able to reach at least 1,089 °C (1,992 °F).
1505:
Renfrew, C. (1986). "Varna and the emergence of wealth in prehistoric Europe". In Appaduri, Anjuin (ed.).
975:
939:
54:
2120:
322:
290:
1704:
143:
1779:
1625:
1560:
1410:
Jovanovic, B. (1980). "Primary copper mining and the production of copper". In Craddock, P.T. (ed.).
595:
Lastly, a wide range of specific tools and resources have to be available, such as furnaces, moulds,
2075:
1724:
2011:
489:, but metal is rather infrequent, and when it does appear between the trapping, it is more often
1552:
1397:
Eiroa, J.J. et alii (1999): Nociones de tecnología y tipología en Prehistoria. Barcelona. Ariel.
2021:
1641:
1630:
901:
223:
1853:
1878:
1607:
1248:
315:
2034:
238:
2080:
2044:
1901:
1714:
920:
Vessels that are known from Scandinavia to the South of Spain and from Scotland to Turkey.
444:
times, the limits of the age cannot be clearly defined and vary between different sources.
1669:
139:
8:
1946:
1819:
1784:
1620:
852:
363:
359:
355:
172:
134:
103:
1830:
1774:
1729:
1689:
1679:
159:
155:
147:
1966:
1835:
1684:
218:
1868:
1709:
1268:
Bourgarit, David; Mille, Benoît; Ambert, Paul; Prange, M.; Hauptmann, Andreas (2003).
794:
Evidence of wooden tools are more infrequent. Nevertheless in places like Ai Bunar or
569:
2091:
1529:
1491:
1466:
1432:
1384:
1365:
1330:
1320:
1290:
1275:
1269:
1256:
1233:
874:
371:
195:
164:
1794:
1289:
Bartelheim, Martin; Eckstein, K.; Huijsmans, M.; Krauß, R.; Pernicka, Ernst (2002).
469:
was the technique utilized in the south of Spain, whereas central Europe employed a
2065:
1961:
1873:
1754:
1739:
1583:
1312:
984:
494:
367:
246:
1863:
1253:
Veleia: Revista de prehistoria, historia antigua, arqueología y filología clásicas
862:
457:
was known simultaneously with, or before, those in the ‘original’ nuclei, such as
386:
116:
2115:
1926:
1799:
1759:
1615:
1523:
1481:
1422:
1311:. Vol. 26 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford.
1227:
1118:
870:
425:
73:
69:
1840:
665:
Minerals of copper were known from ancient times. In Crete, little fragments of
466:
1749:
1744:
1699:
1664:
1654:
989:
882:
673:
were powdered and used as make up or to decorate ceramic as early as 6000 BCE.
65:
61:
1809:
1599:
1316:
2104:
2006:
2001:
1986:
1981:
1956:
1858:
1848:
1814:
1769:
1764:
1719:
1674:
1659:
1649:
1334:
1260:
1251:[The lithic industry in the dolmens of the southern Basque Country].
970:
949:
844:
795:
750:
725:
693:
685:
632:
607:
589:
518:
375:
251:
242:
232:
187:
168:
130:
120:
77:
1305:
1016:
366:
Age, has been traditionally understood as a transitional period between the
2029:
1991:
1976:
1921:
1789:
1588:
917:
897:
544:
179:
24:
701:
2049:
1936:
1896:
909:
866:
803:
754:
742:
721:
681:
658:
653:
560:
548:
441:
402:
96:
342:
971:"Early Balkan Metallurgy: Origins, Evolution and Society, 6200–3700 BC"
944:
934:
738:
697:
689:
637:
552:
486:
453:
433:
379:
300:
281:
92:
1996:
878:
857:
775:
680:
Numerous examples of mines are known all over Europe, from the east:
666:
556:
536:
390:
84:
41:
36:
1381:
Prehistoric Europe : Prehistoric Europe: An Illustrated History
839:
465:
throughout Europe, the method of production is not. Thus the use of
1941:
913:
886:
827:
717:
640:, as the mineral has to be smelted to separate the copper from the
596:
585:
458:
421:
410:
394:
305:
214:
1582:
1341:
Cvekic, Ljilja (2007) Prehistoric women had passion for fashion.
