Comecon - Knowledge

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country. One example came from former Czechoslovakia. In the 1970s, the Communist party of Czechoslovakia finally realized that there was a need for underground trains. Czechoslovak designers projected a cheap but technologically innovative underground train. The train was a state-of-the-art project, capable of moving underground or on the surface using standard rails, had a high number of passenger seats, and was lightweight. According to the designers, the train was technologically more advanced than the trains used in New York's Subway, London's Tube or the Paris Metro. However, due to the plan of Comecon, older Soviet trains were used, which guaranteed profit for the Soviet Union and work for workers in Soviet factories. That economical change lead to the cancellation of the R1 trains by A. Honzík. The Comecon plan, though more profitable for the Soviets, if less resourceful for the Czechs and Slovaks, forced the Czechoslovak government to buy trains "Ečs (81-709)" and "81-71", both of which were designed in early 1950s and were heavy, unreliable and expensive. (Materials available only in Czech Republic and Slovakia, video included)

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difference existed between European and non-European members. The physical size, military power, and political and economic resource base of the Soviet Union made it the dominant member. In trade among Comecon members, the Soviet Union usually provided raw materials, and Central and East European countries provided finished equipment and machinery. The three underdeveloped Comecon members had a special relationship with the other seven. Comecon realized disproportionately more political than economic gains from its heavy contributions to these three countries' underdeveloped economies. Economic integration or "plan coordination" formed the basis of Comecon's activities. In this system, which mirrored the member countries' planned economies, the decisions handed down from above ignored the influences of market forces or private initiative. Comecon had no supranational authority to make decisions or to implement them. Its recommendations could only be adopted with the full concurrence of interested parties and (from 1967) did not affect those members who declared themselves disinterested parties.

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Comecon was an "international protection system" rather than an "international trade system", in contrast with the EEC, which was essentially the latter. Whereas the latter was interested in production efficiency and in allocation via market prices, the former was interested in bilateral aid to fulfill central planning goals. Writing in 1988, Brown stated that many people in both the West and the East had assumed that a trade and efficiency approach was what Comecon was meant to pursue, which might make it an international trade system more like the EEC, and that some economists in Hungary and Poland had advocated such an approach in the 1970s and 1980s, but that "it would need a transformation of every economy along Hungarian lines to enable a market-guided Comecon to work. And any change along those lines has been ideologically unacceptable up to now."

3344:; within two years he was dead in prison. Instead, what won out was a "physical planning" approach that strengthened the role of central governments over technocrats. At the same time, the effort to create a single regime of planning "common economic organization" with the ability to set plans throughout the Comecon region also came to nought. A protocol to create such a system was signed January 18, 1949, but never ratified. While historians are not unanimous on why this was stymied, it clearly threatened the sovereignty not only of the smaller states but even of the Soviet Union itself, since an international body would have had real power; Stalin clearly preferred informal means of intervention in the other Comecon states. This lack of either rationality or international central planning tended to promote 587: 318: 2705: 803: 551: 3057: 3505: 539: 3162: 3043: 515: 256: 2405: 342: 3177: 3025: 330: 2821: 2342: 789: 242: 3241:

the member countries. All these factors combined to give rise to significant differences in the member states' expectations about the benefits to be derived from membership in Comecon. Unity was provided instead by political and ideological factors. All Comecon members were "united by a commonality of fundamental class interests and the ideology of Marxism-Leninism" and had common approaches to economic ownership (state versus private) and management (plan versus market). In 1949 the ruling communist parties of the founding states were also linked internationally through the

2761: 3237: – were invited to participate as observers in Comecon sessions. Although Mongolia and Vietnam later gained full membership, China stopped attending Comecon sessions after 1961. Yugoslavia negotiated a form of associate status in the organization, specified in its 1964 agreement with Comecon. Collectively, the members of the Comecon did not display the necessary prerequisites for economic integration: their level of industrialization was low and uneven, with a single dominant member (the Soviet Union) producing 70% of the community national product. 1971:

Bulgaria happily took on an assigned role (also agricultural, but in Bulgaria's case this had been the country's chosen direction even as an independent country in the 1930s). Essentially, by the time the Soviet Union was calling for tight economic integration, they no longer had the power to impose it. Despite some slow headway – integration increased in petroleum, electricity, and other technical/scientific sectors – and the 1963 founding of an International Bank for Economic Co-operation, Comecon countries all increased trade with

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the comprehensive examination and a multilateral settlement of the major problems of cooperation among member countries in the economy, science, and technology." All committees were headquartered in Moscow and usually met there. These committees advised the standing commissions, the Secretariat, the interstate conferences, and the scientific institutes in their areas of specialization. Their jurisdiction was generally wider than that of the standing commissions because they had the right to make policy recommendations to other Comecon organizations.

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organizations. Subordinate to the secretary were his deputy and the various departments of the Secretariat, which generally corresponded to the standing commissions. The Secretariat's responsibilities included preparation and organization of Comecon sessions and other meetings conducted under the auspices of Comecon; compilation of digests on Comecon activities; conduct of economic and other research for Comecon members; and preparation of recommendations on various issues concerning Comecon operations.

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will be winners and losers. They argue that this may have been simply an unforeseen consequence of two factors: the slow adjustment of Comecon prices during a time of rising oil and gas prices, and the fact that mineral resources were abundant in the Comecon sphere, relative to manufactured goods. A possible point of comparison is that there were also winners and losers under EEC agricultural policy in the same period. Russian and Kazakh oil kept the Comecon countries' oil prices low when the

2881: 354: 3355:, and the state agencies and captive trading companies were often corrupt. Even at best, this tended to put several removes between a producer and any foreign customer, limiting the ability to learn to adjust to foreign customers' needs. Furthermore, there was often strong political pressure to keep the best products for domestic use in each country. From the early 1950s to Comecon's demise in the early 1990s, intra-Comecon trade, except for Soviet petroleum, was in steady decline. 503: 563: 2585: 293: 3485:

headquartered in the capital of a member country and headed by one of that country's leading authorities in the field addressed by the commission. The Secretariat supervised the actual operations of the commissions. The standing commissions had authority only to make recommendations, which had then to be approved by the executive committee, presented to the Session, and ratified by the interested member countries. Commissions usually met twice a year in Moscow.

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East European members frequently invoked this principle in fear that economic interdependence would further reduce political sovereignty. Thus, neither Comecon nor the Soviet Union as a major force within Comecon had supranational authority. Although this fact ensured some degree of freedom from Soviet economic domination of the other members, it also deprived Comecon of necessary power to achieve maximum economic efficiency.

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allowing the other member states to use Comecon mechanisms to coordinate their activities. In principle, a country could still veto, but the hope was that they would typically choose just to step aside rather than either veto or be a reluctant participant. This aimed, at least in part, at allowing Romania to chart its own economic course without leaving Comecon entirely or bringing it to an impasse (see

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planning offices, the Council Committee for Cooperation in Planning drew up draft agreements for joint projects, adopted a resolution approving these projects, and recommended approval to the concerned parties. If its decisions were not subject to approval by national governments and parties, this committee would be considered Comecon's supranational planning body.

2004:(equalization of "differences in relative scarcities of goods and services between states through the deliberate elimination of barriers to trade and other forms of interaction"). Although such equalization had not been a pivotal point in the formation and implementation of Comecon's economic policies, improved economic integration had always been Comecon's goal. 1756:. These requirements, which would inevitably have resulted in stronger economic ties to free European markets than to the Soviet Union, were not acceptable to Stalin, who in July 1947, ordered these communist governments to pull out of the Paris Conference on the European Recovery Programme. This has been described as "the moment of truth" in the post- 1748:'s desire to cooperate and strengthen the international relationships at an economic level with the smaller states of Central Europe, and which were now, increasingly, cut off from their traditional markets and suppliers in the rest of Europe. Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland had remained interested in Marshall aid despite the requirements for a 3464:

each member country, usually a deputy prime minister, the executive committee met quarterly, usually in Moscow. In 1971 and 1974, the executive committee acquired economic departments that ranked above the standing commissions. These economic departments considerably strengthened the authority and importance of the executive committee.

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implied that the interested parties could proceed without the abstaining member, affirming that a country that had declared a lack of interest "may subsequently adhere to the recommendations and decisions adopted by the remaining members of the Council." However, a member country could also declare an "interest" and exercise a veto.

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had a cooperant status with Comecon. Because the governments of these countries were not empowered to conclude agreements in the name of private companies, the governments did not take part in Comecon operations. They were represented in Comecon by commissions made up of members of the government and

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In the late 1980s, there were ten full members: the Soviet Union, six East European countries, and three extra-regional members. Geography, therefore, no longer united Comecon members. Wide variations in economic size and level of economic development also tended to generate divergent interests among

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members of Comecon resented being asked to contribute scarce capital to projects that were chiefly of interest to the Soviet Union…" Furthermore, the liberalization that by June 25, 1988, allowed Comecon countries to negotiate trade treaties directly with the European Community (the renamed EEC), and

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Soviet efforts to exercise political power over its Comecon partners, however, were met with determined opposition. The "sovereign equality" of members, as described in the Comecon Charter, assured members that if they did not wish to participate in a Comecon project, they might abstain. Central and

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Over the years of its functioning, Comecon acted more as an instrument of mutual economic assistance than a means of economic integration, with multilateralism as an unachievable goal. J.F. Brown, a British historian of Eastern Europe, cited Vladimir Sobell, a Czech-born economist, for the view that

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These affiliated agencies were divided into two categories: intergovernmental economic organizations (which worked on a higher level in the member countries and generally dealt with a wider range of managerial and coordinative activities) and international economic organizations (which worked closer

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The international Secretariat, Comecon's only permanent body, was Comecon's primary economic research and administrative organ. The secretary, who has been a Soviet official since Comecon creation, was the official Comecon representative to Comecon member states and to other states and international

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The highest executive organ in Comecon, the executive committee, was entrusted with elaborating policy recommendations and supervising their implementation between sessions. In addition, it supervised work on plan coordination and scientific-technical cooperation. Composed of one representative from

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nor a market economy, Comecon countries had to look to world markets as a reference point for prices, but unlike agents acting in a market, prices tended to be stable over a period of years, rather than constantly fluctuating, which assisted central planning. Also, there was a tendency to underprice

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followed this up with a call for "a common single planning organ." This was resisted by Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland, but most emphatically by increasingly nationalistic Romania, which strongly rejected the notion that they should specialize in agriculture. In Central and Eastern Europe, only

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The Comprehensive Program further emphasized that the processes of integration of members' economies were "completely voluntary and do not involve the creation of supranational bodies." Hence under the provisions of the Charter, each country had the right to equal representation and one vote in all

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Each country appointed one permanent representative to maintain relations between members and Comecon between annual meetings. An extraordinary Session, such as the one in December 1985, might be held with the consent of at least one-third of the members. Such meetings usually took place in Moscow.

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The organization of Comecon was officially focused on common expansion of states, more effective production and building relationships between countries within. And as in every planned economy, operations did not reflect state of market, innovations, availability of items or the specific needs of a

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the previous year. Although the Cominform was disbanded in 1956, interparty links continued to be strong among Comecon members, and all participated in periodic international conferences of communist parties. Comecon provided a mechanism through which its leading member, the Soviet Union, sought to

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One economic success of the 1970s was the development of Soviet oil fields. While doubtless "(Central and) East Europeans resented having to defray some of the costs of developing the economy of their hated overlord and oppressor," they benefited from low prices for fuel and other mineral products.

