Mandarin Chinese - Knowledge

6692:"without prior exposure, speakers of different Mandarin dialects often have considerable difficulty understanding each other's local vernacular even if they come from the same province, provided that two or more distinct groups of Mandarin are spoken therein. In some cases, mutual intelligibility is not guaranteed even if the Mandarin dialects concerned belong to the same group and are spoken within the same province. As reported by a native speaker of the Zhenjiang dialect (a Jianghuai (Lower Yangtze) Mandarin dialect spoken in the Jiangsu province), it is impossible for her to understand the Nantong dialect (another Jianghuai Mandarin dialect spoken around 140 kilometers away in the same province)." 1484: 6568: 6760: 961: 9660: 2518: 11679: 4017: 3999: 4008: 3990: 460: 6582: 896: 1743: 2812: 472: 72: 12329: 2489:, Gan and Xiang groups, is weakly defined due to centuries of diffusion of northern features. Many border varieties have a mixture of features that make them difficult to classify. The boundary between Southwestern Mandarin and Xiang is particularly weak, and in many early classifications the two were not separated. 899: 1373:

language; rather, there are strong regional identities centred on individual dialects because of the wide geographical distribution and cultural diversity of their speakers. Speakers of forms of Mandarin other than the standard typically refer to the variety they speak by a geographic name—for example the

2045:. Comparison of dictionaries produced in the two areas will show that there are few substantial differences. However, both versions of "school-standard" Chinese are often quite different from the Mandarin varieties that are spoken in accordance with regional habits, and neither is wholly identical to the 898: 903: 902: 897: 2020:

because of their colonial and linguistic history. While Standard Mandarin is now the medium of instruction in schools throughout China, it still has yet to gain traction as a common language among the local population in areas where Mandarin dialects are not native. In these regions, people may be

5276:

Mandarin dialects frequently employ neutral tones in the second syllables of words, creating syllables whose tone contour is so short and light that it is difficult or impossible to discriminate. These atonal syllables also occur in non-Mandarin dialects, but in many southern dialects the tones of

4078:

stops and affricates had a three-way distinction between tenuis, voiceless aspirate and voiced (or breathy voiced) consonants. In Mandarin dialects the voicing is generally lost, yielding voiceless aspirates in syllables with a Middle Chinese level tone and non-aspirates in other syllables. Of the

2142:

were colonized by speakers of Mandarin dialects at the same time, and the dialects in those areas similarly closely resemble their relatives in the core Mandarin area. The Southwest was settled early, but the population fell dramatically for obscure reasons in the 13th century, and did not recover

904: 5532:), which may be exclusive of the listener. Dialects of Mandarin agree with each other quite consistently on these pronouns. While the first and second person singular pronouns are cognate with forms in other varieties of Chinese, the rest of the pronominal system is a Mandarin innovation (e.g., 4083:

of Middle Chinese, the level, rising and departing tones have also developed into four modern tones in a uniform way across Mandarin dialects; the Middle Chinese level tone has split into two registers, conditioned on voicing of the Middle Chinese initial, while rising tone syllables with voiced

2263:

in 1979 by the government prioritized the language over traditional vernaculars in an attempt to create a common ethnic language and foster closer connections to China. This has led to a significant increase and presence of Mandarin usage in the country, coupled with a strong decline in usage of

1770:

The Chinese have different languages in different provinces, to such an extent that they cannot understand each other.... also have another language which is like a universal and common language; this is the official language of the mandarins and of the court; it is among them like Latin among

1601:

shows the typical Mandarin four-tone system resulting from a split of the "even" tone and loss of the entering tone, with its syllables distributed across the other tones (though their different origin is marked in the dictionary). Similarly, voiced plosives and affricates have become voiceless

1516:(Mongol) dynasties in northern China, a common form of speech developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital, a language referred to as Old Mandarin. New genres of vernacular literature were based on this language, including verse, drama and story forms, such as the 1372:

Native speakers who are not academic linguists may not recognize that the variants they speak are classified in linguistics as members of "Mandarin" (or so-called "Northern dialects") in a broader sense. Within Chinese social or cultural discourse, there is not a "Mandarin" identity based on

2025:

or speak the standard language with a notable accent. However, since the start of the 21st century, there has been an effort of mass education in Standard Mandarin Chinese and discouragement of local language usage by the Chinese government in order to erase these regional differences.

5635:

In general, the greatest variation occurs in slang, in kinship terms, in names for common crops and domesticated animals, for common verbs and adjectives, and other such everyday terms. The least variation occurs in "formal" vocabulary—terms dealing with science, law, or government.

2084:

provided few barriers to migration, leading to relative linguistic homogeneity over a wide area in northern China. In contrast, the mountains and rivers of southern China have spawned the other six major groups of Chinese varieties, with great internal diversity, particularly in

905: 2275:

is used in informal daily life and is heavily influenced in terms of both grammar and vocabulary by local languages such as Cantonese, Hokkien, and Malay. Instances of code-switching with English, Hokkien, Cantonese, Malay, or a combination of any of these is also common.

1664:. Over time, the various spoken varieties diverged greatly from Literary Chinese, which was learned and composed as a special language. Preserved from the sound changes that affected the various spoken varieties, its economy of expression was greatly valued. For example, 901: 1555:, a rime dictionary based on 'Phags-pa. The rime books differ in some details, but overall show many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects, such as the reduction and disappearance of final plosives and the reorganization of the Middle Chinese tones. 1594:, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials. When voicing was lost in all languages except the Wu subfamily, this distinction became phonemic and the system of initials and tones was rearranged differently in each of the major groups. 5907:

Some characters in Mandarin can be combined with others to indicate a particular meaning just like prefix and suffix in English. For example, the suffix -er which means the person who is doing the action, e.g. teacher, person who teaches. In Mandarin the character

2459:

in 1960 kept Xiang and Gan separate, with Mandarin divided into Northern, Northwestern, Southwestern and Jiang–Huai (Lower Yangtze) subgroups. Of Yuan's four Mandarin subgroups, the Northwestern dialects are the most diverse, particularly in the province of

1685:

The literary language was less appropriate for documents that were meant to be performed or recited, such as plays or stories. From at least the Yuan dynasty plays that recounted the subversive tales of China's Robin Hoods to the Ming dynasty novels such as

6686:"the common term assigned by linguists to this group of languages implies a certain homogeneity which is more likely to be related to the sociopolitical context than to linguistic reality, since most of those varieties are not mutually intelligible." 1989:'common speech'). Some 54% of speakers of Mandarin varieties could understand the standard language in the early 1950s, rising to 91% in 1984. Nationally, the proportion understanding the standard rose from 41% to 90% over the same period. 1872:

on this koiné as the standard of the time, though he conceded that the Beijing dialect was gaining in influence. By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court.

1369:; 'Northern dialects'), is used less and less among Chinese linguists. By extension, the term "Old Mandarin" or "Early Mandarin" is used by linguists to refer to the northern dialects recorded in materials from the Yuan dynasty. 1716:). In many cases, this written language reflected Mandarin varieties and since pronunciation differences were not conveyed in this written form, this tradition had a unifying force across all the Mandarin-speaking regions and beyond. 1610:

in modern dialects and initial voiced fricatives. It also retained the distinction between velars and alveolar sibilants in palatal environments, which later merged in most Mandarin dialects to yield a palatal series (rendered

4420:

In the Beijing dialect that underlies the standard language, syllables beginning with original voiceless consonants were redistributed across the four tones in a completely random pattern. For example, the three characters

2310:, where Mandarin is increasingly used alongside Cantonese as a lingua franca in part due to Singaporean influence. As in Singapore, the local colloquial variant of Mandarin exhibits influences from Cantonese and Malay. 3707:. In other dialects they have been lost, with varying effects on the vowel. As a result, Beijing Mandarin and Northeastern Mandarin underwent more vowel mergers than many other varieties of Mandarin. For example: 4071:

tones of (55), (35), (214), and (51). The exception to this rule lies in the distribution of syllables formerly ending in a stop consonant, which are treated differently in different dialects of Mandarin.

4497:. In line with traditional Chinese phonology, dialects such as Lower Yangtze and Minjiang are thus said to have five tones instead of four. However, modern linguistics considers these syllables as having no 2270:

is nearly identical to the standards of China and Taiwan, with minor vocabulary differences. It is the Mandarin variant used in education, media, and official settings. Meanwhile, a colloquial form called

1791:

spoke only their local variety. As a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as

4036: 962: 3356:, though they often have a different distribution than in the standard language. In most dialects of the southeast and southwest the retroflex initials have merged with the alveolar sibilants, so that 900: 1145:

for government officials and the courts since the 14th century. In the early 20th century, a standard form based on the Beijing dialect, with elements from other Mandarin dialects, was adopted as the

2421:

The classification of Chinese dialects evolved during the 20th century, and many points remain unsettled. Early classifications tended to follow provincial boundaries or major geographical features.

5563:

Because of contact with Mongolian and Manchurian peoples, Mandarin (especially the Northeastern varieties) has some loanwords from these languages not present in other varieties of Chinese, such as

6822:

For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.

2294:, Mandarin has been adopted by local Chinese-language schools as the medium of instruction with the standard based on that of Singapore. However, it is not as widespread in daily life among the 5869:) is characteristic of Mandarin dialects. Some southern dialects, and a few Lower Yangtze dialects, preserve an older pattern of subordination without a marking particle, while in others a 4463:

mark characters whose pronunciation formerly ended with a stop with a superscript 5; however, this tone number is more commonly used for syllables that always have a neutral tone (see below).

1722:, a pivotal figure of the first half of the twentieth century, wrote an influential and perceptive study of this literary tradition, entitled "A History of Vernacular Literature" ( 2576:. The Beijing dialect forms the basis of Standard Chinese. This classification is controversial, as a number of researchers view Beijing and Northeastern Mandarin as a single dialect group. 4084:

obstruent initials have shifted to the departing tone. The following examples from the standard language illustrate the regular development common to Mandarin dialects (recall that pinyin

2722:, etc. There are significant phonological and lexical changes to varying degrees, and intelligibility with Beijing is limited. Lower Yangtze Mandarin has been significantly influenced by 2068:

Mandarin is spoken across northern and southwestern China, with some pockets in neighbouring countries. Unlike their compatriots on the southeast coast, few Mandarin speakers engaged in

4417:". These final stops have disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, with the syllables distributed over the other four modern tones in different ways in the various Mandarin subgroups. 4034: 7727: 2184:

While the spoken standard of Taiwanese Mandarin is nearly identical to that of mainland China, the colloquial form has been heavily influenced by other local languages, especially

10072: 10063: 1165:. Recent increased migration from Mandarin-speaking regions of China and Taiwan has now resulted in the language being one of the more frequently used varieties of Chinese among 6683:"Hence we see that even Mandarin includes within it an unspecified number of languages, very few of which have ever been reduced to writing, that are mutually unintelligible." 2181:. The Taiwanese standard of Mandarin differs very little from that of mainland China, with differences largely in some technical vocabulary developed from the 1950s onwards. 2029:

From an official point of view, the mainland Chinese and the Taiwanese governments maintain their own forms of the standard under different names. The codified forms of both

1811:, issued a decree requiring the governors of those provinces to provide for the teaching of proper pronunciation. Although the resulting Academies for Correct Pronunciation ( 10557: 11102: 7692: 6553:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

7790: 7588: 4413:

In traditional Chinese phonology, syllables that ended in a stop in Middle Chinese (i.e. /p/, /t/ or /k/) were considered to belong to a special category known as the "

4035: 2620:, due to migration. Very noticeable tonal changes, different in "flavour" from Ji–Lu Mandarin, but with more variance. There is moderate intelligibility with Beijing. 9182: 11064: 1545:

tradition that had evolved over the previous centuries, this dictionary contains a wealth of information on the phonology of Old Mandarin. Further sources are the

5682:. Although modern varieties, including the Mandarin dialects, use a small number of particles in a similar fashion to suffixes, they are still strongly analytic. 2505:

dialects have features of both Mandarin and Wu, and have been assigned to one or other of these groups or treated as separate by various authors. Li Rong and the

2482:(1987). Many other linguists continue to include these dialects in the Mandarin group, pointing out that the Lower Yangtze dialects also retain the glottal stop. 8949:

Szeto, Pui Yiu; Ansaldo, Umberto; Matthews, Stephen (2018), "Typological variation across Mandarin dialects: An areal perspective with a quantitative approach",

11804: 10586: 3395:. In about 20% of dialects, the alveolar sibilants did not palatalize, remaining separate from the alveolo-palatal initials. (The unique pronunciation used in 8481: 2788:, recorded in the 19th century in the Tibetan foothills, who the Chinese apparently did not recognize as Chinese. Some northwestern Mandarin varieties in the 2539:

calls the remainder of Mandarin a "supergroup", divided into eight dialect groups distinguished by their treatment of the Middle Chinese entering tone (see

1630:

The flourishing vernacular literature of the period also shows distinctively Mandarin vocabulary and syntax, though some, such as the third-person pronoun

1602:

aspirates in the "even" tone and voiceless non-aspirates in others, another distinctive Mandarin development. However, the language still retained a final

1141:

has been within the Mandarin-speaking area for most of the last millennium, making these dialects very influential. Some form of Mandarin has served as a

11611: 11601: 2956:

The maximal inventory of initials of a Mandarin dialect is as follows, with bracketed pinyin spellings given for those present in the standard language:

6550:

Rénrén shēng ér zìyóu, zài zūnyán hé quánlì shàng yīlù píngděng. Tāmen fùyǒu lǐxìng hé liángxīn, bìng yīng yǐ xiōngdì guānxì de jīngshén hùxiāng duìdài.

5880:

alter the inherent meaning of a sentence. Like much vocabulary, particles can vary a great deal with regards to the locale. For example, the particle

11606: 11365: 10913: 1349:

Linguists use the term "Mandarin" to refer to the diverse group of dialects spoken in northern and southwestern China, which Chinese linguists call

15279: 11520: 6689:"A speaker of only standard Mandarin might take a week or two to comprehend even simple Kunminghua with ease—and then only if willing to learn it." 5289:. This is partly because Mandarin has undergone many more sound changes than southern varieties of Chinese have, and needed to deal with many more 8507: 2092:

However, the varieties of Mandarin cover a huge area containing nearly a billion people. As a result, there are pronounced regional variations in

15707: 9457: 1089: 17069: 15112: 6680:

In the early 1950s, only 54% of people in the Mandarin-speaking area could understand Standard Chinese, which was based on the Beijing dialect.

6627: 8803: 6772: 5693:

sentences. In northern dialects the indirect object precedes the direct object (as in English), for example in the Standard Chinese sentence:

1821:) were short-lived, the decree did spawn a number of textbooks that give some insight into the ideal pronunciation. Common features included: 14652: 2204:

between Mandarin and Taiwanese Hokkien is common, as the majority of the population continues to also speak the latter as a native language.

8982:, Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series, vol. 3, Chinese University Press, Project on Linguistic Analysis, pp. 185–234, 3480:

corresponding to the zero initial of the standard language. This initial is the result of a merger of the Middle Chinese zero initial with

12363: 4436: 15384: 16900: 11687: 10925: 7298: 6805: 3957:, a characteristic feature of Mandarin, works quite differently in the southwest. Whereas Beijing dialect generally removes only a final 7728:"The Lost Hui: How a People from China Mastered the Cyrillic Alphabet and Found Themselves on the Other Side of the Celestial Mountains" 2041:

on the Beijing accent, and also take some elements from other sources, and deviate from the Beijing dialect in vocabulary, grammar, and

10314: 8783: 7755:"Dispatch from the Chüy Valley Since ethnic violence in 2020, Dungans on the Kyrgyz-Kazakh border have straddled two different worlds" 464:

Mandarin area in China as of 1987, including Sichuanese, Lower Yangtze and (in light green) Jin, which are arguably separate languages

15749: 10889: 10877: 2060:

remain in use in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau. Singapore has followed mainland China in officially adopting simplified characters.

1276: 6870: 2143:

until the 17th century. The dialects in this area are now relatively uniform. However, long-established cities even very close to

17064: 14258: 12407: 10901: 10393: 6838: 2561: 266: 7682: 7614: 2468:

proposed that the northwestern dialects of Shanxi and neighbouring areas that retain a final glottal stop in the Middle Chinese

1549:

based on the Tibetan alphabet, which was used to write several of the languages of the Mongol empire, including Chinese and the

11985: 9429: 5359:), made from elements meaning "hurried" and "busy". A distinctive feature of southwestern Mandarin is its frequent use of noun 4459: 2880:. Not all combinations occur. For example, Standard Chinese (based on the Beijing dialect) has about 1,200 distinct syllables. 1841:

the characteristic Mandarin four-tone system in open syllables, but retaining a final glottal stop in "entering tone" syllables

1737: 208: 35: 7573: 16534: 15790: 11224: 9103: 9080: 9061: 9042: 9023: 9004: 8910: 8891: 8872: 8853: 8754: 8699: 8680: 8600: 8574: 8551: 6913: 6600: 6340: 3647:

in contrast to the larger sets of monophthongs common in other dialect groups (and some widely scattered Mandarin dialects).

1088:

with the standard language (or are only partially intelligible). Nevertheless, Mandarin as a group is often placed first in

15272: 12425: 12035: 6621: 4470:) and Jin Chinese (sometimes considered non-Mandarin), former final stops were not deleted entirely, but were reduced to a 2760:. There are sharp phonological, lexical, and tonal changes, and intelligibility with Beijing is limited to varying degrees. 1963:

finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic, founded in 1949, retained this standard, calling it

1869: 7529:

Yao, Qian (September 2014). "Analysis of Computer Terminology Translation Differences between Taiwan and Mainland China".

6806:"Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37)" 2646:, due to recent migration. There are significant phonological differences, with partial intelligibility with Beijing. The 15700: 11877: 9450: 9170: 8725: 3300: 3288: 3257: 3158: 2333: 524: 17: 5269:* Dialects in and around the Nantong area typically have many more than 4 tones, due to influence from the neighbouring 1381:, all being regarded as distinct from the standard language, with which they may not share much mutual intelligibility. 12552: 8920:

Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer, Svetlana (1977–1978), "Soviet Dungan nationalism: a few comments on their origin and language",

5779:

In southern dialects, as well as many southwestern and Lower Yangtze dialects, the objects occur in the reverse order.

2558:. This dialect is closely related to Standard Chinese, with little variation in lexicon and very few tonal differences. 9432:

Comprehensive tone comparison charts for 523 Mandarin dialects. (Compiled by James Campbell) – Internet Archive mirror

2602:. Tones and vocabulary are markedly different. In general, there is substantial intelligibility with Beijing Mandarin. 14645: 8048: 7644: 2851: 2829: 2391: 2387: 1896: 1848:

velars and dental affricates, the source of the spellings "Peking" and "Tientsin" for modern "Beijing" and "Tianjin".

968: 9035:

Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Vol I: Maps. Vol II: Texts

2768:

also includes several unclassified Mandarin dialects spoken in scattered pockets across southeastern China, such as

2452:, while splitting the remaining Mandarin dialects between Northern, Lower Yangtze and Southwestern Mandarin groups. 1259:, with some lexical and syntactic influence from other Mandarin dialects. It is the official spoken language of the 16794: 12356: 9659: 8477: 8978:

Ting, Pang-Hsin (1991), "Some theoretical issues in the study of Mandarin dialects", in Wang, William S-Y. (ed.),

6992: 1234:

missionaries learned this standard language in the 16th century, they called it "Mandarin", from its Chinese name

1115:

compared to the more mountainous south, combined with the relatively recent spread of Mandarin to frontier areas.

17074: 17054: 15265: 12455: 11957: 10184: 3221: 2944: 1860:

area, though not identical to any single dialect. This form remained prestigious long after the capital moved to

1390: 514: 2016:, the standard form of Chinese used in education, the media, formal speech, and everyday life remains the local 1919:, which was based on northern dialects. A parallel priority was the definition of a standard national language ( 17059: 16239: 15693: 10664: 10307: 9443: 2833: 2057: 1976: 1920: 1226:

empires. Since their native varieties were often mutually unintelligible, these officials communicated using a

1049: 987: 872: 740: 703: 569: 325: 93: 2432:

voiced initials. His Mandarin group included dialects of northern and southwestern China, as well as those of

17079: 15476: 15335: 15142: 12273: 11727: 3245: 3146: 2888: 2267: 2080:

Most Han Chinese living in northern and southwestern China are native speakers of a dialect of Mandarin. The

2053: 1968: 1928: 1845: 1407:. Traditionally, seven major groups of dialects have been recognized. Aside from Mandarin, the other six are 1170: 1041: 977: 726: 553: 450: 321: 89: 3695:

The Middle Chinese final stops have undergone a variety of developments in different Mandarin dialects (see

17049: 16804: 16234: 14638: 13488: 12548: 12332: 12243: 11767: 10242: 10189: 9845: 6615: 3312: 3233: 3134: 2896: 2789: 2416: 2127:

of the area now speak these dialects exclusively; their native language is only maintained in northwestern

2072:

until the late 20th century, but there are now significant communities of them in cities across the world.

1960: 1865: 1796:. Knowledge of this language was thus essential for an official career, but it was never formally defined. 1138: 6717: 5260: 5256: 5250: 5246: 5240: 5234: 5228: 5215: 5209: 5203: 5197: 5191: 5175: 5169: 5163: 5157: 5144: 5138: 5132: 5126: 5113: 5107: 5101: 5095: 5082: 5076: 5070: 5064: 5058: 5045: 5039: 5033: 5027: 5011: 5005: 4999: 4986: 4980: 4974: 4968: 4952: 4946: 4940: 4927: 4921: 4915: 4909: 4896: 4890: 4884: 4878: 4865: 4859: 4853: 4847: 4831: 4825: 4819: 4813: 4800: 4794: 4788: 4782: 4766: 4760: 4754: 4747: 4731: 4725: 4719: 4713: 4697: 4691: 4685: 4679: 4474: 4097: 4089: 3969: 3962: 3958: 3946: 3941: 3936: 3931: 3907: 3902: 3897: 3892: 3887: 3882: 3877: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3681: 3674: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3651: 3636: 3632: 3597: 3590: 3586: 3579: 3575: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3538: 3528: 3524: 3514: 3510: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3425: 3418: 3411: 3407: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3353: 3349: 2914: 17044: 14933: 14733: 12403: 12349: 12248: 12120: 12045: 11702: 10235: 9890: 9812: 9528: 5686: 1571: 1509: 806: 637: 7754: 7126:

Linguae Sinarum Mandarinicae hieroglyphicae grammatica duplex, latinè, & cum characteribus Sinensium

2306:

serves as the common language (especially in commerce and local media). An exception is in the state of

1099:; it is spoken by 70 percent of all Chinese speakers over a large geographical area that stretches from 16274: 15674: 12290: 12263: 12140: 12052: 11799: 11779: 8845: 8503: 3332: 3320: 3055: 3043: 2801: 1956: 1916: 1699: 1955:). After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at 1757:("Middle Kingdom's Common Speech"), used on the frontispiece of an early Chinese grammar published by 1111:

in the northeast. This is generally attributed to the greater ease of travel and communication in the

17039: 16129: 15795: 13397: 11842: 10540: 10300: 10135: 9582: 9503: 8837: 8371: 5387:). There are also a small number of words that have been polysyllabic since Old Chinese, such as 3330: 3318: 3310: 3298: 3286: 3269: 3267: 3255: 3243: 3231: 3219: 3198: 3186: 3174: 3156: 3144: 3132: 3111: 3095: 3083: 3069: 3053: 3041: 3024: 3008: 2996: 2979: 2319: 2196:

series (z, c, s), frequent mergers of the "neutral tone" with a word's original tone, and absence of

2115:, did not receive significant settlements by Han Chinese until the 18th century, and as a result the 7538: 6759: 1483: 16159: 15815: 13878: 13417: 13382: 12483: 12216: 12201: 12191: 11905: 10216: 9819: 9632: 5890:), which is used in most northern dialects to denote obviousness or contention, is replaced by 5870: 5578: 3631:, are common in Mandarin dialects, though they also occur elsewhere. The Middle Chinese off-glides 3600:. This is a stereotypical feature of southwestern Mandarin, since it is so easily noticeable. E.g. 3450:

People in many Mandarin-speaking areas may use different initial sounds where Beijing uses initial

2332:

variant close to the Yunnanese dialect is spoken by local Chinese and other ethnic groups. In some

1694: 1505: 444: 341: 331: 8743:

Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects"

5285:

There are more polysyllabic words in Mandarin than in all other major varieties of Chinese except

1275:. It also functions as the language of instruction in mainland China and Taiwan. It is one of the 16972: 16885: 16616: 16369: 16319: 16299: 16219: 16204: 16139: 15773: 14810: 14579: 14273: 13531: 13442: 13324: 13319: 12228: 10467: 10210: 9996: 9880: 9071:

Yue, Anne O. (2003), "Chinese dialects: grammar", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.),

5586: 3071: 2822: 2623: 2527: 2478: 2395: 2260: 1433: 914: 393: 286: 30:

This article is about the group of Chinese language varieties. For the standardized variety, see

12221: 12070: 7639:

Lee Kuan Yew, "From Third World to First: The Singapore Story: 1965–2000", HarperCollins, 2000 (

5496:) added for the plural. Further, there is a distinction between the plural first-person pronoun 17000: 16937: 16463: 16124: 16029: 15984: 15924: 15785: 15543: 15363: 15288: 14968: 14773: 14768: 14763: 14758: 14669: 14302: 14119: 13801: 12626: 12621: 12592: 12580: 12162: 12005: 10603: 10256: 10249: 10029: 9963: 9466: 8818: 5689:

is common across Chinese dialects, but there are variations in the order of the two objects of

5590: 3700: 2691: 1158: 1081: 281: 148: 16434: 9148:

Dwyer, Arienne M. (1995), "From the Northwest China Sprachbund: Xúnhuà Chinese dialect data",

7295: 6809: 6703:

Speaker numbers are rounded to the nearest million from figures in the revised edition of the

16842: 16344: 16224: 15969: 15822: 15716: 15389: 15246: 14591: 14567: 14290: 14253: 12751: 12157: 12080: 11794: 11772: 10527: 10360: 10199: 10149: 9705: 9308:

Kong, Huifang; Wu, Shengyi; Li, Mingxing (2022). "Hefei Mandarin". Illustrations of the IPA.

8804:"What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms" 3010: 2998: 2937: 2933: 2729: 2547: 2329: 2116: 1657: 1590:). Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch and by the late 1378: 1215: 1085: 1073: 400: 296: 261: 14465: 9348:

Western Mandarin: or the spoken language of western China, with syllabic and English indexes

8768: 1864:

in 1421, though the speech of the new capital emerged as a rival standard. As late as 1815,

16995: 16977: 16719: 16698: 16289: 15979: 15810: 15800: 15598: 15501: 15150: 14238: 14099: 13918: 13898: 13883: 13619: 13584: 13392: 11925: 11893: 11722: 10847: 10342: 10011: 9857: 9803: 2906:

one syllable contains maximum four phonemes (maximum three vowels and no consonant cluster)

2428:

produced the first classification based on phonetic criteria, principally the evolution of

2240: 2218: 2001: 1900: 1775: 1396: 254: 1648:

Until the early 20th century, formal writing and even much poetry and fiction was done in

8: 16947: 16895: 16860: 16693: 16587: 16478: 16324: 16269: 16014: 15869: 15844: 15654: 15576: 15571: 15484: 15459: 15241: 15229: 14909: 14661: 14551: 14531: 14295: 14222: 13923: 13873: 13868: 13279: 12846: 12430: 12169: 12135: 11970: 11937: 11784: 11712: 11629: 11470: 11465: 11219: 11029: 10535: 10194: 9784: 9611: 9542: 9412: 9346: 8610: 7175: 5486: 4482: 3214: 3200: 3188: 3176: 3125: 3113: 3097: 3085: 2974: 2929: 2900: 1992:

This standard language is now used in education, the media, and formal occasions in both

1563: 1546: 1374: 1182: 1077: 1036:

and most Mandarin dialects are found in the north, the group is sometimes referred to as

193: 13908: 13893: 12508: 9390: 9379: 9335: 8642:——— (2003), "Robert Morrison and the Phonology of Mid-Qīng Mandarin", 5522: 5504: 5395: 1758: 16661: 16567: 16409: 16374: 16339: 16194: 16174: 16144: 15884: 15489: 15224: 15122: 14994: 14828: 14746: 14687: 14678: 14496: 14268: 14202: 14151: 14104: 14048: 13778: 13721: 13447: 12603: 12372: 12285: 12152: 12115: 12000: 11898: 11832: 11827: 11717: 11707: 11333: 11311: 11204: 11012: 11007: 10930: 10918: 10906: 10894: 10882: 10406: 10035: 9644: 9510: 9213: 8983: 8966: 8937: 8659: 8630: 8540: 7542: 6984: 6860: 6716:

The development is purely due to the preservation of an early glide which later became

6610: 6595: 5877: 5815: 5783: 5667: 5663: 4048: 3620: 3026: 2873: 2613: 2609: 2591: 2555: 2465: 2425: 2285: 2193: 2172: 1895:

in the early 1900s and the successive Republican government. In the early years of the

1119: 317: 276: 183: 84: 15889: 13903: 12513: 6834: 4606:

Although the system of tones is common across Mandarin dialects, their realization as

2662:

have reported being understood by speakers of the Beijing dialect, but not vice versa.

