Chemical weapons in World War I

902:, signed by 132 nations on June 17, 1925, was a treaty established to ban the use of chemical and biological weapons during wartime. As stated by Coupland and Leins, "it was fostered in part by a 1918 appeal in which the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) described the use of poisonous gas against soldiers as a barbarous invention which science is bringing to perfection". The Protocol required that all remaining stockpiles of chemical weapons be destroyed. Chemical warfare agents that contained bromine, nitroaromatic, and chlorine were dismantled and destroyed. The destruction and disposal of the chemicals did not consider the long-term and adverse impacts on the environment. Although the Geneva Protocol banned the use of chemical weapons during wartime, the Protocol did not ban the production of chemical weapons. In fact, since the Geneva Protocol, the stockpiling of chemical weapons has continued, and weapons have become more lethal. As a result, the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) was drafted in 1993, which prohibits the development, production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons. Despite there being an international ban on chemical warfare, the CWC "allows domestic law enforcement agencies of the signing countries to use chemical weapons on their citizens". 385: 1886:

oceans and seas. It was believed that the chemicals would be diluted when disposed of in the ocean, and therefore ocean and sea dumping was a "safe and convenient" practice. Hundreds of thousands of tons of chemical agents, such as sulphur mustard, cyanogen chloride and arsine oil, were disposed of at sea. Chemical weapons have since washed up on shorelines and been found by fishers, causing injuries and, in some cases, death. Other disposal methods included land burials and incineration. After World War 1, "chemical shells made up 35 percent of French and German ammunition supplies, 25 percent British and 20 percent American". Weapons that contained chemicals such as bromine, chlorine and nitroaromatic were burned. The thermal destruction of chemical weapons negatively impacted the ecological environment of disposal sites. For example, in Verdun, France, the thermal destruction of weapons "resulted in severe metal contamination of upper 4–10 cm of topsoil" at the Place à Gas disposal site.

652: 528: 180: 1046: 608: 1581: 500: 1621: 484: 1762: 973: 870:, an updated and extensive prohibition of poison weapons. The Protocol, which was signed by most First World War combatants in 1925, bans the use (but not the stockpiling) of lethal gas and bacteriological weapons. Most countries that signed ratified it within around five years; a few took much longer—Brazil, Japan, Uruguay, and the United States did not do so until the 1970s, and Nicaragua ratified it in 1990. The signatory nations agreed not to use poison gas in the future, stating "the use in war of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and of all analogous liquids, materials or devices, has been justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilized world." 1605: 2271: 361:

bottom of a trench. Men who stood on the parapet suffered least, as the gas was denser near the ground. The worst sufferers were the wounded lying on the ground, or on stretchers, and the men who moved back with the cloud. Chlorine was less effective as a weapon than the Germans had hoped, particularly as soon as simple countermeasures were introduced. The gas produced a visible greenish cloud and strong odour, making it easy to detect. It was water-soluble, so the simple expedient of covering the mouth and nose with a damp cloth was effective at reducing the effect of the gas. It was thought to be even more effective to use

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This letter must be discounted as evidence for early German use of chlorine, however, because the date "2 January 1915" may have been hastily scribbled instead of the intended "2 January 1916," the sort of common typographical error that is often made at the beginning of a new year. The deaths of so many English officers from gas at this time would certainly have been met with outrage, but a recent, extensive study of British reactions to chemical warfare says nothing of this supposed attack. Perhaps this letter was referring to the chlorine-phosgene attack on British troops at

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immunosuppression, psychological disorders and sexual dysfunction. Chemicals used in the production of chemical weapons also left residues in the soil where the weapons were used. The chemicals that were detected can cause cancer and can affect the brain, blood, liver, kidneys and skin. The development and production of chemical weapons threatened public health and introduced a new set of challenges. Not only did war gasses like mustard and chlorine endanger the lives of soldiers, but also threatened the safety of workers who manufactured them.

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over their mouth and nose, urine would be left to sit for a period so that the ammonia would activate, this would neutralize some of the chemicals in the chlorine gas, this action would allow them to delay the German advance at Ypres giving the allies time to reinforce the area when French and other colonial troops had retreated. The first official equipment issued was similarly crude; a pad of material, usually impregnated with a chemical, tied over the lower face. To protect the eyes from tear gas, soldiers were issued with gas goggles.