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Soviet domination of Comecon was a function of its economic, political, and military power. The Soviet Union possessed 90 percent of Comecon members' land and energy resources, 70 percent of their population, 65 percent of their national income, and industrial and military capacities second in the

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There were four council committees: Council Committee for Cooperation in Planning, Council Committee for Scientific and Technical Cooperation, Council Committee for Cooperation in Material and Technical Supply, and Council Committee for Cooperation in Machine Building. Their mission was "to ensure

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division of Europe. According to the Soviet view the "Anglo-American bloc" and "American monopolists ... whose interests had nothing in common with those of the European people" had spurned east–west collaboration within the framework agreed within the United Nations, that is, through the Economic

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commentators have viewed this as implicit, politically motivated subsidization of shaky economies to defuse discontent and reward compliance with Soviet wishes. Other commentators say that this may not have been deliberate policy, noting that whenever prices differ from world market prices, there

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While such integration was to remain a goal, and while Bulgaria became yet more tightly integrated with the Soviet Union, progress in this direction was otherwise continually frustrated by the national central planning prevalent in all Comecon countries, by the increasing diversity of its members

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As remarked above, most Comecon foreign trade was a state monopoly, placing several barriers between a producer and a foreign customer. Unlike the EEC, where treaties mostly limited government activity and allowed the market to integrate economies across national lines, Comecon needed to develop

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Comecon joined 450 million people in 10 countries and on 3 continents. The level of industrialization from country to country differed greatly: the organization linked two underdeveloped countries – Mongolia, and Vietnam – with some highly industrialized states. Likewise, a large national income

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Although not formally part of the organization's hierarchy, the Conference of First Secretaries of Communist and Workers' Parties and of the Heads of Government of the Comecon Member Countries was Comecon's most important organ. These party and government leaders gathered for conference meetings

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reserves. In strict economic terms, barter inevitably harmed countries whose goods would have brought higher prices in the free market or whose imports could have been obtained more cheaply and benefitted those for whom it was the other way around. Still, all of the Comecon countries gained some

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increased Soviet influence in Comecon operations and led to attempts to give Comecon some degree of supranational authority. The Comprehensive Program for Scientific and Technical Progress was designed to improve economic cooperation through the development of a more efficient and interconnected

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rights, making each country's technologies available to the others for a nominal charge that did little more than cover the cost of documentation. This, naturally, benefited the less industrialized Comecon countries, and especially the technologically lagging Soviet Union, at the expense of East

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In the 1980s, the EEC incorporated 270 million people in Europe into economic association through intergovernmental agreements aimed at maximizing profits and economic efficiency on a national and international scale. The EEC was a supranational body that could adopt decisions (such as removing

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Although Comecon recognized the principle of unanimity, from 1967 disinterested parties did not have a veto but rather the right to abstain from participation. A declaration of disinterest could not block a project unless the disinterested party's participation was vital. Otherwise, the Charter

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The official hierarchy of Comecon consisted of the Session of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, the executive committee of the council, the Secretariat of the council, four council committees, twenty-four standing commissions, six interstate conferences, two scientific institutes, and

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did not formally end Comecon, and the Soviet government itself lasted until 1991, the March 1990 meeting in Prague was little more than a formality, discussing the coordination of non-existent five-year plans. From January 1, 1991, the countries shifted their dealings with one another to a hard

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From its founding until 1967, Comecon had operated only on the basis of unanimous agreements. It had become increasingly obvious that the result was usually failure. In 1967, Comecon adopted the "interested party principle", under which any country could opt out of any project they chose, still

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failed. In December 1961, a council session approved the Basic Principles of the International Socialist Division of Labour, which talked of closer coordination of plans and of "concentrating production of similar products in one or several socialist countries." In November 1962, Soviet Premier

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In 1956, eight standing commissions were set up to help Comecon make recommendations pertaining to specific economic sectors. The commissions have been rearranged and renamed a number of times since the establishment of the first eight. In 1986 there were twenty-four standing commissions, each

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The Council Committee for Cooperation in Planning was the most important of the four. It coordinated the national economic plans of Comecon members. As such, it ranked in importance only after the Session and the executive committee. Made up of the chairmen of Comecon members' national central

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The Session of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, officially the highest Comecon organ, examined fundamental problems of economic integration and directed the activities of the Secretariat and other subordinate organizations. Delegations from each Comecon member country attended these

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was always avoided because of its connotations of monopolistic capitalist collusion. After the "special" council session of April 1969 and the development and adoption (in 1971) of the Comprehensive Program for the Further Extension and Improvement of Cooperation and the Further Development of

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As one of the Comecon members deemed underdeveloped, Cuba obtained oil in direct exchange for sugar at a rate highly favorable to Cuba. Within the socialist economic paradigm, the subsidies in favor of Cuba and other underdeveloped Comecon members were viewed as rational and fair because they

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The descriptive term was often applied to all multilateral activities involving members of the organization, rather than being restricted to the direct functions of Comecon and its organs. This usage was sometimes extended as well to bilateral relations among members because in the system of

2008:(which by this time included Mongolia and would soon include Cuba) and by the "overwhelming asymmetry" and resulting distrust between the many small member states and the Soviet "superstate" which, in 1983, "accounted for 88 percent of Comecon's territory and 60 percent of its population." 1906:

In a recent paper by Faudot, Nenovsky and Marinova (2022) the functioning and the collapse of the Comecon has been studied. It focuses on the evolution of the monetary mechanisms and some technical problems of multilateral payments and the peculiarities of the transfer ruble. Comecon as an

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Recent research by the Romanian researcher Elena Dragomir suggests that Romania played a rather important role in the Comecon's creation in 1949. Dragomir argues that Romania was interested in the creation of a "system of cooperation" to improve its trade relations with the other people's

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In this period, there were some efforts to move away from central planning, by establishing intermediate industrial associations and combines in various countries (which were often empowered to negotiate their own international deals). However, these groupings typically proved "unwieldy,

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From 1967, the "interestedness" provisions of the Charter reinforced the principle of "sovereign equality." Comecon's recommendations and decisions could be adopted only upon agreement among the interested members, and each had the right to declare its "interest" in any matter under

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stability, and the governments gained some legitimacy, and in many ways this stability and protection from the world market was viewed, at least in the early years of Comecon, as an advantage of the system, as was the formation of stronger ties with other socialist countries.

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faded in the late 1970s, and from 1979 to 1983, all of Comecon experienced a recession from which (with the possible exceptions of East Germany and Bulgaria) they never recovered in the Communist era. Romania and Poland experienced major declines in the standard of living.

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The scientific institutes on standardization and on economic problems of the world economic system concerned themselves with theoretical problems of international cooperation. Both were headquartered in Moscow and were staffed by experts from various member countries.

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Germany and Czechoslovakia and, to a lesser extent, Hungary and Poland. (This principle would weaken after 1968, as it became clear that it discouraged new research – and as the Soviet Union itself began to have more marketable technologies.)

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currency market basis. The result was a radical decrease in trade with one another, as "(Central and) Eastern Europe… exchanged asymmetrical trade dependence on the Soviet Union for an equally asymmetrical commercial dependence on the European Community."

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hoped to make "revolutionary changes" in the economy, foreseeing that "science will increasingly become a 'direct productive force', as Marx foresaw… By the year 2000… the renewal of plant and machinery… will be running at 6 percent or more per year."

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world only to those of the United States. The location of many Comecon committee headquarters in Moscow and the large number of Soviet nationals in positions of authority also testified to the power of the Soviet Union within the organization.

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and internationally toward an "embassy system of meddling in other countries' affairs directly" rather than by "constitutional means". Comecon's scope was officially limited in November 1950 to "practical questions of facilitating trade."

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Several affiliated agencies, having a variety of relationships with Comecon, existed outside the official Comecon hierarchy. They served to develop "direct links between appropriate bodies and organizations of Comecon member countries."

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The program was not a success. "The Gorbachev regime made too many commitments on too many fronts, thereby overstretching and overheating the Soviet economy. Bottlenecks and shortages were not relieved but exacerbated, while the

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agreements that called for positive government action. Furthermore, while private trade slowly limited or erased national rivalries in the EEC, state-to-state trade in Comecon reinforced national rivalries and resentments.

1943:, as the Comecon governments struggled to reestablish their legitimacy and popular support. The next few years saw a series of small steps toward increased trade and economic integration, including the introduction of the " 1785:(although many earlier proposals had been intended to stave off the Russian and/or communist "menace") and the state-to-state trading inherent in centrally planned economies required some sort of coordination: otherwise, a 3420:

and Romania produced French helicopters under license for their own market. In a formal or informal way, often the countries were discouraged from developing their own designs that competed with the main Comecon design.

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policies; now they began again to discuss developing complementary specialties, and in 1956, ten permanent standing committees arose, intended to facilitate coordination in these matters. The Soviet Union began to trade

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meetings. Prime ministers usually headed the delegations, which met during the second quarter of each year in a member country's capital (the location of the meeting was determined by a system of rotation based on

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Yugoslavia was the only country considered to have associate member status. On the basis of the 1964 agreement, Yugoslavia participated in twenty-one of the thirty-two key Comecon institutions as if it were a full

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Some say that Stalin's precise motives in establishing Comecon were "inscrutable" They may well have been "more negative than positive", with Stalin "more anxious to keep other powers out of neighbouring

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Comecon was an interstate organization through which members attempted to coordinate economic activities of mutual interest and to develop multilateral economic, scientific, and technical cooperation:

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international economic relations, multilateral accords – typically of a general nature – tended to be implemented through a set of more detailed, bilateral agreements.

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International economic organizations generally took the form of either joint enterprises, international economic associations or unions, or international economic partnerships. The latter included

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Furthermore, in the words of the Charter (as revised in 1967), "recommendations and decisions shall not apply to countries that have declared that they have no interest in a particular matter."

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or other kind of legal agreement implemented adopted recommendations. Comecon itself might adopt decisions only on organizational and procedural matters pertaining to itself and its organs.

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Comecon was established at a Moscow economic conference January 5–8, 1949, at which the six founding member countries were represented; its foundation was publicly announced on January 25;

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regularly to discuss topics of mutual interest. Because of the rank of conference participants, their decisions had considerable influence on the actions taken by Comecon and its organs.

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Crump, Laurien, and Simon Godard. "Reassessing Communist International Organisations: A Comparative Analysis of COMECON and the Warsaw Pact in relation to their Cold War Competitors."

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tariffs) and enforce them. Activity by members was based on initiative and enterprise from below (on the individual or enterprise level) and was strongly influenced by market forces.

3404:) were the standard for all Comecon countries, including the USSR, and other countries could develop their own designs but only for their own needs, like Poland (respectively, 3253:

foster economic links with and among its closest political and military allies. The East European members of Comecon were also militarily allied with the Soviet Union in the

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One important legacy of this brief period of activity was the "Sofia Principle", adopted at the August 1949 Comecon council session in Bulgaria. This radically weakened

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of the smaller states, Stalin "seems to have taken personnel by surprise," bringing operations to a nearly complete halt, as the Soviet Union moved domestically toward

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organization proved unable to develop multilateralism mainly because of issues related to domestic planning that encouraged autarky and, at best, bilateral exchanges.

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Elena Dragomir, ‘The formation of the Soviet bloc’s Council for Mutual Economic Assistance: Romania’s involvement’, Journal Cold War Studies, xiv (2012), 34–47.

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Faudot, Adrien, Tsvetelina Marinova and Nikolay Nenovsky. " Comecon Monetary Mechanisms. A history of socialist monetary integration (1949–1991)", MPRA 2022.

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democracies, especially with those able to export industrial equipment and machinery to Romania. According to Dragomir, in December 1948, the Romanian leader

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After 1956, Comecon allowed certain countries with communist or pro-Soviet governments to attend sessions as observers. In November 1986, delegations from

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in 2013. To date, Czech Republic, Estonia, Germany (former GDR), Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia are now members of the

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Zwass, Adam. "The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance: The Thorny Path from Political to Economic Integration", M.E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY 1989.