1283:, under the name "Chinese". Chinese speakers refer to the modern standard language as 436: 16912: 16890: 16784: 16683: 16678: 16666: 16656: 16621: 16419: 16384: 16214: 16184: 16054: 15954: 15944: 15805: 15744: 15731: 15634: 15629: 15619: 15593: 15588: 15583: 15551: 15511: 15429: 15394: 15325: 15209: 15204: 15166: 15026: 14977: 14942: 14855: 14795: 14475: 14135: 14009: 13954: 13846: 13754: 13749: 13706: 13628: 13359: 13339: 13264: 13241: 13014: 12896: 12866: 12708: 12699: 12651: 12641: 12488: 12420: 12196: 12186: 12065: 12030: 11885: 11837: 11789: 11556: 11409: 11343: 11199: 11184: 10855: 10832: 10786: 10711: 10637: 10517: 10485: 10439: 10378: 10368: 10333: 10143: 10103: 10081: 10046: 10040: 10005: 9943: 9937: 9917: 9711: 9699: 9682: 9590: 9536: 9516: 9122: 9099: 9076: 9057: 9038: 9019: 9000: 8970: 8906: 8887: 8868: 8849: 8750: 8746: 8695: 8676: 8673:

Creole and dialect continua: standard acquisition processes in Belize and China (PRC)

8663: 8596: 8570: 8563: 8547: 8044: 7640: 7618: 7546: 7181: 6988: 6976: 6909: 5797: 5671: 5651: 2605: 2295: 2185: 2081: 1800: 1150: 1146: 1112: 1013: 856: 848: 687: 679: 336: 153: 16164: 16004: 9381:

The Standard System of Mandarin Romanization: Introduction, Sound Table an Syllabary

9357: 1853: 1227: 520: 16907: 16875: 16870: 16729: 16703: 16688: 16631: 16404: 16364: 16284: 16279: 16259: 16249: 16209: 16199: 16189: 16134: 16104: 16094: 16049: 16019: 15929: 15894: 15778: 15624: 15566: 15531: 15521: 15506: 15421: 15182: 14901: 14865: 14850: 14845: 14838: 14823: 14546: 14541: 14511: 14470: 14450: 14339: 14334: 14278: 14197: 14086: 13959: 13939: 13888: 13855: 13816: 13811: 13806: 13764: 13759: 13741: 13589: 13579: 13483: 13432: 13427: 13402: 13329: 13022: 12999: 12994: 12924: 12919: 12914: 12876: 12816: 12741: 12684: 12679: 12664: 12435: 12386: 12302: 11822: 11697: 11561: 11551: 11536: 11482: 11404: 11355: 11316: 11265: 11179: 11131: 11115: 10995: 10955: 10950: 10837: 10791: 10737: 10732: 10722: 10716: 10545: 10490: 10475: 10323: 10164: 10124: 10094: 10068: 10018: 9976: 9885: 9862: 9755: 9735: 9692: 9617: 9480: 9368: 9313: 9294: 9269: 9157: 9134: 9094:

education and language policy in postcolonial Hong Kong", in Zhou, Minglang (ed.),

8958: 8933: 8929: 8651: 8622: 8391: 8387: 7534: 6968: 5679: 5675: 4467: 2969: 2964: 2777: 2517: 2398:

dialects of southeast Gansu and southwest Shaanxi, and write their language in the

2228: 2069: 1912: 1882: 1780:

Historia del principio y progresso de la Compañía de Jesús en las Indias Orientales

1679: 1653: 1649: 1567: 1537: 1252: 1166: 1029: 927: 771: 602: 291: 234: 158: 31: 14094: 9742: 6720:

and triggered palatalization, and does not indicate the absence of a vowel merger.

2883:

Phonological features that are generally shared by the Mandarin dialects include:

1126:

have disappeared in most of these varieties, but some have merged them as a final

16927: 16917: 16771: 16739: 16734: 16724: 16671: 16609: 16602: 16551: 16394: 16309: 16304: 16244: 16149: 16114: 16109: 16099: 16089: 16044: 16034: 16024: 15964: 15959: 15939: 15934: 15765: 15739: 15644: 15639: 15561: 15556: 15526: 15494: 15464: 15214: 15117: 15097: 15031: 14914: 14891: 14886: 14860: 14751: 14741: 14700: 14695: 14526: 14516: 14506: 14455: 14445: 14319: 14192: 14187: 14182: 14071: 14061: 14056: 14024: 14014: 13999: 13989: 13979: 13949: 13913: 13863: 13826: 13791: 13731: 13711: 13691: 13656: 13641: 13636: 13559: 13498: 13478: 13473: 13468: 13412: 13304: 13274: 13223: 13198: 13183: 13157: 13152: 13132: 13117: 13062: 13004: 12989: 12984: 12969: 12964: 12909: 12841: 12821: 12756: 12731: 12659: 12636: 12538: 12503: 12498: 12473: 12445: 12440: 12253: 12233: 12130: 12090: 12075: 11814: 11664: 11654: 11634: 11591: 11586: 11452: 11416: 11399: 11389: 11328: 11146: 11082: 11024: 10972: 10967: 10869: 10765: 10760: 10669: 10616: 10611: 10591: 10576: 10571: 10512: 10507: 10497: 10480: 10452: 10424: 10401: 10156: 10110: 9969: 9851: 9790: 9624: 9571: 9562: 9548: 9401: 9096:

Language policy in the People's Republic of China: theory and practice since 1949

7687: 7302: 6605: 6587: 5645: 4068: 3954: 3578:, is lost after apical initials in several areas. Thus Southwestern Mandarin has 2991: 2984: 2892: 2665: 2647: 2599: 2551: 2502: 2399: 2345: 2248: 2139: 2120: 2108: 2046: 1532: 1442: 1256: 1096: 1021: 834: 665: 380: 376: 140: 130: 2052:

The written forms of Standard Chinese are also essentially equivalent, although

1255:, which is often called simply "Chinese". Standard Mandarin Chinese is based on 992: 982: 576: 560: 16880: 16597: 16539: 16507: 16502: 16424: 16414: 16399: 16359: 16334: 16329: 16314: 16294: 16264: 16254: 16229: 16179: 16154: 16084: 16079: 16039: 16009: 15949: 15909: 15904: 15899: 15879: 15859: 15839: 15454: 15340: 15330: 15309: 15219: 15102: 15074: 14881: 14833: 14790: 14780: 14723: 14705: 14536: 14480: 14460: 14263: 14228: 14217: 14212: 14207: 14114: 14066: 14004: 13974: 13969: 13831: 13821: 13786: 13696: 13661: 13646: 13594: 13554: 13549: 13544: 13493: 13437: 13407: 13387: 13377: 13372: 13349: 13269: 13254: 13249: 13218: 13193: 13178: 13173: 13142: 13137: 13127: 13122: 13112: 13107: 13102: 13097: 13052: 13027: 12974: 12886: 12871: 12836: 12806: 12801: 12781: 12771: 12766: 12761: 12689: 12674: 12616: 12611: 12518: 12478: 12463: 12307: 12297: 12268: 12258: 11975: 11947: 11659: 11644: 11546: 11497: 11492: 11477: 11421: 11360: 11242: 11214: 11194: 11141: 11110: 11087: 11077: 11072: 11034: 11017: 10962: 10827: 10809: 10727: 10701: 10642: 10562: 10550: 10502: 10457: 10447: 10373: 10226: 10204: 10118: 10087: 10023: 9983: 9957: 9931: 9908: 9831: 9777: 9749: 9718: 9596: 9522: 8764: 7996: 7782: 6647: 4075: 3439:

are not distinguished. In Southwestern Mandarin, these sounds usually merge to

3036: 2910: 2429: 2371: 2236: 2232: 2201: 1993: 1946: 1559: 1446: 1404: 1280: 1191: 1162: 1123: 820: 651: 366: 307: 271: 198: 125: 12493: 11678: 9317: 9298: 9274: 9257: 8713: 8655: 5556: 5541: 5474: 5468: 5462: 5456: 5444: 5432: 5426: 5414: 4240: 4233: 4226: 4219: 4212: 4205: 4198: 4191: 4184: 4177: 4170: 4163: 2302:

speakers continue to form a plurality among the ethnic Chinese population and

1771:

ourselves.... Two of our fathers have been learning this mandarin language...

17033: 16957: 16942: 16932: 16757: 16487: 16429: 16389: 16379: 16354: 16349: 16169: 16074: 16064: 15827: 15649: 15444: 15236: 15107: 15089: 15054: 14950: 14919: 14818: 14800: 14521: 14395: 14371: 14314: 14143: 14076: 14034: 14019: 13944: 13796: 13701: 13574: 13569: 13422: 13334: 13314: 13309: 13299: 13289: 13284: 13259: 13213: 13208: 13203: 13188: 13147: 13092: 13087: 13082: 13077: 13072: 13067: 13057: 13047: 13042: 13032: 12979: 12959: 12954: 12949: 12944: 12939: 12934: 12929: 12881: 12861: 12856: 12851: 12831: 12811: 12796: 12791: 12786: 12746: 12736: 12721: 12716: 12669: 12631: 12533: 12523: 12108: 11920: 11915: 11487: 11431: 11426: 11394: 11381: 11257: 11209: 11136: 11092: 10982: 10819: 10742: 10581: 10429: 10416: 9950: 9872: 9638: 9603: 9555: 9171:"Contributions to the Study of Loan-Words and Hybrid Words in Modern Chinese" 8962: 8709: 7185: 6980: 6837:. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of China (Taiwan). 31 December 2014. 6665: 5582: 5360: 4414: 2659: 2579: 2472:(plosive-final) category should constitute a separate top-level group called 2469: 2445: 2351: 2256: 2132: 2124: 2093: 1762: 1424: 1416: 1142: 910: 370: 10285:

indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.

8378:(1976). "The Austroasiatics in ancient South China: some lexical evidence". 7683:"In Myanmar's Remote Mongla Region, Mandarin Supplants The Burmese Language" 5596:

There are also many Chinese words which come from foreign languages such as

2876:. In the traditional analysis, the medial, vowel and coda are combined as a 2572:, as well as some areas of recent large-scale immigration, such as northern 1742: 459: 16922: 16832: 16546: 16524: 16119: 15989: 15197: 15018: 14501: 14366: 14329: 14029: 13994: 13984: 13964: 13836: 13716: 13681: 13671: 13666: 13651: 13539: 13463: 13367: 13344: 13037: 12904: 12826: 12776: 12726: 12528: 12468: 11980: 11930: 11306: 11189: 11162: 10706: 10696: 9924: 9840: 9796: 9725: 9139: 8081: 6573: 5690: 5533: 5349:), or by compounding, e.g. by combining two words of similar meaning as in 5286: 4808: 4607: 4494: 4471: 3704: 3655: 3396: 2922: 2635: 2617: 2595: 2497:

dialects within Southwestern Mandarin, treating only the more conservative

2441: 1892: 1688: 1591: 1575: 1551: 1513: 1489: 1478: 1267:(Republic of China, ROC), as well as one of the four official languages of 1223: 1219: 1134:

initial consonants, which have been lost in southern varieties of Chinese.

1127: 1108: 1016:

dialects that are natively spoken across most of northern and southwestern

778: 609: 355: 203: 9406:, Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs. 9285:

Chen, Yiya; Guo, Li (2022). "Zhushan Mandarin". Illustrations of the IPA.

6747: 5818:. Other Chinese varieties tend to use different particles, e.g. Cantonese 3399:

falls into this category.) On the other side, in some dialects of eastern

2509:

treated it as a separate top-level group, but this remains controversial.

420: 16852: 16814: 16809: 16519: 16497: 16492: 16468: 15999: 15994: 15919: 15914: 15449: 15257: 15066: 15041: 15009: 14412: 14388: 14361: 14351: 14324: 14309: 14285: 14109: 13686: 13609: 13604: 13564: 13294: 12125: 12099: 11995: 11965: 11942: 11910: 11649: 11639: 11443: 11338: 11323: 11286: 11234: 11055: 11046: 10942: 10781: 10656: 10383: 10270: 9485: 8903:

The unending frontier: an environmental history of the early modern world

8375: 8093: 7804: 7707: 6972: 4016: 3998: 2918: 2522: 2490: 2473: 2456: 2449: 2383: 1788: 1674:; 'wing') is unambiguous in written Chinese, but has over 75 1661: 1518: 1438: 1428: 1420: 1412: 1400: 1033: 188: 15685: 9435: 9217: 8987: 8941: 4047:

In general, no two Mandarin-speaking areas have exactly the same set of

4007: 3989: 3348:

Most Mandarin-speaking areas distinguish between the retroflex initials

1787:

Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people living in many parts of

16799: 15974: 15379: 15192: 15049: 14440: 14378: 14356: 13726: 13599: 11541: 11515: 11281: 11247: 10752: 10679: 8129: 8105: 8069: 8020: 7469: 6752: 5786:, but the particles used vary. Most Mandarin dialects use the particle 5655: 5270: 4490: 4080: 3662:

in the modern dialects. In some areas (especially the southwest) final

3644: 2836: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2723: 2655: 2651: 2486: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2097: 2042: 1908: 1542: 1408: 14630: 9373:(revised 2nd ed.), Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press. 8634: 6955: 4428: 4425: 4422: 3535: 3521: 3507: 34:. For the court lingua franca during the Ming and Qing dynasties, see 16779: 16592: 16514: 16473: 15439: 15434: 15404: 15187: 14999: 14417: 14405: 14400: 14344: 13676: 12415: 12341: 11990: 11741: 11732: 11460: 11350: 11002: 10990: 10801: 10632: 10263: 9904: 9669: 9476: 9161: 8542:

Portraits of "primitives": Ordering human kinds in the Chinese nation

5290: 4842: 4466:

In Lower Yangtze dialects, a minority of Southwestern dialects (e.g.

3640: 2869: 2784:. Another Mandarin variety of uncertain classification is apparently 2525:, which many linguists include as part of Mandarin, according to the 2498: 2494: 2379: 2375: 2303: 2272: 2252: 2224: 2189: 2038: 2022: 2017: 2009: 2005: 1804: 1675: 1268: 1131: 1025: 865: 696: 429: 413: 9307: 9014:

Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Li, Rong; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987),

7574:"Code-switching and Identity Constructions in Taiwan TV Commercials" 6547:人人生而自由, 在尊嚴和權利上一律平等。他們賦有理性和良心, 並應以兄弟關係的精神互相對待。 3414:, substituting one for the other in some or all cases. For example, 2947:

of stops and sibilants (also common to most non-Mandarin varieties).

2811: 16837: 16789: 15399: 14383: 12280: 11866: 11507: 10688: 10292: 9337:

Idiomatic Dialogues in the Peking Colloquial for the Use of Student

8644:

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland

8626: 7650: 6581: 5186: 4994: 4935: 4904: 4522: 4498: 4064: 3400: 3387:

are the result of merger between the historical palatalized velars

3281: 2865: 2715: 2685: 2681: 2643: 2587: 2573: 2291: 2156: 2128: 2112: 1454: 1272: 1200: 1104: 792: 623: 532: 12312: 9417:(2nd ed.), London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company. 8583: 8201: 8117: 8057: 8008: 8002: 7972: 5650:

Chinese varieties of all periods are considered prime examples of

4505:

Reflexes of the Middle Chinese entering tone in Mandarin dialects

2792:

have undergone drastic changes in phonology, lexicon and grammar.

471: 71: 16529: 14422: 12179: 11859: 11746: 11575: 11171: 9765: 5403: 5364: 5223: 5152: 5090: 5053: 5022: 4963: 4873: 4777: 4674: 4478: 4104:

Reflexes of Middle Chinese initials and tones in modern Mandarin

4060: 2769: 2757: 2753: 2741: 2737: 2719: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2695: 2677: 2673: 2631: 2565: 2444:'s classification of 1937 distinguished the latter two groups as 2437: 2325: 2299: 2244: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2101: 1904: 1888: 1861: 1857: 1719: 1462: 1458: 1130:. Many Mandarin varieties, including the Beijing dialect, retain 1032:, the official language of China. Because Mandarin originated in 528: 9033:

Wurm, Stephen A.; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Tryon, Darrell T. (2011).

7900: 7403: 5782:

Most varieties of Chinese use post-verbal particles to indicate

4067:

and so on all have four tones that correspond quite well to the

4051:

values, but most Mandarin-speaking areas have very similar tone

2336:-controlled regions, Mandarin also serves as the lingua franca. 1852:

As the last two of these features indicate, this language was a

1072:'northern speech'). Many varieties of Mandarin, such as 16865: 15614: 12238: 12040: 9678: 9493: 8884:

Applying Linguistics in the Classroom: A Sociocultural Approach

8340: 7024: 7022: 5566: 4742: 4708: 3639:

are generally preserved in Mandarin dialects, yielding several

3491:

Many dialects of Northwestern and Central Plains Mandarin have

2781: 2773: 2745: 2461: 2178: 2160: 2086: 1997: 1936: 1808: 1624: 1466: 1333: 1264: 1231: 1154: 1100: 1057: 997: 361: 351: 7615:"Envisioning Chinese Identity and Multiracialism in Singapore" 7177:

A dictionary of the Chinese language: in three parts, Volume 1

7070: 4026: 945: 16626: 15516: 11751: 9674: 9489: 9255: 8593:

Language Atlas of China (2nd edition): Chinese dialect volume

8317:

Li Rong's 1985 article on Mandarin classification, quoted in

6908:. Vol. 1 (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. 2007. 5659: 5294: 5121: 4614:

Phonetic realization of Mandarin tones in principal dialects

4056: 2785: 2749: 2733: 2699: 2669: 2639: 2627: 2583: 2569: 2485:

The southern boundary of the Mandarin area, with the central

2433: 2307: 2197: 2104:, and many Mandarin varieties are not mutually intelligible. 2013: 1799:

Officials varied widely in their pronunciation; in 1728, the

1524: 1450: 1260: 1017: 105: 8478:"Universal Declaration of Human Rights – Chinese (Mandarin)" 7324: 7019: 6922: 6892:

China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Mathew Ricci

3703:

and some north-western dialects they have merged as a final

1531:

The rhyming conventions of the new verse were codified in a

476:

Countries and regions where Mandarin is spoken as L1 or L2

16636: 9392:

The Standard System of Mandarin Romanization: Radical Index

8714:"Typological interaction in the Qinghai linguistic complex" 7791:

Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences

7481: 1194: 8919: 8328: 8282: 8270: 8099: 7864: 7810: 7713: 2243:, which primarily spoke the Southern Chinese languages of 1161:. It is also used as one of the official languages of the 531:

characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see

8301: 8299: 8297: 8260: 8258: 8245: 8243: 8177: 8165: 8141: 7948: 7924: 7852: 7828: 7816: 7510: 7379: 7312: 7192: 7094: 7034: 4485:

was based; it transcribes the glottal stop as a trailing

2658:

belongs to this group. Dungan speakers such as the poet

2394:

in Russia. The Dungan speak two dialects, descended from

1887:

The variant of Mandarin as spoken by educated classes in

948: 936: 877: 708: 9403:

A Dictionary from English to Colloquial Mandarin Chinese

8692:

The politics of language in Chinese education, 1895–1919

8352: 8230: 8228: 8226: 8224: 8222: 8220: 8218: 8216: 7444: 7442: 7369: 7367: 7365: 7363: 3619:

Mandarin dialects typically have relatively few vowels.

1570:, voiceless aspirated and voiced consonants. There were 1214:, meaning 'minister or counsellor') originally meant an 8458: 8422: 7500: 7498: 7496: 7336: 7082: 7058: 7046: 6788: 6786: 6784: 6280:'theater fan', 'sports fan', 'groupie (of a musician)' 2921:

dialects, an echo of the final stops is preserved as a

8446: 8410: 8294: 8255: 8240: 7984: 7960: 7936: 7840: 7204: 7143: 6202:

usually used in a disparaging way, similar to -aholic

5919:

List of several common Chinese prefixes and suffixes:

3574:

in pinyin), though their incidence varies. The medial

2390:

in 1881. About 500 speakers live in a compact area in

2177:

Standard Mandarin is one of the official languages of

1825:

loss of the Middle Chinese voiced initials except for

8586:

Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn

8434: 8398: 8213: 7912: 7681:

Aung Thein Kha; Gerin, Roseanne (17 September 2019).

7459: 7457: 7439: 7360: 7276: 7264: 7252: 7240: 7228: 7216: 7155: 7131: 7007: 6934: 6808:. Chinese Government. 31 October 2000. Archived from 6651: 5876:

Especially in conversational Chinese, sentence-final

5842:) respectively. The experiential aspect particle 5621: 5609: 5597: 5564: 5515: 5497: 5479: 5449: 5437: 5419: 5407: 5388: 2868:

consists maximally of an initial consonant, a medial

2564:(27 million), spoken in Beijing and environs such as 2521:

Distribution of the eight subgroups of Mandarin plus

1803:, unable to understand the accents of officials from 969: 951: 939: 853: 839: 825: 811: 797: 783: 684: 670: 656: 642: 628: 614: 487: Statutory or de facto national working language 76: 61: 9326: 9032: 8948: 8189: 7777: 7775: 7656: 7493: 7475: 7409: 7391: 7106: 6781: 6563: 3403:, the velar initials did not undergo palatalization. 2694:(or Jiang–Huai, 86 million), spoken in the parts of 942: 8153: 7888: 7680: 7348: 5916:, which means 'teach', to form the word 'teacher'. 5856:) is used more widely, except in Southern Min. 3443:; in Lower Yangtze Mandarin, they usually merge to 2706:, as well as some areas on the south bank, such as 933: 930: 8562: 8539: 8370: 7662: 7553: 7454: 7427: 7415: 6954: 4031:with each of the primary tones in Standard Chinese 3670:. This is especially prevalent in the rhyme pairs 2455:The widely accepted seven-group classification of 2223:Mandarin is one of the four official languages of 9310:Journal of the International Phonetic Association 9287:Journal of the International Phonetic Association 9284: 9262:Journal of the International Phonetic Association 9150:Yuen Ren Society Treasury of Chinese Dialect Data 7876: 7772: 6185:'reliability', 'usability', 'understand-ability' 6082:old, or show respect to a certain type of person 5654:, relying on word order and particles instead of 4493:and is thought to represent the pronunciation of 3550:Most Mandarin dialects have three medial glides, 1911:, successfully campaigned for the replacement of 1300:; 'common speech') in mainland China, 17031: 9351:, Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press. 9098:, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 143–161, 9013: 8135: 8123: 8111: 8087: 8075: 8063: 8026: 8014: 7978: 7028: 6956:"The Vitality of Minority Languages in Malaysia" 2056:are used in mainland China and Singapore, while 1185: 1891:was made the official language of China by the 1640:), can be traced back to the Tang dynasty. 1316:; 'national language') in Taiwan or 1090:lists of languages by number of native speakers 10134: 9581: 9340:, Shanghai: Offices of the North-China Herald. 9243:Mandarin basic dialects basic words collection 8881: 6928: 6628:List of languages by number of native speakers 1209: 1203: 15701: 15273: 14646: 12357: 10308: 9451: 9400:Stent, George Carter; Hemeling, Karl (1905), 9395:, Shanghai: Educational Association of China. 9384:, Shanghai: Educational Association of China. 9246: 9232: 9226: 9199: 7539:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.1030-1032.1650 5627: 5615: 5603: 5572: 5546: 5527: 5509: 5491: 5372: 5354: 5344: 5338: 5328: 5322: 5312: 5302: 3914: 3860: 3818: 3764: 2917:(although in many Lower Yangtze Mandarin and 2188:. Notable differences include: the merger of 2119:dialects spoken there differ little from the 1336:language') in Malaysia and Singapore, 745: 731: 574: 558: 12107: 9995: 9370:A course of Mandarin lessons, based on idiom 8565:Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics 2668:(17 million), spoken in central and western 1698:and beyond, there developed a literature in 1248:; 'language of the officials'). 8584:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012), 7612: 5912:has the same function, it is combined with 5873:fulfils the role of the Mandarin particle. 5662:to provide grammatical information such as 5514:), which is inclusive of the listener, and 1984: 1437:(1987) distinguishes three further groups: 1271:, and a high-prestige minority language in 1067: 1012:'officials' speech') is a group of 1007: 15708: 15694: 15287: 15280: 15266: 14653: 14639: 12579: 12364: 12350: 12328: 12098: 10315: 10301: 9458: 9444: 9359:A Mandarin-Romanized dictionary of Chinese 9256:Li, Qian; Chen, Yiya; Xiong, Ziyu (2019). 8882:Razfar, Aria; Rumenapp, Joseph C. (2013), 4457:respectively. Older dictionaries such as 3582:"correct" where the standard language has 2732:(260 million), spoken in the provinces of 2616:, as well as in few counties of 2594:, as well as in few counties of 2386:valley after it was ceded to China in the 2239:. Historically, it was seldom used by the 2063: 1251:In everyday English, "Mandarin" refers to 1230:based on various northern varieties. When 1169:communities. It is also the most commonly 470: 458: 70: 15715: 9465: 9273: 9138: 9089: 8003:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012) 7752: 7270: 6135:'officialize', 'systemize', 'strengthen' 2852:Learn how and when to remove this message 1578:comprising syllables ending in plosives ( 8900: 8740: 8708: 8615:Journal of the American Oriental Society 8569:, New York: Cambridge University Press, 8322: 8171: 8147: 7990: 7954: 7942: 7930: 7906: 7858: 7846: 7834: 7822: 7725: 7487: 7173: 7040: 5958:plural for human nouns, same as -s, -es 5830: 5820: 3406:Many southwestern Mandarin dialects mix 2516: 1961:National Language Unification Commission 1741: 1643: 1574:, with the fourth or "entering tone", a 1482: 894: 15730: 14677: 14660: 12023: 9362:, Shanghai: Presbyterian Mission Press. 9090:Zhang, Bennan; Yang, Robin R. (2004), " 8613:(2000), "A brief history of Mandarin", 8504:"Universal Declaration of Human Rights" 6952: 5293:. New words have been formed by adding 1951: 1508:(959–1126) and during the reign of the 525:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 14: 17032: 14976: 14941: 12371: 9321:, with supplementary sound recordings. 9302:, with supplementary sound recordings. 9279:, with supplementary sound recordings. 9127:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 9125:(2006), "Mandarin dialect phylogeny", 8862: 8836: 8670: 8641: 8609: 8595:], Beijing: The Commercial Press, 8452: 8416: 8404: 8358: 8346: 8334: 8305: 8288: 8276: 8264: 8249: 8234: 8207: 8195: 8183: 7918: 7870: 7516: 7504: 7448: 7397: 7385: 7373: 7318: 7234: 7210: 7198: 7161: 7137: 7112: 7100: 7088: 7076: 7064: 7052: 7013: 6940: 6792: 5363:, which is hardly used in Beijing. In 1738:Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca) 1731: 1157:, as well as one of the four official 1095:Mandarin is by far the largest of the 855: 686: 36:Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca) 16535:Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien 15689: 15261: 14634: 13519: 12578: 12345: 10296: 9439: 8789:from the original on 21 February 2015 8689: 7149: 6873:from the original on 20 February 2018 6743: 6741: 6601:Transcription into Chinese characters 6341:Universal Declaration of Human Rights 3593:in some words where the standard has 2748:, and the Mandarin-speaking areas of 2476:. He used this classification in the 1844:retention of the distinction between 1541:(1324). A radical departure from the 10322: 9204:) (2011), "The origin of Mandarin", 9054:Introduction to Chinese Dialectology 8994: 8977: 8801: 8763: 8560: 8537: 8484:from the original on 7 December 2023 8159: 7894: 7668: 7571: 7559: 7476:Szeto, Ansaldo & Matthews (2018) 7463: 7433: 7421: 7410:Szeto, Ansaldo & Matthews (2018) 7354: 7342: 7330: 7282: 7258: 7246: 7222: 6668:big man') is without foundation. 6622:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects 3428:"grey" may be merged in these areas. 2834:adding citations to reliable sources 2805: 2163:, have markedly different dialects. 1692:, on down to the Qing dynasty novel 1566:showed a three-way contrast between 1399:developed from regional variants of 13520: 9070: 9051: 8464: 8440: 8428: 8318: 8038: 7966: 7882: 7528: 4489:.) This development is shared with 4460:Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary 3692:"capital" merge in those dialects. 3391:and palatalized alveolar sibilants 2932:(although these are absent in many 1876: 24: 9185:from the original on 9 August 2014 9114: 8999:. The University of Malaya Press. 8905:, University of California Press, 8728:from the original on 30 April 2023 8510:from the original on 16 March 2021 7657:Wurm, Mühlhäusler & Tryon 2011 7594:from the original on 7 August 2020 7296:The Slow Death of China's Dialects 6738: 6243:'gardener', 'painter', 'carpenter 6011:'trusty', 'laughable', 'reliable' 4032: 3976:replaces nearly the entire rhyme. 2501:dialects as a separate group. The 1181:The English word "mandarin" (from 1118:Most Mandarin varieties have four 493: More than 1,000,000 speakers 25: 17091: 9430:Tones in Mandarin Dialects : 9423: 9327:Historical Western language texts 8100:Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer (1977–1978) 7811:Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer (1977–1978) 7714:Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer (1977–1978) 6906:Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 4437:William H. Baxter's transcription 3589:. Southwestern Mandarin also has 2405: 2392:Rovensky District, Saratov Oblast 2207: 2075: 2004:. However, in other parts of the 27:Major branch of Chinese languages 16795:Malay trade and creole languages 12327: 11805:Literary and colloquial readings 11677: 9658: 9334:Balfour, Frederic Henry (1883), 8496: 8470: 8364: 8311: 6995:from the original on 24 May 2022 6758: 6710: 6580: 6566: 6227:a technician in a certain field 6210:'smoker', 'alcoholic', 'coward' 6160:'writer', 'scientist', 'artist' 4594:marked with final glottal stop ( 4477:. (This includes the dialect of 4055:. For example, the dialects of 4015: 4006: 3997: 3988: 2810: 2680:autonomous region (with capital 2192:sounds (zh, ch, sh, r) with the 1870:first English–Chinese dictionary 1856:based on dialects spoken in the 926: 505: More than 100,000 speakers 499: More than 500,000 speakers 15750:comparison with British English 9411:Whymant, A. Neville J. (1922), 9245:] (in Simplified Chinese). 8032: 7746: 7719: 7695:from the original on 5 May 2020 7674: 7633: 7606: 7565: 7522: 7288: 7167: 7118: 6946: 6841:from the original on 2 May 2017 6697: 6671: 6640: 6334: 5377:) "handbag" where Beijing uses 2821:needs additional citations for 2630:province, the central parts of 2339: 2135:, a modern dialect, is spoken. 1472: 1391:History of the Chinese language 878: 709: 115:Northern and southwestern China 17065:Chinese languages in Singapore 9367:Mateer, Calvin Wilson (1906), 9247: 9233: 9227: 9206:Journal of Chinese Linguistics 9200: 9075:, Routledge, pp. 84–125, 8980:Language and Dialects of China 8934:10.1080/02549948.1977.11745054 8867:, Princeton University Press, 8802:——— (1991), 8392:10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121 7572:Chiu, Miao-chin (April 2012). 6897: 6885: 6853: 6827: 6798: 6766: 6661: 6657: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6308: 6304: 6295: 6289: 6285: 6267: 6263: 6254: 6221: 6196: 6171: 6146: 6121: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6076: 6047: 6022: 5989: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5952: 5946: 5942: 5901: 5892: 5882: 5861: 5853: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5835: 5811: 5807: 5802: 5788: 5754: 5628: 5604: 5547: 5528: 5510: 5492: 5485: 5384: 5379: 5345: 5339: 5329: 5323: 5277:all syllables are made clear. 4662: 4651: 4642: 4633: 4624: 4596: 4453: 4447: 4441: 4403: 4394: 4385: 4376: 4363: 4356: 4349: 4342: 4335: 4328: 4321: 4314: 4307: 4300: 4293: 4150: 4135: 4120: 3925: 3871: 3775: 3383:The alveolo-palatal sibilants 2002:Chinese community of Singapore 1980: 1972: 1941: 1932: 1924: 1817: 1724: 1712: 1707: 1703: 1670: 1632: 1366: 1362: 1357: 1351: 1342: 1329: 1325: 1320: 1313: 1309: 1304: 1297: 1293: 1288: 1245: 1241: 1236: 1062: 1053: 1045: 1002: 991: 981: 854: 840: 826: 812: 798: 784: 746: 732: 685: 671: 657: 643: 629: 615: 575: 559: 481: Majority native language 56: 52: 13: 1: 17070:Subject–verb–object languages 9414:Colloquial Chinese (northern) 9356:MacGillivray, Donald (1905), 6727: 6110:'old man', 'boss', 'teacher' 5581:varieties have borrowed from 5280: 3965:when adding the rhotic final 2598:, due to migration. Includes 2410: 2268:Standard Singaporean Mandarin 2241:Chinese Singaporean community 1395:The hundreds of modern local 12333:List of varieties of Chinese 9260:. Illustrations of the IPA. 8546:, Rowman & Littlefield, 8210:, pp. 139–141, 192–193. 6929:Razfar & Rumenapp (2013) 6732: 6616:List of varieties of Chinese 6328:'teacher', 'chef', 'lawyer' 4027: 2795: 2590:("Lu") provinces except the 2512: 2417:List of varieties of Chinese 2382:to Qing forces and from the 2212: 1755:Medii Regni Communis Loquela 1431:on the southeast coast. The 7: 9052:Yan, Margaret Mian (2006), 8997:Mandarin Spread in Malaysia 7531:Advanced Materials Research 7307:McGill International Review 6652: 6559: 6036:'redo', 'rebuild', 'renew' 5859:The subordinative particle 5622: 5610: 5598: 5565: 5516: 5498: 5480: 5450: 5438: 5420: 5408: 5389: 3476:Some dialects have initial 2951: 2909:the disappearance of final 2279: 1957:an artificial pronunciation 1915:as the written standard by 1652:, which was modeled on the 1558:In Middle Chinese, initial 1210: 1204: 1092:(with nearly one billion). 77: 62: 10: 17096: 12291:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols 9073:The Sino-Tibetan languages 8901:Richards, John F. (2003), 8863:Ramsey, S. Robert (1987), 8846:Cambridge University Press 8671:Escure, Geneviève (1997), 8538:Blum, Susan Debra (2001), 8525: 7124:Fourmont, Etienne (1742). 5643: 5639: 5478:) 'he, 'she', 'it', with - 3696: 3457:. Common variants include 3431:In some dialects, initial 3352:from the apical sibilants 2802:Standard Chinese phonology 2799: 2540: 2493:and You Rujie include the 2414: 2388:Treaty of Saint Petersburg 2378:in 1877 after the fall of 2343: 2317: 2313: 2283: 2216: 2170: 1917:written vernacular Chinese 1880: 1735: 1700:written vernacular Chinese 1476: 1388: 1384: 1261:People's Republic of China 1149:. Standard Chinese is the 29: 17013: 16988: 16965: 16956: 16901:comparison with Malaysian 16851: 16825: 16770: 16750: 16712: 16647: 16580: 16456: 16447: 16063: 15868: 15852: 15838: 15764: 15723: 15675:Singaporean Sign Language 15667: 15607: 15542: 15475: 15420: 15413: 15372: 15353: 15318: 15302: 15295: 15175: 15159: 15141: 15088: 15065: 15040: 15017: 15008: 14985: 14967: 14932: 14900: 14874: 14809: 14732: 14716: 14686: 14668: 14602: 14575:Southern (Shanghai) Sign 14560: 14489: 14433: 14237: 14175: 14128: 14085: 14047: 13932: 13854: 13845: 13777: 13740: 13627: 13618: 13530: 13526: 13515: 13456: 13358: 13240: 13166: 13013: 12895: 12707: 12698: 12650: 12602: 12591: 12587: 12574: 12567: 12547: 12454: 12402: 12395: 12379: 12325: 12209: 12178: 12089: 12014: 11956: 11876: 11851: 11813: 11760: 11686: 11675: 11622: 11574: 11529: 11506: 11451: 11442: 11380: 11299: 11274: 11256: 11233: 11170: 11161: 11124: 11101: 11063: 11054: 11045: 10981: 10941: 10868: 10846: 10818: 10800: 10774: 10751: 10687: 10678: 10655: 10625: 10602: 10526: 10466: 10438: 10415: 10392: 10359: 10350: 10341: 10330: 10280: 10225: 10177: 10062: 9903: 9871: 9829: 9764: 9667: 9656: 9474: 9318:10.1017/S0025100322000081 9299:10.1017/S0025100320000183 9275:10.1017/S0025100317000287 8690:Kaske, Elisabeth (2008), 8656:10.1017/S1356186303003134 8043:. 北京语言大学出版社. p. 45. 7787:Minor Languages of Russia 7180:. P.P. Thoms. p. x. 7174:Morrison, Robert (1815). 6773: 6275: 6271: 6248: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6215: 6205: 6190: 6180: 6165: 6155: 6140: 6130: 6115: 6070: 6060: 6056: 6041: 6031: 6016: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5983: 5913: 5909: 5904:) in southern usage. 5897: 5887: 5866: 5825: 5793: 5616: 5573: 5555: 5540: 5521: 5503: 5473: 5467: 5461: 5455: 5443: 5431: 5425: 5413: 5394: 5373: 5355: 5313: 5303: 5182: 5018: 5004: 4959: 4939: 4838: 4773: 4618: 4593: 4585: 4577: 4569: 4540: 4537: 4534: 4512: 4509: 4400: 4391: 4382: 4373: 4340: 4239: 4232: 4225: 4218: 4211: 4204: 4197: 4190: 4183: 4176: 4169: 4162: 4145: 4141: 4130: 4126: 4115: 4111: 3915: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3861: 3819: 3780: 3773: 3765: 3748: 3743: 3738: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3715: 3712: 3545: 3124: 3035: 2702:on the north bank of the 2626:(186 million), spoken in 2320:Chinese people in Myanmar 2166: 1812: 1750: 1665: 1637: 1493:, covering the syllables 1377:and the Hebei dialect or 1020:. The group includes the 889: 871: 864: 847: 833: 819: 805: 791: 777: 770: 765: 761: 753: 739: 725: 720: 702: 695: 678: 664: 650: 636: 622: 608: 601: 596: 592: 584: 568: 552: 548: 543: 511: 469: 457: 443: 427: 411: 406: 390: 304: 253: 225: 176: 137: 128:: 940 million (2021) 119: 111: 101: 69: 50: 45: 17020:Nearly extinct languages 9238: 9169:Novotná, Zdenka (1967), 8963:10.1515/lingty-2018-0009 8741:Kurpaska, Maria (2010), 8588: 8349:, pp. 182, 195–196. 8040: 7909:, pp. 55–56, 74–75. 7726:Vdovkina, Maria (2023). 7533:. 1030–1032: 1650–1652. 7333:, pp. 37–41, 46–48. 7079:, pp. 34–36, 52–54. 6861: 6633: 6177:same as -ness, -ability 5685:The basic word order of 3979: 3650:The Middle Chinese coda 2790:Qinghai–Gansu sprachbund 2608:(35 million), spoken in 2582:(89 million), spoken in 2550:(98 million), spoken in 2264:other Chinese variants. 1695:Dream of the Red Chamber 1606:, which has merged with 741:Traditional Chinese 570:Traditional Chinese 342:Two-Cell Chinese Braille 332:Mainland Chinese Braille 16973:Malaysian Sign Language 14572:Northern (Beijing) Sign 9345:Grainger, Adam (1900), 9016:Language Atlas of China 7753:Breazeale, Sam (2023). 7271:Zhang & Yang (2004) 6953:Coluzzi, Paolo (2017). 6835:"ROC Vital Information" 6776:(Taiwan shouyu jianjie) 6705:Language Atlas of China 6650:deriving the name from 6301:suffix for occupations 4513:Middle Chinese initial 4088:denotes a non-aspirate 3972:, in the southwest the 2899:when they occur before 2872:, a vowel, a coda, and 2684:), as well as northern 2672:province (with capital 2624:Central Plains Mandarin 2537:Language Atlas of China 2528:Language Atlas of China 2507:Language Atlas of China 2479:Language Atlas of China 2396:Central Plains Mandarin 2261:Speak Mandarin Campaign 2064:Geographic distribution 2000:, as well as among the 1899:, intellectuals of the 1441:(split from Mandarin), 1434:Language Atlas of China 1355:. The alternative term 1176: 915:Central Plains Mandarin 727:Simplified Chinese 554:Simplified Chinese 133:: 200 million (no date) 17075:Vertical vowel systems 17055:Languages of Singapore 17001:Selangor Sign Language 16120:Bruneian/Kedayan Malay 15925:Kelantan-Pattani Malay 15289:Languages of Singapore 12581:Sino-Tibetan languages 9140:10.3406/clao.2006.1748 8995:Wang, Xiaomei (2012). 8865:The Languages of China 8817:: 1–31, archived from 6343:in Chinese (Mandarin): 6339:From Article 1 of the 6152:same as -er or expert 6053:same as -th, -st, -nd 5978:'students', 'friends' 5796:) to indicate the 5591:Austronesian languages 5448:) 'you (formal)', and 4439:), are now pronounced 4040: 3701:Lower Yangtze dialects 3658:, but has merged with 3612:"street" for standard 2692:Lower Yangtze Mandarin 2642:, as well as southern 2532: 2138:The frontier areas of 2058:traditional characters 2006:Chinese-speaking world 1785: 1782:, I:28 (1542–1564) 1766: 1504:After the fall of the 1501: 1195: 1186: 1171:taught Chinese variety 1159:languages of Singapore 1097:Chinese dialect groups 1074:those of the Southwest 918: 513:This article contains 17060:Languages of Malaysia 16240:Kota Marudu Talantang 15970:Negeri Sembilan Malay 15717:Languages of Malaysia 15247:Yilan Creole Japanese 10185:Central Tibeto-Burman 9037:. Walter de Gruyter. 8769:"Who were the Gyámi?" 6862:《人民日报》评论员文章：说普通话用规范字 5644:Further information: 5620:) from "bikini", and 4371:Modern Mandarin tone 4039: 3666:has also merged with 3654:was still present in 3517:"water" for standard 2938:Northeastern Mandarin 2730:Southwestern Mandarin 2548:Northeastern Mandarin 2520: 2415:Further information: 2330:Southwestern Mandarin 2117:Northeastern Mandarin 2054:simplified characters 1768: 1745: 1658:Warring States period 1644:Vernacular literature 1486: 1419:in central China and 1389:Further information: 1122:. The final stops of 1107:in the northwest and 1086:mutually intelligible 908: 401:Chinese Sign Language 17080:Varieties of Chinese 16996:Penang Sign Language 16978:Manually Coded Malay 15354:Indigenous languages 15151:Taiwan Sign Language 9389:Meigs, F.E. (1905), 9378:Meigs, F.E. (1904), 8811:Sino-Platonic Papers 8776:Sino-Platonic Papers 7873:, pp. 181, 191. 6973:10.1353/ol.2017.0008 6028:same as re- (again) 5632:) from "hamburger". 4109:Middle Chinese tone 4096:denotes an aspirate 3604:"shoe" for standard 3531:"soft" for standard 2930:retroflex consonants 2830:improve this article 2259:. The launch of the 2219:Singaporean Mandarin 1901:New Culture Movement 1776:Alessandro Valignano 1397:varieties of Chinese 1379:Northeastern dialect 1103:in the southwest to 17050:Languages of Taiwan 16479:Malaysian Cantonese 16235:Klias River Kadazan 15414:Immigrant languages 14662:Languages of Taiwan 14615:NM = Inner Mongolia 10243:Proto-Tibeto-Burman 8951:Linguistic Typology 8561:Chen, Ping (1999), 8467:, pp. 113–115. 8431:, pp. 105–106. 8337:, pp. 195–196. 8291:, pp. 194–195. 8279:, pp. 194–196. 8186:, pp. 138–139. 7969:, pp. 222–223. 7581:Monumenta Taiwanica 7519:, pp. 215–216. 7490:, pp. 138–139. 7478:, pp. 241–242. 7388:, pp. 183–190. 7345:, pp. 162–163. 7321:, pp. 136–137. 7201:, pp. 540–541. 7103:, pp. 111–132. 6961:Oceanic Linguistics 5770:wǒ gěi nǐ yìběn shū 5687:subject–verb–object 4615: 4506: 4483:Postal Romanization 4435:in Middle Chinese ( 4105: 3621:Syllabic fricatives 3503:"pig" for standard 3499:. Examples include 3031: 2614:Liaodong Peninsulas 2366:are descendants of 2070:overseas emigration 1977:traditional Chinese 1921:traditional Chinese 1732:Late imperial koiné 1050:traditional Chinese 1024:, the basis of the 988:traditional Chinese 194:Eastern Han Chinese 18:Dialect of Mandarin 17045:Languages of China 16826:Mixed & Others 16568:Malaysian Mandarin 14995:Taiwanese Mandarin 14152:Formosan languages 12373:Languages of China 12286:Cantonese Bopomofo 12153:Chinese characters 12081:Written Sichuanese 10665:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot 10236:Proto-Sino-Tibetan 10178:Proposed groupings 9258:"Tianjin Mandarin" 9123:Baxter, William H. 8675:, John Benjamins, 8589:中国语言地图集(第2版):汉语方言卷 8506:. United Nations. 