713:
670:
540:
532:
437:
429:
417:
1424:
Metalurgia prehistórica : introducción a la paleometalurgia
1288:
1124:
347:
1951:
1916:
1911:
1249:"La industria lítica en los dólmenes del País Vasco meridional"
1004:
929:
813:
799:
785:
641:
611:
581:
567:, Spain). In fact, one of the possible explanations about what
527:
498:
490:
482:
416:
3rd millennium BCE copper metalwork is attested in places like
406:
228:
1931:
905:
856:
meaning with this that with the copper, they produced mainly
615:
574:
285:
1412:
Scientific studies in early mining and extractive metallurgy
1403:
Scientific studies in early mining and extractive metallurgy
1906:
1347:
Craddock, P.T. (1986). "Bronze Age Metallurgy in Britain".
1154:
823:
1267:
1022:
1082:
1055:
1130:
1028:
1463:
The megalithic phenomenon on the right bank of the Ebro
1446:
Mohen. London: Routledge; Paris: UNESCO, pages 320-391.
1429:
Prehistoric metallurgy: introduction to paleometallurgy
1292:
Kupferzeitliche Metallgewinnung in Brixlegg, Österreich
1190:
1072:
1070:
1202:
1178:
1106:
1459:
El fenómeno megalítico en la margen derecha del Ebro
1067:
447:
969:Radivojević, Miljana; Roberts, Benjamin W. (2021).
1490:] (in Italian) (1.] ed.). Rome: Laterza.
1297:Chalcolithic Metal Extraction in Brixlegg, Austria
1094:
968:
851:The information available about the people of the
526:To start with, the raw material must be obtained.
704:(Switzerland), Cabrierés (France); to the south:
2102:
374:, in which a gradual introduction of the metal (
1525:Eneolithic cultures of central and west Balkans
816:and discarded axes could be utilized as wedges.
762:way through the hardest rocks, tho’ but slowly.
802:and wedges. A rudimentary system of stairs or
631:In the first two steps, the material used was
211:Periodisation of the Indus Valley civilisation
1568:
1456:
1010:
788:have been found in the majority of the mines.
677:they started the systematic search for ores.
323:
1545:Mining and metal production through the ages
684:(Serbia), Ai Bunar (Bulgaria); to the west:
580:Secondly, the mineral is separated from the
696:(United Kingdom); crossing Central Europe:
1575:
1561:
1542:
1160:
1136:
563:(Serbia), Cabrierés (France) or Chinflón (
330:
316:
112:Metallurgy during the Copper Age in Europe
1414:. London: British Museum. pp. 31–40.
1409:
1364:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
1148:
988:
648:
1405:. London: British Museum. pp. 9–30.
1378:
1359:
1346:
1246:
1225:
1196:
1184:
1172:
1076:
1061:
1034:
838:
652:
517:
504:
481:in northern Spain, where splendid large
341:
1504:
1400:
1303:
1208:
1088:
731:
2103:
1479:
1431:] ( ed.). Barcelona: Masson.
1112:
440:). However, as often happens with the
1556:
1521:
1420:
1100:
1049:
1457:Pérez Arrondo, Carlos Lázar (1987).
513:
1383:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
784:Picks and scrapes made of bone and
13:
14:
2137:
2092:↓ Bronze Age Europe ↓
1600:↑ Mesolithic Europe ↑
1547:. British Museum. pp. 22–42.
1488:Italy on the threshold of history
1483:L'Italia alle soglie della storia
1362:Early metal mining and production
448:Inception of metallurgy in Europe
1304:Coghlan, Herbert Henery (1975).
712:(Spain); and the Mediterranean:
962:
904:(Portugal) or the more modest
16:Prehistoric period, Copper Age
1:
2071:Secondary products revolution
1509:. Cambridge University Press.
1232:. Princes Risborough: Shire.
1218:
806:can be supposed (Mohen 1992).
1226:Atkinson, R. Lesley (1987).
7:
1421:Mohen, Jean-Pierre (1992).
1379:Cunliffe, Barry W. (1998).
1247:Almuzara, Ana Cava (1984).