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the business community. The commissions were empowered to sign various "framework" agreements with Comecon's Joint Commission on Cooperation.

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After Stalin's death in 1953, Comecon again began to find its footing. In the early 1950s, all Comecon countries had adopted relatively

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The Charter (1959) stated that "the sovereign equality of all members" was fundamental to the organization and procedures of Comecon.

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Brine, Jenny J., ed. Comecon: the rise and fall of an international socialist organization. Vol. 3. Transaction Publishers, 1992.

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Godard, Simon. "Only One Way to Be a Communist? How Biographical Trajectories Shaped Internationalism among COMECON Experts."

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Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 570 makes the assertion about this being the dominant view, and cites several examples.

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The 1985 Comprehensive Program for Scientific and Technical Progress and the rise to power of Soviet general secretary

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As a result, Comecon economies generally showed strong growth in the mid-1970s. They were largely unaffected by the

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organs of Comecon, regardless of the country's economic size or the size of its contribution to Comecon's budget.

2526: 1729: 1558: 1265: 1219: 1005: 943: 928: 526: 418: 272: 6251: 6138: 6126: 2046:); other investment was wasted on luxuries for the party elite, and most Comecon countries ended up indebted to 6907: 6676: 6256: 6158: 5891: 5335: 5330: 4858: 4468: 3226: 3121: 2710: 2650: 1733: 1483: 1040: 1025: 974: 796: 586: 562: 322: 310: 6576: 6306: 5817: 5589: 7854: 6869: 6822: 6586: 6509: 6241: 5119: 4868: 3522: 2826: 1741: 1587: 1573: 1307: 1061: 979: 857: 538: 346: 6301: 6010: 5933: 5604: 4048: 3544:(textile machinery producers), and Haldex (a Hungarian-Polish joint enterprise for reprocessing coal slag). 8438: 8010: 7987: 6887: 6847: 6817: 6766: 6626: 6544: 6540: 6411: 6341: 6106: 5923: 5689: 5584: 5516: 5104: 4968: 4958: 4797: 1936: 1568: 1523: 1478: 1287: 1282: 1277: 613: 4625:

Economic Entanglements in East-Central Europe and the Comecon´s Position in the Global Economy (1949-1991)

8456: 8271: 8151: 7859: 7331: 7326: 7043: 6721: 6449: 6194: 6153: 6097: 6000: 5881: 5839: 5744: 5269: 5223: 5089: 4863: 4585: 3734: 3708: 3601: 2766: 1737: 1055: 670: 656: 514: 334: 2012:

conservative, risk-averse, and bureaucratic," reproducing the problems they had been intended to solve.

8562: 8506: 8310: 8266: 7696: 6917: 6902: 6892: 6746: 6346: 5834: 5637: 5404: 4722: 3333: 2108:, and led to an agreement to dissolve in 90 days. The Soviet Union was dissolved on December 26, 1991. 1879: 1538: 1349: 1066: 2000:

Socialist Economic Integration by Comecon Member Countries, Comecon activities were officially termed

8511: 8386: 8327: 8203: 8180: 8163: 8077: 7925: 7801: 7746: 7566: 6554: 6261: 5822: 5434: 5351: 4591: 2267: 1451: 8169: 8049: 7551: 7118: 6381: 6271: 6025: 5569: 4465:

The Low-Carbon Contradiction: Energy Transition, Geopolitics, and the Infrastructural State in Cuba

3488:

The six interstate conferences (on water management, internal trade, legal matters, inventions and

1839: 7291: 4062: 3517:

to the operational level of research, production, or trade). A few examples of the former are the

8483: 8462: 8276: 8227: 6781: 6726: 6711: 6651: 6459: 6439: 6199: 5876: 5481: 5084: 5010: 4814: 3713: 2216: 1626: 1533: 8488: 8345: 5684: 4963: 3504: 1932: 1260: 8472: 8339: 7571: 7075: 6469: 6143: 5619: 5379: 5374: 5167: 5051: 1809: 1392: 1292: 8209: 8104: 7781: 4953: 3260:

There were three kinds of relationships – besides the 10 full memberships – with the Comecon:

2979: 1272: 603: 8605: 8304: 8146: 7806: 7090: 7085: 6852: 6741: 6696: 6656: 6591: 6535: 6454: 6236: 6050: 5928: 5846: 5754: 5719: 5629: 5574: 5471: 5312: 5134: 5046: 5005: 4819: 4715: 4333: 3348:

in each Comecon country because none fully trusted the others to deliver goods and services.

2745: 1899: 1563: 1548: 1426: 1181: 1162: 591: 20: 3328:

Within Comecon, there were occasional struggles over how this system should work. Early on,

3317:

raw materials relative to the manufactured goods produced in many of the Comecon countries.

8467: 8450: 8392: 8281: 7346: 7113: 6968: 6922: 6837: 6832: 6631: 6530: 6479: 6474: 6366: 6321: 6276: 6214: 6045: 6020: 5970: 5898: 5812: 5662: 5264: 5243: 4982: 4492: 3739: 1749: 1493: 1488: 1468: 1234: 8233: 4701: 3947: 3217:

In the late 1950s, a number of communist-ruled non-member countries – the

1673: 69: 8: 8380: 8298: 7791: 7706: 7701: 7601: 7464: 7261: 7145: 7060: 6948: 6801: 6796: 6776: 6761: 6671: 6666: 6571: 6504: 6494: 6406: 6401: 6391: 6291: 6231: 6204: 6030: 6015: 5985: 5963: 5749: 5739: 5466: 5389: 5359: 5343: 5099: 5078: 5072: 3856: 3671: 3329: 2984: 2565: 2097: 1954:", revised efforts at national specialization, and a 1959 charter modeled after the 1957 1875: 1831: 1782: 1528: 531: 205: 6646: 6559: 3447:). All interested parties had to consider recommendations handed down by the Session. A 3401: 1329: 8351: 8316: 8293: 8040: 7945: 7741: 7726: 7651: 7631: 7626: 7611: 7458: 7206: 6958: 6842: 6596: 6499: 6484: 6396: 6386: 6361: 6356: 6121: 6075: 5990: 5975: 5918: 5734: 5657: 5533: 5424: 5414: 5109: 4992: 3530: 2750: 2694: 2450: 1518: 1224: 1171: 185: 180: 165: 8287: 8140: 7641: 7470: 4124:"Comecon Monetary Mechanisms. A history of socialist monetary integration (1949–1991)" 2034:

cultural attitudes, especially in Central Europe. However, many undertakings based on

8517: 8333: 8189: 8122: 8066: 8061: 8055: 7958: 7811: 7756: 7731: 7686: 7616: 7591: 7556: 7546: 7515: 7402: 7286: 7256: 6993: 6983: 6897: 6791: 6636: 6351: 6148: 6005: 5958: 5856: 5807: 5781: 5759: 5599: 5579: 5523: 5511: 5325: 5160: 5094: 4647: 4603: 4543: 4472: 4341: 4337: 3272: 3091: 3034: 2870: 2394: 2224: 2064: 1967: 1962: 1446: 1372: 1229: 195: 7935: 7606: 4685:

Comecon Monetary Mechanisms. A history of socialist monetary integration (1949–1991)

3774: 3508:

1974 Medallion 10th Anniversary of Intermetall, that was founded in 1964 in Budapest

2181: 754: 8595: 8157: 7721: 7646: 7576: 7561: 7541: 7488: 7271: 7266: 7246: 7196: 7186: 7013: 6978: 6963: 6912: 6641: 6581: 6421: 6080: 6060: 5769: 5711: 5705: 5672: 5652: 5642: 5491: 5292: 5284: 4772: 4627: 4074: 3821: 3744: 3723: 3381: 3341: 2689: 2629: 2093: 1239: 567: 507: 160: 1712: 1691:

Comecon was the Eastern Bloc's response to the formation in Western Europe of the

8215: 8193: 8128: 8089: 7940: 7796: 7786: 7771: 7751: 7736: 7711: 7656: 7421: 7389: 7281: 7241: 7003: 6998: 6938: 6879: 6611: 6489: 6316: 6281: 6189: 6184: 5908: 5802: 5476: 5409: 5399: 5364: 5320: 5307: 5259: 4987: 4948: 4809: 4537: 3754: 3749: 3698: 3444: 3409: 3373: 2810: 2634: 2574: 2075: 2043: 2017: 1781:

and economic integration of Central and Eastern Europe date back at least to the

1677: 1431: 1334: 740: 190: 175: 5903: 1939:

led to major social and economic changes, including the 1957 abandonment of the

519: 8477: 8444: 8433:

Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Austria-Hungary and Japan

8116: 7766: 7691: 7681: 7676: 7536: 7276: 7065: 6988: 6716: 6621: 6371: 6311: 5943: 5861: 5764: 5724: 5694: 5594: 5549: 5129: 5124: 3718: 3685: 3352: 3337: 2570: 2145: 2125: 2084: 1955: 1753: 1543: 1354: 267: 218: 170: 4673:

Radisch, Erik. "The Struggle of the Soviet Conception of Comecon, 1953–1975."

2266:

Albania had stopped participating in Comecon activities in 1961 following the

2199:

which consists of most of the ex-Soviet republics. The country also leads the

8589: 8248: 8221: 8071: 7930: 7776: 7671: 7636: 7621: 7581: 7123: 6953: 6691: 6601: 6464: 6444: 6331: 6092: 6070: 6035: 5614: 5609: 5564: 5486: 5446: 5195: 5139: 4973: 4639: 4580: 4467:. Critical environments: nature, science, and politics. Oakland, California: 4326: 4029:, London: Pinter (1986), p. 1, quoted by Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 536. 4025: 3779: 3412:

jets). Poland was a manufacturer of light helicopters for Comecon countries (

3368: 3340:, Voznesensky lost his patron and was soon accused of treason as part of the 3321: 3313: 3062: 2921: 2510: 2445: 2129: 2047: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 1972: 1778: 1745: 1692: 1668:) was an economic organization from 1949 to 1991 under the leadership of the 1553: 1416: 1344: 1297: 1081: 768: 555: 200: 4078: 7716: 7666: 7596: 7586: 7440: 7428: 7415: 7221: 7048: 6549: 5797: 5647: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5202: 4853: 4750: 4738: 4646:, Royal Institute of International Affairs/ Oxford University Press, 1967. 2886: 2865: 2805: 2590: 2389: 2275: 2271: 2121: 2117: 1843: 1801: 1766: 1757: 1721: 1669: 1010: 836: 810: 543: 502: 495: 490: 359: 298: 4697: 4684: 4123: 1924:

for Comecon manufactured goods. There was much discussion of coordinating

1874:

At first, planning seemed to be moving along rapidly. After pushing aside

8412: 7761: 7366: 7336: 7191: 7181: 7080: 6943: 6736: 6225: 6055: 6040: 5851: 5699: 5667: 5554: 5369: 5274: 5213: 4902: 4049:

http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/JCWS_a_00190#.VQKof9KsX65

3784: 3619: 3417: 3364: 3300: 3254: 3222: 3209: 3048: 3033:(1949; stopped participating in Comecon activities in 1961 following the 2727: 2611: 2116:

After the fall of the Soviet Union and communist rule in Eastern Europe,

2088: 2070: 1887: 1473: 1463: 1113: 1072: 1050: 109: 4661: 3944:"Appendix B: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance: Germany (East)" 1991:

Also until the late 1960s, the official term for Comecon activities was

7520: 7231: 7201: 7155: 7070: 7038: 7030: 6973: 6661: 6376: 6065: 5953: 5559: 3764: 3589: 3249: 2505: 2228: 2212: 2208: 2204: 1436: 1314: 579: 7979: 6174: 4122:

Faudot, Adrien; Marinova, Tsvetelina; Nenovsky, Nikolay (2022-07-20).