8136:Wurm et al. (1987) 8124:Wurm et al. (1987) 8112:Wurm et al. (1987) 8090:, Maps B3, B4, B5. 8088:Wurm et al. (1987) 8076:Wurm et al. (1987) 8064:Wurm et al. (1987) 8027:Wurm et al. (1987) 8015:Wurm et al. (1987) 7979:Wurm et al. (1987) 7301:2021-08-12 at the 7029:Wurm et al. (1987) 6611:Languages of China 6596:Chinese dictionary 6127:same as -ize, -en 6065:'second', 'first' 5816:progressive aspect 5652:analytic languages 4613: 4504: 4103: 4041: 3495:where Beijing has 3251:⟨sh⟩ 3194:⟨ch⟩ 3152:⟨zh⟩ 2897:alveolar sibilants 2592:Shandong Peninsula 2556:Liaodong Peninsula 2533: 2286:Malaysian Mandarin 2173:Taiwanese Mandarin 1969:simplified Chinese 1929:simplified Chinese 1767: 1502: 1042:simplified Chinese 978:simplified Chinese 919: 318:Chinese characters 184:Proto-Sino-Tibetan 85:Chinese characters 17027: 17026: 17017:Extinct languages 17009: 17008: 16766: 16765: 16443: 16442: 16275:Mainstream Kenyah 15760: 15759: 15683: 15682: 15663: 15662: 15349: 15348: 15255: 15254: 15167:Taiwanese Braille 15137: 15136: 15133: 15132: 15084: 15083: 15027:Taiwanese Hokkien 14963: 14962: 14959: 14958: 14934:Malayo-Polynesian 14928: 14927: 14628: 14627: 14171: 14170: 14167: 14166: 14163: 14162: 14156: 14148: 14140: 14043: 14042: 13773: 13772: 13511: 13510: 13507: 13506: 13236: 13235: 13232: 13231: 12563: 12562: 12339: 12338: 12321: 12320: 12148: 12147: 12066:Written Cantonese 12061: 12060: 11843:Classical grammar 11838:Cantonese grammar 11673: 11672: 11570: 11569: 11376: 11375: 11295: 11294: 11157: 11156: 10864: 10863: 10651: 10650: 10541:Chengdu–Chongqing 10334:Sinitic languages 10290: 10289: 10173: 10172: 10058: 10057: 9899: 9898: 9654: 9653: 9175:Archiv Orientální 9105:978-1-4020-8038-8 9082:978-0-7007-1129-1 9063:978-3-89586-629-6 9056:, LINCOM Europa, 9044:978-3-11-081972-4 9025:978-962-359-085-3 9006:978-983-100-958-1 8912:978-0-520-23075-0 8893:978-1-136-21205-5 8874:978-0-691-01468-5 8855:978-0-521-29653-3 8756:978-3-11-021914-2 8747:Walter de Gruyter 8718:Studia Orientalia 8701:978-90-04-16367-6 8682:978-90-272-5240-1 8602:978-7-100-07054-6 8576:978-0-521-64572-0 8553:978-0-7425-0092-1 8443:, pp. 90–93. 8361:, pp. 36–38. 8321:, p. 61 and 8174:, pp. 86–89. 8150:, pp. 67–68. 7957:, pp. 75–76. 7933:, pp. 41–46. 7861:, pp. 53–54. 7837:, pp. 41–42. 7825:, pp. 36–41. 7613:Leong Koon Chan. 7285:, pp. 41–46. 7261:, pp. 62–63. 7249:, pp. 63–64. 7225:, pp. 27–28. 7152:, pp. 48–52. 7091:, pp. 49–50. 7067:, pp. 49–51. 7055:, pp. 48–49. 7043:, pp. 55–56. 6915:978-0-19-920687-2 6756:(27th ed., 2024) 6332: 6331: 5798:perfective aspect 5773:I give you a book 5267: 5266: 4604: 4603: 4527:voiced obstruent 4411: 4410: 4289:Standard Chinese 4037: 3952: 3951: 3623:, as in standard 3345: 3344: 3338:⟨y⟩ 3326:⟨r⟩ 3306:⟨l⟩ 3294:⟨w⟩ 3275:⟨h⟩ 3263:⟨x⟩ 3239:⟨s⟩ 3227:⟨f⟩ 3206:⟨q⟩ 3182:⟨c⟩ 3164:⟨j⟩ 3140:⟨z⟩ 3119:⟨k⟩ 3103:⟨t⟩ 3091:⟨p⟩ 3077:⟨g⟩ 3061:⟨d⟩ 3049:⟨b⟩ 3016:⟨n⟩ 3004:⟨m⟩ 2862: 2861: 2854: 2606:Jiaoliao Mandarin 2296:Malaysian Chinese 2186:Taiwanese Hokkien 2082:North China Plain 1987: 1897:Republic of China 1801:Yongzheng Emperor 1279:languages of the 1151:official language 1147:national language 1113:North China Plain 1070: 1010: 906: 893: 892: 885: 884: 873:Yale Romanization 772:Standard Mandarin 716: 715: 704:Yale Romanization 603:Standard Mandarin 588:Officials' speech 539: 538: 521:rendering support 517:phonetic symbols. 337:Taiwanese Braille 235:Standard Mandarin 16:(Redirected from 17087: 17040:Mandarin Chinese 16963: 16962: 16563:Mandarin Chinese 16454: 16453: 16050:Terengganu Malay 15850: 15849: 15728: 15727: 15710: 15703: 15696: 15687: 15686: 15418: 15417: 15373:Creole languages 15360:Johor-Riau Malay 15300: 15299: 15282: 15275: 15268: 15259: 15258: 15015: 15014: 14983: 14982: 14974: 14973: 14939: 14938: 14684: 14683: 14675: 14674: 14655: 14648: 14641: 14632: 14631: 14584: 14154: 14146: 14138: 13852: 13851: 13625: 13624: 13528: 13527: 13517: 13516: 12705: 12704: 12600: 12599: 12589: 12588: 12576: 12575: 12572: 12571: 12400: 12399: 12387:Standard Chinese 12366: 12359: 12352: 12343: 12342: 12331: 12330: 12303:Taiwanese Hangul 12192:Mainland Chinese 12105: 12104: 12096: 12095: 12021: 12020: 11698:Standard Chinese 11681: 11449: 11448: 11168: 11167: 11061: 11060: 11052: 11051: 10934: 10922: 10910: 10898: 10886: 10685: 10684: 10357: 10356: 10348: 10347: 10324:Chinese language 10317: 10310: 10303: 10294: 10293: 10132: 10131: 9993: 9992: 9827: 9826: 9662: 9579: 9578: 9460: 9453: 9446: 9437: 9436: 9418: 9407: 9396: 9385: 9374: 9363: 9352: 9341: 9320: 9301: 9278: 9277: 9252: 9250: 9249: 9236: 9235: 9231:); Li Xingjian ( 9230: 9229: 9221: 9203: 9202: 9194: 9192: 9190: 9165: 9144: 9142: 9109: 9086: 9067: 9048: 9029: 9010: 8991: 8974: 8945: 8922:Monumenta Serica 8916: 8897: 8878: 8859: 8833: 8831: 8829: 8823: 8808: 8798: 8796: 8794: 8788: 8773: 8760: 8737: 8735: 8733: 8705: 8686: 8667: 8638: 8611:Coblin, W. South 8606: 8580: 8568: 8557: 8545: 8520: 8519: 8517: 8515: 8500: 8494: 8493: 8491: 8489: 8474: 8468: 8462: 8456: 8450: 8444: 8438: 8432: 8426: 8420: 8414: 8408: 8402: 8396: 8395: 8380:Monumenta Serica 8368: 8362: 8356: 8350: 8344: 8338: 8332: 8326: 8315: 8309: 8303: 8292: 8286: 8280: 8274: 8268: 8262: 8253: 8247: 8238: 8232: 8211: 8205: 8199: 8193: 8187: 8181: 8175: 8169: 8163: 8157: 8151: 8145: 8139: 8133: 8127: 8121: 8115: 8109: 8103: 8097: 8091: 8085: 8079: 8073: 8067: 8061: 8055: 8054: 8036: 8030: 8024: 8018: 8012: 8006: 8000: 7994: 7988: 7982: 7976: 7970: 7964: 7958: 7952: 7946: 7940: 7934: 7928: 7922: 7916: 7910: 7904: 7898: 7892: 7886: 7880: 7874: 7868: 7862: 7856: 7850: 7844: 7838: 7832: 7826: 7820: 7814: 7808: 7802: 7801: 7799: 7797: 7779: 7770: 7769: 7767: 7765: 7750: 7744: 7743: 7741: 7739: 7723: 7717: 7711: 7705: 7704: 7702: 7700: 7678: 7672: 7666: 7660: 7654: 7648: 7637: 7631: 7630: 7628: 7626: 7617:. Archived from 7610: 7604: 7603: 7601: 7599: 7593: 7578: 7569: 7563: 7557: 7551: 7550: 7526: 7520: 7514: 7508: 7502: 7491: 7485: 7479: 7473: 7467: 7461: 7452: 7446: 7437: 7431: 7425: 7419: 7413: 7407: 7401: 7395: 7389: 7383: 7377: 7371: 7358: 7352: 7346: 7340: 7334: 7328: 7322: 7316: 7310: 7292: 7286: 7280: 7274: 7268: 7262: 7256: 7250: 7244: 7238: 7232: 7226: 7220: 7214: 7213:, pp. 3–15. 7208: 7202: 7196: 7190: 7189: 7171: 7165: 7159: 7153: 7147: 7141: 7135: 7129: 7122: 7116: 7110: 7104: 7098: 7092: 7086: 7080: 7074: 7068: 7062: 7056: 7050: 7044: 7038: 7032: 7026: 7017: 7011: 7005: 7004: 7002: 7000: 6958: 6950: 6944: 6938: 6932: 6926: 6920: 6919: 6901: 6895: 6889: 6883: 6882: 6880: 6878: 6857: 6851: 6850: 6848: 6846: 6831: 6825: 6824: 6819: 6817: 6802: 6796: 6790: 6779: 6775: 6770: 6764: 6763: 6762: 6745: 6721: 6719: 6714: 6708: 6701: 6695: 6675: 6669: 6663: 6659: 6655: 6644: 6590: 6585: 6584: 6576: 6571: 6570: 6569: 6325: 6321: 6317: 6313: 6310: 6306: 6297: 6291: 6287: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6256: 6250: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6223: 6217: 6207: 6198: 6192: 6182: 6173: 6167: 6157: 6148: 6142: 6132: 6123: 6117: 6107: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6087: 6078: 6072: 6062: 6058: 6049: 6043: 6033: 6024: 6018: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5991: 5985: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5954: 5948: 5944: 5922: 5921: 5915: 5911: 5903: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5868: 5863: 5855: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5813: 5809: 5804: 5795: 5790: 5756: 5631: 5630: 5625: 5619: 5618: 5613: 5607: 5606: 5601: 5579:Southern Chinese 5576: 5575: 5570: 5559: 5550: 5549: 5544: 5531: 5530: 5525: 5519: 5513: 5512: 5507: 5501: 5495: 5494: 5489: 5483: 5477: 5471: 5465: 5459: 5453: 5447: 5441: 5435: 5429: 5423: 5417: 5411: 5406:in Mandarin are 5398: 5392: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5375: 5358: 5357: 5348: 5347: 5342: 5341: 5332: 5331: 5326: 5325: 5316: 5315: 5306: 5305: 5262: 5258: 5252: 5248: 5242: 5236: 5230: 5217: 5211: 5205: 5199: 5193: 5177: 5171: 5165: 5159: 5146: 5140: 5134: 5128: 5115: 5109: 5103: 5097: 5084: 5078: 5072: 5066: 5060: 5047: 5041: 5035: 5029: 5013: 5007: 5001: 4988: 4982: 4976: 4970: 4954: 4948: 4942: 4929: 4923: 4917: 4911: 4898: 4892: 4886: 4880: 4867: 4861: 4855: 4849: 4833: 4827: 4821: 4815: 4802: 4796: 4790: 4784: 4768: 4762: 4756: 4749: 4733: 4727: 4721: 4715: 4699: 4693: 4687: 4681: 4664: 4653: 4644: 4635: 4626: 4616: 4612: 4598: 4507: 4503: 4476: 4455: 4449: 4443: 4405: 4396: 4387: 4378: 4365: 4358: 4351: 4344: 4337: 4330: 4323: 4316: 4309: 4302: 4295: 4243: 4236: 4229: 4222: 4215: 4208: 4201: 4194: 4187: 4180: 4173: 4166: 4152: 4147: 4142:"departing tone" 4137: 4132: 4122: 4117: 4106: 4102: 4099: 4091: 4038: 4030: 4019: 4010: 4001: 3992: 3971: 3964: 3960: 3948: 3943: 3938: 3933: 3927: 3918: 3917: 3909: 3904: 3899: 3894: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3873: 3864: 3863: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3822: 3821: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3793: 3788: 3783: 3777: 3768: 3767: 3736:(Central Plains) 3710: 3709: 3683: 3676: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3653: 3638: 3634: 3599: 3592: 3588: 3581: 3577: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3540: 3530: 3526: 3516: 3512: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3427: 3420: 3413: 3409: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3355: 3351: 3339: 3336: 3327: 3324: 3316: 3307: 3304: 3295: 3292: 3276: 3273: 3264: 3261: 3252: 3249: 3240: 3237: 3228: 3225: 3207: 3204: 3195: 3192: 3183: 3180: 3165: 3162: 3153: 3150: 3141: 3138: 3120: 3117: 3104: 3101: 3092: 3089: 3078: 3075: 3062: 3059: 3050: 3047: 3030: 3017: 3014: 3005: 3002: 2959: 2958: 2928:the presence of 2916: 2893:velar consonants 2857: 2850: 2846: 2843: 2837: 2814: 2806: 2638:valley, eastern 2562:Beijing Mandarin 2370:who fled to the 1988: 1985: 1982: 1974: 1953: 1943: 1934: 1926: 1913:Literary Chinese 1883:Standard Chinese 1877:Standard Chinese 1819: 1818:Zhèngyīn Shūyuàn 1814: 1783: 1759:Étienne Fourmont 1752: 1747:Zhongguo Guanhua 1726: 1725:Báihuà Wénxuéshǐ 1714: 1709: 1705: 1680:Standard Chinese 1672: 1667: 1650:Literary Chinese 1639: 1634: 1599:Zhongyuan Yinyun 1547:'Phags-pa script 1538:Zhongyuan Yinyun 1512:(1115–1234) and 1368: 1364: 1359: 1353: 1344: 1331: 1327: 1322: 1315: 1311: 1306: 1299: 1295: 1290: 1253:Standard Chinese 1247: 1243: 1238: 1213: 1207: 1198: 1189: 1167:Chinese diaspora 1071: 1068: 1064: 1055: 1047: 1038:Northern Chinese 1030:Standard Chinese 1014:Chinese language 1011: 1008: 1004: 995: 985: 972: 967: 966: 965: 964: 957: 954: 953: 950: 947: 944: 941: 938: 935: 932: 907: 881: 880: 860: 859: 858: 843: 842: 829: 828: 815: 814: 801: 800: 787: 786: 763: 762: 749: 748: 735: 734: 721:Northern Chinese 712: 711: 691: 690: 689: 674: 673: 660: 659: 646: 645: 632: 631: 618: 617: 594: 593: 580: 579: 564: 563: 544:Mandarin Chinese 541: 540: 504: 498: 492: 486: 480: 474: 462: 453: 439: 423: 416: 396: 347:Transcriptions: 310: 143: 80: 74: 65: 59: 58: 54: 43: 42: 32:Standard Chinese 21: 17095: 17094: 17090: 17089: 17088: 17086: 17085: 17084: 17030: 17029: 17028: 17023: 17005: 16984: 16952: 16847: 16821: 16762: 16746: 16708: 16649: 16643: 16603:Malaysian Tamil 16576: 16449: 16439: 16160:Eastern Kadazan 16140:Coastal Kadazan 16066: 16059: 15871: 15864: 15843: 15834: 15756: 15719: 15714: 15684: 15679: 15659: 15603: 15538: 15471: 15409: 15368: 15345: 15314: 15291: 15286: 15256: 15251: 15176:Other languages 15171: 15155: 15129: 15098:Taiwanese Hakka 15080: 15077:(Wuqiu dialect) 15061: 15036: 15032:Teochew dialect 15004: 14955: 14924: 14896: 14870: 14805: 14728: 14712: 14664: 14659: 14629: 14624: 14598: 14578: 14556: 14485: 14429: 14240: 14233: 14159: 14139:(Indo-European) 14124: 14081: 14039: 13928: 13841: 13769: 13736: 13614: 13522: 13521:Other languages 13503: 13452: 13383:Central Tibetan 13354: 13228: 13162: 13009: 12891: 12694: 12646: 12594: 12583: 12559: 12543: 12450: 12391: 12375: 12370: 12340: 12335: 12317: 12254:Tongyong Pinyin 12234:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 12222:Dungan Cyrillic 12205: 12174: 12144: 12085: 12076:Written Hokkien 12057: 12016: 12010: 11986:Middle Mandarin 11952: 11872: 11847: 11809: 11756: 11689: 11682: 11669: 11618: 11566: 11525: 11502: 11438: 11372: 11291: 11270: 11252: 11229: 11153: 11120: 11097: 11041: 10977: 10937: 10928: 10916: 10904: 10892: 10880: 10860: 10842: 10814: 10796: 10770: 10747: 10674: 10647: 10621: 10598: 10522: 10462: 10434: 10411: 10388: 10337: 10326: 10321: 10291: 10286: 10276: 10227:Proto-languages 10221: 10169: 10136:Greater Siangic 10130: 10067: 10054: 9991: 9895: 9867: 9825: 9769: 9760: 9672: 9663: 9650: 9583:Greater Magaric 9577: 9504:West Himalayish 9484: 9470: 9464: 9426: 9421: 9410: 9399: 9388: 9377: 9366: 9355: 9344: 9333: 9329: 9324: 9251:. pp. 1–5. 9240: 9225:Chen Zhangtai ( 9224: 9198:Shen Zhongwei ( 9197: 9188: 9186: 9168: 9147: 9121: 9117: 9115:Further reading 9112: 9106: 9083: 9064: 9045: 9026: 9007: 8913: 8894: 8875: 8856: 8827: 8825: 8821: 8806: 8792: 8790: 8786: 8771: 8765:Mair, Victor H. 8757: 8731: 8729: 8702: 8683: 8603: 8590: 8577: 8554: 8528: 8523: 8513: 8511: 8502: 8501: 8497: 8487: 8485: 8476: 8475: 8471: 8463: 8459: 8451: 8447: 8439: 8435: 8427: 8423: 8415: 8411: 8403: 8399: 8369: 8365: 8357: 8353: 8345: 8341: 8333: 8329: 8323:Kurpaska (2010) 8316: 8312: 8304: 8295: 8287: 8283: 8275: 8271: 8263: 8256: 8248: 8241: 8233: 8214: 8206: 8202: 8194: 8190: 8182: 8178: 8172:Janhunen (2007) 8170: 8166: 8162:, pp. 5–6. 8158: 8154: 8148:Kurpaska (2010) 8146: 8142: 8134: 8130: 8122: 8118: 8110: 8106: 8098: 8094: 8086: 8082: 8074: 8070: 8062: 8058: 8051: 8042: 8037: 8033: 8025: 8021: 8013: 8009: 8001: 7997: 7991:Kurpaska (2010) 7989: 7985: 7977: 7973: 7965: 7961: 7955:Kurpaska (2010) 7953: 7949: 7943:Kurpaska (2010) 7941: 7937: 7931:Kurpaska (2010) 7929: 7925: 7917: 7913: 7907:Kurpaska (2010) 7905: 7901: 7893: 7889: 7881: 7877: 7869: 7865: 7859:Kurpaska (2010) 7857: 7853: 7847:Kurpaska (2010) 7845: 7841: 7835:Kurpaska (2010) 7833: 7829: 7823:Kurpaska (2010) 7821: 7817: 7809: 7805: 7795: 7793: 7781: 7780: 7773: 7763: 7761: 7751: 7747: 7737: 7735: 7724: 7720: 7712: 7708: 7698: 7696: 7688:Radio Free Asia 7679: 7675: 7667: 7663: 7655: 7651: 7638: 7634: 7624: 7622: 7611: 7607: 7597: 7595: 7591: 7576: 7570: 7566: 7558: 7554: 7527: 7523: 7515: 7511: 7503: 7494: 7488:Richards (2003) 7486: 7482: 7474: 7470: 7462: 7455: 7447: 7440: 7432: 7428: 7420: 7416: 7408: 7404: 7396: 7392: 7384: 7380: 7372: 7361: 7353: 7349: 7341: 7337: 7329: 7325: 7317: 7313: 7303:Wayback Machine 7293: 7289: 7281: 7277: 7269: 7265: 7257: 7253: 7245: 7241: 7233: 7229: 7221: 7217: 7209: 7205: 7197: 7193: 7172: 7168: 7160: 7156: 7148: 7144: 7136: 7132: 7123: 7119: 7111: 7107: 7099: 7095: 7087: 7083: 7075: 7071: 7063: 7059: 7051: 7047: 7041:Kurpaska (2010) 7039: 7035: 7027: 7020: 7012: 7008: 6998: 6996: 6951: 6947: 6939: 6935: 6927: 6923: 6916: 6904: 6902: 6898: 6890: 6886: 6876: 6874: 6863: 6859: 6858: 6854: 6844: 6842: 6833: 6832: 6828: 6815: 6813: 6812:on 24 July 2013 6804: 6803: 6799: 6791: 6782: 6771: 6767: 6757: 6746: 6739: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6724: 6715: 6711: 6702: 6698: 6676: 6672: 6645: 6641: 6636: 6606:Written Chinese 6588:Language portal 6586: 6579: 6572: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6557: 6545: 6537: 6529: 6521: 6513: 6505: 6497: 6489: 6481: 6473: 6465: 6457: 6449: 6441: 6433: 6425: 6417: 6409: 6401: 6393: 6385: 6377: 6369: 6361: 6353: 6337: 5777: 5765: 5750: 5739: 5728: 5717: 5706: 5648: 5646:Chinese grammar 5642: 5608:) from "golf"; 5399:) 'butterfly'. 5283: 4839:Central Plains 4659: 4610:varies widely: 4567:Central Plains 4248:Middle Chinese 4143: 4128: 4113: 4069:Beijing dialect 4045: 4044: 4043: 4042: 4033: 4022: 4021: 4020: 4012: 4011: 4003: 4002: 3994: 3993: 3982: 3750: 3746:(Lower Yangtze) 3745: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3724:Beijing, Harbin 3720: 3684:. As a result, 3548: 3337: 3325: 3305: 3293: 3274: 3262: 3250: 3238: 3226: 3205: 3193: 3181: 3163: 3151: 3139: 3118: 3102: 3090: 3076: 3060: 3048: 3015: 3003: 2954: 2943:the historical 2911:stop consonants 2858: 2847: 2841: 2838: 2827: 2815: 2804: 2798: 2666:Lanyin Mandarin 2648:Dungan language 2612:(Jiaodong) and 2600:Tianjin dialect 2552:northeast China 2515: 2464:. The linguist 2419: 2413: 2408: 2400:Cyrillic script 2348: 2346:Dungan language 2342: 2322: 2316: 2288: 2282: 2221: 2215: 2210: 2175: 2169: 2140:northwest China 2121:Beijing dialect 2109:northeast China 2078: 2066: 2047:Beijing dialect 1885: 1879: 1866:Robert Morrison 1784: 1773: 1772: 1740: 1734: 1646: 1533:rime dictionary 1481: 1475: 1393: 1387: 1375:Sichuan dialect 1257:Beijing dialect 1179: 1139:Chinese capital 1022:Beijing dialect 970: 960: 959: 929: 925: 909:A speaker from 895: 835:Tongyong Pinyin 807:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 757:Northern speech 754:Literal meaning 666:Tongyong Pinyin 638:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 585:Literal meaning 519:Without proper 507: 506: 502: 500: 496: 494: 490: 488: 484: 482: 478: 465: 449: 435: 419: 412: 397: 392: 386: 311: 306: 249: 237: 228: 221: 209:Middle Mandarin 179: 172: 144: 141:Language family 139: 129: 122: 121:Native speakers 97: 87: 82: 60: 51: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 17093: 17083: 17082: 17077: 17072: 17067: 17062: 17057: 17052: 17047: 17042: 17025: 17024: 17022: 17021: 17018: 17014: 17011: 17010: 17007: 17006: 17004: 17003: 16998: 16992: 16990: 16986: 16985: 16983: 16982: 16981: 16980: 16969: 16967: 16960: 16954: 16953: 16951: 16950: 16945: 16940: 16935: 16930: 16925: 16920: 16915: 16910: 16905: 16904: 16903: 16893: 16888: 16883: 16878: 16873: 16868: 16863: 16857: 16855: 16849: 16848: 16846: 16845: 16840: 16835: 16829: 16827: 16823: 16822: 16820: 16819: 16818: 16817: 16812: 16807: 16802: 16792: 16787: 16782: 16776: 16774: 16768: 16767: 16764: 16763: 16761: 16760: 16754: 16752: 16748: 16747: 16745: 16744: 16743: 16742: 16737: 16732: 16727: 16716: 16714: 16710: 16709: 16707: 16706: 16701: 16696: 16691: 16686: 16681: 16676: 16675: 16674: 16664: 16659: 16653: 16651: 16645: 16644: 16642: 16641: 16640: 16639: 16634: 16629: 16624: 16614: 16613: 16612: 16607: 16606: 16605: 16595: 16584: 16582: 16578: 16577: 16575: 16574: 16573: 16572: 16571: 16570: 16560: 16559: 16558: 16557: 16556: 16555: 16554: 16544: 16543: 16542: 16540:Penang Hokkien 16537: 16522: 16517: 16512: 16511: 16510: 16505: 16490: 16485: 16484: 16483: 16482: 16481: 16460: 16458: 16451: 16445: 16444: 16441: 16440: 16438: 16437: 16432: 16427: 16422: 16417: 16412: 16407: 16402: 16397: 16392: 16387: 16382: 16377: 16372: 16370:Selungai Murut 16367: 16362: 16357: 16352: 16347: 16342: 16337: 16332: 16327: 16322: 16320:Punan Bah-Biau 16317: 16312: 16307: 16302: 16300:Nonukan Tidong 16297: 16292: 16287: 16282: 16277: 16272: 16267: 16262: 16257: 16252: 16247: 16242: 16237: 16232: 16227: 16222: 16220:Keningau Murut 16217: 16212: 16207: 16202: 16197: 16192: 16187: 16182: 16177: 16172: 16167: 16162: 16157: 16152: 16147: 16142: 16137: 16132: 16127: 16122: 16117: 16112: 16107: 16102: 16097: 16092: 16087: 16082: 16077: 16071: 16069: 16061: 16060: 16058: 16057: 16052: 16047: 16042: 16037: 16032: 16027: 16022: 16017: 16012: 16007: 16002: 15997: 15992: 15987: 15982: 15977: 15972: 15967: 15962: 15957: 15952: 15947: 15942: 15937: 15932: 15927: 15922: 15917: 15912: 15907: 15902: 15897: 15892: 15887: 15882: 15876: 15874: 15866: 15865: 15863: 15862: 15856: 15854: 15847: 15836: 15835: 15833: 15832: 15831: 15830: 15820: 15819: 15818: 15813: 15808: 15803: 15798: 15793: 15783: 15782: 15781: 15770: 15768: 15762: 15761: 15758: 15757: 15755: 15754: 15753: 15752: 15742: 15736: 15734: 15725: 15721: 15720: 15713: 15712: 15705: 15698: 15690: 15681: 15680: 15678: 15677: 15671: 15669: 15668:Sign languages 15665: 15664: 15661: 15660: 15658: 15657: 15652: 15647: 15642: 15637: 15632: 15627: 15622: 15617: 15611: 15609: 15605: 15604: 15602: 15601: 15596: 15591: 15586: 15581: 15580: 15579: 15574: 15569: 15559: 15554: 15548: 15546: 15540: 15539: 15537: 15536: 15535: 15534: 15529: 15524: 15519: 15514: 15509: 15499: 15498: 15497: 15492: 15481: 15479: 15473: 15472: 15470: 15469: 15468: 15467: 15462: 15457: 15452: 15447: 15442: 15437: 15426: 15424: 15415: 15411: 15410: 15408: 15407: 15402: 15397: 15392: 15387: 15382: 15376: 15374: 15370: 15369: 15367: 15366: 15361: 15357: 15355: 15351: 15350: 15347: 15346: 15344: 15343: 15338: 15333: 15328: 15322: 15320: 15316: 15315: 15313: 15312: 15306: 15304: 15297: 15296:Main languages 15293: 15292: 15285: 15284: 15277: 15270: 15262: 15253: 15252: 15250: 15249: 15244: 15239: 15234: 15233: 15232: 15227: 15217: 15212: 15207: 15202: 15201: 15200: 15190: 15185: 15179: 15177: 15173: 15172: 15170: 15169: 15163: 15161: 15157: 15156: 15154: 15153: 15147: 15145: 15139: 15138: 15135: 15134: 15131: 15130: 15128: 15127: 15126: 15125: 15120: 15115: 15110: 15105: 15094: 15092: 15086: 15085: 15082: 15081: 15079: 15078: 15075:Putian dialect 15071: 15069: 15063: 15062: 15060: 15059: 15058: 15057: 15046: 15044: 15038: 15037: 15035: 15034: 15029: 15023: 15021: 15012: 15006: 15005: 15003: 15002: 14997: 14991: 14989: 14980: 14971: 14965: 14964: 14961: 14960: 14957: 14956: 14954: 14953: 14947: 14945: 14936: 14930: 14929: 14926: 14925: 14923: 14922: 14917: 14912: 14906: 14904: 14898: 14897: 14895: 14894: 14889: 14884: 14878: 14876: 14872: 14871: 14869: 14868: 14863: 14858: 14853: 14848: 14843: 14842: 14841: 14836: 14826: 14821: 14815: 14813: 14807: 14806: 14804: 14803: 14798: 14793: 14788: 14787: 14786: 14778: 14777: 14776: 14771: 14761: 14756: 14755: 14754: 14749: 14738: 14736: 14730: 14729: 14727: 14726: 14720: 