976:Journal of World Prehistory
940:Copper metallurgy in Africa
923:
584:. This is only possible by
350:'s copper axe (c. 3300 BCE)
10:
2142:
1360:Craddock, Paul T. (1995).
1255:(in Spanish). No. 1.
990:10.1007/s10963-021-09155-7
834:
409:, and at Ai Bunar mine in
291:Domestication of the horse
152:Gumelniţa–Karanovo culture
126:Cucuteni–Trypillia culture
2089:
2058:
2020:
1887:
1640:
1626:First Temperate Neolithic
1606:
1597:
1507:The social life of things
1317:10.1017/S0003598X00023942
1229:Copper and copper mining
955:
522:Sample of native copper.
28:Eneolithic, Aeneolithic,
2012:Unchambered long barrow
1480:Peroni, Renato (1996).
644:, requiring technology.
144:Decea Mureşului culture
1631:Linear Pottery culture
1528:. Belgrade: Draganić.
1522:Tasić, Nikola (1995).
1125:Bartelheim et al. 2002
902:Vila Nova de Sao Pedro
848:
782:Antler and bone tools:
764:
662:
649:Early mining in Europe
523:
485:are present along the
351:
2111:History of metallurgy
1023:Bourgarit et al. 2003
842:
759:
710:Mola Alta de Serelles
656:
521:
505:Reasons to use copper
345:
2126:Technology by period
2081:Proto-Indo-Europeans
2045:Neolithic long house
1902:Causewayed enclosure
1349:Current Anthropology
847:(Bulgaria), 4500 BCE
732:Techniques and tools
700:(Salzach, Austria),
1947:Megalithic entrance
1825:Starčevo–Körös–Criș
1621:Corded Ware culture
1091:, pp. 162–165.
1013:, pp. 159–180.
173:Monte Claro culture
1967:Rectangular dolmen
1735:Gumelnița–Karanovo
1695:Cucuteni–Trypillia
1064:, pp. 51–156.
1025:, p. 431–440.
1011:Pérez Arrondo 1987
873:(Central Europe),
849:
716:, Cyprus, and the
663:
524:
358:, also called the
352:
346:Reconstruction of
224:Ahar–Banas culture
219:Hakra Ware culture
93:Ghassulian culture
2121:Copper Age Europe
2098:
2097:
2035:Lithic industries
1592:
1127:, pp. 33–82.
1037:, pp. 23–31.
843:Elite male tomb,
559:was extracted in
514:Converting copper
340:
339:
196:Afanasevo culture
165:Remedello culture
140:Cernavodă culture
57:(2600 BC–1600 AD)
2133:
2066:Danubian culture
1962:Polygonal dolmen
1805:Seine–Oise–Marne
1725:Globular Amphora
1586:
1584:Neolithic Europe
1577:
1570:
1563:
1554:
1553:
1548:
1539:
1510:
1501:
1476:
1442:
1415:
1406:
1394:
1375:
1356:
1338:
1300:
1285:
1264:
1243:
1212:
1206:
1200:
1194:
1188:
1182:
1176:
1170:
1164:
1163:, p. 32-33.