3803:

Stopped participating in Comecon activities in 1961, withdrew in 1987.

3367:

were routinely transferred within Comecon at below-market rates. Most

2022: 7816: 7661: 7510: 7483: 7296: 7251: 7160: 7128: 7108: 7100: 6429: 6219: 4892: 4755: 3280: 3242: 3136: 2847: 2141: 1921: 1790: 1774: 1685: 1324: 1126: 4305:

Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, pp. 580–82; the quotation is on p. 582.

7395: 7236: 7133: 7008: 6827: 6731: 5871: 5729: 5183: 3413: 3397: 3320:

International barter helped preserve the Comecon countries' scarce

2671: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2105: 2026:

brought opportunities for investment and technology transfers from

1786: 1498: 1196: 385: 317: 255: 6515:

Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union

3351:

With few exceptions, foreign trade in the Comecon countries was a

2104:

The final Comecon council session took place on June 28, 1991, in

8019: 7226: 7216: 7165: 6706: 4938: 4579:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

3579: 3489: 3405: 3345: 3268: 3230: 3076: 2940: 2242: 2232: 2220: 2192: 2188: 2173: 2169: 2149: 2133: 1916: 1891: 1744:. The primary factors in Comecon's formation appear to have been 1176: 1077: 598: 372: 341: 305: 4323: 1812:

sent a letter to Stalin, proposing the creation of the Comecon.

7409: 7211: 7150: 6085: 4707: 4287:

Abel Aganbegyan, quoted in Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 580.

3679: 3448: 3276: 3106: 2903: 2787: 2547: 2487: 2371: 2153: 2137: 329: 138: 3584: 3363:

Beginning no later than the early 1970s, Soviet petroleum and

2042:

tractor factory did not do well with technology licensed from

7894: 7850:

American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation

7356: 7139: 5218: 3634: 3336:

price-based approach. However, with the August 1948 death of

3218: 3030: 2961: 2427: 989: 726: 4666:

Libbey, James. "CoCom, Comecon, and the Economic Cold War."

3592:

as of the late 1980s. EEC member states are marked in blue,

2038:

technology were less than successful (for example, Poland's

7434: 7316: 5208: 5152: 3769: 3296: 3292: 3195: 3181: 2466: 2246: 2020:. Another short-term economic gain in this period was that 1696: 1035: 1000: 863: 712: 698: 574: 285: 3416:

of the Soviet design). The USSR developed their own model

2223:, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Along with Ukraine, 2180:. All four Central European states are now members of the 83: 7889: 7869: 7864: 4419: 4417: 4389: 4387: 4368: 4366: 4247: 4245: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4202: 4200: 4154: 4152: 4108: 4106: 4009: 4007: 3628:

Comprehensive Program for Socialist Economic Integration

3979: 3977: 3975: 2111: 4702:

Appendix B: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

4656:

Lányi, Kamilla. "The collapse of the COMECON market."

4644:

Comecon: Integration Problems of the Planned Economies

4121: 3844:

Comecon: Integration problems of the planned economies

3620:

Prices, exchange rates, coordination of national plans

2971: 2966: 2913: 2908: 2857: 2852: 2797: 2792: 2737: 2732: 2681: 2676: 2621: 2616: 2557: 2552: 2497: 2492: 2437: 2432: 2381: 2376: 2178:

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

4414: 4384: 4363: 4242: 4197: 4149: 4103: 4004: 2187:

Russia, the successor to the Soviet Union along with

1631: 1458:

De-satellization of the Socialist Republic of Romania

4704:, Library of Congress Call Number DD280.6 .E22 1988. 4493:"Zašlapané projekty: Pražské metro – Česká televize" 3972: 3726:

also as Friendship Pipeline also as Comecon Pipeline

3661: 3946:. Library of Congress Country Study. Archived from 2068:scientific and technical base. This was the era of 4628:online at (H-Soz-u-Kult, H-Net Reviews. Jam. 2013) 4325: 3770:Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America 713:Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America 4328:The USSR and Iraq: The Soviet Quest for Influence 3600:Although Comecon was loosely referred to as the " 1883: 88:Map of Comecon member states as of November 1986 8587: 7835:List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States 2517: 6272:North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972 5679:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences 3303:attended the 42nd Council Session as observers. 1882:, price-based approach (see further discussion 8558:Treaties of the Kingdom of Hungary (1922–1946) 4600:A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change 3580:Comecon versus the European Economic Community 3521:(managed the transferable rouble system), the 2877: 2581: 449:25,400,231 km (9,807,084 sq mi) 441:23,422,281 km (9,043,393 sq mi) 7995: 5168: 4723: 4658:Russian & East European Finance and Trade 4531: 4529: 4527: 3862:that is heavily cited in the present article. 3525:(in charge of financing joint projects), and 3158: 2278:and withdrew from Comecon on 2 October 1990. 1637: 1619: 1595: 35: 7911:Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War 5462:Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council 3142: 2998: 2894:(Союз Советских Социалистических Республик) 1842:. There might be a discussion about this on 8568:Treaties of the Hungarian People's Republic 6772:1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre 4324:Smolansky, Oleg; Smolansky, Bettie (1991). 3519:International Bank for Economic Cooperation 2359:Republika Popullore Socialiste e Shqipërisë 2128:(then the European Community) in 1990. The 1716:Former USSR Comecon headquarters in Moscow. 8002: 7988: 7875:United States involvement in regime change 5430:1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine 5175: 5161: 4730: 4716: 4524: 4230:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, pp. 564, 566. 3643:International relations within the Comecon 3635:International relations within the Comecon 2701: 2401: 1777:solidarity. In any event, proposals for a 1602: 1588: 8574:Treaties of the Third Republic of Hungary 3938: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3930: 3928: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3920: 3918: 3916: 3914: 3912: 3910: 3908: 3906: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3894: 3892: 3890: 3888: 3387: 2931: 2817: 2641: 2338: 1862:Learn how and when to remove this message 238: 4874:Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia 4462: 4450:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, pp. 570–71. 4411:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, pp. 540–41. 4269:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, pp. 571–72. 4251:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, pp. 568–69. 4194:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, pp. 560–61. 4146:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, pp. 543–34. 4112:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, pp. 542–43. 4100:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, pp. 541–42. 4091:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, pp. 539–41. 4060: 4038:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, pp. 536–37. 3992:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, pp. 534–35. 3886: 3884: 3882: 3880: 3878: 3876: 3874: 3872: 3870: 3868: 3583: 3503: 3112: 2757: 1931:However, once again, trouble arose. The 1910: 1793:buyer, with no structure to set prices. 1769:… than to integrate them." Furthermore, 1711: 8686:1949 establishments in the Soviet Union 8009: 6001:Transition to the New Order (Indonesia) 4458: 4456: 3396:On the other hand, Czechoslovak trams ( 2253:(ASEAN) in 1995 and 1997 respectively. 1975:relatively more than with one another. 1720:The Comecon was founded in 1949 by the 8588: 7845:Russian espionage in the United States 6117:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 4978:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 3855:For example, this is the usage in the 3694:Association of Southeast Asian Nations 3547: 3499: 3458: 3082: 2536:Československá socialistická republika 2457: 2355:People's Socialist Republic of Albania 2251:Association of Southeast Asian Nations 1978: 1616:Council for Mutual Economic Assistance 31:Council for Mutual Economic Assistance 16:1949–1991 international economic union 8616:Former territorial entities in Europe 8050:Personal union of Hungary and Croatia 7983: 7840:Soviet espionage in the United States 5996:Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966 5775:Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution 5440:1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight 5156: 4944:1949 East German State Railway strike 4916:World Federation of Democratic Youth 4711: 4535: 3865: 3332:pushed for a more "law-governed" and 2030:. This also led to an importation of 1986:de-satellization of Communist Romania 1961:Once again, efforts at transnational 1695:and the OEEC, which later became the 8626:Organizations disestablished in 1991 8495:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Ukraine 7916:Soviet Union–United States relations 6267:1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China 4815:Soviet response to the Marshall Plan 4562:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 567. 4453: 4432:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 569. 4423:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 565. 4402:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 540. 4393:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 539. 4381:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 538. 4372:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 537. 4314:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 582. 4296:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 580. 4278:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 579. 4260:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 568. 4239:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 564. 4221:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 566. 4212:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 561. 4185:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 553. 4176:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 560. 4167:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 559. 4158:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 544. 4013:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 535. 3983:Bideleux and Jeffries, 1998, p. 536. 2112:Post-Cold War activity after Comecon 1814: 1672:that comprised the countries of the 1633:Sovét Ekonomícheskoy Vzaimopómoshchi 1137:World Federation of Democratic Youth 44:Sovét Ekonomícheskoy Vzaimopómoshchi 8641:Foreign relations of Czechoslovakia 8422:Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 7880:Soviet involvement in regime change 3730:Five-year plans of the Soviet Union 2992: 2892:Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 2164:joined the EU in 2004, followed by 1621:Сове́т Экономи́ческой Взаимопо́мощи 13: 8601:Former international organizations 8536:U.S.–Hungarian Peace Treaty (1921) 7921:Soviet Union–United States summits 5395:1947 Polish parliamentary election 5280:Guerrilla war in the Baltic states 5037:Sovietization of the Baltic states 4598:Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries, 3704:Commonwealth of Independent States 3434:several associated organizations. 3015: 2950:Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam 2197:Commonwealth of Independent States 1211:Guerrilla war in the Baltic states 643:Commonwealth of Independent States 14: 8702: 8691:1991 disestablishments in Hungary 8671:Foreign relations of East Germany 8621:Organizations established in 1949 8541:Covenant of the League of Nations 6682:Lord's Resistance Army insurgency 6617:United States invasion of Grenada 5887:Guinea-Bissau War of Independence 5828:Expulsion of Soviets from Albania 4908:World Federation of Trade Unions 4690: 4539:Eastern Europe and Communist Rule 4503:from the original on 19 June 2010 3760:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation 3467: 2270:, but formally withdrew in 1987. 2201:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation 52:Sovet Ekonomičeskoj Vzaimopomošči 8323:Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) 6757:United States invasion of Panama 6607:1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War 6247:1971 Turkish military memorandum 6210:Communist insurgency in Thailand 6180:Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 6112:Communist insurgency in Malaysia 5939:Assassination of John F. Kennedy 5867:Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation 5385:Restatement of Policy on Germany 5125:January 1991 events in Lithuania 4783:Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina 4737: 4574: 3968:from the original on 2021-06-12. 3846:(Oxford University Press, 1967). 3678: 3664: 3358: 3312:Working with neither meaningful 3202: 3188: 3175: 3160: 3144: 3129: 3114: 3099: 3084: 3069: 3055: 3041: 3023: 3000: 2933: 2879: 2819: 2759: 2718:(Бүгд Найрамдах Монгол Ард Улс) 2703: 2643: 2583: 2519: 2459: 2403: 2340: 1819: 1132:World Federation of Trade Unions 845: 815: 801: 787: 773: 759: 745: 731: 717: 703: 689: 675: 661: 647: 597: 585: 573: 561: 549: 537: 525: 513: 501: 489: 397:• Organization established 365: 352: 340: 328: 316: 304: 291: 278: 266: 254: 240: 82: 68: 37:Совет Экономической Взаимопомощи 8135:Peace Treaty of Wiener Neustadt 7477:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 6858:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 6787:Fall of the inner German border 6687:1988 Black Sea bumping incident 6337:Strategic Arms Limitation Talks 6327:Spanish transition to democracy 6287:1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency 5914:Communist insurgency in Sarawak 5420:Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948 5301:Occupation of the Baltic states 4849:Czechoslovak Socialist Republic 4556: 4515: 4485: 4444: 4435: 4426: 4405: 4396: 4375: 4354: 4317: 4308: 4299: 4290: 4281: 4272: 4263: 4254: 4233: 4224: 4215: 4188: 4179: 4170: 4161: 4140: 4115: 4094: 4085: 4054: 4041: 4032: 4016: 3828:national language of the Union. 3815: 3540:(nuclear machinery producers), 3376:quadrupled Western oil prices. 2600:Deutsche Demokratische Republik 2532:Czechoslovak Socialist Republic 2261: 2050:when capital flows died out as 419:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 6257:Four Power Agreement on Berlin 5892:Mozambican War of Independence 5331:Indonesian National Revolution 4696:Germany (East) Country Study ( 4469:University of California Press 3995: 3986: 3954: 3849: 3836: 3806: 3797: 3437: 2058: 407:• Dissolution of Comecon 1: 8681:People's Republic of Bulgaria 8676:Socialist Republic of Romania 8427:Croatian–Hungarian Settlement 7855:CIA and the Cultural Cold War 6870:Dissolution of Czechoslovakia 6823:Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident 6545:1984 Summer Olympics boycotts 6510:Seven Days to the River Rhine 6242:Corrective Revolution (Egypt) 5529:March 1949 Syrian coup d'état 5457:1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 5130:January 1991 events in Latvia 5120:Dissolution of Czechoslovakia 4869:Socialist Republic of Romania 4844:People's Republic of Bulgaria 4836:People's Republic of Albania 4805:1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 4618:Contemporary European History 4568: 3523:International Investment Bank 2946:Socialist Republic of Vietnam 2832:Socialist Republic of Romania 2418:(Народна република България) 2416:People's Republic of Bulgaria 2256: 1941:1956–60 Soviet five-year plan 1707: 1574:Dissolution of Czechoslovakia 8439:League of the Three Emperors 8367:Principality of Transylvania 8056:Hungarian–Byzantine Treaties 6848:Fall of communism in Albania 6818:Mongolian Revolution of 1990 6767:Polish Round Table Agreement 6107:1968 Polish political crisis 5924:Eritrean War of Independence 5690:Hungarian Revolution of 1956 5585:East German uprising of 1953 5517:Chinese Communist Revolution 5182: 5115:Collapse of the Soviet Union 5105:Fall of communism in Albania 3424: 2836:Republica Socialistă România 2776:Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa 1569:Fall of communism in Albania 1524:Polish Round Table Agreement 1479:Cuban intervention in Angola 108: Members that left the 7: 8651:Mongolian People's Republic 8646:Hungarian People's Republic 8457:Budapest Convention of 1877 8272:Treaty of Adrianople (1568) 8111:Hungarian–Neapolitan Treaty 8105:Hungarian–Lithuanian Treaty 6722:Korean Air Lines Flight 007 6450:Korean Air Lines Flight 902 6195:Corrective Movement (Syria) 6159:New People's Army rebellion 6154:Sino-Soviet border conflict 5882:Angolan War of Independence 5745:Second Taiwan Strait Crisis 5625:1954 Guatemalan coup d'état 5270:Jamaican political conflict 5090:End of communism in Hungary 4859:Hungarian People's Republic 3735:History of the Soviet Union 3709:Economy of the Soviet Union 3657: 3602:European Economic Community 3596:– green, and Comecon – red. 3529:(encouraged cooperation in 3307: 2716:Mongolian People's Republic 2656:Hungarian People's Republic 2124:) automatically joined the 1632: 957:Allied and satellite states 671:European Economic Community 657:Eurasian Economic Community 91:Comecon as of November 1986 10: 8707: 8563:Paris Peace Treaties, 1947 8507:Treaty of Bucharest (1918) 8267:Truce of Adrianople (1547) 8088:1302–1526 (Middle ages to 6918:Sino-Indian border dispute 6747:First Nagorno-Karabakh War 6677:1987–1989 JVP insurrection 6435:1976 Argentine coup d'état 6347:Turkish invasion of Cyprus 6297:1973 Uruguayan coup d'état 5981:1964 Brazilian coup d'état 5949:Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964 5638:First Taiwan Strait Crisis 5405:Asian Relations Conference 4854:German Democratic Republic 4022:W. Wallace and R. Clarke, 3219:People's Republic of China 3031:People's Republic of China 2596:German Democratic Republic 1702: 18: 8636:Economy of Czechoslovakia 8631:Foreign relations of Cuba 8550: 8512:Armistice of Villa Giusti 8406: 8376: 8361: 8328:First Partition of Poland 8262: 8243: 8204:Franco-Hungarian alliance 8179: 8087: 8038: 8029:Legend of the white horse 8017: 7954: 7903: 7825: 7802:William Appleman Williams 7747:Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. 