14718: 14714: 14713: 14711: 14710: 14709: 14708: 14698: 14692: 14690: 14681: 14672: 14666: 14665: 14658: 14657: 14650: 14643: 14635: 14626: 14625: 14623: 14622: 14619: 14616: 14613: 14610: 14609:HK = Hong Kong 14607: 14603: 14600: 14599: 14597: 14596: 14589: 14588: 14587: 14586: 14585: 14580:Hong Kong Sign 14573: 14564: 14562: 14558: 14557: 14555: 14554: 14549: 14544: 14539: 14534: 14529: 14524: 14519: 14514: 14509: 14504: 14499: 14493: 14491: 14487: 14486: 14484: 14483: 14478: 14473: 14468: 14463: 14458: 14453: 14448: 14443: 14437: 14435: 14431: 14430: 14428: 14427: 14426: 14425: 14420: 14410: 14409: 14408: 14403: 14393: 14392: 14391: 14386: 14376: 14375: 14374: 14369: 14364: 14359: 14354: 14349: 14348: 14347: 14342: 14337: 14322: 14317: 14312: 14307: 14306: 14305: 14300: 14299: 14298: 14288: 14283: 14282: 14281: 14271: 14266: 14261: 14256: 14245: 14243: 14235: 14234: 14232: 14231: 14226: 14220: 14215: 14210: 14205: 14200: 14195: 14190: 14185: 14179: 14177: 14173: 14172: 14169: 14168: 14165: 14164: 14161: 14160: 14158: 14157: 14155:(Austronesian) 14149: 14147:(Austronesian) 14141: 14132: 14130: 14126: 14125: 14123: 14122: 14117: 14112: 14107: 14102: 14097: 14091: 14089: 14083: 14082: 14080: 14079: 14074: 14069: 14064: 14059: 14053: 14051: 14045: 14044: 14041: 14040: 14038: 14037: 14032: 14027: 14022: 14017: 14012: 14007: 14002: 13997: 13992: 13987: 13982: 13977: 13972: 13967: 13962: 13957: 13952: 13947: 13942: 13936: 13934: 13930: 13929: 13927: 13926: 13921: 13916: 13911: 13906: 13901: 13896: 13891: 13886: 13881: 13876: 13871: 13866: 13860: 13858: 13849: 13843: 13842: 13840: 13839: 13834: 13829: 13824: 13819: 13814: 13809: 13804: 13799: 13794: 13789: 13783: 13781: 13775: 13774: 13771: 13770: 13768: 13767: 13762: 13757: 13752: 13746: 13744: 13738: 13737: 13735: 13734: 13729: 13724: 13719: 13714: 13709: 13704: 13699: 13694: 13689: 13684: 13679: 13674: 13669: 13664: 13659: 13654: 13649: 13644: 13639: 13633: 13631: 13622: 13616: 13615: 13613: 13612: 13607: 13602: 13597: 13592: 13587: 13582: 13577: 13572: 13567: 13562: 13557: 13552: 13547: 13542: 13536: 13534: 13524: 13523: 13513: 13512: 13509: 13508: 13505: 13504: 13502: 13501: 13496: 13491: 13486: 13481: 13476: 13471: 13466: 13460: 13458: 13454: 13453: 13451: 13450: 13445: 13440: 13435: 13430: 13425: 13420: 13415: 13410: 13405: 13400: 13395: 13390: 13385: 13380: 13375: 13370: 13364: 13362: 13356: 13355: 13353: 13352: 13347: 13342: 13337: 13332: 13327: 13325:Southern Qiang 13322: 13320:Northern Qiang 13317: 13312: 13307: 13302: 13297: 13292: 13287: 13282: 13277: 13272: 13267: 13262: 13257: 13252: 13246: 13244: 13238: 13237: 13234: 13233: 13230: 13229: 13227: 13226: 13221: 13216: 13211: 13206: 13201: 13196: 13191: 13186: 13181: 13176: 13170: 13168: 13164: 13163: 13161: 13160: 13155: 13150: 13145: 13140: 13135: 13130: 13125: 13120: 13115: 13110: 13105: 13100: 13095: 13090: 13085: 13080: 13075: 13070: 13065: 13060: 13055: 13050: 13045: 13040: 13035: 13030: 13025: 13019: 13017: 13011: 13010: 13008: 13007: 13002: 12997: 12992: 12987: 12982: 12977: 12972: 12967: 12962: 12957: 12952: 12947: 12942: 12937: 12932: 12927: 12922: 12917: 12912: 12907: 12901: 12899: 12893: 12892: 12890: 12889: 12884: 12879: 12874: 12869: 12864: 12859: 12854: 12849: 12844: 12839: 12834: 12829: 12824: 12819: 12814: 12809: 12804: 12799: 12794: 12789: 12784: 12779: 12774: 12769: 12764: 12759: 12754: 12749: 12744: 12739: 12734: 12729: 12724: 12719: 12713: 12711: 12702: 12696: 12695: 12693: 12692: 12687: 12682: 12677: 12672: 12667: 12662: 12656: 12654: 12648: 12647: 12645: 12644: 12639: 12634: 12629: 12624: 12619: 12614: 12608: 12606: 12597: 12585: 12584: 12569: 12565: 12564: 12561: 12560: 12557: 12555: 12545: 12544: 12542: 12541: 12536: 12531: 12526: 12521: 12516: 12511: 12506: 12501: 12496: 12491: 12486: 12481: 12476: 12471: 12466: 12460: 12458: 12452: 12451: 12449: 12448: 12443: 12438: 12433: 12428: 12423: 12418: 12412: 12410: 12397: 12393: 12392: 12390: 12389: 12383: 12381: 12377: 12376: 12369: 12368: 12361: 12354: 12346: 12337: 12336: 12326: 12323: 12322: 12319: 12318: 12316: 12315: 12310: 12305: 12300: 12298:Taiwanese kana 12295: 12294: 12293: 12288: 12278: 12277: 12276: 12271: 12269:Lessing-Othmer 12266: 12261: 12256: 12251: 12246: 12241: 12236: 12226: 12225: 12224: 12213: 12211: 12207: 12206: 12204: 12199: 12194: 12189: 12184: 12182: 12176: 12175: 12173: 12172: 12167: 12166: 12165: 12160: 12149: 12146: 12145: 12143: 12138: 12133: 12128: 12123: 12118: 12113: 12111: 12102: 12093: 12087: 12086: 12084: 12083: 12078: 12073: 12071:Written Dungan 12068: 12062: 12059: 12058: 12056: 12055: 12050: 12049: 12048: 12043: 12038: 12027: 12025: 12018: 12012: 12011: 12009: 12008: 12003: 11998: 11993: 11988: 11983: 11978: 11976:Middle Chinese 11973: 11968: 11962: 11960: 11954: 11953: 11951: 11950: 11945: 11943:Wubi (Wang Ma) 11940: 11935: 11934: 11933: 11928: 11923: 11913: 11908: 11903: 11902: 11901: 11891: 11888: 11882: 11880: 11874: 11873: 11871: 11870: 11863: 11855: 11853: 11849: 11848: 11846: 11845: 11840: 11835: 11830: 11825: 11819: 11817: 11811: 11810: 11808: 11807: 11802: 11797: 11792: 11787: 11782: 11777: 11776: 11775: 11764: 11762: 11758: 11757: 11755: 11754: 11749: 11744: 11739: 11738: 11737: 11736: 11735: 11730: 11720: 11715: 11710: 11705: 11694: 11692: 11684: 11683: 11676: 11674: 11671: 11670: 11668: 11667: 11662: 11660:Xiangnan Tuhua 11657: 11652: 11647: 11645:Shaozhou Tuhua 11642: 11637: 11632: 11626: 11624: 11620: 11619: 11617: 11616: 11615: 11614: 11609: 11604: 11596: 11595: 11594: 11589: 11580: 11578: 11572: 11571: 11568: 11567: 11565: 11564: 11559: 11554: 11549: 11544: 11539: 11533: 11531: 11527: 11526: 11524: 11523: 11518: 11512: 11510: 11504: 11503: 11501: 11500: 11495: 11490: 11485: 11480: 11475: 11474: 11473: 11468: 11457: 11455: 11446: 11440: 11439: 11437: 11436: 11435: 11434: 11429: 11424: 11414: 11413: 11412: 11402: 11397: 11392: 11386: 11384: 11378: 11377: 11374: 11373: 11371: 11370: 11369: 11368: 11363: 11358: 11348: 11347: 11346: 11336: 11331: 11326: 11321: 11320: 11319: 11314: 11303: 11301: 11297: 11296: 11293: 11292: 11290: 11289: 11284: 11278: 11276: 11272: 11271: 11269: 11268: 11262: 11260: 11254: 11253: 11251: 11250: 11245: 11239: 11237: 11231: 11230: 11228: 11227: 11222: 11217: 11212: 11207: 11202: 11197: 11192: 11187: 11182: 11176: 11174: 11165: 11159: 11158: 11155: 11154: 11152: 11151: 11150: 11149: 11144: 11134: 11128: 11126: 11122: 11121: 11119: 11118: 11113: 11107: 11105: 11099: 11098: 11096: 11095: 11090: 11085: 11080: 11075: 11069: 11067: 11058: 11049: 11043: 11042: 11040: 11039: 11038: 11037: 11027: 11022: 11021: 11020: 11015: 11010: 11000: 10999: 10998: 10987: 10985: 10979: 10978: 10976: 10975: 10970: 10965: 10960: 10959: 10958: 10947: 10945: 10939: 10938: 10936: 10935: 10923: 10911: 10899: 10887: 10874: 10872: 10866: 10865: 10862: 10861: 10859: 10858: 10852: 10850: 10844: 10843: 10841: 10840: 10835: 10830: 10824: 10822: 10816: 10815: 10813: 10812: 10806: 10804: 10798: 10797: 10795: 10794: 10789: 10784: 10778: 10776: 10772: 10771: 10769: 10768: 10763: 10757: 10755: 10749: 10748: 10746: 10745: 10740: 10735: 10730: 10725: 10720: 10714: 10709: 10704: 10699: 10693: 10691: 10682: 10676: 10675: 10673: 10672: 10667: 10661: 10659: 10653: 10652: 10649: 10648: 10646: 10645: 10640: 10635: 10629: 10627: 10623: 10622: 10620: 10619: 10614: 10608: 10606: 10600: 10599: 10597: 10596: 10595: 10594: 10584: 10579: 10574: 10569: 10568: 10567: 10566: 10565: 10558:Renshou–Fushun 10555: 10554: 10553: 10543: 10532: 10530: 10524: 10523: 10521: 10520: 10515: 10510: 10505: 10500: 10495: 10494: 10493: 10483: 10478: 10472: 10470: 10468:Central Plains 10464: 10463: 10461: 10460: 10455: 10450: 10444: 10442: 10436: 10435: 10433: 10432: 10427: 10421: 10419: 10413: 10412: 10410: 10409: 10404: 10398: 10396: 10390: 10389: 10387: 10386: 10381: 10376: 10371: 10365: 10363: 10354: 10345: 10339: 10338: 10331: 10328: 10327: 10320: 10319: 10312: 10305: 10297: 10288: 10287: 10281: 10278: 10277: 10275: 10274: 10267: 10260: 10253: 10246: 10239: 10231: 10229: 10223: 10222: 10220: 10219: 10217:Tibeto-Kanauri 10214: 10207: 10202: 10197: 10192: 10190:Kuki-Chin–Naga 10187: 10181: 10179: 10175: 10174: 10171: 10170: 10168: 10167: 10162: 10161: 10160: 10153: 10140: 10138: 10129: 10128: 10121: 10116: 10115: 10114: 10100: 10099: 10098: 10091: 10078: 10076: 10060: 10059: 10056: 10055: 10053: 10052: 10051: 10050: 10043: 10038: 10026: 10021: 10016: 10015: 10014: 10001: 9999: 9990: 9989: 9988: 9987: 9980: 9973: 9961: 9954: 9947: 9940: 9935: 9928: 9921: 9913: 9911: 9909:Southeast Asia 9901: 9900: 9897: 9896: 9894: 9893: 9888: 9883: 9877: 9875: 9869: 9868: 9866: 9865: 9860: 9855: 9848: 9846:Angami–Pochuri 9843: 9837: 9835: 9824: 9823: 9816: 9809: 9808: 9807: 9800: 9788: 9781: 9773: 9771: 9770:Burmese border 9762: 9761: 9759: 9758: 9753: 9746: 9739: 9732: 9731: 9730: 9722: 9715: 9708: 9703: 9688: 9686: 9665: 9664: 9657: 9655: 9652: 9651: 9649: 9648: 9635: 9630: 9629: 9628: 9621: 9609: 9608: 9607: 9600: 9587: 9585: 9576: 9575: 9568: 9567: 9566: 9559: 9552: 9540: 9533: 9532: 9531: 9526: 9514: 9507: 9499: 9497: 9472: 9471: 9463: 9462: 9455: 9448: 9440: 9434: 9433: 9425: 9424:External links 9422: 9420: 9419: 9408: 9397: 9386: 9375: 9364: 9353: 9342: 9330: 9328: 9325: 9323: 9322: 9304: 9303: 9293:(2): 309–327. 9281: 9280: 9268:(1): 109–128. 9253: 9222: 9195: 9166: 9145: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9111: 9110: 9104: 9087: 9081: 9068: 9062: 9049: 9043: 9030: 9024: 9011: 9005: 8992: 8975: 8957:(2): 233–275, 8946: 8917: 8911: 8898: 8892: 8879: 8873: 8860: 8854: 8834: 8824:on 10 May 2018 8799: 8761: 8755: 8738: 8710:Janhunen, Juha 8706: 8700: 8687: 8681: 8668: 8650:(3): 339–355, 8639: 8627:10.2307/606615 8621:(4): 537–552, 8607: 8601: 8581: 8575: 8558: 8552: 8534: 8533: 8532: 8527: 8524: 8522: 8521: 8495: 8469: 8457: 8455:, p. 196. 8445: 8433: 8421: 8419:, p. 162. 8409: 8397: 8363: 8351: 8339: 8327: 8310: 8308:, p. 195. 8293: 8281: 8269: 8267:, p. 194. 8254: 8252:, p. 192. 8239: 8237:, p. 193. 8212: 8200: 8188: 8176: 8164: 8152: 8140: 8138:, Maps B4, B6. 8128: 8116: 8114:, Maps B4, B5. 8104: 8102:, p. 351. 8092: 8080: 8078:, Maps B1, B3. 8068: 8056: 8049: 8031: 8029:, Maps B2, B5. 8019: 8007: 7995: 7983: 7971: 7959: 7947: 7935: 7923: 7921:, p. 190. 7911: 7899: 7897:, p. 190. 7887: 7875: 7863: 7851: 7839: 7827: 7815: 7813:, p. 355. 7803: 7789:(in Russian). 7771: 7745: 7718: 7716:, p. 349. 7706: 7673: 7661: 7659:, p. 698. 7649: 7632: 7621:on 21 May 2020 7605: 7564: 7552: 7521: 7509: 7492: 7480: 7468: 7453: 7451:, p. 144. 7438: 7426: 7414: 7402: 7390: 7378: 7376:, p. 191. 7359: 7357:, p. 163. 7347: 7335: 7323: 7311: 7309:, 21 Feb 2019. 7287: 7275: 7263: 7251: 7239: 7237:, p. 247. 7227: 7215: 7203: 7191: 7166: 7164:, p. 353. 7154: 7142: 7140:, p. 539. 7130: 7117: 7105: 7093: 7081: 7069: 7057: 7045: 7033: 7018: 7016:, p. 181. 7006: 6945: 6943:, p. 537. 6933: 6931:, p. 293. 6921: 6914: 6896: 6884: 6869:(in Chinese). 6852: 6826: 6797: 6795:, p. 136. 6780: 6765: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6723: 6722: 6709: 6696: 6694: 6693: 6690: 6687: 6684: 6681: 6670: 6648:folk etymology 6638: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6631: 6630: 6625: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6592: 6591: 6577: 6561: 6558: 6538: 6530: 6522: 6514: 6506: 6498: 6490: 6482: 6474: 6466: 6458: 6450: 6442: 6434: 6426: 6418: 6410: 6402: 6394: 6386: 6378: 6370: 6362: 6354: 6346: 6345: 6336: 6333: 6330: 6329: 6326: 6302: 6299: 6292: 6282: 6281: 6278: 6261: 6260:an enthusiast 6258: 6251: 6245: 6244: 6241: 6228: 6225: 6218: 6212: 6211: 6208: 6203: 6200: 6193: 6187: 6186: 6183: 6178: 6175: 6168: 6162: 6161: 6158: 6153: 6150: 6143: 6137: 6136: 6133: 6128: 6125: 6118: 6112: 6111: 6108: 6083: 6080: 6073: 6067: 6066: 6063: 6054: 6051: 6044: 6038: 6037: 6034: 6029: 6026: 6019: 6013: 6012: 6009: 5996: 5995:same as -able 5993: 5986: 5980: 5979: 5976: 5959: 5956: 5949: 5939: 5938: 5937:Example gloss 5935: 5932: 5929: 5928:Pronunciation 5926: 5814:) for the 5751: 5740: 5729: 5718: 5707: 5696: 5695: 5641: 5638: 5560:'he', 'she'). 5282: 5279: 5265: 5264: 5254: 5244: 5238: 5232: 5226: 5220: 5219: 5213: 5207: 5201: 5195: 5189: 5184: 5183:Lower Yangtze 5180: 5179: 5173: 5167: 5161: 5155: 5149: 5148: 5142: 5136: 5130: 5124: 5118: 5117: 5111: 5105: 5099: 5093: 5087: 5086: 5080: 5074: 5068: 5062: 5056: 5050: 5049: 5043: 5037: 5031: 5025: 5020: 5016: 5015: 5009: 5003: 4997: 4991: 4990: 4984: 4978: 4972: 4966: 4961: 4957: 4956: 4950: 4944: 4938: 4932: 4931: 4925: 4919: 4913: 4907: 4901: 4900: 4894: 4888: 4882: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4863: 4857: 4851: 4845: 4840: 4836: 4835: 4829: 4823: 4817: 4811: 4805: 4804: 4798: 4792: 4786: 4780: 4775: 4771: 4770: 4764: 4758: 4751: 4745: 4740: 4736: 4735: 4729: 4723: 4717: 4711: 4706: 4702: 4701: 4695: 4689: 4683: 4677: 4672: 4668: 4667: 4660:glottal stop ( 4656: 4647: 4638: 4629: 4620: 4602: 4601: 4592: 4591:Lower Yangtze 4588: 4587: 4584: 4580: 4579: 4576: 4572: 4571: 4568: 4564: 4563: 4560: 4556: 4555: 4552: 4548: 4547: 4543: 4542: 4539: 4536: 4533: 4529: 4528: 4525: 4519: 4515: 4514: 4511: 4409: 4408: 4399: 4390: 4381: 4372: 4368: 4367: 4360: 4353: 4346: 4339: 4332: 4325: 4318: 4311: 4304: 4297: 4290: 4286: 4285: 4282: 4279: 4276: 4273: 4270: 4267: 4264: 4261: 4258: 4255: 4252: 4249: 4245: 4244: 4237: 4230: 4223: 4216: 4209: 4202: 4195: 4188: 4181: 4174: 4167: 4160: 4156: 4155: 4140: 4125: 4110: 4076:Middle Chinese 4024: 4023: 4014: 4013: 4005: 4004: 3996: 3995: 3987: 3986: 3985: 3984: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3950: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3929: 3922: 3919: 3911: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3868: 3865: 3857: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3823: 3815: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3772: 3769: 3761: 3760: 3757: 3753: 3752: 3751:Reconstructed 3749:Middle Chinese 3747: 3742: 3741:(Southwestern) 3737: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3714: 3598:/tɕjɛtɕʰjɛɕjɛ/ 3547: 3544: 3543: 3542: 3489: 3474: 3448: 3429: 3404: 3381: 3343: 3342: 3340: 3328: 3308: 3296: 3284: 3278: 3277: 3265: 3253: 3241: 3229: 3217: 3211: 3210: 3208: 3196: 3184: 3172: 3169: 3168: 3166: 3154: 3142: 3130: 3128: 3122: 3121: 3109: 3107: 3105: 3093: 3080: 3079: 3067: 3065: 3063: 3051: 3039: 3033: 3032: 3022: 3020: 3018: 3006: 2994: 2988: 2987: 2982: 2977: 2972: 2967: 2962: 2953: 2950: 2949: 2948: 2941: 2926: 2907: 2904: 2901:palatal glides 2889:palatalization 2860: 2859: 2818: 2816: 2809: 2797: 2794: 2762: 2761: 2727: 2689: 2663: 2621: 2603: 2577: 2559: 2514: 2511: 2430:Middle Chinese 2412: 2409: 2407: 2406:Classification 2404: 2372:Russian Empire 2344:Main article: 2341: 2338: 2315: 2312: 2298:community, as 2284:Main article: 2281: 2278: 2217:Main article: 2214: 2211: 2209: 2208:Southeast Asia 2206: 2202:Code-switching 2171:Main article: 2168: 2165: 2077: 2076:Mainland China 2074: 2065: 2062: 1994:mainland China 1881:Main article: 1878: 1875: 1850: 1849: 1842: 1839: 1829: 1769: 1736:Main article: 1733: 1730: 1645: 1642: 1487:A page of the 1477:Main article: 1474: 1471: 1447:Huizhou region 1405:Middle Chinese 1386: 1383: 1338: 1337: 1317: 1301: 1281:United Nations 1228:koiné language 1178: 1175: 1163:United Nations 1124:Middle Chinese 891: 890: 887: 886: 883: 882: 875: 869: 868: 866:Yue: Cantonese 862: 861: 851: 845: 844: 837: 831: 830: 823: 817: 816: 809: 803: 802: 795: 789: 788: 781: 775: 774: 768: 767: 766:Transcriptions 759: 758: 755: 751: 750: 743: 737: 736: 729: 723: 722: 718: 717: 714: 713: 706: 700: 699: 697:Yue: Cantonese 693: 692: 682: 676: 675: 668: 662: 661: 654: 648: 647: 640: 634: 633: 626: 620: 619: 612: 606: 605: 599: 598: 597:Transcriptions 590: 589: 586: 582: 581: 572: 566: 565: 556: 550: 549: 546: 545: 537: 536: 523:, you may see 509: 508: 501: 495: 489: 483: 477: 475: 467: 466: 463: 455: 454: 447: 441: 440: 433: 425: 424: 417: 409: 408: 407:Language codes 404: 403: 398: 391: 388: 387: 385: 384: 374: 364: 359: 345: 344: 339: 334: 329: 314: 312: 308:Writing system 305: 302: 301: 300: 299: 294: 289: 287:Central Plains 284: 279: 274: 269: 264: 257: 251: 250: 248: 247: 231: 229: 227:Standard forms 226: 223: 222: 220: 219: 218: 217: 216: 215: 214: 213: 212: 211: 199:Middle Chinese 182: 180: 177: 174: 173: 171: 170: 169: 168: 167: 166: 147: 145: 138: 135: 134: 123: 120: 117: 116: 113: 109: 108: 103: 102:Native to 99: 98: 75: 67: 66: 48: 47: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 17092: 17081: 17078: 17076: 17073: 17071: 17068: 17066: 17063: 17061: 17058: 17056: 17053: 17051: 17048: 17046: 17043: 17041: 17038: 17037: 17035: 17019: 17016: 17015: 17012: 17002: 16999: 16997: 16994: 16993: 16991: 16987: 16979: 16976: 16975: 16974: 16971: 16970: 16968: 16964: 16961: 16959: 16955: 16949: 16946: 16944: 16941: 16939: 16936: 16934: 16931: 16929: 16926: 16924: 16921: 16919: 16916: 16914: 16911: 16909: 16906: 16902: 16899: 16898: 16897: 16894: 16892: 16889: 16887: 16886:East Timorese 16884: 16882: 16879: 16877: 16874: 16872: 16869: 16867: 16864: 16862: 16859: 16858: 16856: 16854: 16850: 16844: 16841: 16839: 16836: 16834: 16831: 16830: 16828: 16824: 16816: 16813: 16811: 16808: 16806: 16803: 16801: 16798: 16797: 16796: 16793: 16791: 16788: 16786: 16783: 16781: 16778: 16777: 16775: 16773: 16769: 16759: 16756: 16755: 16753: 16749: 16741: 16738: 16736: 16733: 16731: 16728: 16726: 16723: 16722: 16721: 16718: 16717: 16715: 16711: 16705: 16702: 16700: 16697: 16695: 16692: 16690: 16687: 16685: 16682: 16680: 16677: 16673: 16670: 16669: 16668: 16665: 16663: 16660: 16658: 16655: 16654: 16652: 16646: 16638: 16635: 16633: 16630: 16628: 16625: 16623: 16620: 16619: 16618: 16617:Indo-European 16615: 16611: 16608: 16604: 16601: 16600: 16599: 16596: 16594: 16591: 16590: 16589: 16586: 16585: 16583: 16579: 16569: 16566: 16565: 16564: 16561: 16553: 16550: 16549: 16548: 16545: 16541: 16538: 16536: 16533: 16532: 16531: 16528: 16527: 16526: 16523: 16521: 16518: 16516: 16513: 16509: 16506: 16504: 16501: 16500: 16499: 16496: 16495: 16494: 16491: 16489: 16486: 16480: 16477: 16476: 16475: 16472: 16471: 16470: 16467: 16466: 16465: 16462: 16461: 16459: 16455: 16452: 16446: 16436: 16433: 16431: 16428: 16426: 16423: 16421: 16418: 16416: 16413: 16411: 16408: 16406: 16403: 16401: 16398: 16396: 16393: 16391: 16388: 16386: 16383: 16381: 16378: 16376: 16373: 16371: 16368: 16366: 16363: 16361: 16358: 16356: 16355:Sarawak Malay 16353: 16351: 16348: 16346: 16343: 16341: 16338: 16336: 16333: 16331: 16328: 16326: 16323: 16321: 16318: 16316: 16313: 16311: 16308: 16306: 16303: 16301: 16298: 16296: 16293: 16291: 16288: 16286: 16283: 16281: 16278: 16276: 16273: 16271: 16268: 16266: 16263: 16261: 16258: 16256: 16253: 16251: 16248: 16246: 16243: 16241: 16238: 16236: 16233: 16231: 16228: 16226: 16223: 16221: 16218: 16216: 16213: 16211: 16208: 16206: 16203: 16201: 16198: 16196: 16193: 16191: 16188: 16186: 16183: 16181: 16178: 16176: 16173: 16171: 16168: 16166: 16163: 16161: 16158: 16156: 16153: 16151: 16148: 16146: 16143: 16141: 16138: 16136: 16133: 16131: 16128: 16126: 16125:Brunei Bisaya 16123: 16121: 16118: 16116: 16113: 16111: 16108: 16106: 16103: 16101: 16098: 16096: 16093: 16091: 16088: 16086: 16083: 16081: 16078: 16076: 16073: 16072: 16070: 16068: 16062: 16056: 16053: 16051: 16048: 16046: 16043: 16041: 16038: 16036: 16033: 16031: 16030:Southern Thai 16028: 16026: 16023: 16021: 16018: 16016: 16013: 16011: 16008: 16006: 16003: 16001: 15998: 15996: 15993: 15991: 15988: 15986: 15985:Orang Seletar 15983: 15981: 15978: 15976: 15973: 15971: 15968: 15966: 15963: 15961: 15958: 15956: 15953: 15951: 15948: 15946: 15943: 15941: 15938: 15936: 15933: 15931: 15928: 15926: 15923: 15921: 15918: 15916: 15913: 15911: 15908: 15906: 15903: 15901: 15898: 15896: 15893: 15891: 15888: 15886: 15883: 15881: 15878: 15877: 15875: 15873: 15867: 15861: 15858: 15857: 15855: 15851: 15848: 15846: 15841: 15837: 15829: 15826: 15825: 15824: 15821: 15817: 15814: 15812: 15809: 15807: 15804: 15802: 15799: 15797: 15794: 15792: 15791:North Bornean 15789: 15788: 15787: 15784: 15780: 15777: 15776: 15775: 15774:Austroasiatic 15772: 15771: 15769: 15767: 15763: 15751: 15748: 15747: 15746: 15743: 15741: 15738: 15737: 15735: 15733: 15729: 15726: 15722: 15718: 15711: 15706: 15704: 15699: 15697: 15692: 15691: 15688: 15676: 15673: 15672: 15670: 15666: 15656: 15653: 15651: 15648: 15646: 15643: 15641: 15638: 15636: 15633: 15631: 15628: 15626: 15623: 15621: 15618: 15616: 15613: 15612: 15610: 15606: 15600: 15597: 15595: 15592: 15590: 15587: 15585: 15582: 15578: 15575: 15573: 15570: 15568: 15565: 15564: 15563: 15560: 15558: 15555: 15553: 15550: 15549: 15547: 15545: 15541: 15533: 15530: 15528: 15525: 15523: 15520: 15518: 15515: 15513: 15510: 15508: 15505: 15504: 15503: 15500: 15496: 15493: 15491: 15488: 15487: 15486: 15483: 15482: 15480: 15478: 15474: 15466: 15463: 15461: 15458: 15456: 15453: 15451: 15448: 15446: 15443: 15441: 15438: 15436: 15433: 15432: 15431: 15428: 15427: 15425: 15423: 15419: 15416: 15412: 15406: 15403: 15401: 15398: 15396: 15393: 15391: 15388: 15386: 15383: 15381: 15378: 15377: 15375: 15371: 15365: 15364:Orang Seletar 15362: 15359: 15358: 15356: 15352: 15342: 15339: 15337: 15334: 15332: 15329: 15327: 15324: 15323: 15321: 15317: 15311: 15308: 15307: 15305: 15301: 15298: 15294: 15290: 15283: 15278: 15276: 15271: 15269: 15264: 15263: 15260: 15248: 15245: 15243: 15240: 15238: 15235: 15231: 15228: 15226: 15223: 15222: 15221: 15218: 15216: 15213: 15211: 15208: 15206: 15203: 15199: 15196: 15195: 15194: 15191: 15189: 15186: 15184: 15181: 15180: 15178: 15174: 15168: 15165: 15164: 15162: 15158: 15152: 15149: 15148: 15146: 15144: 15140: 15124: 15121: 15119: 15116: 15114: 15111: 15109: 15106: 15104: 15101: 15100: 15099: 15096: 15095: 15093: 15091: 15087: 15076: 15073: 15072: 15070: 15068: 15064: 15056: 15055:Matsu dialect 15053: 15052: 15051: 15048: 15047: 15045: 15043: 15039: 15033: 15030: 15028: 