1158:
1152:
1146:
1140:
1134:
1128:
1122:
1116:
1110:
1104:
1098:
1092:
1086:
1080:
1074:
1065:
1059:
1053:
1047:
1038:
1032:
1026:
1020:
1014:
1008:
1002:
1001:
999:
997:
992:
966:
865:(Ex-Yugoslavia)
822:The presence of
495:arsenical copper
471:slagging process
452:The theory that
332:
325:
318:
247:Anarta tradition
215:Bhirrana culture
160:Coțofeni culture
156:Petreşti culture
148:Gorneşti culture
21:
20:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2132:
2131:
2130:
2101:
2100:
2099:
2094:
2085:
2054:
2016:
1927:Guardian stones
1889:
1883:
1845:
1705:Decea Mureşului
1636:
1616:Cardium pottery
1602:
1593:
1587:(including the
1581:
1551:
1536:
1498:
1473:
1439:
1391:
1372:
1327:
1282:
1240:
1221:
1216:
1215:
1207:
1203:
1195:
1191:
1183:
1179:
1171:
1167:
1161:Timberlake 2003
1159:
1155:
1147:
1143:
1137:Timberlake 2003
1135:
1131:
1123:
1119:
1111:
1107:
1099:
1095:
1087:
1083:
1075:
1068:
1060:
1056:
1048:
1041:
1033:
1029:
1021:
1017:
1009:
1005:
995:
993:
967:
963:
958:
926:
871:Unetice culture
837:
820:Other evidence:
798:were recovered
741:) or far away (
734:
651:
570:Ötzi the Iceman
516:
507:
450:
336:
303:
294:
293:
289:
279:
271:
270:
239:Savalda Culture
74:C-Group culture
70:A-Group culture
51:
39:
29:
27:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2139:
2129:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2096:
2095:
2090:
2087:
2086:
2084:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2062:
2060:
2056:
2055:
2053:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2026:
2024:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1893:
1891:
1885:
1884:
1882:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1844:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1646:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1635:
1634:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1612:
1610:
1604:
1603:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1580:
1579:
1572:
1565:
1557:
1550:
1549:
1540:
1534:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1502:
1496:
1477:
1471:
1454:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1437:
1417:
1416:
1407:
1398:
1395:
1389:
1376:
1370:
1357:
1344:
1339:
1325:
1301:
1286:
1280:
1265:
1244:
1238:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1211:, p. 146.
1201:
1199:, p. 170.
1189:
1177:
1165:
1153:
1149:Jovanovic 1980
1141:
1129:
1117:
1115:, p. 336.
1105:
1093:
1081:
1066:
1054:
1039:
1027:
1015:
1003:
983:(2): 195–278.
960:
959:
957:
954:
953:
952:
947:
942:
937:
932:
925:
922:
893:(Spain), etc.
883:Montagne Noire
836:
833:
832:
831:
817:
807:
789:
779:
733:
730:
650:
647:
646:
645:
626:
619:
599:, mauls, etc.
573:, the ancient
515:
512:
506:
503:
479:Basque country
449:
446:
338:
337:
335:
334:
327:
320:
312:
309:
308:
296:
295:
280:
278:Related topics
277:
276:
273:
272:
268:(6500–1000 BC)
261:(5000–2900 BC)
255:
254:
249:
236:
229:Kaytha culture
226:
221:
205:(4300–1800 BC)
199:
198:
182:(3700–1700 BC)
176:
175:
162:
137:
128:
123:
114:
106:(5500–2200 BC)
100:
99:
87:(6000–3500 BC)
81:
80:
66:Gerzeh culture
62:Naqada culture
52:
49:
48:
45:
44:
32:
31:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2138:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2106:
2093:
2088:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2057:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2007:Tor enclosure
2005:
2003:
2002:Timber circle
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1987:Statue menhir
1985:
1983:
1982:Simple dolmen
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1957:Passage grave
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1886:
1880:
1879:Windmill Hill
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1780:Pit–Comb Ware
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1639:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1596:
1590:
1585:
1578:
1573:
1571:
1566:
1564:
1559:
1558:
1555:
1546:
1541:
1537:
1535:86-441-0117-X
1531:
1527:
1526:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1497:88-420-5018-0
1493:
1489:
1485:
1484:
1478:
1474:
1472:84-505-6553-7
1468:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1438:84-311-0605-0
1434:
1430:
1426:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1396:
1392:
1390:0-19-288063-2
1386:
1382:
1377:
1373:
1371:0-7486-0498-7
1367:
1363:
1358:
1355:(4): 106–109.
1354:
1350:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1326:0-902793-12-8
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1309:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1293:
1287:
1283:
1281:88-85298-50-8
1277:
1273:
1272:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1241:
1239:0-85263-895-7
1235:
1231:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1210:
1205:
1198:
1197:Cunliffe 1998
1193:
1187:, p. 97.
1186:
1185:Craddock 1995
1181:
1174:
1173:Craddock 1995
1169:
1162:
1157:
1150:
1145:
1139:, p. 22.
1138:
1133:
1126:
1121:
1114:
1109:
1103:, p. 52.