7529: 7501: 7450: 7382: 7375: 7309: 7174: 7099: 7029: 7022: 6931: 6878: 6810: 6523: 6262:Bangladesh Liberation War 6252:1971 Sudanese coup d'état 6167: 6139:1969 Sudanese coup d'état 6127:1968 Peruvian coup d'état 5790: 5565:Arab Cold War (1952–1979) 5542: 5252: 5190: 5065: 5042:Information dissemination 5019: 4969:1956 Hungarian Revolution 4959:1953 East German uprising 4927: 4885: 4828: 4765: 4745: 4700:), Data as of July 1987, 4592:Federal Research Division 4542:, Duke University Press, 4463:Cederlöf, Gustav (2023). 1800:joined a month later and 1638: 1620: 1494:1984 Los Angeles Olympics 622: 612: 476: 472: 462: 458: 453: 445: 437: 432: 428: 415: 405: 395: 391: 381: 224: 214: 148: 134: 81: 65: 60: 36: 28: 8170:First Congress of Vienna 6577:1980 Turkish coup d'état 6412:Cambodian–Vietnamese War 6382:1978 Somali coup attempt 6342:Second Iraqi–Kurdish War 6307:1973 Chilean coup d'état 6132:Revolutionary Government 6026:South African Border War 5818:1960 Turkish coup d'état 5735:Iraqi 14 July Revolution 5590:1953 Iranian coup d'état 5570:1952 Egyptian revolution 5027:Emigration and defection 4864:Polish People's Republic 4061:Dragomir, Elena (2015). 3790: 2772:Polish People's Republic 1680:elsewhere in the world. 1315:Czechoslovakia 1976–1990 19:Not to be confused with 8666:Economy of East Germany 8661:20th century in Albania 8656:20th century in Vietnam 8501:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 8484:Treaty of London (1913) 8463:Treaty of Berlin (1878) 8277:Treaty of Vienna (1606) 8222:Confessio Pentapolitana 8018:9–10th century (age of 6782:Fall of the Berlin Wall 6727:People Power Revolution 6712:Central American crisis 6652:1986 Black Sea incident 6302:1973 Afghan coup d'état 6200:Western Sahara conflict 6011:1966 Syrian coup d'état 5934:1963 Syrian coup d'état 5877:Portuguese Colonial War 5840:First Iraqi–Kurdish War 5605:1954 Syrian coup d'état 5482:Annexation of Hyderabad 5425:1947–1949 Palestine war 5085:Fall of the Berlin Wall 5011:1981 protests in Kosovo 4949:Rebellion of Cazin 1950 4634:Critique internationale 4623:Falk, Flade. Review of 4128:mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de 4079:10.1111/1468-2281.12083 3714:Eurasian Economic Union 2217:Eurasian Economic Union 1761:Commission for Europe. 1676:along with a number of 1644:; English abbreviation 1559:End of the Soviet Union 1534:Fall of the Berlin Wall 1094: (until 1948) 1069: (until 1977) 1058: (until 1989) 992: (until 1961) 971: (until 1961) 119: Associate members 8611:Cold War organizations 8524:Armistice with Romania 8473:Triple Alliance (1882) 8340:Treaty of Campo Formio 7076:Neoclassical economics 6587:Gulf of Sidra incident 6144:1969 Libyan revolution 5835:Iraqi–Kurdish conflict 5620:1954 Geneva Conference 5380:Turkish straits crisis 5375:Corfu Channel incident 4521:Zwass, 1989, pp. 14–21 4001:Kaser, 1967, pp. 9–10. 3597: 3509: 3388:Ineffective production 1810:Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej 1717: 1248:Protests and uprisings 8305:Treaty of Passarowitz 8147:Treaty of Brno (1478) 7926:Russia–NATO relations 7807:Jonathan Reed Winkler 7091:Democratic capitalism 7086:Supply-side economics 7054:American conservatism 6853:Breakup of Yugoslavia 6742:Bougainville conflict 6657:South Yemen civil war 6592:Martial law in Poland 6455:Nicaraguan Revolution 6430:Dirty War (Argentina) 6237:1971 JVP insurrection 6051:Years of Lead (Italy) 5929:North Yemen civil war 5847:Berlin Crisis of 1961 5823:Albanian–Soviet split 5755:1959 Tibetan uprising 5720:Syrian Crisis of 1957 5575:Iraqi Intifada (1952) 5435:1948 Arab–Israeli War 5135:Breakup of Yugoslavia 4677:27.5-6 (2017): 26–47. 4670:37.2 (2010): 133–152. 4334:Duke University Press 3587: 3507: 2660:Magyar Népköztársaság 2268:Soviet–Albanian split 2235:are also part of the 1911:Nikita Khrushchev era 1900:intellectual property 1715: 1564:Post-Soviet conflicts 1549:Breakup of Yugoslavia 1452:Albanian–Soviet split 1163:Anti-Soviet partisans 1106:Related organizations 21:Comic book convention 8530:Bill of dethronement 8489:Armistice of Focșani 8468:Dual Alliance (1879) 8451:Reichstadt Agreement 8346:Treaty of Schönbrunn 8282:Peace of Zsitvatorok 7347:Non-Aligned Movement 6969:Peaceful coexistence 6923:North Borneo dispute 6838:German reunification 6833:Min Ping Yu No. 5202 6531:Salvadoran Civil War 6480:Grand Mosque seizure 6475:Yemenite War of 1979 6367:Mozambican Civil War 6322:Carnation Revolution 6277:Yemenite War of 1972 6215:1970 Polish protests 6046:1967 Hong Kong riots 6021:Argentine Revolution 5971:Guatemalan Civil War 5899:Cuban Missile Crisis 5813:Bay of Pigs Invasion 5685:1956 Poznań protests 5663:Geneva Summit (1955) 5265:Hukbalahap Rebellion 5244:Non-Aligned Movement 4983:1970 Polish protests 4964:1956 Poznań protests 4829:Soviet-allied states 4660:29.1 (1993): 68–86. 4620:27.1 (2018): 85–109. 4536:Brown, J.F. (1988), 4024:Comecon, Trade, and 3740:Non-Aligned Movement 3400:) and jet trainers ( 1832:confusing or unclear 1789:seller would face a 1750:convertible currency 1544:Barricades in Latvia 1489:1980 Moscow Olympics 1469:Cuban Missile Crisis 8387:Treaty of Pressburg 8381:Peace of Nikolsburg 8299:Treaty of Karlowitz 8210:Treaty of Nagyvárad 8164:Treaty of Pressburg 8078:Treaty of Pressburg 8011:Treaties of Hungary 7792:Alex von Tunzelmann 7782:Vladimir Tismăneanu 7707:Thomas J. McCormick 7702:Jack F. Matlock Jr. 7602:Robert Hugh Ferrell 7465:Crusade for Freedom 7262:Illiberal democracy 7146:Ho Chi Minh Thought 6949:Eisenhower Doctrine 6802:Peaceful Revolution 6797:Romanian Revolution 6777:Revolutions of 1989 6762:1988 Polish strikes 6672:Operation INFEKTION 6667:1987 Lieyu massacre 6572:Eritrean Civil Wars 6555:Peruvian Revolution 6505:1979 Herat uprising 6495:Sino-Vietnamese War 6460:Uganda–Tanzania War 6440:Egyptian–Libyan War 6407:Third Indochina War 6402:Sino-Albanian split 6392:Ethiopian Civil War 6292:Eritrean Civil Wars 6232:Ping-pong diplomacy 6205:Cambodian Civil War 6031:Korean DMZ Conflict 6016:Cultural Revolution 5986:Dominican Civil War 5964:Tlatelolco massacre 5750:1959 Mosul uprising 5740:1958 Lebanon crisis 5467:Al-Wathbah uprising 5390:First Indochina War 5360:Iran crisis of 1946 5100:Romanian revolution 5073:Revolutions of 1989 4954:1953 Plzeň uprising 4602:, Routledge, 1998. 4067:Historical Research 3857:Library of Congress 3672:Soviet Union portal 3548:Nature of operation 3538:Interatominstrument 3500:Affiliated agencies 3459:Executive committee 3330:Nikolai Voznesensky 2274:reunified with the 2098:Revolutions of 1989 1979:Leonid Brezhnev era 1876:Nikolai Voznesensky 1840:clarify the article 1783:Revolutions of 1848 1529:Revolutions of 1989 532:Czechoslovak koruna 8551:Modern age (1922–) 8393:Treaty of Nymwegen 8352:Congress of Vienna 8317:Treaty of Belgrade 8311:Pragmatic Sanction 8294:Holy League (1684) 8185:Ottoman vassalship 8152:Treaty of Piotrków 7946:Russian Revolution 7742:Mary Elise Sarotte 7727:William B. Pickett 7652:Patrick J. Hearden 7632:Gabriel Gorodetsky 7627:Timothy Garton Ash 7612:Anneli Ute Gabanyi 7207:Ethnic nationalism 6959:Hallstein Doctrine 6843:Yemeni unification 6632:1985 Geneva Summit 6597:Casamance conflict 6500:New Jewel Movement 6485:Iranian Revolution 6470:Chadian–Libyan War 6417:Cambodian conflict 6397:Lebanese Civil War 6387:Western Sahara War 6362:June 1976 protests 6357:Cambodian genocide 6122:17 July Revolution 6076:Nigerian Civil War 5991:Rhodesian Bush War 5976:Colombian conflict 5919:Ramadan Revolution 5658:Bandung Conference 5534:Operation Valuable 5415:Partition of India 5110:Singing Revolution 4993:June 1976 protests 4778:Soviet occupations 3842:Michael C. Kaser, 3598: 3531:ferrous metallurgy 3510: 2120:(now unified with 1945:convertible rouble 1937:Hungarian uprising 1718: 1519:Singing Revolution 1293:Novocherkassk 1962 149:Official languages 46:(BGN/PCGN Russian) 8583: 8582: 8518:Treaty of Trianon 8402: 8401: 8334:Treaty of Sistova 8234:Treaty of Szatmár 8123:Treaty of Lubowla 8067:Concordat of 1169 8062:Concordat of 1161 7977: 7976: 7964:List of conflicts 7812:Rudolph Winnacker 7757:Giles Scott-Smith 7732:Ronald E. Powaski 7687:Melvyn P. Leffler 7617:John Lewis Gaddis 7592:Robert D. English 7557:Warren H. Carroll 7547:Michael Beschloss 7516:Nuclear arms race 7497: 7496: 7403:Neues Deutschland 7305: 7304: 7287:White nationalism 7257:Liberal democracy 6994:Ulbricht Doctrine 6984:Brezhnev Doctrine 6792:Velvet Revolution 6536:Soviet–Afghan War 6352:Angolan Civil War 6149:Goulash Communism 6006:ASEAN Declaration 5959:Mexican Dirty War 5857:Annexation of Goa 5808:1960 U-2 incident 5782:Sino-Soviet split 5760:Laotian Civil War 5600:Bricker Amendment 5580:Mau Mau rebellion 5524:Malayan Emergency 5512:Chinese Civil War 5472:Tito–Stalin split 5326:Division of Korea 5150: 5149: 5095:Velvet Revolution 5057:Telephone tapping 5031:list of defectors 4820:Tito–Stalin split 4478:978-0-520-39313-4 4360:Zwass, 1989, p. 4 4347:978-0-8223-1116-4 3250:had been expelled 3035:Sino-Soviet split 2990: 2989: 2476:República de Cuba 2322: 2065:Mikhail Gorbachev 1968:Nikita Khrushchev 1872: 1871: 1864: 1667: 1661: 1655: 1649: 1630: 1612: 1611: 1447:Sino-Soviet split 1427:Tito–Stalin split 1422:Czechoslovak coup 1400: 1399: 1340:Ukraine 1989–1991 1278:East Germany 1953 1220:Soviet occupation 831: 830: 827: 826: 823: 822: 8698: 8241: 8240: 8228:Treaty of Speyer 8158:Peace of Olomouc 8004: 7997: 7990: 7981: 7980: 7722:David S. Painter 7647:John Earl Haynes 7577:Nicholas J. Cull 7562:Adrian Cioroianu 7542:Thomas A. Bailey 7489:Voice of America 7380: 7379: 7292:White separatism 7272:Social democracy 7267:Guided democracy 7247:Authoritarianism 7197:Ultranationalism 7187:Anti-imperialism 7114:Marxism–Leninism 7027: 7026: 7014:Kinmen Agreement 6979:Johnson Doctrine 6964:Kennedy Doctrine 6880:Frozen conflicts 6863:1991 August Coup 6752:Afghan Civil War 6647:Reykjavík Summit 6642:Somali Rebellion 6582:Ugandan Bush War 6560:Gdańsk Agreement 6081:Protests of 1968 6061:War of Attrition 5770:Cuban Revolution 5706:We will bury you 5673:Cyprus Emergency 5653:Kashmir Princess 5643:Jebel Akhdar War 5492:Western betrayal 5177: 5170: 5163: 5154: 5153: 4939:Goryani Movement 4919: 4911: 4877: 4839: 4773:Yalta Conference 4732: 4725: 4718: 4709: 4708: 4636:1 (2015): 69–83. 4595: 4578: 4577: 4563: 4560: 4554: 4552: 4533: 4522: 4519: 4513: 4512: 4510: 4508: 4489: 4483: 4482: 4460: 4451: 4448: 4442: 4439: 4433: 4430: 4424: 4421: 4412: 4409: 4403: 4400: 4394: 4391: 4382: 4379: 4373: 4370: 4361: 4358: 4352: 4351: 4331: 4321: 4315: 4312: 4306: 4303: 4297: 4294: 4288: 4285: 4279: 4276: 4270: 4267: 4261: 4258: 4252: 4249: 4240: 4237: 4231: 4228: 4222: 4219: 4213: 4210: 4195: 4192: 4186: 4183: 4177: 4174: 4168: 4165: 4159: 4156: 4147: 4144: 4138: 4137: 4135: 4134: 4119: 4113: 4110: 4101: 4098: 4092: 4089: 4083: 4082: 4073:(240): 355–379. 