15025: 15024: 15022: 15020: 15016: 15013: 15011: 15007: 15001: 14998: 14996: 14993: 14992: 14990: 14988: 14984: 14981: 14979: 14975: 14972: 14970: 14966: 14952: 14949: 14948: 14946: 14944: 14940: 14937: 14935: 14931: 14921: 14918: 14916: 14913: 14911: 14908: 14907: 14905: 14903: 14899: 14893: 14890: 14888: 14885: 14883: 14880: 14879: 14877: 14873: 14867: 14864: 14862: 14859: 14857: 14854: 14852: 14849: 14847: 14844: 14840: 14837: 14835: 14832: 14831: 14830: 14827: 14825: 14822: 14820: 14817: 14816: 14814: 14812: 14808: 14802: 14799: 14797: 14794: 14792: 14789: 14784: 14783: 14782: 14779: 14775: 14772: 14770: 14767: 14766: 14765: 14762: 14760: 14757: 14753: 14750: 14748: 14745: 14744: 14743: 14740: 14739: 14737: 14735: 14731: 14725: 14722: 14721: 14719: 14715: 14707: 14704: 14703: 14702: 14699: 14697: 14694: 14693: 14691: 14689: 14685: 14682: 14680: 14676: 14673: 14671: 14667: 14663: 14656: 14651: 14649: 14644: 14642: 14637: 14636: 14633: 14620: 14618:XJ = Xinjiang 14617: 14614: 14611: 14608: 14605: 14604: 14601: 14595: 14593: 14590: 14583: 14581: 14577: 14576: 14574: 14571: 14570: 14569: 14566: 14565: 14563: 14559: 14553: 14550: 14548: 14545: 14543: 14540: 14538: 14535: 14533: 14530: 14528: 14525: 14523: 14520: 14518: 14515: 14513: 14510: 14508: 14505: 14503: 14500: 14498: 14495: 14494: 14492: 14488: 14482: 14479: 14477: 14474: 14472: 14469: 14467: 14464: 14462: 14459: 14457: 14454: 14452: 14449: 14447: 14444: 14442: 14439: 14438: 14436: 14432: 14424: 14421: 14419: 14416: 14415: 14414: 14411: 14407: 14404: 14402: 14399: 14398: 14397: 14394: 14390: 14387: 14385: 14382: 14381: 14380: 14377: 14373: 14370: 14368: 14365: 14363: 14360: 14358: 14355: 14353: 14350: 14346: 14343: 14341: 14338: 14336: 14333: 14332: 14331: 14328: 14327: 14326: 14323: 14321: 14318: 14316: 14313: 14311: 14308: 14304: 14301: 14297: 14294: 14293: 14292: 14289: 14287: 14284: 14280: 14277: 14276: 14275: 14272: 14270: 14267: 14265: 14262: 14260: 14257: 14255: 14252: 14251: 14250: 14247: 14246: 14244: 14242: 14236: 14230: 14227: 14224: 14221: 14219: 14216: 14214: 14211: 14209: 14206: 14204: 14201: 14199: 14196: 14194: 14191: 14189: 14186: 14184: 14181: 14180: 14178: 14174: 14153: 14150: 14145: 14142: 14137: 14134: 14133: 14131: 14127: 14121: 14120:Western Yugur 14118: 14116: 14113: 14111: 14108: 14106: 14103: 14101: 14098: 14096: 14093: 14092: 14090: 14088: 14084: 14078: 14075: 14073: 14070: 14068: 14065: 14063: 14060: 14058: 14055: 14054: 14052: 14050: 14046: 14036: 14033: 14031: 14028: 14026: 14023: 14021: 14018: 14016: 14013: 14011: 14008: 14006: 14003: 14001: 13998: 13996: 13993: 13991: 13988: 13986: 13983: 13981: 13978: 13976: 13973: 13971: 13968: 13966: 13963: 13961: 13958: 13956: 13953: 13951: 13948: 13946: 13943: 13941: 13938: 13937: 13935: 13931: 13925: 13922: 13920: 13917: 13915: 13912: 13910: 13907: 13905: 13902: 13900: 13897: 13895: 13892: 13890: 13887: 13885: 13882: 13880: 13877: 13875: 13872: 13870: 13867: 13865: 13862: 13861: 13859: 13857: 13853: 13850: 13848: 13844: 13838: 13835: 13833: 13830: 13828: 13825: 13823: 13820: 13818: 13815: 13813: 13810: 13808: 13805: 13803: 13802:Eastern Yugur 13800: 13798: 13795: 13793: 13790: 13788: 13785: 13784: 13782: 13780: 13776: 13766: 13763: 13761: 13758: 13756: 13753: 13751: 13748: 13747: 13745: 13743: 13739: 13733: 13730: 13728: 13725: 13723: 13722:Small Flowery 13720: 13718: 13715: 13713: 13710: 13708: 13705: 13703: 13700: 13698: 13695: 13693: 13690: 13688: 13685: 13683: 13680: 13678: 13675: 13673: 13670: 13668: 13665: 13663: 13660: 13658: 13655: 13653: 13650: 13648: 13645: 13643: 13640: 13638: 13635: 13634: 13632: 13630: 13626: 13623: 13621: 13617: 13611: 13608: 13606: 13603: 13601: 13598: 13596: 13593: 13591: 13588: 13586: 13583: 13581: 13578: 13576: 13573: 13571: 13568: 13566: 13563: 13561: 13558: 13556: 13553: 13551: 13548: 13546: 13543: 13541: 13538: 13537: 13535: 13533: 13532:Austroasiatic 13529: 13525: 13518: 13514: 13500: 13497: 13495: 13492: 13490: 13487: 13485: 13482: 13480: 13477: 13475: 13472: 13470: 13467: 13465: 13462: 13461: 13459: 13455: 13449: 13446: 13444: 13441: 13439: 13436: 13434: 13431: 13429: 13426: 13424: 13421: 13419: 13416: 13414: 13411: 13409: 13406: 13404: 13401: 13399: 13396: 13394: 13391: 13389: 13386: 13384: 13381: 13379: 13376: 13374: 13371: 13369: 13366: 13365: 13363: 13361: 13357: 13351: 13348: 13346: 13343: 13341: 13338: 13336: 13333: 13331: 13328: 13326: 13323: 13321: 13318: 13316: 13313: 13311: 13308: 13306: 13303: 13301: 13298: 13296: 13293: 13291: 13288: 13286: 13283: 13281: 13278: 13276: 13273: 13271: 13268: 13266: 13263: 13261: 13258: 13256: 13253: 13251: 13248: 13247: 13245: 13243: 13239: 13225: 13222: 13220: 13217: 13215: 13212: 13210: 13207: 13205: 13202: 13200: 13197: 13195: 13192: 13190: 13187: 13185: 13182: 13180: 13177: 13175: 13172: 13171: 13169: 13165: 13159: 13156: 13154: 13151: 13149: 13146: 13144: 13141: 13139: 13136: 13134: 13131: 13129: 13126: 13124: 13121: 13119: 13116: 13114: 13111: 13109: 13106: 13104: 13101: 13099: 13096: 13094: 13091: 13089: 13086: 13084: 13081: 13079: 13076: 13074: 13071: 13069: 13066: 13064: 13061: 13059: 13056: 13054: 13051: 13049: 13046: 13044: 13041: 13039: 13036: 13034: 13031: 13029: 13026: 13024: 13021: 13020: 13018: 13016: 13012: 13006: 13003: 13001: 12998: 12996: 12993: 12991: 12988: 12986: 12983: 12981: 12978: 12976: 12973: 12971: 12968: 12966: 12963: 12961: 12958: 12956: 12953: 12951: 12948: 12946: 12943: 12941: 12938: 12936: 12933: 12931: 12928: 12926: 12923: 12921: 12918: 12916: 12913: 12911: 12908: 12906: 12903: 12902: 12900: 12898: 12894: 12888: 12885: 12883: 12880: 12878: 12875: 12873: 12870: 12868: 12865: 12863: 12860: 12858: 12855: 12853: 12850: 12848: 12845: 12843: 12840: 12838: 12835: 12833: 12830: 12828: 12825: 12823: 12820: 12818: 12815: 12813: 12810: 12808: 12805: 12803: 12800: 12798: 12795: 12793: 12790: 12788: 12785: 12783: 12780: 12778: 12775: 12773: 12770: 12768: 12765: 12763: 12760: 12758: 12755: 12753: 12750: 12748: 12745: 12743: 12740: 12738: 12735: 12733: 12730: 12728: 12725: 12723: 12720: 12718: 12715: 12714: 12712: 12710: 12706: 12703: 12701: 12697: 12691: 12688: 12686: 12683: 12681: 12678: 12676: 12673: 12671: 12668: 12666: 12663: 12661: 12658: 12657: 12655: 12653: 12649: 12643: 12640: 12638: 12635: 12633: 12630: 12628: 12625: 12623: 12620: 12618: 12615: 12613: 12610: 12609: 12607: 12605: 12601: 12598: 12596: 12590: 12586: 12582: 12577: 12573: 12570: 12566: 12556: 12554: 12550: 12546: 12540: 12537: 12535: 12532: 12530: 12527: 12525: 12522: 12520: 12517: 12515: 12512: 12510: 12507: 12505: 12502: 12500: 12497: 12495: 12492: 12490: 12487: 12485: 12482: 12480: 12477: 12475: 12472: 12470: 12467: 12465: 12462: 12461: 12459: 12457: 12453: 12447: 12444: 12442: 12439: 12437: 12434: 12432: 12429: 12427: 12424: 12422: 12419: 12417: 12414: 12413: 12411: 12409: 12405: 12401: 12398: 12394: 12388: 12385: 12384: 12382: 12378: 12374: 12367: 12362: 12360: 12355: 12353: 12348: 12347: 12344: 12334: 12324: 12314: 12311: 12309: 12306: 12304: 12301: 12299: 12296: 12292: 12289: 12287: 12284: 12283: 12282: 12279: 12275: 12272: 12270: 12267: 12265: 12262: 12260: 12257: 12255: 12252: 12250: 12247: 12245: 12242: 12240: 12237: 12235: 12232: 12231: 12230: 12227: 12223: 12220: 12219: 12218: 12217:Cyrillization 12215: 12214: 12212: 12208: 12203: 12200: 12198: 12195: 12193: 12190: 12188: 12185: 12183: 12181: 12177: 12171: 12168: 12164: 12161: 12159: 12156: 12155: 12154: 12151: 12150: 12142: 12139: 12137: 12134: 12132: 12129: 12127: 12124: 12122: 12119: 12117: 12114: 12112: 12110: 12109:Script styles 12106: 12103: 12101: 12097: 12094: 12092: 12088: 12082: 12079: 12077: 12074: 12072: 12069: 12067: 12064: 12063: 12054: 12051: 12047: 12044: 12042: 12039: 12037: 12034: 12033: 12032: 12029: 12028: 12026: 12022: 12019: 12013: 12007: 12004: 12002: 11999: 11997: 11994: 11992: 11989: 11987: 11984: 11982: 11979: 11977: 11974: 11972: 11969: 11967: 11964: 11963: 11961: 11959: 11955: 11949: 11946: 11944: 11941: 11939: 11936: 11932: 11929: 11927: 11924: 11922: 11919: 11918: 11917: 11914: 11912: 11909: 11907: 11904: 11900: 11897: 11896: 11895: 11892: 11889: 11887: 11884: 11883: 11881: 11879: 11875: 11869: 11868: 11864: 11862: 11861: 11857: 11856: 11854: 11850: 11844: 11841: 11839: 11836: 11834: 11831: 11829: 11826: 11824: 11821: 11820: 11818: 11816: 11812: 11806: 11803: 11801: 11798: 11796: 11793: 11791: 11788: 11786: 11783: 11781: 11778: 11774: 11771: 11770: 11769: 11766: 11765: 11763: 11759: 11753: 11750: 11748: 11745: 11743: 11740: 11734: 11731: 11729: 11726: 11725: 11724: 11721: 11719: 11716: 11714: 11711: 11709: 11706: 11704: 11701: 11700: 11699: 11696: 11695: 11693: 11691: 11685: 11680: 11666: 11663: 11661: 11658: 11656: 11653: 11651: 11648: 11646: 11643: 11641: 11638: 11636: 11633: 11631: 11628: 11627: 11625: 11621: 11613: 11610: 11608: 11605: 11603: 11600: 11599: 11597: 11593: 11590: 11588: 11585: 11584: 11582: 11581: 11579: 11577: 11573: 11563: 11560: 11558: 11555: 11553: 11550: 11548: 11545: 11543: 11540: 11538: 11535: 11534: 11532: 11528: 11522: 11519: 11517: 11514: 11513: 11511: 11509: 11505: 11499: 11496: 11494: 11491: 11489: 11486: 11484: 11481: 11479: 11476: 11472: 11469: 11467: 11464: 11463: 11462: 11459: 11458: 11456: 11454: 11450: 11447: 11445: 11441: 11433: 11430: 11428: 11425: 11423: 11420: 11419: 11418: 11415: 11411: 11408: 11407: 11406: 11403: 11401: 11398: 11396: 11393: 11391: 11388: 11387: 11385: 11383: 11379: 11367: 11364: 11362: 11359: 11357: 11354: 11353: 11352: 11349: 11345: 11342: 11341: 11340: 11337: 11335: 11332: 11330: 11327: 11325: 11322: 11318: 11315: 11313: 11310: 11309: 11308: 11305: 11304: 11302: 11298: 11288: 11285: 11283: 11280: 11279: 11277: 11273: 11267: 11264: 11263: 11261: 11259: 11255: 11249: 11246: 11244: 11241: 11240: 11238: 11236: 11232: 11226: 11223: 11221: 11218: 11216: 11213: 11211: 11208: 11206: 11203: 11201: 11198: 11196: 11193: 11191: 11188: 11186: 11183: 11181: 11178: 11177: 11175: 11173: 11169: 11166: 11164: 11160: 11148: 11145: 11143: 11140: 11139: 11138: 11135: 11133: 11130: 11129: 11127: 11123: 11117: 11114: 11112: 11109: 11108: 11106: 11104: 11100: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11084: 11081: 11079: 11076: 11074: 11071: 11070: 11068: 11066: 11062: 11059: 11057: 11053: 11050: 11048: 11044: 11036: 11033: 11032: 11031: 11028: 11026: 11023: 11019: 11016: 11014: 11011: 11009: 11006: 11005: 11004: 11001: 10997: 10994: 10993: 10992: 10989: 10988: 10986: 10984: 10980: 10974: 10971: 10969: 10966: 10964: 10961: 10957: 10954: 10953: 10952: 10949: 10948: 10946: 10944: 10940: 10932: 10927: 10924: 10920: 10915: 10912: 10908: 10903: 10900: 10896: 10891: 10888: 10884: 10879: 10876: 10875: 10873: 10871: 10867: 10857: 10854: 10853: 10851: 10849: 10845: 10839: 10836: 10834: 10831: 10829: 10826: 10825: 10823: 10821: 10817: 10811: 10808: 10807: 10805: 10803: 10799: 10793: 10790: 10788: 10785: 10783: 10780: 10779: 10777: 10773: 10767: 10764: 10762: 10759: 10758: 10756: 10754: 10750: 10744: 10741: 10739: 10736: 10734: 10731: 10729: 10726: 10724: 10721: 10718: 10715: 10713: 10710: 10708: 10705: 10703: 10700: 10698: 10695: 10694: 10692: 10690: 10686: 10683: 10681: 10677: 10671: 10668: 10666: 10663: 10662: 10660: 10658: 10654: 10644: 10641: 10639: 10636: 10634: 10631: 10630: 10628: 10624: 10618: 10615: 10613: 10610: 10609: 10607: 10605: 10601: 10593: 10590: 10589: 10588: 10585: 10583: 10580: 10578: 10575: 10573: 10570: 10564: 10561: 10560: 10559: 10556: 10552: 10549: 10548: 10547: 10544: 10542: 10539: 10538: 10537: 10534: 10533: 10531: 10529: 10525: 10519: 10516: 10514: 10511: 10509: 10506: 10504: 10501: 10499: 10496: 10492: 10489: 10488: 10487: 10484: 10482: 10479: 10477: 10474: 10473: 10471: 10469: 10465: 10459: 10456: 10454: 10451: 10449: 10446: 10445: 10443: 10441: 10437: 10431: 10428: 10426: 10423: 10422: 10420: 10418: 10414: 10408: 10405: 10403: 10400: 10399: 10397: 10395: 10391: 10385: 10382: 10380: 10377: 10375: 10372: 10370: 10367: 10366: 10364: 10362: 10358: 10355: 10353: 10349: 10346: 10344: 10340: 10336: 10335: 10329: 10325: 10318: 10313: 10311: 10306: 10304: 10299: 10298: 10295: 10284: 10279: 10273: 10272: 10268: 10266: 10265: 10261: 10259: 10258: 10257:Proto-Karenic 10254: 10252: 10251: 10250:Proto-Loloish 10247: 10245: 10244: 10240: 10238: 10237: 10233: 10232: 10230: 10228: 10224: 10218: 10215: 10213: 10212: 10211:Tibeto-Burman 10208: 10206: 10203: 10201: 10198: 10196: 10193: 10191: 10188: 10186: 10183: 10182: 10180: 10176: 10166: 10163: 10159: 10158: 10154: 10152: 10151: 10147: 10146: 10145: 10142: 10141: 10139: 10137: 10133: 10127: 10126: 10122: 10120: 10117: 10113: 10112: 10108: 10107: 10106: 10105: 10101: 10097: 10096: 10092: 10090: 10089: 10085: 10084: 10083: 10080: 10079: 10077: 10074: 10070: 10065: 10061: 10049: 10048: 10044: 10042: 10039: 10037: 10034: 10033: 10032: 10031: 10027: 10025: 10022: 10020: 10017: 10013: 10010: 10009: 10008: 10007: 10003: 10002: 10000: 9998: 9997:Burmo-Qiangic 9994: 9986: 9985: 9981: 9979: 9978: 9974: 9972: 9971: 9967: 9966: 9965: 9962: 9960: 9959: 9955: 9953: 9952: 9948: 9946: 9945: 9941: 9939: 9936: 9934: 9933: 9929: 9927: 9926: 9922: 9920: 9919: 9915: 9914: 9912: 9910: 9906: 9902: 9892: 9891:Jingpho–Luish 9889: 9887: 9884: 9882: 9879: 9878: 9876: 9874: 9870: 9864: 9861: 9859: 9856: 9854: 9853: 9849: 9847: 9844: 9842: 9839: 9838: 9836: 9833: 9828: 9822: 9821: 9817: 9815: 9814: 9810: 9806: 9805: 9801: 9799: 9798: 9794: 9793: 9792: 9789: 9787: 9786: 9782: 9780: 9779: 9775: 9774: 9772: 9767: 9763: 9757: 9754: 9752: 9751: 9747: 9745: 9744: 9740: 9738: 9737: 9733: 9728: 9727: 9723: 9721: 9720: 9716: 9714: 9713: 9709: 9707: 9704: 9702: 9701: 9697: 9696: 9695: 9694: 9690: 9689: 9687: 9684: 9680: 9676: 9671: 9666: 9661: 9647: 9646: 9641: 9640: 9636: 9634: 9631: 9627: 9626: 9622: 9620: 9619: 9615: 9614: 9613: 9610: 9606: 9605: 9601: 9599: 9598: 9594: 9593: 9592: 9589: 9588: 9586: 9584: 9580: 9574: 9573: 9569: 9565: 9564: 9560: 9558: 9557: 9553: 9551: 9550: 9546: 9545: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9538: 9534: 9530: 9529:Baram–Thangmi 9527: 9525: 9524: 9520: 9519: 9518: 9515: 9513: 9512: 9508: 9506: 9505: 9501: 9500: 9498: 9495: 9491: 9487: 9482: 9478: 9473: 9468: 9461: 9456: 9454: 9449: 9447: 9442: 9441: 9438: 9431: 9428: 9427: 9416: 9415: 9409: 9405: 9404: 9398: 9394: 9393: 9387: 9383: 9382: 9376: 9372: 9371: 9365: 9361: 9360: 9354: 9350: 9349: 9343: 9339: 9338: 9332: 9331: 9319: 9315: 9311: 9306: 9305: 9300: 9296: 9292: 9288: 9283: 9282: 9276: 9271: 9267: 9263: 9259: 9254: 9244: 9223: 9219: 9215: 9211: 9207: 9196: 9184: 9180: 9176: 9172: 9167: 9163: 9159: 9155: 9151: 9146: 9141: 9136: 9133:(1): 71–114, 9132: 9128: 9124: 9120: 9119: 9107: 9101: 9097: 9093: 9088: 9084: 9078: 9074: 9069: 9065: 9059: 9055: 9050: 9046: 9040: 9036: 9031: 9027: 9021: 9017: 9012: 9008: 9002: 8998: 8993: 8989: 8985: 8981: 8976: 8972: 8968: 8964: 8960: 8956: 8952: 8947: 8943: 8939: 8935: 8931: 8927: 8923: 8918: 8914: 8908: 8904: 8899: 8895: 8889: 8886:, Routledge, 8885: 8880: 8876: 8870: 8866: 8861: 8857: 8851: 8847: 8843: 8839: 8838:Norman, Jerry 8835: 8820: 8816: 8812: 8805: 8800: 8785: 8781: 8777: 8770: 8766: 8762: 8758: 8752: 8748: 8744: 8739: 8727: 8723: 8719: 8715: 8711: 8707: 8703: 8697: 8693: 8688: 8684: 8678: 8674: 8669: 8665: 8661: 8657: 8653: 8649: 8645: 8640: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8616: 8612: 8608: 8604: 8598: 8594: 8587: 8582: 8578: 8572: 8567: 8566: 8559: 8555: 8549: 8544: 8543: 8536: 8535: 8530: 8529: 8509: 8505: 8499: 8483: 8479: 8473: 8466: 8461: 8454: 8453:Norman (1988) 8449: 8442: 8437: 8430: 8425: 8418: 8417:Norman (1988) 8413: 8407:, p. 10. 8406: 8405:Norman (1988) 8401: 8393: 8389: 8385: 8381: 8377: 8373: 8372:Norman, Jerry 8367: 8360: 8359:Ramsey (1987) 8355: 8348: 8347:Norman (1988) 8343: 8336: 8335:Norman (1988) 8331: 8325:, p. 89. 8324: 8320: 8314: 8307: 8306:Norman (1988) 8302: 8300: 8298: 8290: 8289:Norman (1988) 8285: 8278: 8277:Norman (1988) 8273: 8266: 8265:Norman (1988) 8261: 8259: 8251: 8250:Norman (1988) 8246: 8244: 8236: 8235:Norman (1988) 8231: 8229: 8227: 8225: 8223: 8221: 8219: 8217: 8209: 8208:Norman (1988) 8204: 8198:, p. 41. 8197: 8196:Ramsey (1987) 8192: 8185: 8184:Norman (1988) 8180: 8173: 8168: 8161: 8156: 8149: 8144: 8137: 8132: 8125: 8120: 8113: 8108: 8101: 8096: 8089: 8084: 8077: 8072: 8065: 8060: 8052: 8050:9787561927755 8046: 8039:张世方 (2010). 8035: 8028: 8023: 8016: 8011: 8004: 7999: 7993:, p. 75. 7992: 7987: 7980: 7975: 7968: 7963: 7956: 7951: 7945:, p. 55. 7944: 7939: 7932: 7927: 7920: 7919:Norman (1988) 7915: 7908: 7903: 7896: 7891: 7885:, p. 61. 7884: 7879: 7872: 7871:Norman (1988) 7867: 7860: 7855: 7849:, p. 49. 7848: 7843: 7836: 7831: 7824: 7819: 7812: 7807: 7792: 7788: 7784: 7778: 7776: 7760: 7756: 7749: 7733: 7729: 7722: 7715: 7710: 7694: 7690: 7689: 7684: 7677: 7671:, p. 80. 7670: 7665: 7658: 7653: 7646: 7645:0-06-019776-5 7642: 7636: 7620: 7616: 7609: 7590: 7586: 7582: 7575: 7568: 7562:, p. 47. 7561: 7556: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7525: 7518: 7517:Ramsey (1987) 7513: 7507:, p. 21. 7506: 7505:Ramsey (1987) 7501: 7499: 7497: 7489: 7484: 7477: 7472: 7466:, p. 27. 7465: 7460: 7458: 7450: 7449:Escure (1997) 7445: 7443: 7436:, p. 18. 7435: 7430: 7424:, p. 27. 7423: 7418: 7411: 7406: 7400:, p. 22. 7399: 7398:Ramsey (1987) 7394: 7387: 7386:Norman (1988) 7382: 7375: 7374:Norman (1988) 7370: 7368: 7366: 7364: 7356: 7351: 7344: 7339: 7332: 7327: 7320: 7319:Norman (1988) 7315: 7308: 7304: 7300: 7297: 7291: 7284: 7279: 7272: 7267: 7260: 7255: 7248: 7243: 7236: 7235:Norman (1988) 7231: 7224: 7219: 7212: 7211:Ramsey (1987) 7207: 7200: 7199:Coblin (2000) 7195: 7187: 7183: 7179: 7178: 7170: 7163: 7162:Coblin (2003) 7158: 7151: 7146: 7139: 7138:Coblin (2000) 7134: 7127: 7121: 7115:, p. 10. 7114: 7113:Ramsey (1987) 7109: 7102: 7101:Norman (1988) 7097: 7090: 7089:Norman (1988) 7085: 7078: 7077:Norman (1988) 7073: 7066: 7065:Norman (1988) 7061: 7054: 7053:Norman (1988) 7049: 7042: 7037: 7030: 7025: 7023: 7015: 7014:Norman (1988) 7010: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6957: 6949: 6942: 6941:Coblin (2000) 6937: 6930: 6925: 6917: 6911: 6907: 6900: 6893: 6888: 6872: 6868: 6864: 6856: 6840: 6836: 6830: 6823: 6811: 6807: 6801: 6794: 6793:Norman (1988) 6789: 6787: 6785: 6777: 6769: 6761: 6755: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6742: 6737: 6713: 6706: 6700: 6691: 6688: 6685: 6682: 6679: 6678: 6677:For example: 6674: 6667: 6654: 6649: 6643: 6639: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6623: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6593: 6589: 6583: 6578: 6575: 6564: 6556: 6555: 6551: 6548: 6544: 6541: 6536: 6533: 6528: 6525: 6520: 6517: 6512: 6509: 6504: 6501: 6496: 6493: 6488: 6485: 6480: 6477: 6472: 6469: 6464: 6461: 6456: 6453: 6448: 6445: 6440: 6437: 6432: 6429: 6424: 6421: 6416: 6413: 6408: 6405: 6400: 6397: 6392: 6389: 6384: 6381: 6376: 6373: 6368: 6365: 6360: 6357: 6352: 6349: 6344: 6342: 6327: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6293: 6284: 6283: 6279: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6246: 6242: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6219: 6214: 6213: 6209: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6188: 6184: 6181:可靠性、實用性、可理解性 6179: 6176: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6163: 6159: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6138: 6134: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6113: 6109: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6068: 6064: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6039: 6035: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6014: 6010: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5981: 5977: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5950: 5941: 5940: 5936: 5933: 5930: 5927: 5924: 5923: 5920: 5917: 5905: 5895: 5885: 5879: 5874: 5872: 5864: 5857: 5847: 5833: 5823: 5817: 5805: 5799: 5791: 5785: 5780: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5768: 5764: 5761: 5758: 5749: 5746: 5743: 5738: 5735: 5732: 5727: 5724: 5721: 5716: 5713: 5710: 5705: 5702: 5699: 5694: 5692: 5688: 5683: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5647: 5637: 5633: 5624: 5612: 5600: 5594: 5592: 5588: 5587:Austroasiatic 5584: 5580: 5569: 5568: 5561: 5558: 5554: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5524: 5518: 5506: 5500: 5488: 5482: 5476: 5470: 5464: 5458: 5452: 5446: 5440: 5434: 5428: 5422: 5416: 5410: 5405: 5402:The singular 5400: 5397: 5391: 5382: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5361:reduplication 5352: 5336: 5320: 5310: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5278: 5274: 5272: 5255: 5245: 5239: 5233: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5221: 5214: 5208: 5202: 5196: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5181: 5174: 5168: 5162: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5150: 5143: 5137: 5131: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5119: 5112: 5106: 5100: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5088: 5081: 5075: 5069: 5063: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5051: 5044: 5038: 5032: 5026: 5024: 5021: 5019:Southwestern 5017: 5010: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4992: 4985: 4979: 4973: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4958: 4951: 4945: 4937: 4934: 4933: 4926: 4920: 4914: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4902: 4895: 4889: 4883: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4871: 4864: 4858: 4852: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4837: 4830: 4824: 4818: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4806: 4799: 4793: 4787: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4772: 4765: 4759: 4752: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4738: 4737: 4730: 4724: 4718: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705:Northeastern 4704: 4703: 4696: 4690: 4684: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4670: 4669: 4665: 4657: 4654: 4648: 4645: 4639: 4636: 4630: 4627: 4621: 4617: 4611: 4609: 4608:tone contours 4599: 4590: 4589: 4583:Southwestern 4582: 4581: 4574: 4573: 4566: 4565: 4561: 4558: 4557: 4553: 4550: 4549: 4546:Northeastern 4545: 4544: 4531: 4530: 4526: 4524: 4520: 4517: 4516: 4508: 4502: 4501:tone at all. 