1593: 1637: 1786: 512: 19: 8468: 353: 1665: 703: 922:), and very rare occurrences in Europe (for example some mustard gas bombs were dropped on Warsaw on 3 September 1939, which Germany acknowledged in 1942 but indicated had been accidental). Mustard gas was the agent of choice, with the British stockpiling 40,719 tons, the Soviets 77,400 tons, the Americans over 87,000 tons and the Germans 27,597 tons. The destruction of an American cargo ship containing mustard gas led to many 1830: 401:. These pads were intended to be used damp, preferably dipped into a solution of bicarbonate kept in buckets for that purpose; other liquids were also used. Because such pads could not be expected to arrive at the front for several days, army divisions set about making them for themselves. Locally available muslin, flannel and gauze were used, officers were sent to 722:, wrote: "I wish those people who talk about going on with this war whatever it costs could see the soldiers suffering from mustard gas poisoning. Great mustard-coloured blisters, blind eyes, all sticky and stuck together, always fighting for breath, with voices a mere whisper, saying that their throats are closing and they know they will choke." 1443:) died from scarring of the lungs, skin damage, and cerebral damage in the years after the conflict ended. Many commanders on both sides knew that such weapons would cause major harm to civilians as wind would blow poison gases into nearby civilian towns but nonetheless continued to use them throughout the war. British 1754:, the gas could backfire, causing friendly casualties. Gas clouds gave plenty of warning, allowing the enemy time to protect themselves, though many soldiers found the sight of a creeping gas cloud unnerving. Gas clouds had limited penetration, only capable of affecting the front-line trenches before dissipating. 1846:'), and are also regularly discovered when public works or construction work is done. After the armistice, people sought unexploded weapons for their metal value, as well as preventing the danger that they posed to civilians. Toxic chemicals were emptied from shells, resulting in many deaths and health defects. 2283:

are believed to have had the most significant long-term health effects. Chronic fatigue and memory loss were reported to last up to three years after exposure. In the years following World War One, there were many conferences held in attempts to abolish the use of chemical weapons altogether, such as the

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The next advance was the introduction of the gas helmet—basically a bag placed over the head. The fabric of the bag was impregnated with a chemical to neutralize the gas—the chemical would wash out into the soldier's eyes whenever it rained. Eye-pieces, which were prone to fog up, were initially made

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Phosgene was a potent killing agent, deadlier than chlorine. It had a potential drawback in that some of the symptoms of exposure took 24 hours or more to manifest. This meant that the victims were initially still capable of putting up a fight; this could also mean that apparently fit troops would be

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Soldiers who claimed to have been exposed to chemical warfare often presented unusual medical conditions which has led to much controversy. The lack of information left doctors, patients, and their families in the dark in terms of prognosis and treatment. Nerve agents such as sarin, tabun, and soman

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at the end of the war because of unexploded ordnance. About 20% of the chemical shells were duds, and approximately 13 million of these munitions were left in place. This has been a serious problem in former battle areas from immediately after the end of the War until the present. Shells may be, for

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Horses and mules were important methods of transport that could be endangered if they came into close contact with gas. This was not so much of a problem until it became common to launch gas great distances. This caused researchers to develop masks that could be used on animals such as dogs, horses,

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The Small Box Respirator featured a single-piece, close-fitting rubberized mask with eye-pieces. The box filter was compact and could be worn around the neck. The SBR could be readily upgraded as more effective filter technology was developed. The British-designed SBR was also adopted for use by the

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Even at Second Ypres, Germany, still unsure of the weapon's effectiveness, only issued breathing masks to the engineers handling the gas. At Ypres a Canadian medical officer, who was also a chemist, quickly identified the gas as chlorine and recommended that the troops urinate on a cloth and hold it

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The Allies mounted more gas attacks than the Germans in 1917 and 1918 because of a marked increase in production of gas from the Allied nations. Germany was unable to keep up with this pace despite creating various new gases for use in battle, mostly as a result of very costly methods of production.

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Although the health effects are generally chronic in nature, the exposures were generally acute. A positive correlation has been proven between exposure to mustard agents and skin cancers, other respiratory and skin conditions, leukemia, several eye conditions, bone marrow depression and subsequent

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After World War I, the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom and other nations had stockpiles of unfired weapons. It has been estimated that 125 million tons of toxic gases were used to manufacture bombs, grenades and shells. The remaining weapons were destroyed, dismantled, and disposed of in

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was ignited by an electrical signal, firing the cylinder containing 30 or 40 lb (14 or 18 kg) of gas up to 1,900 metres. By arranging a battery of these projectors and firing them simultaneously, a dense concentration of gas could be achieved. The Livens was first used at Arras on 4 April