4058: 4052: 4045: 4039: 4036: 4030: 4020: 4014: 4011: 4002: 3999: 3993: 3990: 3984: 3981: 3970: 3969: 3958: 3952: 3951: 3940: 3863: 3853: 3847: 3840: 3829: 3819: 3813: 3812:Withdrew in 1990 3810: 3804: 3801: 3745:State capitalism 3724:Druzhba pipeline 3688: 3683: 3682: 3674: 3669: 3668: 3667: 3542:Intertekstilmash 3382:unequal exchange 3342:Leningrad Affair 3208: 3206: 3205: 3194: 3192: 3191: 3180: 3179: 3178: 3170: 3166: 3164: 3163: 3154: 3150: 3148: 3147: 3135: 3133: 3132: 3124: 3120: 3118: 3117: 3105: 3103: 3102: 3094: 3090: 3088: 3087: 3075: 3073: 3072: 3061: 3059: 3058: 3047: 3045: 3044: 3029: 3027: 3026: 3010: 3006: 3004: 3003: 2993:Associate status 2973: 2968: 2943: 2939: 2937: 2936: 2915: 2910: 2889: 2885: 2883: 2882: 2859: 2854: 2829: 2825: 2823: 2822: 2799: 2794: 2769: 2765: 2763: 2762: 2739: 2734: 2713: 2709: 2707: 2706: 2683: 2678: 2653: 2649: 2647: 2646: 2623: 2618: 2593: 2589: 2587: 2586: 2559: 2554: 2529: 2525: 2523: 2522: 2499: 2494: 2472:Republic of Cuba 2469: 2465: 2463: 2462: 2439: 2434: 2413: 2409: 2407: 2406: 2383: 2378: 2362: 2351: 2350: 2346: 2344: 2343: 2320: 2281: 2280: 2094:Sinatra doctrine 1963:central planning 1953: 1867: 1860: 1856: 1853: 1847: 1823: 1822: 1815: 1754:market economies 1678:socialist states 1663: 1657: 1651: 1645: 1643: 1642: 1635: 1625: 1623: 1622: 1604: 1597: 1590: 1513: 1460: 1411: 1256:Poland 1944–1989 1240:Operation Jungle 1159: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1107: 958: 868: 866: 860: 849: 848: 839: 833: 832: 819: 818: 805: 804: 791: 790: 777: 776: 763: 762: 749: 748: 735: 734: 721: 720: 707: 706: 693: 692: 679: 678: 665: 664: 651: 650: 639: 638: 624: 623: 602: 601: 592:Mongolian tögrög 590: 589: 578: 577: 568:Hungarian forint 566: 565: 554: 553: 542: 541: 530: 529: 518: 517: 508:East German mark 506: 505: 494: 493: 424:26 December 1991 401:5–8 January 1949 371: 369: 368: 358: 356: 355: 345: 344: 333: 332: 321: 320: 309: 308: 297: 295: 294: 284: 282: 281: 271: 270: 259: 258: 250: 246: 244: 243: 129: 127: 123: 120: 118: 113: 107: 103: 100: 98: 86: 72: 55: 48: 47: 39: 38: 32: 26: 25: 8706: 8705: 8701: 8700: 8699: 8697: 8696: 8695: 8586: 8585: 8584: 8579: 8546: 8410: 8408:Austria-Hungary 8398: 8372: 8357: 8288:Peace of Vasvár 8258: 8239: 8216:Treaty of Gyalu 8196: 8194:Napoleonic Wars 8188: 8175: 8141:Treaty of Ófalu 8129:Peace of Szeged 8083: 8034: 8013: 8008: 7978: 7973: 7950: 7941:Second Cold War 7899: 7827: 7821: 7797:Odd Arne Westad 7787:Patrick Vaughan 7772:Athan Theoharis 7752:Ellen Schrecker 7737:Yakov M. Rabkin 7712:Timothy Naftali 7657:Tvrtko Jakovina 7642:Jussi Hanhimäki 7525: 7503: 7493: 7471:Paix et Liberté 7446: 7390:Active measures 7371: 7301: 7282:White supremacy 7242:Totalitarianism 7170: 7095: 7018: 7004:Reagan Doctrine 6999:Carter Doctrine 6939:Truman Doctrine 6927: 6874: 6806: 6701:Soviet reaction 6612:Ndogboyosoi War 6519: 6490:Saur Revolution 6317:1973 oil crisis 6282:Munich massacre 6190:Alcora Exercise 6185:Black September 6163: 5909:Sino-Indian War 5803:Simba rebellion 5786: 5630:Capture of the 5538: 5477:Berlin Blockade 5410:May 1947 crises 5400:Truman Doctrine 5365:Greek Civil War 5354:Blacklist Forty 5321:Gouzenko Affair 5308:Cursed soldiers 5260:Morgenthau Plan 5248: 5186: 5181: 5151: 5146: 5061: 5015: 5002:Soviet reaction 4988:Croatian Spring 4932: 4930: 4923: 4917: 4909: 4881: 4875: 4837: 4824: 4810:Berlin Blockade 4761: 4760: 4741: 4736: 4693: 4668:Russian History 4587:Country Studies 4584: 4575: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4557: 4550: 4534: 4525: 4520: 4516: 4506: 4504: 4491: 4490: 4486: 4479: 4461: 4454: 4449: 4445: 4440: 4436: 4431: 4427: 4422: 4415: 4410: 4406: 4401: 4397: 4392: 4385: 4380: 4376: 4371: 4364: 4359: 4355: 4348: 4322: 4318: 4313: 4309: 4304: 4300: 4295: 4291: 4286: 4282: 4277: 4273: 4268: 4264: 4259: 4255: 4250: 4243: 4238: 4234: 4229: 4225: 4220: 4216: 4211: 4198: 4193: 4189: 4184: 4180: 4175: 4171: 4166: 4162: 4157: 4150: 4145: 4141: 4132: 4130: 4120: 4116: 4111: 4104: 4099: 4095: 4090: 4086: 4059: 4055: 4046: 4042: 4037: 4033: 4021: 4017: 4012: 4005: 4000: 3996: 3991: 3987: 3982: 3973: 3960: 3959: 3955: 3942: 3941: 3866: 3854: 3850: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3832: 3820: 3816: 3811: 3807: 3802: 3798: 3793: 3755:Planned economy 3750:State socialism 3699:Bilateral trade 3684: 3677: 3670: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3637: 3622: 3582: 3550: 3502: 3470: 3461: 3445:Cyrillic script 3440: 3427: 3390: 3374:1973 oil crisis 3361: 3310: 3215: 3203: 3201: 3189: 3187: 3176: 3174: 3161: 3159: 3145: 3143: 3130: 3128: 3115: 3113: 3100: 3098: 3085: 3083: 3070: 3068: 3056: 3054: 3042: 3040: 3024: 3022: 3018: 3016:Observer status 3001: 2999: 2995: 2947: 2934: 2932: 2893: 2880: 2878: 2833: 2820: 2818: 2773: 2760: 2758: 2717: 2704: 2702: 2657: 2644: 2642: 2605:September 1950 2597: 2584: 2582: 2573: 2533: 2520: 2518: 2473: 2460: 2458: 2417: 2404: 2402: 2356: 2354: 2341: 2339: 2337: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2313: 2309: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2264: 2259: 2114: 2076:Abel Aganbegyan 2061: 2044:Massey Ferguson 2018:1973 oil crisis 1981: 1947: 1933:Polish protests 1926:five-year plans 1913: 1868: 1857: 1851: 1848: 1837: 1824: 1820: 1710: 1705: 1608: 1579: 1578: 1514: 1511: 1504: 1503: 1456: 1432:Berlin Blockade 1412: 1410:Cold War events 1409: 1402: 1401: 1325:Kazakhstan 1986 1156: 1151: 1149: 1142: 1141: 1108: 1105: 1098: 1097: 959: 956: 949: 948: 869: 864: 858: 856: 846: 837: 816: 802: 788: 774: 760: 746: 741:Baltic Assembly 732: 718: 704: 690: 676: 662: 648: 608: 604:Vietnamese đồng 596: 584: 572: 560: 548: 536: 524: 512: 500: 488: 485: 484: 465: 421: 408: 398: 377: 366: 364: 353: 351: 339: 327: 315: 303: 292: 290: 279: 277: 265: 253: 241: 239: 235: 234: 210: 157: 156: 130: 128: Observers 125: 124: 121: 116: 115: 114: 105: 104: 101: 96: 95: 94: 89: 77: 76: 73: 56: 50: 49: 42: 41: 40: 33: 30: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8704: 8694: 8693: 8688: 8683: 8678: 8673: 8668: 8663: 8658: 8653: 8648: 8643: 8638: 8633: 8628: 8623: 8618: 8613: 8608: 8603: 8598: 8581: 8580: 8578: 8577: 8571: 8565: 8560: 8554: 8552: 8548: 8547: 8545: 8544: 8538: 8533: 8527: 8521: 8515: 8509: 8504: 8498: 8492: 8486: 8481: 8478:Boxer Protocol 8475: 8470: 8465: 8460: 8454: 8448: 8445:Treaty of Bern 8442: 8436: 8430: 8424: 8418: 8416: 8411:to the end of 8404: 8403: 8400: 8399: 8397: 8396: 8390: 8384: 8377: 8374: 8373: 8371: 8370: 8362: 8359: 8358: 8356: 8355: 8349: 8343: 8337: 8331: 8325: 8320: 8314: 8308: 8302: 8296: 8291: 8285: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8263: 8260: 8259: 8257: 8256: 8244: 8238: 8237: 8231: 8225: 8219: 8213: 8207: 8200: 8198: 8177: 8176: 8174: 8173: 8167: 8161: 8155: 8149: 8144: 8138: 8132: 8126: 8120: 8117:Treaty of Zara 8114: 8108: 8102: 8099:Treaty of Enns 8095: 8093: 8085: 8084: 8082: 8081: 8075: 8069: 8064: 8059: 8053: 8046: 8044: 8036: 8035: 8033: 8032: 8025: 8023: 8015: 8014: 8007: 8006: 7999: 7992: 7984: 7975: 7974: 7972: 7971: 7966: 7961: 7955: 7952: 7951: 7949: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7933: 7928: 7923: 7918: 7913: 7907: 7905: 7901: 7900: 7898: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7831: 7829: 7823: 7822: 7820: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7804: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7767:Timothy Snyder 7764: 7759: 7754: 7749: 7744: 7739: 7734: 7729: 7724: 7719: 7714: 7709: 7704: 7699: 7697:Vojtech Mastny 7694: 7692:Geir Lundestad 7689: 7684: 7682:Walter Laqueur 7679: 7677:Walter LaFeber 7674: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7624: 7619: 7614: 7609: 7607:André Fontaine 7604: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7584: 7579: 7574: 7569: 7564: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7544: 7539: 7537:Gar Alperovitz 7533: 7531: 7527: 7526: 7524: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7507: 7505: 7499: 7498: 7495: 7494: 7492: 7491: 7486: 7480: 7479: 7474: 7467: 7462: 7454: 7452: 7448: 7447: 7445: 7444: 7437: 7432: 7425: 7418: 7413: 7406: 7399: 7392: 7386: 7384: 7377: 7373: 7372: 7370: 7369: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7329: 7324: 7319: 7313: 7311: 7307: 7306: 7303: 7302: 7300: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7277:Third-Worldism 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7199: 7194: 7189: 7184: 7178: 7176: 7172: 7171: 7169: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7143: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7116: 7111: 7105: 7103: 7097: 7096: 7094: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7078: 7073: 7068: 7066:Libertarianism 7063: 7058: 7057: 7056: 7046: 7044:Chicago school 7041: 7035: 7033: 7024: 7020: 7019: 7017: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6989:Nixon Doctrine 6986: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6935: 6933: 6932:Foreign policy 6929: 6928: 6926: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6884: 6882: 6876: 6875: 6873: 6872: 6867: 6866: 6865: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6814: 6812: 6808: 6807: 6805: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6717:Operation RYAN 6714: 6709: 6704: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6649: 6644: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6622:Able Archer 83 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6568: 6567: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6538: 6533: 6527: 6525: 6521: 6520: 6518: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6372:Oromo conflict 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6312:Yom Kippur War 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6171: 6169: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6135: 6134: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6095: 6090: 6089: 6088: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5968: 5967: 5966: 5956: 5951: 5946: 5944:Aden Emergency 5941: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5895: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5862:Papua conflict 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5843: 5842: 5832: 5831: 5830: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5794: 5792: 5788: 5787: 5785: 5784: 5779: 5778: 5777: 5767: 5765:Kitchen Debate 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5725:Sputnik crisis 5722: 5717: 5709: 5702: 5697: 5695:Polish October 5692: 5687: 5682: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5595:Pact of Madrid 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5550:Bamboo Curtain 5546: 5544: 5540: 5539: 5537: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5520: 5519: 5509: 5504: 5499: 5494: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5443: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5349: 5341: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5310: 5305: 5304: 5303: 5298: 5290: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5256: 5254: 5250: 5249: 5247: 5246: 5241: 5236: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5199: 5191: 5188: 5187: 5180: 5179: 5172: 5165: 5157: 5148: 5147: 5145: 5144: 5143: 5142: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5075: 5069: 5067: 5063: 5062: 5060: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5023: 5021: 5017: 5016: 5014: 5013: 5008: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4935: 4933: 4928: 4925: 4924: 4922: 4921: 4913: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4889: 4887: 4883: 4882: 4880: 4879: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4832: 4830: 4826: 4825: 4823: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4801: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4775: 4769: 4767: 4763: 4762: 4759: 4758: 4753: 4747: 4746: 4743: 4742: 4735: 4734: 4727: 4720: 4712: 4706: 4705: 4692: 4691:External links 4689: 4688: 4687: 4681: 4678: 4671: 4664: 4654: 4637: 4630: 4621: 4614: 4611: 4596: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4564: 4555: 4549:978-0882308418 4548: 4523: 4514: 4497:Česká televize 4484: 4477: 4452: 4443: 4434: 4425: 4413: 4404: 4395: 4383: 4374: 4362: 4353: 4346: 4316: 4307: 4298: 4289: 4280: 4271: 4262: 4253: 4241: 4232: 4223: 4214: 4196: 4187: 4178: 4169: 4160: 4148: 4139: 4114: 4102: 4093: 4084: 4053: 4040: 4031: 4015: 4003: 3994: 3985: 3971: 3953: 3950:on 1 May 2009. 3864: 3848: 3834: 3831: 3830: 3814: 3805: 3795: 3794: 3792: 3789: 3788: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3775:Visegrád Group 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3721: 3719:European Union 3716: 3711: 3706: 3701: 3696: 3690: 3689: 3686:Economy portal 3675: 3659: 3656: 3647: 3646: 3636: 3633: 3632: 3631: 3621: 3618: 3581: 3578: 3573: 3572: 3568: 3565: 3564:consideration. 