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4481:on which the 4480: 4473: 4469: 4464: 4462: 4461: 4456: 4450: 4444: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4427: 4424: 4418: 4416: 4415:entering tone 4406: 4397: 4388: 4379: 4370: 4369: 4366: 4361: 4359: 4354: 4352: 4347: 4345: 4338: 4333: 4331: 4326: 4324: 4319: 4317: 4312: 4310: 4305: 4303: 4298: 4296: 4291: 4288: 4287: 4283: 4280: 4277: 4274: 4271: 4268: 4265: 4262: 4259: 4256: 4253: 4250: 4247: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4235: 4231: 4228: 4224: 4221: 4217: 4214: 4210: 4207: 4203: 4200: 4196: 4193: 4189: 4186: 4182: 4179: 4175: 4172: 4168: 4165: 4161: 4158: 4157: 4153: 4138: 4127:"rising tone" 4123: 4108: 4107: 4101: 4095: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4073: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4029: 4025:The syllable 4018: 4009: 4000: 3991: 3977: 3975: 3968: 3956: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3928: 3923: 3920: 3913: 3912: 3906: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3874: 3869: 3866: 3859: 3858: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3824: 3817: 3816: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3778: 3770: 3763: 3762: 3758: 3755: 3754: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3693: 3691: 3687: 3680: 3673: 3657: 3648: 3646: 3642: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3617: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3596: 3585: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3537: 3534: 3523: 3520: 3509: 3506: 3497:/tʂwtʂʰwʂwɻw/ 3490: 3475: 3453: 3449: 3430: 3424: 3421:"to fly" and 3417: 3405: 3402: 3398: 3382: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3347: 3346: 3341: 3334: 3329: 3322: 3314: 3309: 3302: 3297: 3290: 3285: 3283: 3280: 3279: 3271: 3266: 3259: 3254: 3247: 3242: 3235: 3230: 3223: 3218: 3216: 3213: 3212: 3209: 3202: 3197: 3190: 3185: 3178: 3173: 3171: 3170: 3167: 3160: 3155: 3148: 3143: 3136: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3123: 3115: 3110: 3108: 3106: 3099: 3094: 3087: 3082: 3081: 3073: 3068: 3066: 3064: 3057: 3052: 3045: 3040: 3038: 3034: 3028: 3023: 3021: 3019: 3012: 3007: 3000: 2995: 2993: 2990: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2981: 2978: 2976: 2973: 2971: 2968: 2966: 2963: 2961: 2960: 2957: 2946: 2942: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2924: 2920: 2912: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2885: 2884: 2881: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2856: 2853: 2845: 2835: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2819:This section 2817: 2813: 2808: 2807: 2803: 2793: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2759: 2756:and southern 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2728: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2690: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2664: 2661: 2660:Iasyr Shivaza 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2622: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2604: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2580:Jilu Mandarin 2578: 2575: 2571: 2568:and northern 2567: 2563: 2560: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2546: 2545: 2544: 2542: 2538: 2530: 2529: 2524: 2519: 2510: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2481: 2480: 2475: 2471: 2470:entering tone 2467: 2463: 2458: 2453: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2436:and northern 2435: 2431: 2427: 2422: 2418: 2403: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2352:Dungan people 2347: 2337: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2321: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2287: 2277: 2274: 2269: 2265: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2220: 2205: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2182: 2180: 2174: 2164: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2141: 2136: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2125:Manchu people 2122: 2118: 2114: 2111:, except for 2110: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2094:pronunciation 2090: 2088: 2083: 2073: 2071: 2061: 2059: 2055: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2027: 2024: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1990: 1978: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1948: 1944: 1938: 1930: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1884: 1874: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1847: 1843: 1840: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1828: 1824: 1823: 1822: 1820: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1797: 1795: 1790: 1781: 1777: 1764: 1763:Arcadio Huang 1760: 1756: 1748: 1744: 1739: 1729: 1727: 1721: 1717: 1715: 1701: 1697: 1696: 1691: 1690: 1683: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1641: 1635: 1628: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1609: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1556: 1554: 1553: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1539: 1534: 1529: 1527: 1526: 1521: 1520: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1506:Northern Song 1500: 1496: 1492: 1491: 1485: 1480: 1470: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1435: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1392: 1382: 1380: 1376: 1370: 1360: 1354: 1347: 1345: 1335: 1323: 1318: 1307: 1302: 1291: 1286: 1285: 1284: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1249: 1239: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1212: 1206: 1202: 1197: 1193: 1188: 1184: 1174: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1153:of China and 1152: 1148: 1144: 1143:lingua franca 1140: 1135: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1093: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1082:Lower Yangtze 1079: 1075: 1065: 1059: 1051: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1005: 999: 994: 989: 984: 979: 975: 974: 963: 956: 923: 916: 912: 888: 876: 874: 870: 867: 863: 857: 852: 850: 846: 838: 836: 832: 824: 822: 818: 810: 808: 804: 796: 794: 790: 782: 780: 776: 773: 769: 764: 760: 756: 752: 744: 742: 738: 730: 728: 724: 719: 707: 705: 701: 698: 694: 688: 683: 681: 677: 669: 667: 663: 655: 653: 649: 641: 639: 635: 627: 625: 621: 613: 611: 607: 604: 600: 595: 591: 587: 583: 578: 573: 571: 567: 562: 557: 555: 551: 547: 542: 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 516: 510: 473: 468: 461: 456: 452: 448: 446: 442: 438: 434: 432: 431: 426: 422: 418: 415: 410: 405: 402: 399: 395: 389: 382: 378: 375: 372: 368: 365: 363: 360: 357: 353: 350: 349: 348: 343: 340: 338: 335: 333: 330: 327: 323: 319: 316: 315: 313: 309: 303: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 282:Lower Yangtze 280: 278: 275: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 259: 258: 256: 252: 245: 241: 236: 233: 232: 230: 224: 210: 207: 206: 205: 202: 201: 200: 197: 196: 195: 192: 191: 190: 187: 186: 185: 181: 175: 165: 162: 161: 160: 157: 156: 155: 152: 151: 150: 146: 142: 136: 132: 127: 124: 118: 114: 110: 107: 104: 100: 95: 91: 86: 81:('Mandarin') 79: 73: 68: 64: 49: 44: 41: 37: 33: 19: 16805:Chetty Malay 16562: 16547:Chaoshan Min 16525:Southern Min 16464:Sino-Tibetan 16345:Sabah Bisaya 16225:Kinabatangan 16130:Bukar–Sadong 15990:Pahang Malay 15786:Austronesian 15390:Chitty Malay 15385:Bazaar Malay 15198:Shanghainese 15143:Japonic Sign 14986: 14969:Sino-Tibetan 14670:Austronesian 14606:GX = Guangxi 14594: 14592:Tibetan Sign 14582: 14568:Chinese Sign 14434:Creole/Mixed 14303:Southeastern 14291:Southwestern 14254:Northeastern 14248: 14239:Varieties of 12239:Hanyu Pinyin 12229:Romanization 12136:Semi-cursive 11981:Old Mandarin 11938:Stroke count 11865: 11858: 11780:Old National 11623:Unclassified 10528:Southwestern 10361:Northeastern 10351: 10343:Major groups 10332: 10282: 10269: 10262: 10255: 10248: 10241: 10234: 10209: 10155: 10148: 10123: 10109: 10102: 10093: 10086: 10045: 10030:Lolo-Burmese 10028: 10004: 9982: 9975: 9968: 9956: 9949: 9942: 9930: 9923: 9916: 9850: 9818: 9811: 9802: 9795: 9783: 9776: 9748: 9741: 9734: 9724: 9717: 9710: 9698: 9691: 9643: 9637: 9623: 9616: 9602: 9595: 9570: 9561: 9554: 9547: 9535: 9521: 9509: 9502: 9467:Sino-Tibetan 9413: 9402: 9391: 9380: 9369: 9358: 9347: 9336: 9309: 9290: 9286: 9265: 9261: 9242: 9239:普通话基础方言基本词汇集 9209: 9205: 9187:, retrieved 9178: 9174: 9153: 9149: 9130: 9126: 9095: 9091: 9072: 9053: 9034: 9015: 8996: 8979: 8954: 8950: 8925: 8921: 8902: 8883: 8864: 8841: 8826:, retrieved 8819:the original 8814: 8810: 8791:, retrieved 8779: 8775: 8742: 8730:, retrieved 8721: 8717: 8691: 8672: 8647: 8643: 8618: 8614: 8592: 8585: 8564: 8541: 8512:. Retrieved 8498: 8486:. Retrieved 8472: 8460: 8448: 8436: 8424: 8412: 8400: 8383: 8379: 8376:Mei, Tsu-lin 8366: 8354: 8342: 8330: 8313: 8284: 8272: 8203: 8191: 8179: 8167: 8155: 8143: 8131: 8119: 8107: 8095: 8083: 8071: 8059: 8034: 8022: 8010: 8005:, p. 3. 7998: 7986: 7974: 7962: 7950: 7938: 7926: 7914: 7902: 7890: 7878: 7866: 7854: 7842: 7830: 7818: 7806: 7794:. Retrieved 7786: 7762:. Retrieved 7758: 7748: 7736:. Retrieved 7734:(in Russian) 7732:Вокруг Света 7731: 7721: 7709: 7697:. Retrieved 7686: 7676: 7664: 7652: 7635: 7623:. Retrieved 7619:the original 7608: 7596:. Retrieved 7584: 7580: 7567: 7555: 7530: 7524: 7512: 7483: 7471: 7429: 7417: 7405: 7393: 7381: 7350: 7338: 7326: 7314: 7306: 7294:Wong, Wing. 7290: 7278: 7266: 7254: 7242: 7230: 7218: 7206: 7194: 7176: 7169: 7157: 7150:Kaske (2008) 7145: 7133: 7125: 7120: 7108: 7096: 7084: 7072: 7060: 7048: 7036: 7009: 6997:. Retrieved 6964: 6960: 6948: 6936: 6924: 6905: 6903:"mandarin", 6899: 6891: 6887: 6875:. Retrieved 6866: 6855: 6843:. Retrieved 6829: 6821: 6814:. Retrieved 6810:the original 6800: 6768: 6751: 6712: 6704: 6699: 6673: 6642: 6620: 6574:China portal 6554: 6552: 6549: 6546: 6542: 6539: 6534: 6531: 6526: 6523: 6518: 6515: 6510: 6507: 6502: 6499: 6494: 6491: 6486: 6483: 6478: 6475: 6470: 6467: 6462: 6459: 6454: 6451: 6446: 6443: 6438: 6435: 6430: 6427: 6422: 6419: 6414: 6411: 6406: 6403: 6398: 6395: 6390: 6387: 6382: 6379: 6374: 6371: 6366: 6363: 6358: 6355: 6350: 6347: 6338: 6335:Example text 6294: 6253: 6220: 6195: 6170: 6156:作家、科學家、藝術家 6145: 6120: 6075: 6046: 6021: 5988: 5951: 5918: 5906: 5891: 5881: 5875: 5860: 5858: 5843: 5829: 5819: 5801: 5787: 5781: 5778: 5775: 5772: 5769: 5766: 5762: 5759: 5752: 5747: 5744: 5741: 5736: 5733: 5730: 5725: 5722: 5719: 5714: 5711: 5708: 5703: 5700: 5697: 5691:ditransitive 5684: 5649: 5634: 5595: 5562: 5552: 5537: 5534:Shanghainese 5401: 5378: 5368: 5367:, one hears 5350: 5334: 5318: 5308: 5298: 5287:Shanghainese 5284: 5275: 5268: 4809:Shijiazhuang 4661: 4650: 4641: 4632: 4623: 4605: 4595: 4495:Old Mandarin 4486: 4472:glottal stop 4465: 4458: 4452: 4446: 4440: 4432: 4419: 4412: 4402: 4393: 4384: 4375: 4362: 4355: 4348: 4341: 4334: 4327: 4320: 4313: 4306: 4299: 4292: 4149: 4134: 4119: 4112:"level tone" 4093: 4085: 4074: 4053:distribution 4052: 4046: 3973: 3966: 3953: 3924: 3870: 3774: 3705:glottal stop 3694: 3689: 3685: 3678: 3671: 3656:Old Mandarin 3649: 3628: 3624: 3618: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3594: 3591:/kaikʰaixai/ 3583: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3549: 3532: 3518: 3504: 3451: 3422: 3415: 3397:Peking opera 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 2955: 2934:Southwestern 2923:glottal stop 2882: 2877: 2863: 2848: 2839: 2828:Please help 2823:verification 2820: 2765: 2763: 2636:Yellow River 2618:Heilongjiang 2596:Heilongjiang 2536: 2534: 2526: 2506: 2484: 2477: 2454: 2442:Li Fang-Kuei 2423: 2420: 2349: 2340:Central Asia 2324:In northern 2323: 2289: 2266: 2222: 2183: 2176: 2137: 2106: 2091: 2079: 2067: 2051: 2034: 2030: 2028: 1991: 1964: 1950: 1940: 1893:Qing dynasty 1886: 1851: 1836: 1835:finals with 1832: 1826: 1816: 1798: 1793: 1786: 1779: 1754: 1746: 1723: 1718: 1711: 1693: 1689:Water Margin 1687: 1684: 1669: 1647: 1631: 1629: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1607: 1603: 1598: 1596: 1592:Tang dynasty 1587: 1583: 1579: 1576:checked tone 1557: 1552:Menggu Ziyun 1550: 1536: 1530: 1523: 1517: 1503: 1498: 1494: 1490:Menggu Ziyun 1488: 1479:Old Mandarin 1473:Old Mandarin 1432: 1394: 1371: 1356: 1350: 1348: 1341: 1339: 1319: 1303: 1287: 1277:six official 1250: 1235: 1180: 1136: 1128:glottal stop 1117: 1109:Heilongjiang 1094: 1061: 1037: 1001: 921: 920: 841:Běi-fang-huà 827:Pei-fang-hua 813:Beeifanghuah 779:Hanyu Pinyin 610:Hanyu Pinyin 512: 445:Linguasphere 428: 394:Signed forms 346: 297:Southwestern 262:Northeastern 243: 239: 204:Old Mandarin 163: 149:Sino-Tibetan 40: 16815:Sabah Malay 16810:Cocos Malay 16699:Minangkabau 16650:archipelago 16520:Pu-Xian Min 16498:Eastern Min 16448:Significant 16290:Murik Kayan 16000:Reman Malay 15995:Perak Malay 15980:Orang Kanaq 15920:Kedah Malay 15915:Judeo-Malay 15796:Kayan–Murik 15599:Minangkabau 14100:Fuyu Kyrgyz 13899:Tai Hongjin 13585:Muak Sa-aak 12308:Xiao'erjing 12170:Punctuation 12163:Traditional 12116:Oracle bone 12100:Logographic 11996:Proto-Hakka 11971:Eastern Han 11966:Old Chinese 11828:Classifiers 11795:Northern Wu 11723:Singaporean 10929: [ 10917: [ 10905: [ 10893: [ 10881: [ 10271:Proto-Hakka 10200:Mahakiranti 9706:East Bodish 9486:Uttarakhand 9237:) (1996). 9212:(2): 1–31, 9181:: 613–649, 9156:: 143–182, 9018:, Longman, 8928:: 349–362, 8828:16 November 8531:Works cited 8386:: 274–301. 8160:Mair (1990) 7895:Ting (1991) 7796:8 September 7764:9 September 7738:8 September 7625:14 February 7560:Chen (1999) 7464:Blum (2001) 7434:Mair (1991) 7422:Chen (1999) 7355:Chen (1999) 7343:Chen (1999) 7331:Chen (1999) 7283:Chen (1999) 7259:Chen (1999) 7247:Chen (1999) 7223:Chen (1999) 5577:) "alley". 5271:Wu dialects 4658:marked with 3699:below). In 3688:"gold" and 3645:triphthongs 3595:jie qie xie 3393:/tsjtsʰjsj/ 2919:Jin Chinese 2586:("Ji") and 2554:except the 2523:Jin Chinese 2491:Zhou Zhenhe 2457:Yuan Jiahua 2334:rebel group 2227:along with 2037:base their 1846:palatalized 1789:South China 1662:Han dynasty 1535:called the 1401:Old Chinese 1340:but not as 1076:(including 1034:North China 527:instead of 367:Xiao'erjing 326:Traditional 189:Old Chinese 178:Early forms 94:traditional 83:written in 17034:Categories 16948:Vietnamese 16938:Sri Lankan 16896:Indonesian 16853:Immigrants 16800:Baba Malay 16720:Philippine 16713:Philippine 16694:Mandailing 16648:Indonesian 16435:Umaʼ Lasan 16325:Punan Batu 16270:Lun Bawang 16015:Semaq Beri 15870:Peninsular 15853:Nationwide 15845:Indigenous 15816:Sama–Bajaw 15811:Philippine 15801:Land Dayak 15655:Vietnamese 15572:Mandailing 15544:Indonesian 15502:Indo-Aryan 15380:Baba Malay 15242:Vietnamese 15230:Indonesian 15050:Fuzhounese 14910:Kanakanavu 14621:XZ = Tibet 14612:MC = Macau 14552:Zhangzhung 14296:Sichuanese 14223:Vietnamese 13620:Hmong-Mien 13499:Waxianghua 13280:Khroskyabs 12568:Indigenous 12456:Prefecture 12431:Portuguese 12259:Wade–Giles 12158:Simplified 12053:Vernacular 12046:in Vietnam 11899:Simplified 11886:Biaoxingma 11833:Honorifics 11768:Historical 11713:Philippine 11703:Sichuanese 11630:Badong Yao 11334:Shao–Jiang 11205:Philippine 11013:Xiangxiang 11008:Shuangfeng 10753:Taizhou Wu 10536:Sichuanese 10165:Idu–Taraon 10119:Miju–Meyor 10012:Gyalrongic 9858:Tangkhulic 9633:Raji–Raute 8782:(b): 1–8, 8724:: 85–102, 8488:6 December 8465:Yue (2003) 8441:Yue (2003) 8429:Yue (2003) 8319:Yan (2006) 7967:Yan (2006) 7883:Yan (2006) 6967:(1): 211. 6867:www.gov.cn 6753:Ethnologue 6728:References 6653:Mǎn dà rén 6206:煙鬼、酒鬼、膽小鬼 6131:公式化、制度化、強化 6032:重做, 重建, 重新 5871:classifier 5828:) and 5767:我给你一本书 5656:inflection 5623:hànbǎo bāo 5551:'you' and 5291:homophones 5281:Vocabulary 4739:Jiao–Liao 4619:Tone name 4551:Jiao–Liao 4518:voiceless 4491:Wu Chinese 4081:four tones 3955:R-coloring 3726:Colloquial 3641:diphthongs 3215:Fricatives 3126:Affricates 2940:dialects); 2800:See also: 2724:Wu Chinese 2656:Kyrgyzstan 2652:Kazakhstan 2650:spoken in 2411:Boundaries 2368:Hui people 2364:Uzbekistan 2360:Kazakhstan 2356:Kyrgyzstan 2318:See also: 2147:, such as 2098:vocabulary 2043:pragmatics 1947:Wade–Giles 1909:Chen Duxiu 1903:, such as 1868:based the 1831:merger of 1676:homophones 1572:four tones 1564:affricates 1543:rime table 1358:Běifānghuà 1263:(PRC) and 1183:Portuguese 1084:, are not 1080:) and the 1078:Sichuanese 1063:Běifānghuà 821:Wade–Giles 799:ㄅㄟˇㄈㄤㄏㄨㄚˋ 785:Běifānghuà 652:Wade–Giles 322:Simplified 90:simplified 16989:By states 16843:Esperanto 16780:Chavacano 16593:Malayalam 16588:Dravidian 16515:Hainanese 16474:Cantonese 16410:Tombonuwo 16375:Sembakung 16195:Kalabakan 16145:Daro-Matu 15885:Cheq Wong 15823:Tai-Kadai 15740:Malaysian 15584:Baweanese 15557:Banjarese 15490:Malayalam 15485:Dravidian 15440:Hainanese 15435:Cantonese 15405:Singdarin 15225:Malaysian 15188:Cantonese 15160:Auxiliary 14829:Ketagalan 14747:Favorlang 14532:Tocharian 14466:Qoqmončaq 14418:Cantonese 14372:Shaojiang 14345:Hainanese 14274:Zhongyuan 14269:Jiao-Liao 14203:Esperanto 14105:Ili Turki 13812:Khamnigan 13677:Kiong Nai 13448:Zitsadegu 12426:Mongolian 12416:Cantonese 12197:Taiwanese 12187:Cantonese 12031:Classical 11991:Proto-Min 11926:Microsoft 11785:Cantonese 11761:Phonology 11742:Cantonese 11733:Singdarin 11718:Malaysian 11708:Taiwanese 11612:Rongjiang 11602:Yongjiang 11598:Southern 11583:Northern 11557:Luo–Guang 11466:Hong Kong 11461:Guangzhou 11417:Taiwanese 11410:Changting 11344:Zhanjiang 11258:Zhongshan 11225:Malaysian 11220:Singapore 11185:Zhangzhou 11137:Zhongshan 11030:Yong–Quan 10926:Jing-Zhan 10856:Xuancheng 10833:Jiangshan 10712:Changzhou 10633:Junjiahua 10486:Guanzhong 10369:Changchun 10264:Proto-Min 10195:Macro-Bai 10073:Arunachal 10066:(possible 9881:Boro–Garo 9785:Kuki-Chin 9768:and Indo- 9683:Arunachal 9670:Himalayas 9645:Tandrange 9612:Chepangic 9543:Dhimalish 9477:Himalayas 9162:1808/7090 9092:Putonghua 8971:126344099 8694:, BRILL, 8664:162258379 8514:7 January 8126:, Map B3. 8066:, Map B2. 8017:, Map B1. 7981:, Map A2. 7759:meduza.io 7669:Wang 2012 7547:136508776 7186:680482801 6989:148793910 6981:1527-9421 6733:Citations 6471:liángxīn, 6431:píngděng. 5878:particles 5436:) 'you', 4843:Zhengzhou 4510:subgroup 3921:'country' 3721:(Beijing) 3713:Character 3562:(spelled 3493:/pfpfʰfv/ 3389:/kjkʰjxj/ 3282:Sonorants 2975:Retroflex 2945:devoicing 2842:July 2011 2796:Phonology 2513:Subgroups 2499:Old Xiang 2495:New Xiang 2424:In 1936, 2380:Kashgaria 2376:Dzungaria 2304:Cantonese 2273:Singdarin 2253:Cantonese 2225:Singapore 2213:Singapore 2190:retroflex 2039:phonology 2031:Pǔtōnghuà 2023:diglossic 2018:Cantonese 2010:Hong Kong 2008:, namely 1965:pǔtōnghuà 1805:Guangdong 1765:) in 1742 1289:Pǔtōnghuà 1269:Singapore 1132:retroflex 1026:phonology 879:Bākfōngwá 430:Glottolog 414:ISO 639-3 277:Jiao–Liao 255:Varieties 240:Putonghua 16928:Nepalese 16913:Japanese 16891:Filipino 16838:Tanglish 16790:Manglish 16785:Kristang 16684:Javanese 16679:Buginese 16667:Madurese 16657:Acehnese 16622:Gujarati 16450:minority 16420:Tringgus 16385:Serudung 16215:Kendayan 16185:Jangkang 16067:Malaysia 15955:Mah Meri 15945:Kristang 15872:Malaysia 15766:Families 15732:Official 15635:Japanese 15630:Filipino 15620:Armenian 15594:Javanese 15589:Buginese 15552:Acehnese 15512:Gujarati 15400:Singlish 15395:Kristang 15336:Mandarin 15319:Official 15303:National 15210:Japanese 15205:Filipino 15019:Southern 14987:Mandarin 14875:Southern 14856:Sakizaya 14796:Saisiyat 14734:Northern 14688:Atayalic 14679:Formosan 14476:Tangwang 14456:Macanese 14451:Lingling 14384:Northern 14367:Northern 14330:Southern 14249:Mandarin 14176:Minority 14136:Sarikoli 14049:Tungusic 14010:Naxi Yao 13955:Cao Miao 13879:Ningming 13779:Mongolic 13755:Dzao Min 13750:Biao Min 13707:Qo Xiong 13702:Pingtang 13398:Dongwang 13340:Tshobdun 13265:Guiqiong 12867:Sangkong 12642:Muangphe 12604:Mondzish 12558:numerous 12549:Counties 12396:Regional 12380:Official 12281:Bopomofo 12210:Phonetic 12202:Two-cell 12131:Clerical 12041:in Japan 12036:Adoption 12024:Official 12015:Literary 11890:Boshiamy 11867:Xiehouyu 11823:Numerals 11800:Mandarin 11728:Standard 11688:Standard 11562:Qin–Lian 11552:Yong–Xun 11537:Gao–Yang 11483:Jiujiang 11471:Malaysia 11405:Tingzhou 11356:Wenchang 11317:Jianyang 11307:Northern 11266:Sanxiang 11180:Quanzhou 11163:Southern 11132:Manjiang 10996:Changsha 10956:Nanchang 10951:Chang–Du 10848:Xuanzhou 10838:Qingtian 10792:Wencheng 10738:Jiangyin 10733:Jinxiang 10723:Shaoxing 10717:Hangzhou 10697:Shanghai 10638:Qinjiang 10546:Minjiang 10518:Xinjiang 10476:Dongping 10440:Jiaoliao 10379:Shenyang 10352:Mandarin 10069:isolates 10036:Mondzish 9964:Cai–Long 9712:Tshangla 9668:Eastern 9511:Tamangic 9481:Himachal 9475:Western 9469:branches 9312:: 1–22. 9218:23754434 9183:archived 8988:23827039 8942:40726247 8840:(1988), 8784:archived 8767:(1990), 8726:archived 8712:(2007), 8508:Archived 8482:Archived 8041:北京官话语音研究 7783:"Dungan" 7693:Archived 7589:Archived 7299:Archived 6993:Archived 6871:Archived 6845:28 March 6839:Archived 6816:28 March 6748:Mandarin 6560:See also 6527:jīngshén 5934:Example 5599:gāo'ěrfū 5404:pronouns 5351:cōngmáng 5297:such as 5187:Yangzhou 4995:Yinchuan 4960:Lan–Yin 4936:Tianshui 4671:Beijing 4634:yángpíng 4575:Lan–Yin 4532:Beijing 4523:sonorant 4499:phonemic 4468:Minjiang 4386:yángpíng 4159:Example 4092:, while 3771:'lesson' 3744:Yangzhou 3719:Standard 3679:-in/-ing 3672:-en/-eng 3401:Shandong 3385:/tɕtɕʰɕ/ 3376:becomes 3368:becomes 3360:becomes 3354:/tstsʰs/ 3350:/ʈʂʈʂʰʂ/ 2952:Initials 2866:syllable 2778:Dongfang 2716:Jiujiang 2686:Xinjiang 2682:Yinchuan 2644:Xinjiang 2610:Shandong 2588:Shandong 2574:Xinjiang 2543:below): 2292:Malaysia 2280:Malaysia 2194:alveolar 2157:Shenyang 2131:, where 2129:Xinjiang 2113:Liaoning 2107:Most of 1952:Kuo²-yü³ 1774:— 1660:and the 1654:classics 1528:poetry. 