1102:
1097:
1090:
1085:
1078:
1077:Atkinson 1987
1073:
1071:
1063:
1062:Almuzara 1984
1058:
1051:
1046:
1044:
1036:
1035:Craddock 1995
1031:
1024:
1019:
1012:
1007:
991:
986:
982:
978:
977:
972:
965:
961:
951:
950:Native copper
948:
946:
943:
941:
938:
936:
933:
931:
928:
927:
921:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
894:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
863:Vinča culture
859:
854:
846:
845:Varna culture
841:
829:
825:
821:
818:
815:
811:
808:
805:
801:
797:
796:Mount Gabriel
793:
790:
787:
783:
780:
777:
774:recovered in
772:
769:
768:
767:
763:
758:
756:
752:
751:Mount Gabriel
746:
744:
740:
729:
727:
726:Mount Gabriel
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
694:Alderley Edge
691:
687:
686:Mount Gabriel
683:
678:
674:
672:
668:
660:
655:
643:
639:
634:
633:native copper
630:
627:
623:
620:
617:
613:
609:
608:native copper
605:
602:
601:
600:
598:
593:
591:
590:beneficiation
587:
583:
578:
576:
572:
571:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
529:
520:
511:
502:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
474:
472:
468:
462:
460:
455:
445:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
414:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
387:Vinča culture
383:
381:
377:
376:native copper
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
349:
344:
333:
328:
326:
321:
319:
314:
313:
311:
310:
307:
302:
298:
297:
292:
287:
283:
275:
274:
269:
267:
263:
262:
260:
253:
250:
248:
244:
243:Jorwe culture
240:
237:
234:
233:Malwa culture
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
216:
212:
209:
208:
207:
206:
204:
197:
193:
189:
188:Botai culture
186:
185:
184:
183:
181:
174:
170:
169:Gaudo culture
166:
163:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
138:
136:
132:
131:Yamna culture
129:
127:
124:
122:
121:Varna culture
118:
117:Vinča culture
115:
113:
110:
109:
108:
107:
105:
98:
94:
91:
90:
89:
88:
86:
79:
78:Kerma culture
75:
71:
67:
63:
60:
59:
58:
56:
47:
46:
43:
38:
34:
33:
30:or Copper Age
26:
23:
22:
19:
2039:
2030:Grooved ware
1992:Stone circle
1977:Round barrow
1922:Great dolmen
1890:architecture
1715:Funnelbeaker
1589:Chalcolithic
1544:
1524:
1506:
1487:
1482:
1462:
1458:
1428:
1423:
1411:
1402:
1380:
1361:
1352:
1348:
1306:
1296:
1291:
1270:
1252:
1228:
1209:Renfrew 1986
1204:
1192:
1180:
1168:
1156:
1144:
1132:
1120:
1108:
1096:
1089:Coghlan 1975
1084:
1079:, p. 3.
1057:
1030:
1018:
1006:
994:. Retrieved
980:
974:
964:
918:Bell Beakers
898:Los Millares
895:
850:
819:
809:
804:scaffoldings
791:
781:
771:Stone tools:
770:
765:
760:
747:
735:
679:
675:
664:
628:
621:
603:
594:
579:
568:
545:chalcopyrite
525:
508:
475:
463:
451:
415:
384:
364:Chalcolithic
353:
264:
257:
256:
252:Ajay culture
201:
200:
192:BMAC culture
180:Central Asia
178:
177:
111:
102:
101:
83:
82:
53:
25:Chalcolithic
18:
2050:Unstan ware
1937:Long barrow
1897:Bank barrow
1854:Tiszapolgár
1820:Sredny Stog
1785:Pitted Ware
1175:, p. .
1151:, p. .
1113:Peroni 1996
1052:, p. .
910:Megalithism
867:Tiszapolgar
755:antiquarian
743:Rudna Glava
722:Rudna Glava
688:(Ireland),
682:Rudna Glava
659:chrysocolla
561:Rudna Glava
549:chrysocolla
442:prehistoric
403:Rudna Glava
266:Mesoamerica
135:Corded Ware
97:Uruk period
2105:Categories
2076:Old Europe
2040:Metallurgy
2022:Technology
1888:Monumental
1685:Cortaillod
1219:References
1101:Mohen 1992
1050:Mohen 1992
945:Metallurgy
935:Copper Age
885:(France),
853:Copper Age
739:Mitterberg
698:Mitterberg
690:Great Orme
638:metallurgy
625:technique.