3561: 3557: 3549: 3546: 3501: 3498: 3469: 3468:Other entities 3466: 3460: 3457: 3439: 3436: 3426: 3423: 3389: 3386: 3360: 3357: 3353:state monopoly 3338:Andrei Zhdanov 3314:exchange rates 3309: 3306: 3305: 3304: 3285: 3266: 3214: 3213: 3199: 3185: 3172: 3156: 3140: 3126: 3110: 3096: 3080: 3066: 3052: 3038: 3019: 3017: 3014: 3013: 3012: 2994: 2991: 2988: 2987: 2982: 2977: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2956: 2953: 2944: 2928: 2927: 2924: 2919: 2916: 2911: 2906: 2901: 2900:Europe / Asia 2898: 2895: 2890: 2874: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2860: 2855: 2850: 2845: 2842: 2839: 2830: 2814: 2813: 2808: 2803: 2800: 2795: 2790: 2785: 2782: 2779: 2770: 2754: 2753: 2748: 2743: 2740: 2735: 2730: 2725: 2722: 2719: 2714: 2698: 2697: 2692: 2687: 2684: 2679: 2674: 2669: 2666: 2663: 2654: 2638: 2637: 2632: 2627: 2624: 2619: 2614: 2609: 2606: 2603: 2594: 2578: 2577: 2568: 2563: 2560: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2542: 2539: 2530: 2527:Czechoslovakia 2514: 2513: 2508: 2503: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2485: 2484:North America 2482: 2479: 2470: 2454: 2453: 2448: 2443: 2440: 2435: 2430: 2425: 2422: 2419: 2414: 2398: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2384: 2379: 2374: 2369: 2366: 2363: 2352: 2334: 2333: 2328: 2324: 2316: 2310: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2290: 2286: 2263: 2260: 2258: 2255: 2182:Visegrád Group 2146:Czech Republic 2126:European Union 2113: 2110: 2060: 2057: 1980: 1977: 1956:Treaty of Rome 1912: 1909: 1870: 1869: 1827: 1825: 1818: 1730:Czechoslovakia 1709: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1618:(Russian: 1610: 1609: 1607: 1606: 1599: 1592: 1584: 1581: 1580: 1577: 1576: 1571: 1566: 1561: 1556: 1551: 1546: 1541: 1539:January Events 1536: 1531: 1526: 1521: 1515: 1510: 1509: 1506: 1505: 1502: 1501: 1496: 1491: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1454: 1449: 1444: 1439: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1413: 1408: 1407: 1404: 1403: 1398: 1397: 1396: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1375: 1367: 1366: 1360: 1359: 1358: 1357: 1352: 1350:Lithuania 1991 1347: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1327: 1322: 1317: 1312: 1311: 1310: 1305: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1269: 1268: 1263: 1250: 1249: 1245: 1244: 1243: 1242: 1237: 1232: 1227: 1222: 1214: 1213: 1207: 1206: 1205: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1166: 1165: 1157: 1148: 1147: 1144: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1134: 1129: 1124: 1117: 1109: 1104: 1103: 1100: 1099: 1096: 1095: 1089: 1075: 1070: 1064: 1059: 1053: 1048: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1013: 1008: 1006:Czechoslovakia 1003: 998: 993: 987: 982: 977: 972: 966: 960: 955: 954: 951: 950: 947: 946: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 886: 881: 876: 870: 855: 854: 851: 850: 842: 841: 829: 828: 825: 824: 821: 820: 813: 807: 806: 799: 793: 792: 785: 779: 778: 771: 765: 764: 757: 755:Visegrád Group 751: 750: 743: 737: 736: 729: 723: 722: 715: 709: 708: 701: 695: 694: 687: 681: 680: 673: 667: 666: 659: 653: 652: 645: 636: 633: 632: 627: 620: 619: 616: 610: 609: 607: 606: 594: 582: 570: 558: 546: 534: 522: 510: 498: 482: 481: 480: 478: 474: 473: 470: 469: 466: 463: 460: 459: 456: 455: 451: 450: 447: 443: 442: 439: 435: 434: 430: 429: 426: 425: 422: 416: 413: 412: 409: 406: 403: 402: 399: 396: 393: 392: 389: 388: 383: 382:Historical era 379: 378: 376: 375: 362: 349: 337: 325: 313: 301: 288: 275: 273:Czechoslovakia 263: 251: 230: 229: 228: 226: 222: 221: 219:Economic union 216: 212: 211: 209: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 154: 153: 152: 150: 146: 145: 136: 132: 131: 87: 79: 78: 74: 67: 66: 63: 62: 58: 57: 54:(GOST Russian) 34: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8703: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8682: 8679: 8677: 8674: 8672: 8669: 8667: 8664: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8654: 8652: 8649: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8632: 8629: 8627: 8624: 8622: 8619: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8597: 8594: 8593: 8591: 8575: 8572: 8569: 8566: 8564: 8561: 8559: 8556: 8555: 8553: 8549: 8542: 8539: 8537: 8534: 8531: 8528: 8525: 8522: 8519: 8516: 8513: 8510: 8508: 8505: 8502: 8499: 8496: 8493: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8479: 8476: 8474: 8471: 8469: 8466: 8464: 8461: 8458: 8455: 8452: 8449: 8446: 8443: 8440: 8437: 8434: 8431: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8419: 8417: 8414: 8409: 8405: 8394: 8391: 8388: 8385: 8382: 8379: 8378: 8375: 8368: 8364: 8363: 8360: 8353: 8350: 8347: 8344: 8341: 8338: 8335: 8332: 8329: 8326: 8324: 8321: 8318: 8315: 8312: 8309: 8306: 8303: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8289: 8286: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8264: 8261: 8254: 8250: 8249:Royal Hungary 8246: 8245: 8242: 8235: 8232: 8229: 8226: 8223: 8220: 8217: 8214: 8211: 8208: 8205: 8202: 8201: 8199: 8195: 8191: 8186: 8182: 8178: 8171: 8168: 8165: 8162: 8159: 8156: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8142: 8139: 8136: 8133: 8130: 8127: 8124: 8121: 8118: 8115: 8112: 8109: 8106: 8103: 8100: 8097: 8096: 8094: 8091: 8086: 8079: 8076: 8073: 8072:Oath of Bereg 8070: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8057: 8054: 8051: 8048: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8041:Árpád dynasty 8037: 8030: 8027: 8026: 8024: 8021: 8016: 8012: 8005: 8000: 7998: 7993: 7991: 7986: 7985: 7982: 7970: 7967: 7965: 7962: 7960: 7957: 7956: 7953: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7932: 7931:War on terror 7929: 7927: 7924: 7922: 7919: 7917: 7914: 7912: 7909: 7908: 7906: 7902: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7832: 7830: 7826:Espionage and 7824: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7800: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7777:Andrew Thorpe 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7713: 7710: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7680: 7678: 7675: 7673: 7672:Gabriel Kolko 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7637:Fred Halliday 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7622:Lloyd Gardner 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7582:Norman Davies 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7567:John Costello 7565: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7534: 7532: 7528: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7509: 7508: 7506: 7502:Technological 7500: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7481: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7472: 7468: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7460: 7456: 7455: 7453: 7449: 7443: 7442: 7438: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7430: 7426: 7424: 7423: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7411: 7407: 7405: 7404: 7400: 7398: 7397: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7387: 7385: 7383:Pro-communist 7381: 7378: 7374: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7314: 7312: 7310:Organizations 7308: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7179: 7177: 7173: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7141: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7124:Eurocommunism 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7106: 7104: 7102: 7098: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7055: 7052: 7051: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7036: 7034: 7032: 7028: 7025: 7021: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6954:Domino theory 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6936: 6934: 6930: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6908:South Ossetia 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6885: 6883: 6881: 6877: 6871: 6868: 6864: 6861: 6860: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6815: 6813: 6809: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6702: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6692:8888 Uprising 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6650: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6638: 6637:Iran–Iraq War 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6602:Falklands War 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6566: 6563: 6562: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6528: 6526: 6522: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6465:NDF Rebellion 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6445:German Autumn 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6425: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6332:Metapolitefsi 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6227: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6172: 6170: 6166: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6133: 6130: 6129: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6101: 6096: 6094: 6093:Prague Spring 6091: 6087: 6084: 6083: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6071:Al-Wadiah War 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6036:12-3 incident 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5965: 5962: 5961: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5879: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5841: 5838: 5837: 5836: 5833: 5829: 5826: 5825: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5795: 5793: 5789: 5783: 5780: 5776: 5773: 5772: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5715: 5710: 5707: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5680: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5633: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5615:Domino theory 5613: 5611: 5610:Petrov Affair 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5547: 5545: 5541: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5518: 5515: 5514: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5490: 5488: 5487:Madiun Affair 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5447:Marshall Plan 5445: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5427: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5355: 5350: 5348: 5347: 5342: 5340: 5339: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5316: 5311: 5309: 5306: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5296: 5291: 5289: 5288: 5283: 5282: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5257: 5255: 5251: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5204: 5200: 5198: 5197: 5196:United States 5193: 5192: 5189: 5185: 5178: 5173: 5171: 5166: 5164: 5159: 5158: 5155: 5141: 5140:Yugoslav Wars 5138: 5137: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5080: 5076: 5074: 5071: 5070: 5068: 5064: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5032: 5028: 5025: 5024: 5022: 5018: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4975: 4974:Prague Spring 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4936: 4934: 4926: 4920: 4914: 4912: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4890: 4888: 4886:Organizations 4884: 4878: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4834: 4833: 4831: 4827: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4788:Baltic states 4786: 4784: 4781: 4780: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4770: 4768: 4764: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4733: 4728: 4726: 4721: 4719: 4714: 4713: 4710: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4694: 4686: 4682: 4679: 4676: 4672: 4669: 4665: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4653: 4652:0-192-14956-3 4649: 4645: 4641: 4640:Michael Kaser 4638: 4635: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4622: 4619: 4615: 4612: 4609: 4608:0-415-16111-8 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4588: 4582: 4581:public domain 4573: 4572: 4559: 4553:, pp. 145–56. 4551: 4545: 4541: 4540: 4532: 4530: 4528: 4518: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4488: 4480: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4459: 4457: 4447: 4438: 4429: 4420: 4418: 4408: 4399: 4390: 4388: 4378: 4369: 4367: 4357: 4349: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4330: 4329: 4320: 4311: 4302: 4293: 4284: 4275: 4266: 4257: 4248: 4246: 4236: 4227: 4218: 4209: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4201: 4191: 4182: 4173: 4164: 4155: 4153: 4143: 4129: 4125: 4118: 4109: 4107: 4097: 4088: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4057: 4050: 4044: 4035: 4028: 4027: 4019: 4010: 4008: 3998: 3989: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3967: 3963: 3957: 3949: 3945: 3939: 3937: 3935: 3933: 3931: 3929: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3917: 3915: 3913: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3893: 3891: 3889: 3887: 3885: 3883: 3881: 3879: 3877: 3875: 3873: 3871: 3869: 3861: 3860:Country Study 3858: 3852: 3845: 3839: 3835: 3827: 3823: 3818: 3809: 3800: 3796: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3780:Craiova Group 3778: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3725: 3722: 3720: 3717: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3692: 3691: 3687: 3681: 3676: 3673: 3662: 3655: 3651: 3645: 3644: 3639: 3638: 3630: 3629: 3624: 3623: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3603: 3595: 3591: 3586: 3577: 3569: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3555: 3554: 3553: 3545: 3543: 3539: 3534: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3514: 3506: 3497: 3493: 3491: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3465: 3456: 3452: 3450: 3446: 3435: 3431: 3422: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3394: 3385: 3383: 3380:counteracted 3377: 3375: 3370: 3366: 3359:Oil transfers 3356: 3354: 3349: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3326: 3323: 3322:hard currency 3318: 3315: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3267: 3263: 3262: 3261: 3258: 3256: 3251: 3248: 3245:, from which 3244: 3238: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3211: 3200: 3197: 3186: 3183: 3173: 3169: 3157: 3153: 3141: 3138: 3127: 3123: 3111: 3108: 3097: 3093: 3081: 3078: 3067: 3064: 3063:North Vietnam 3053: 3050: 3039: 3036: 3032: 3021: 3020: 3009: 2997: 2996: 2986: 2983: 2981: 2978: 2975: 2970: 2965: 2963: 2960: 2957: 2954: 2951: 2945: 2942: 2930: 2929: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2912: 2907: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2891: 2888: 2876: 2875: 2872: 2869: 2867: 2864: 2861: 2856: 2851: 2849: 2846: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2831: 2828: 2816: 2815: 2812: 2809: 2807: 2804: 2801: 2796: 2791: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2780: 2777: 2771: 2768: 2756: 2755: 2752: 2749: 2747: 2744: 2741: 2736: 2731: 2729: 2726: 2723: 2720: 2715: 2712: 2700: 2699: 2696: 2693: 2691: 2688: 2685: 2680: 2675: 2673: 2670: 2667: 2664: 2661: 2655: 2652: 2640: 2639: 2636: 2633: 2631: 2628: 2625: 2620: 2615: 2613: 2610: 2607: 2604: 2601: 2595: 2592: 2580: 2579: 2576: 2572: 2569: 2567: 2564: 2561: 2556: 2551: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2540: 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