1455:Zhejiang 1273:Malaysia 1216:official 1201:Sanskrit 1187:mandarim 1105:Xinjiang 922:Mandarin 793:Bopomofo 672:Guan-huà 658:Kuan-hua 644:Guanhuah 630:ㄍㄨㄢㄏㄨㄚˋ 624:Bopomofo 533:Help:IPA 451:79-AAA-b 437:mand1415 381:Cyrillic 164:Mandarin 46:Mandarin 16908:Persian 16876:Burmese 16871:Bengali 16861:African 16772:Creoles 16730:Maranao 16689:Kerinci 16632:Punjabi 16552:Teochew 16530:Hokkien 16457:Chinese 16405:Timugon 16365:Sekapan 16285:Momogun 16280:Melanau 16260:Lengilu 16250:Lahanan 16210:Kelabit 16200:Kanowit 16190:Kajaman 16135:Bukitan 16105:Bintulu 16095:Berawan 16020:Semelai 15930:Kenaboi 15895:Jah Hut 15840:Natives 15806:Malayic 15745:English 15625:Burmese 15567:Angkola 15532:Sinhala 15522:Punjabi 15507:Bengali 15465:Teochew 15460:Hokkien 15455:Hokchew 15450:Henghwa 15430:Sinitic 15422:Chinese 15326:English 15183:English 15123:Zhao'an 15118:Raoping 15067:Pu-Xian 15042:Eastern 14978:Sinitic 14943:Batanic 14866:Taivoan 14851:Qauqaut 14846:Makatao 14839:Luilang 14824:Kavalan 14547:Xianbei 14542:Tuyuhun 14512:Old Yue 14490:Extinct 14471:Sanqiao 14362:Central 14352:Eastern 14335:Hokkien 14279:Lan-Yin 14259:Beijing 14241:Chinese 14198:Russian 13960:Chadong 13940:Ai-Cham 13909:Tai Nüa 13894:Tai Dón 13889:Tai Dam 13847:Kra-Dai 13817:Monguor 13807:Kangjia 13765:Kim Mun 13760:Iu Mien 13682:Luobohe 13672:Huishui 13652:Guiyang 13629:Hmongic 13590:Palaung 13580:Man Met 13484:Longjia 13433:Ladakhi 13428:Kyirong 13418:Khalong 13403:Drugchu 13360:Tibetic 13330:Shixing 13242:Qiangic 13023:Alingpo 13015:Nisoish 13000:Yangliu 12995:Xuzhang 12925:Laizisi 12920:Kuamasi 12915:Kua-nsi 12897:Lisoish 12877:Tsukong 12817:Laomian 12742:Baihong 12709:Hanoish 12700:Loloish 12685:Lhao Vo 12680:Chashan 12665:Xiandao 12652:Burmish 12595:Burmese 12553:Banners 12509:Tai Nüa 12436:Tibetan 12421:English 12180:Braille 12141:Cursive 12091:Scripts 11958:History 11948:ZhengMa 11894:Cangjie 11860:Chengyu 11815:Grammar 11790:Hokkien 11747:Hokkien 11655:Waxiang 11635:Danzhou 11607:Guandao 11592:Younian 11587:Tongdao 11576:Pinghua 11516:Taishan 11432:Raoping 11400:Huizhou 11390:Meixian 11366:Banqiao 11339:Leizhou 11329:Pu–Xian 11324:Central 11312:Jian'ou 11287:Longyan 11235:Teochew 11172:Hokkien 11147:Nanlang 11103:Fu–Ning 11083:Changle 11065:Houguan 11056:Eastern 11003:Loushao 10991:Changyi 10973:Da–Tong 10968:Ying–Yi 10914:Yanzhou 10782:Wenzhou 10775:Oujiang 10766:Tiantai 10761:Taizhou 10670:Zhi–Yan 10617:Nantong 10612:Nanjing 10587:Gui–Liu 10577:Nanping 10572:Kunming 10498:Luoyang 10453:Qingdao 10425:Tianjin 10402:Beijing 10394:Beijing 10283:Italics 10144:Siangic 10125:Songlin 10104:Kho-Bwa 10082:Hrusish 10064:Dubious 10047:Loloish 10041:Burmish 10006:Qiangic 9977:Longjia 9944:Karenic 9938:Nungish 9918:Sinitic 9804:Hkongso 9766:Myanmar 9736:Gongduk 9700:Tibetic 9618:Chepang 9591:Magaric 9537:Kiranti 9517:Newaric 8842:Chinese 8526:Sources 6999:21 June 6877:26 July 6664:; ' 6543:duìdài. 6535:hùxiāng 6503:xiōngdì 5660:affixes 5640:Grammar 5418:) 'I', 5365:Sichuan 5333:), and 5295:affixes 5253:(213)* 5224:Nantong 5153:Liuzhou 5091:Kunming 5054:Xichang 5023:Chengdu 4964:Lanzhou 4874:Luoyang 4778:Tianjin 4675:Beijing 4625:yīnpíng 4521:voiced 4479:Nanjing 4377:yīnpíng 4061:Chengdu 3867:'fruit' 3825:'guest' 3739:Chengdu 3731:(Ji–Lu) 3716:Meaning 2980:Palatal 2770:Nanping 2758:Shaanxi 2754:Guangxi 2742:Guizhou 2738:Sichuan 2720:Jiangxi 2712:Jiangsu 2708:Nanjing 2704:Yangtze 2696:Jiangsu 2678:Ningxia 2674:Lanzhou 2634:in the 2632:Shaanxi 2566:Chengde 2503:Huizhou 2466:Li Rong 2438:Jiangxi 2426:Wang Li 2326:Myanmar 2314:Myanmar 2300:Hokkien 2249:Teochew 2245:Hokkien 2229:English 2153:Baoding 2149:Tianjin 2145:Beijing 2102:grammar 2021:either 1905:Hu Shih 1889:Beijing 1862:Beijing 1858:Nanjing 1794:Guānhuà 1728:). 1720:Hu Shih 1656:of the 1463:Guangxi 1459:Pinghua 1445:in the 1443:Huizhou 1385:History 1352:Guānhuà 1343:Guānhuà 1332:; ' 1237:Guānhuà 1218:of the 1211:mantrin 1199:, from 1196:menteri 1190:, from 1003:Guānhuà 973:-dər-in 616:Guānhuà 529:Unicode 292:Lan–Yin 267:Beijing 159:Chinese 154:Sinitic 78:Guānhuà 63:Guānhuà 16918:Korean 16866:Arabic 16751:Others 16735:Molbog 16725:Iranun 16672:Bawean 16662:Banjar 16610:Telugu 16581:Indian 16508:Fuzhou 16503:Fuqing 16395:Sungai 16340:Sa'ban 16310:Paluan 16305:Okolod 16245:Kuijau 16175:Ida'an 16150:Dumpas 16115:Bookan 16110:Bonggi 16100:Biatah 16090:Belait 16045:Temuan 16035:Temiar 16025:Semnam 15965:Mintil 15960:Minriq 15940:Kintaq 15935:Kensiu 15890:Duanoʼ 15779:Aslian 15645:Nepali 15640:Korean 15615:Arabic 15527:Sindhi 15495:Telugu 15477:Indian 15215:Korean 15103:Sixian 15000:Junhua 14915:Saaroa 14902:Tsouic 14892:Puyuma 14887:Paiwan 14861:Siraya 14785:Kaxabu 14769:Arikun 14764:Hoanya 14759:Papora 14752:Taokas 14742:Babuza 14717:Rukaic 14701:Seediq 14696:Atayal 14527:Tangut 14517:Rouran 14507:Khitan 14497:Ba–Shu 14461:Maojia 14446:Hezhou 14357:Puxian 14340:Teoswa 14225:(Kinh) 14193:Kyrgyz 14188:Korean 14183:Kazakh 14087:Turkic 14072:Oroqen 14062:Manchu 14057:Evenki 14025:Qabiao 14015:Ong Be 14000:Maonan 13990:Lakkja 13980:Jiamao 13950:Buyang 13914:Tai Ya 13904:Tai Lü 13864:Bouyei 13856:Zhuang 13837:Torgut 13792:Buryat 13742:Mienic 13732:Younuo 13712:Raojia 13692:Pa-Hng 13687:Mashan 13657:Hm Nai 13642:Bu-Nao 13637:A-Hmao 13560:Bumang 13479:Jingpo 13474:Derung 13469:Caijia 13443:Zhongu 13413:Gserpa 13305:Namuyi 13275:Japhug 13224:Zauzou 13199:Namuyi 13184:Kucong 13158:Zokhuo 13153:Thopho 13133:Phupha 13118:Phukha 13063:Khlula 13005:Zibusi 12990:Toloza 12985:Sonaga 12970:Mangdi 12965:Lolopo 12910:Hlersu 12847:Phana’ 12842:Nuomei 12822:Laopin 12757:Bukong 12732:Angluo 12660:Achang 12637:Mondzi 12539:Zhuang 12514:Tai Lü 12504:Kazakh 12499:Kyrgyz 12484:Korean 12474:Bouyei 12446:Zhuang 12441:Uyghur 12249:Postal 12244:MPS II 12121:Bronze 12001:Ba–Shu 11921:Google 11916:Pinyin 11852:Idioms 11665:Yeheni 11547:Wu–Hua 11542:Goulou 11521:Xinhui 11498:Dapeng 11493:Weitou 11478:Xiguan 11453:Yuehai 11422:Sixian 11361:Haikou 11351:Hainan 11282:Zhenan 11248:Haklau 11243:Swatow 11215:Penang 11200:Taiwan 11195:Chawan 11142:Longdu 11111:Ningde 11088:Gutian 11078:Fuqing 11073:Fuzhou 11035:Qiyang 11018:Wugang 10963:Yi–Liu 10890:Xiu-Yi 10878:Ji-She 10828:Quzhou 10820:Chu–Qu 10810:Jinhua 10802:Wuzhou 10787:Rui'an 10728:Ningbo 10702:Suzhou 10592:Wuming 10563:Zigong 10551:Leshan 10513:Lanyin 10508:Dungan 10503:Xuzhou 10481:Gangou 10458:Weihai 10448:Dalian 10407:Taiwan 10374:Harbin 10157:Milang 10111:Puroik 10095:Mijiic 10019:Ersuic 9970:Caijia 9886:Konyak 9852:Meitei 9756:Chamdo 9693:Bodish 9679:Bhutan 9625:Bhujel 9572:Lepcha 9563:Lhokpu 9549:Dhimal 9494:Sikkim 9216: 9189:9 June 9102: 9079: 9060: 9041: 9022: 9003: 8986: 8969: 8940: 8909: 8890: 8871: 8852: 8793:27 May 8753: 8732:13 May 8698: 8679: 8662: 8635:606615 8633: 8599: 8573: 8550: 8047: 7699:31 May 7643: 7598:24 May 7545: 7184: 6987: 6979: 6912: 6778:(2009) 6774:台灣手語簡介 6666:Manchu 6511:guānxì 6455:lǐxìng 6407:quánlì 6391:zūnyán 6375:zìyóu, 6351:Rénrén 5931:Gloss 5925:Affix 5784:aspect 5763: 5760: 5755:我給你一本書 5668:number 5664:person 5611:bǐjīní 5589:, and 5567:hútòng 5499:zánmen 5369:bāobāo 5249:(42), 5135:(213) 5116:(212) 5079:(213) 5048:(213) 4868:(312) 4797:(113) 4774:Ji–Lu 4763:(214) 4757:(55)) 4743:Yantai 4728:(213) 4709:Harbin 4694:(214) 4559:Ji–Lu 4535:1,3,4 4431:, all 3756:Pinyin 3682:/iniŋ/ 3675:/ənəŋ/ 3587:/twei/ 3546:Finals 3539:/ɻwan/ 3525:/ʂwei/ 3426:/xwei/ 3372:, and 2992:Nasals 2970:Apical 2965:Labial 2782:Hainan 2774:Fujian 2746:Yunnan 2676:) and 2531:(1987) 2462:Shanxi 2235:, and 2179:Taiwan 2167:Taiwan 2161:Dalian 2159:, and 2123:. The 2100:, and 2087:Fujian 1998:Taiwan 1979:: 1971:: 1959:, the 1949:: 1939:: 1937:pinyin 1931:: 1923:: 1809:Fujian 1778:, 1761:(with 1753:), or 1713:báihuà 1625:pinyin 1568:tenuis 1467:Yunnan 1457:, and 1427:, and 1415:, and 1334:Huaxia 1265:Taiwan 1232:Jesuit 1205:mantrī 1155:Taiwan 1101:Yunnan 1060:: 1058:pinyin 1052:: 1044:: 1000:: 998:pinyin 990:: 980:: 911:Tanghe 503: 497: 491: 485: 479: 377:Dungan 371:Arabic 362:Zhuyin 352:Pinyin 112:Region 96:right) 92:left, 16958:Signs 16881:Khmer 16833:Rojak 16740:Suluk 16627:Hindi 16598:Tamil 16488:Hakka 16425:Tutoh 16415:Tring 16400:Tagol 16360:Sebop 16335:Remun 16330:Penan 16315:Papar 16295:Narom 16265:Lotud 16255:Lelak 16230:Kiput 16205:Kayan 16180:Jagoi 16165:Ganaʼ 16155:Dusun 16085:Bajau 16080:Bahau 16055:Wila' 16040:Temoq 16010:Semai 16005:Sabüm 15950:Lanoh 15910:Jedek 15905:Jakun 15900:Jahai 15880:Batek 15860:Malay 15842:& 15608:Other 15562:Batak 15517:Hindi 15445:Hakka 15341:Tamil 15331:Malay 15310:Malay 15220:Malay 15108:Hailu 15090:Hakka 14882:Bunun 14834:Basay 14791:Kulon 14781:Pazeh 14724:Rukai 14706:Truku 14537:Tuoba 14481:Wutun 14396:Xiang 14389:Auish 14315:Hakka 14264:Ji-Lu 14229:Wakhi 14218:Uzbek 14213:Tuvan 14208:Tatar 14129:Other 14115:Salar 14067:Nanai 14005:Mulam 13970:Gelao 13933:Other 13832:Santa 13827:Ordos 13822:Oirat 13787:Bonan 13727:Xixiu 13697:Pa Na 13662:Hmong 13647:Gejia 13595:Riang 13555:Bugan 13550:Bolyu 13545:Blang 13494:Tujia 13457:Other 13438:Tseku 13423:Khams 13408:Groma 13388:Choni 13378:Basum 13373:Baima 13350:Zhaba 13270:Horpa 13255:Choyo 13250:Baima 13219:Sanie 13194:Naruo 13179:Katso 13174:Gokhy 13167:Other 13143:Samei 13138:Phuza 13128:Phupa 13123:Phuma 13113:Phowa 13108:Phola 13103:Phala 13098:Nuosu 13053:Bokha 13028:Alugu 12975:Micha 12887:Yiche 12872:Suobi 12837:Nuobi 12807:Kaduo 12802:Kabie 12782:Habei 12772:Duota 12767:Duoni 12762:Cosao 12690:Zaiwa 12675:Lashi 12627:Mango 12622:Manga 12617:Maang 12612:Kathu 12593:Lolo- 12519:Zaiwa 12489:Qiang 12479:Tujia 12464:Hmong 12313:Nüshu 12017:forms 11931:Sogou 11878:Input 11752:Hakka 11690:forms 11530:Other 11488:Shiqi 11427:Hailu 11395:Wuhua 11382:Hakka 11300:Other 11275:Other 11210:Pedan 11125:Other 11116:Fu'an 11093:Matsu 11025:Ji–Xu 10983:Xiang 10933:] 10921:] 10909:] 10902:Qi-De 10897:] 10885:] 10743:Shadi 10689:Taihu 10643:Gyami 10626:Other 10582:Wuhan 10491:Xi'an 10430:Jinan 10088:Hruso 9984:Luren 9958:Kathu 9932:Tujia 9820:Taman 9791:Mruic 9778:Karbi 9719:Basum 9675:Tibet 9597:Magar 9523:Newar 9490:Nepal 9248:语文出版社 9241:[ 9214:JSTOR 8984:JSTOR 8967:S2CID 8938:JSTOR 8822:(PDF) 8807:(PDF) 8787:(PDF) 8772:(PDF) 8660:S2CID 8631:JSTOR 8591:[ 7592:(PDF) 7577:(PDF) 7543:S2CID 6985:S2CID 6634:Notes 6447:fùyǒu 6439:Tāmen 6415:shàng 6359:shēng 6222:jiàng 6023:chóng 5757:] 5753:[ 5734:yìběn 5678:, or 5672:tense 5517:wǒmen 5390:húdié 5319:-(e)r 5263:(5)* 5259:(4), 5243:(55) 5237:(35) 5231:(21) 5212:(55) 5206:(42) 5200:(35) 5194:(31) 5178:(24) 5172:(53) 5166:(31) 5160:(44) 5147:(35) 5141:(42) 5129:(55) 5122:Wuhan 5110:(53) 5104:(31) 5098:(44) 5085:(31) 5073:(45) 5067:(52) 5061:(33) 5042:(53) 5036:(21) 5030:(44) 5014:(13) 5008:(53) 5002:(44) 4989:(24) 4983:(33) 4977:(53) 4971:(31) 4955:(44) 4949:(53) 4943:(13) 4930:(44) 4924:(53) 4918:(24) 4912:(21) 4905:Xi'an 4899:(31) 4893:(54) 4887:(42) 4881:(34) 4862:(53) 4856:(42) 4850:(24) 4834:(31) 4828:(55) 4822:(53) 4816:(23) 4803:(53) 4791:(35) 4785:(21) 4769:(55) 4750:(31) 4734:(52) 4722:(24) 4716:(44) 4700:(51) 4688:(35) 4682:(55) 4643:shǎng 4433:tsjek 4395:shǎng 4136:shǎng 4065:Xi'an 4057:Jinan 3980:Tones 3854:kʰɰak 3829:tɕʰie 3734:Xi'an 3729:Jinan 3697:Tones 3580:/tei/ 3515:/fei/ 3511:/tʂu/ 3501:/pfu/ 3419:/fei/ 3037:Stops 2985:Velar 2878:final 2870:glide 2786:Gyami 2766:Atlas 2750:Hunan 2734:Hubei 2700:Anhui 2670:Gansu 2640:Gansu 2628:Henan 2584:Hebei 2570:Hebei 2541:Tones 2446:Xiang 2434:Hunan 2374:from 2308:Johor 2257:Hakka 2255:, or 2237:Tamil 2233:Malay 2198:erhua 2035:Guóyǔ 2014:Macau 1942:Guóyǔ 1854:koiné 1560:stops 1525:sanqu 1451:Anhui 1425:Hakka 1417:Xiang 1321:Huáyǔ 1305:Guóyǔ 1192:Malay 1120:tones 1018:China 958: 710:Gūnwá 356:Latin 272:Ji–Lu 244:Guoyu 106:China 16966:Main 16943:Thai 16933:Urdu 16758:Cham 16704:Rawa 16637:Urdu 16430:Ukit 16390:Sian 16380:Seru 16350:Sama 16170:Iban 16075:Abai 16065:East 15724:Main 15650:Thai 15577:Toba 15237:Thai 15113:Dabu 14951:Yami 14920:Tsou 14819:Amis 14811:East 14801:Thao 14774:Lloa 14561:Sign 14522:Saka 14423:Ping 14144:Tsat 14095:Äynu 14077:Xibe 14035:Then 14020:Paha 13975:Hlai 13945:Biao 13919:Yang 13884:Nong 13797:Daur 13575:Mang 13570:Kuan 13489:Nung 13368:Amdo 13335:Situ 13315:Pumi 13310:Naxi 13300:Muya 13290:Lizu 13285:Laze 13260:Ersu 13214:Samu 13209:Nusu 13204:Naxi 13189:Lahu 13148:Sani 13093:Nisu 13088:Nasu 13083:Muzi 13078:Muji 13073:Moji 13068:Lope 13058:Gepo 13048:Azhe 13043:Azha 13033:Aluo 12980:Mili 12960:Lisu 12955:Lipo 12950:Limi 12945:Lawu 12940:Lavu 12935:Lamu 12930:Lalo 12882:Woni 12862:Sadu 12857:Qidi 12852:Piyo 12832:Muda 12812:Lami 12797:Jino 12792:Honi 12787:Hani 12752:Budu 12747:Bisu 12737:Asuo 12722:Akha 12717:Akeu 12670:Pela 12632:Maza 12534:Hani 12524:Lisu 12408:SARs 12274:Yale 12264:EFEO 12126:Seal 11911:Dayi 11508:Siyi 11190:Amoy 10707:Wuxi 10604:Huai 10417:Jilu 10205:Rung 10150:Koro 10024:Naic 9951:Gong 9907:and 9905:East 9863:Zeme 9832:Naga 9750:Tani 9743:ʼOle 9639:Dura 9604:Kham 9556:Toto 9191:2014 9100:ISBN 9077:ISBN 9058:ISBN 9039:ISBN 9020:ISBN 9001:ISBN 8907:ISBN 8888:ISBN 8869:ISBN 8850:ISBN 8830:2013 8795:2015 8751:ISBN 8734:2023 8696:ISBN 8677:ISBN 8597:ISBN 8571:ISBN 8548:ISBN 8516:2022 8490:2023 8045:ISBN 7798:2024 7766:2024 7740:2024 7701:2020 7641:ISBN 7627:2011 7600:2020 7182:OCLC 7001:2022 6977:ISSN 6910:ISBN 6879:2017 6847:2017 6818:2017 6487:yīng 6479:bìng 6423:yīlù 6172:xìng 5800:and 5748:book 5715:give 5680:case 5676:mood 5536:has 5380:bāor 5335:-tou 5299:lao- 5218:(5) 4451:and 4284:dan 4278:tʰan 4272:dan 4266:tʰan 4260:dan 4254:tʰan 4121:píng 4098:/tʰ/ 4049:tone 3947:kwək 3932:kwei 3849:kʰəʔ 3839:kʰei 3834:kʰei 3797:kʰwo 3759:IPA 3690:jīng 3677:and 3643:and 3635:and 3627:and 3570:and 3558:and 3533:ruǎn 3529:/vã/ 3519:shuǐ 3484:and 3469:and 3435:and 3412:/xw/ 3410:and 3201:t͡ɕʰ 3189:ʈ͡ʂʰ 3177:t͡sʰ 2936:and 2915:/-m/ 2913:and 2895:and 2887:the 2874:tone 2776:and 2764:The 2698:and 2654:and 2535:The 2448:and 2362:and 2350:The 2328:, a 2133:Xibe 2033:and 2012:and 1996:and 1986:lit. 1907:and 1813:正音書院 1807:and 1751:中國官話 1619:and 1597:The 1562:and 1522:and 1514:Yuan 1495:tsim 1465:and 1453:and 1403:and 1224:Qing 1222:and 1220:Ming 1177:Name 1137:The 1069:lit. 1009:lit. 16923:Lao 16493:Min 16469:Yue 15975:Mos 15828:Tai 15010:Min 14502:Jie 14413:Yue 14406:Old 14401:New 14325:Min 14320:Hui 14310:Gan 14286:Jin 14110:Lop 14030:Sui 13995:Mak 13985:Kam 13965:Cun 13924:Yei 13874:Min 13869:Dai 13717:She 13667:Hmu 13540:Bit 13464:Bai 13393:Dao 13345:Zbu 13038:Axi 12905:Eka 12827:Mpi 12777:Enu 12727:Amu 12529:Bai 12469:Kam 12404:ARs 12006:Gan 11906:CKC 11773:Old 11650:She 11640:Mai 11444:Yue 11047:Min 10943:Gan 10870:Hui 10719:(?) 10657:Jin 10384:Taz 10071:) ( 9925:Bai 9873:Sal 9813:Pyu 9797:Mru 9726:Nam 9314:doi 9295:doi 9270:doi 9234:李行健 9228:陈章太 9201:沈钟伟 9158:hdl 9135:doi 8959:doi 8930:doi 8722:101 8652:doi 8623:doi 8619:120 8388:doi 7535:doi 6969:doi 6750:at 6718:/j/ 6662:滿大人 6658:满大人 6540:對待。 6468:良心, 6428:平等。 6383:zài 6372:自由, 6320:律师] 6296:shī 6235:油漆匠 6197:guǐ 6147:jiā 6122:huà 6077:lǎo 5974:朋友們 5970:朋友们 5966:學生們 5962:学生们 5953:men 5845:guo 5831:gan 5803:zhe 5745:shū 5726:you 5712:gěi 5658:or 5629:汉堡包 5617:比基尼 5605:高尔夫 5583:Tai 5538:non 5481:men 5466:or 5439:nín 5430:or 5317:), 5309:-zi 5307:), 5251:˨˩˧ 5133:˨˩˧ 5114:˨˩˨ 5083:˧˩ʔ 5077:˨˩˧ 5046:˨˩˧ 4866:˧˩˨ 4795:˩˩˧ 4761:˨˩˦ 4726:˨˩˧ 4692:˨˩˦ 4649:4 ( 4640:3 ( 4631:2 ( 4622:1 ( 4475:/ʔ/ 4401:4 ( 4392:3 ( 4383:2 ( 4374:1 ( 4364:dàn 4357:làn 4350:tàn 4343:dàn 4336:lǎn 4329:tǎn 4322:dǎn 4315:tán 4308:lán 4301:tān 4294:dān 4281:lan 4275:tan 4269:lan 4263:tan 4257:lan 4251:tan 4100:): 4090:/t/ 3970:/ɻ/ 3963:/n/ 3961:or 3959:/j/ 3942:kɔʔ 3937:kwe 3926:guó 3908:kwɑ 3893:kwo 3888:kwə 3883:kwo 3878:kwo 3872:guǒ 3844:kʰe 3812:kʰɑ 3807:kʰo 3802:kʰo 3792:kʰə 3787:kʰɤ 3782:kʰɤ 3686:jīn 3668:/n/ 3664:/ŋ/ 3660:/n/ 3652:/m/ 3637:/w/ 3633:/j/ 3629:zhi 3614:jie 3610:gai 3606:xie 3602:hai 3584:dui 3576:/w/ 3560:/ɥ/ 3556:/w/ 3552:/j/ 3505:zhū 3486:/ʔ/ 3482:/ŋ/ 3478:/ŋ/ 3471:/w/ 3467:/n/ 3463:/l/ 3459:/j/ 3455:/ɻ/ 3445:/l/ 3441:/n/ 3437:/n/ 3433:/l/ 3423:hui 3416:fei 3408:/f/ 3374:shi 3366:chi 3358:zhi 3159:t͡ɕ 3147:ʈ͡ʂ 3135:t͡s 2891:of 2832:by 2780:on 2772:in 2718:in 2710:in 2474:Jin 2450:Gan 2384:Ili 2354:of 2290:In 1981:普通話 1973:普通话 1678:in 1627:). 1623:in 1586:or 1510:Jin 1499:lim 1497:to 1461:in 1449:of 1439:Jin 1429:Yue 1421:Min 1413:Gan 1367:北方話 1363:北方话 1298:普通話 1294:普通话 1054:北方話 1046:北方话 1028:of 971:MAN 849:IPA 747:北方話 733:北方话 680:IPA 515:IPA 421:cmn 17036:: 15193:Wu 14379:Wu 13610:Wa 13605:Va 13565:Hu 13295:Na 12494:Yi 12406:/ 10931:zh 10919:zh 10907:zh 10895:zh 10883:zh 10680:Wu 9841:Ao 9681:, 9677:, 9492:, 9488:, 9291:52 9289:. 9266:49 9264:. 9210:39 9208:, 9179:35 9177:, 9173:, 9152:, 9131:35 9129:, 8965:, 8955:22 8953:, 8936:, 8926:33 8924:, 8848:, 8844:, 8815:29 8813:, 8809:, 8780:18 8778:, 8774:, 8749:, 8745:, 8720:, 8716:, 8658:, 8648:13 8646:, 8629:, 8617:, 8480:. 8384:32 8382:. 8374:; 8296:^ 8257:^ 8242:^ 8215:^ 7785:. 7774:^ 7757:. 7730:. 7691:. 7685:. 7587:. 7583:. 7579:. 7541:. 7495:^ 7456:^ 7441:^ 7362:^ 7305:, 7021:^ 6991:. 6983:. 6975:. 6965:56 6963:. 6959:. 6865:. 6820:. 6783:^ 6740:^ 6660:; 6646:A 6532:互相 6524:精神 6519:de 6508:關係 6500:兄弟 6495:yǐ 6463:hé 6452:理性 6444:賦有 6436:他們 6420:一律 6404:權利 6399:hé 6388:尊嚴 6367:ér 6348:人人 6324:律師 6322:; 6318:, 6316:廚師 6314:; 6312:厨师 6309:教師 6307:; 6305:教师 6288:; 6276:歌迷 6274:, 6272:球迷 6270:, 6268:戲迷 6266:; 6264:戏迷 6255:mí 6239:木匠 6237:, 6233:, 6231:花匠 6106:老師 6104:; 6102:老师 6100:, 6098:老闆 6096:; 6094:老板 6092:, 6090:老頭 6088:; 6086:老头 6061:第一 6059:, 6057:第二 6048:dì 6007:可靠 6005:, 6003:可笑 6001:, 5999:可信 5990:kě 5972:; 5968:, 5964:; 5945:; 5900:; 5893:yo 5883:ma 5862:de 5852:; 5838:; 5821:zo 5810:; 5789:le 5731:一本 5723:nǐ 5701:wǒ 5674:, 5670:, 5666:, 5593:. 5585:, 5574:胡同 5553:yi 5529:我們 5523:我们 5511:咱們 5505:咱们 5460:, 5451:tā 5421:nǐ 5409:wǒ 5396:蝴蝶 5385:包儿 5374:包包 5356:匆忙 5273:. 5261:˥ʔ 5257:˦ʔ 5247:˦˨ 5235:˧˥ 5229:˨˩ 5216:˥ʔ 5204:˦˨ 5198:˧˥ 5192:˧˩ 5176:˨˦ 5170:˥˧ 5164:˧˩ 5145:˧˥ 5139:˦˨ 5108:˥˧ 5102:˧˩ 5071:˦˥ 5065:˥˨ 5040:˥˧ 5034:˨˩ 5012:˩˧ 5006:˥˧ 4987:˨˦ 4975:˥˧ 4969:˧˩ 4947:˥˧ 4941:˩˧ 4922:˥˧ 4916:˨˦ 4910:˨˩ 4897:˧˩ 4891:˥˦ 4885:˦˨ 4879:˧˦ 4860:˥˧ 4854:˦˨ 4848:˨˦ 4832:˧˩ 4820:˥˧ 4814:˨˧ 4801:˥˧ 4789:˧˥ 4783:˨˩ 4748:˧˩ 4732:˥˨ 4720:˨˦ 4698:˥˩ 4686:˧˥ 4666:) 4663:rù 4655:) 4652:qù 4646:) 4637:) 4628:) 4600:) 4597:rù 4586:2 4578:4 4570:1 4562:1 4554:3 4541:2 4538:4 4454:jì 4448:jǐ 4445:, 4442:jī 4407:) 4404:qù 4398:) 4389:) 4380:) 4154:) 4151:qù 4148:; 4139:) 4133:; 4124:) 4118:; 4063:, 4059:, 4028:ma 3974:-r 3967:-r 3903:ko 3898:ko 3776:kè 3625:zi 3616:. 3608:, 3566:, 3554:, 3527:, 3513:, 3465:, 3461:, 3452:r- 3378:si 3370:ci 3364:, 3362:zi 3317:~ 3114:kʰ 3098:tʰ 3086:pʰ 2925:); 2864:A 2752:, 2744:, 2740:, 2736:, 2714:, 2487:Wu 2440:. 2402:. 2358:, 2251:, 2247:, 2231:, 2200:. 2155:, 2151:, 2096:, 2089:. 2049:. 1983:; 1975:; 1945:; 1935:; 1933:国语 1927:; 1925:國語 1837:-n 1833:-m 1827:v- 1815:; 1710:; 1708:白話 1706:; 1704:白话 1682:. 1671:yì 1633:tā 1621:x- 1617:q- 1615:, 1613:j- 1608:-n 1604:-m 1588:-k 1584:-t 1582:, 1580:-p 1519:qu 1469:. 1423:, 1411:, 1409:Wu 1365:; 1346:. 1330:華語 1328:; 1326:华语 1314:國語 1312:; 1310:国语 1296:; 1246:官話 1244:; 1242:官话 1208:, 1173:. 1066:; 1056:; 1048:; 1006:; 996:; 993:官話 986:; 983:官话 976:; 946:ər 577:官話 561:官话 324:, 242:, 131:L2 126:L1 57:官話 55:; 53:官话 15709:e 15702:t 15695:v 15281:e 15274:t 15267:v 14654:e 14647:t 14640:v 14441:E 13600:U 12551:/ 12365:e 12358:t 12351:v 10316:e 10309:t 10302:v 10075:) 9834:" 9830:" 9729:? 9685:) 9673:( 9642:– 9496:) 9483:, 9479:( 9459:e 9452:t 9445:v 9316:: 9297:: 9272:: 9220:. 9193:. 9164:. 9160:: 9154:1 9143:. 9137:: 9108:. 9085:. 9066:. 9047:. 9028:. 9009:. 8990:. 8973:. 8961:: 8944:. 8932:: 8915:. 8896:. 8877:. 8858:. 8832:. 8797:. 8759:. 8736:. 8704:. 8685:. 8666:. 8654:: 8637:. 8625:: 8605:. 8579:. 8556:. 8518:. 8492:. 8394:. 8390:: 8053:. 7800:. 7768:. 7742:. 7703:. 7647:) 7629:. 7602:. 7585:5 7549:. 7537:: 7412:. 7273:. 7188:. 7128:. 7031:. 7003:. 6971:: 6918:. 6894:. 6881:. 6849:. 6707:. 6656:( 6516:的 6492:以 6484:應 6476:並 6460:和 6412:上 6396:和 6380:在 6364:而 6356:生 6290:師 6286:师 6249:迷 6216:匠 6191:鬼 6166:性 6141:家 6116:化 6071:老 6042:第 6017:重 5984:可 5947:們 5943:们 5914:教 5910:師 5902:哟 5898:喲 5896:( 5888:嘛 5886:( 5867:的 5865:( 5854:過 5850:过 5848:( 5840:緊 5836:紧 5834:( 5826:咗 5824:( 5812:著 5808:着 5806:( 5794:了 5792:( 5742:书 5737:a 5720:你 5709:给 5704:I 5698:我 5626:( 5614:( 5602:( 5571:( 5557:伊 5548:儂 5545:/ 5542:侬 5526:/ 5520:( 5508:/ 5502:( 5493:們 5490:/ 5487:们 5484:( 5475:牠 5472:/ 5469:它 5463:她 5457:他 5454:( 5445:您 5442:( 5433:妳 5427:你 5424:( 5415:我 5412:( 5393:( 5383:( 5371:( 5353:( 5346:頭 5343:/ 5340:头 5337:( 5330:兒 5327:/ 5324:儿 5321:( 5314:子 5311:( 5304:老 5301:( 5241:˥ 5210:˥ 5158:˦ 5127:˥ 5096:˦ 5059:˧ 5028:˦ 5000:˦ 4981:˧ 4953:˦ 4928:˦ 4826:˥ 4767:˥ 4755:˥ 4753:( 4714:˦ 4680:˥ 4487:h 4429:跡 4426:脊 4423:積 4241:彈 4234:爛 4227:炭 4220:旦 4213:但 4206:懶 4199:坦 4192:亶 4185:彈 4178:蘭 4171:灘 4164:丹 4146:去 4144:( 4131:上 4129:( 4116:平 4114:( 4094:t 4086:d 3916:国 3862:果 3820:客 3766:课 3572:ü 3568:u 3564:i 3541:. 3536:軟 3522:水 3508:豬 3488:. 3473:. 3447:. 3380:. 3335:/ 3333:j 3331:/ 3323:/ 3321:ʐ 3319:/ 3315:/ 3313:ɻ 3311:/ 3303:/ 3301:l 3299:/ 3291:/ 3289:w 3287:/ 3272:/ 3270:x 3268:/ 3260:/ 3258:ɕ 3256:/ 3248:/ 3246:ʂ 3244:/ 3236:/ 3234:s 3232:/ 3224:/ 3222:f 3220:/ 3203:/ 3199:/ 3191:/ 3187:/ 3179:/ 3175:/ 3161:/ 3157:/ 3149:/ 3145:/ 3137:/ 3133:/ 3116:/ 3112:/ 3100:/ 3096:/ 3088:/ 3084:/ 3074:/ 3072:k 3070:/ 3058:/ 3056:t 3054:/ 3046:/ 3044:p 3042:/ 3029:/ 3027:ŋ 3025:/ 3013:/ 3011:n 3009:/ 3001:/ 2999:m 2997:/ 2903:; 2855:) 2849:( 2844:) 2840:( 2826:. 2726:. 2688:. 1967:( 1749:( 1702:( 1668:( 1666:翼 1638:他 1636:( 1361:( 1324:( 1308:( 1292:( 1240:( 1040:( 955:/ 952:n 949:ɪ 943:d 940:n 937:æ 934:m 931:ˈ 928:/ 924:( 917:) 913:( 535:. 383:) 379:( 373:) 369:( 358:) 354:( 328:) 320:( 246:) 238:( 88:( 38:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.