553:tennantite
487:Ebro river
454:metallurgy
434:Stonehenge
380:metallurgy
372:Bronze Age
360:Eneolithic
356:Copper Age
301:Bronze Age
282:Metallurgy
203:South Asia
1997:Stone row
1670:Cernavodă
1335:0003-598X
1261:0213-2095
900:(Spain),
881:(Italy),
879:Rinaldone
875:Remedello
858:jewellery
776:Copa Hill
702:Neuchâtel
667:malachite
657:Polished
606:Although
597:crucibles
557:malachite
537:malachite
467:crucibles
391:Majdanpek
368:Neolithic
85:West Asia
50:By region
42:Neolithic
37:Stone Age
2059:Concepts
1942:Megalith
1874:Wartberg
1831:Starčevo
1775:Petrești
1755:Karanovo
1740:Hamangia
1730:Gornești
1690:Coțofeni
1680:Chasséen
1642:Cultures
1608:Horizons
1518:352-363.
1514:897-903.
1450:625-634.
1308:Penniman
924:See also
914:Rock Art
887:El Argar
828:charcoal
724:(30) or
718:Cyclades
706:Riotinto
629:Stage C:
622:Stage B:
604:Stage A:
586:smelting
565:Riotinto
459:Brixlegg
422:Portugal
411:Bulgaria
405:mine in
395:Jarmovac
389:such as
370:and the
306:Iron Age
1869:Vučedol
1800:Rzucewo
1760:Lengyel
1710:Dudești
996:11 June
835:Society
814:chisels
800:shovels
786:antlers
714:Corsica
671:azurite
555:; e.g.
541:azurite
533:cuprite
483:dolmens
438:England
432:), and
430:Navarre
418:Palmela
399:Pločnik
362:or the
2116:Copper
1972:Rondel
1952:Menhir
1917:Dolmen
1912:Cursus
1810:Sesklo
1795:Rössen
1750:Kakanj
1745:Horgen
1700:Danilo
1665:Butmir
1655:Beaker
1532:
1494:
1469:
1435:
1387:
1368:
1333:
1323:
1278:
1259:
1236:
930:Copper
891:Targas
810:Metal:
728:(31).
642:gangue
612:Cyprus
582:gangue
528:Copper
499:copper
491:bronze
426:Cortes
407:Serbia
104:Europe
55:Africa
1932:Henge
1864:Vinča
1859:Varna
1849:Tisza
1836:Körös
1815:Sopot
1770:Neman
1765:Narva
1720:Gaudo
1675:Cerny
1660:Boian
1650:Baden
1633:(LBK)
1486:[
1461:[
1427:[
1295:[
956:Notes
906:cairn
792:Wood:
616:Crete
575:mummy
497:than
286:Wheel
259:China
1907:Cist
1841:Criş
1790:Pfyn
1530:ISBN
1492:ISBN
1467:ISBN
1433:ISBN
1385:ISBN
1366:ISBN
1331:ISSN
1321:ISBN
1276:ISBN
1257:ISSN
1234:ISBN
998:2022
889:and
877:and
869:and
826:and
824:coal
669:and
551:and
397:and
354:The
348:Ötzi
1313:doi
985:doi
745:).
614:or
588:or
493:or
424:),
2107::
1351:.
1329:.
1319:.
1069:^
1042:^
981:34
979:.
973:.
916:,
912:,
757:.
708:,
692:,
547:,
543:,
539:,
535:,
501:.
413:.
393:,
382:.
304:↓
299:↓
284:,
245:,
241:,
231:,
217:,
213:,
194:,
190:,
171:,
167:,
158:,
154:,
150:,
146:,
142:,
133:,
119:,
95:,
76:,
72:,
68:,
64:,
40:↑
35:↑
1591:)
1576:e
1569:t
1562:v
1538:.
1500:.
1475:.
1441:.
1393:.
1374:.
1353:9
1337:.
1315::
1284:.
1263:.
1242:.
1000:.
987::
778:.
661:.
436:(
428:(
420:(
331:e
324:t
317:v
288:,
235:,
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.