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The main flaw associated with delivering gas via artillery was the difficulty of achieving a killing concentration. Each shell had a small gas payload and an area would have to be subjected to a saturation bombardment to produce a cloud to match cylinder delivery. Mustard gas did not need to form a

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Many of those who survived a gas attack were scarred for life. Respiratory disease and failing eyesight were common post-war afflictions. Of the Canadians who, without any effective protection, had withstood the first chlorine attacks during Second Ypres, 60% of the casualties had to be repatriated

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and first used by France in 1915. Colourless and having an odour likened to "mouldy hay," phosgene was difficult to detect, making it a more effective weapon. Phosgene was sometimes used on its own, but was more often used mixed with an equal volume of chlorine, with the chlorine helping to spread

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or, in places, blew back on the British trenches. This was compounded when the gas could not be released from all the British canisters because the wrong turning keys were sent with them. Subsequent retaliatory German shelling hit some of those unused full cylinders, releasing gas among the British

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It is a cowardly form of warfare which does not commend itself to me or other English soldiers ... We cannot win this war unless we kill or incapacitate more of our enemies than they do of us, and if this can only be done by our copying the enemy in his choice of weapons, we must not refuse to

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and assorted French troops reformed the line in scattered, hastily prepared positions 1,000–3,000 yards (910–2,740 m) apart. The Entente governments claimed the attack was a flagrant violation of international law but Germany argued that the Hague treaty had only banned chemical shells, rather

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Finally, the cylinders had to be emplaced at the very front of the trench system so that the gas was released directly over no man's land. This meant that the cylinders had to be manhandled through communication trenches, often clogged and sodden, and stored at the front where there was always the

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The effectiveness of all countermeasures is apparent. In 1915, when poison gas was relatively new, less than 3% of British gas casualties died. In 1916, the proportion of fatalities jumped to 17%. By 1918, the figure was back below 3%, though the total number of British gas casualties was now nine

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letter of Major Karl von Zingler that the first chlorine gas attack by German forces took place before 2 January 1915: "In other war theatres it does not go better and it has been said that our Chlorine is very effective. 140 English officers have been killed. This is a horrible weapon ...".

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rarely had a warning system to alert their neighbours of the danger and often did not have access to effective gas masks. When the gas came to the towns it could easily get into houses through open windows and doors. An estimated 100,000–260,000 civilian casualties were caused by chemical weapons

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The skin of victims of mustard gas blistered, their eyes became very sore and they began to vomit. Mustard gas caused internal and external bleeding and attacked the bronchial tubes, stripping off the mucous membrane. This was extremely painful. Fatally injured victims sometimes took four or five

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Aside from unexploded shells, there have been claims that poison residues have remained in the local environment for an extended period, though this is unconfirmed; well known but unverified anecdotes claim that as late as the 1960s trees in the area retained enough mustard gas residue to injure

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in a favourable wind such that it was carried over the enemy's trenches. The Hague Convention of 1899 prohibited the use of poison gasses delivered by projectiles. The main advantage of this method was that it was relatively simple and, in suitable atmospheric conditions, produced a concentrated

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It quickly became evident that the men who stayed in their places suffered less than those who ran away, as any movement worsened the effects of the gas, and that those who stood up on the fire step suffered less—indeed they often escaped any serious effects—than those who lay down or sat at the

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Mustard gas is not an effective killing agent (though in high enough doses it is fatal) but can be used to harass and disable the enemy and pollute the battlefield. Delivered in artillery shells, mustard gas was heavier than air, and it settled to the ground as an oily liquid. Once in the soil,

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solution with which to dampen the pads. Immediately following the use of chlorine gas by the Germans, instructions were sent to British and French troops to hold wet handkerchiefs or cloths over their mouths. Simple pad respirators similar to those issued to German troops were soon proposed by

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Delivering gas via artillery shell overcame many of the risks of dealing with gas in cylinders. The Germans, for example, used 5.9-inch (150 mm) artillery shells. Gas shells were independent of the wind and increased the effective range of gas, making anywhere within reach of the guns

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When the United States entered the war, it was already mobilizing resources from academic, industry and military sectors for research and development into poison gas. A Subcommittee on Noxious Gases was created by the National Research Committee, a major research centre was established at

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in July 1918. (The gases used during that battle (tear gas) caused temporary blindness and/or a painful stinging in the eyes. These bandages were normally water-soaked to provide a rudimentary form of pain relief to the eyes of casualties before they reached more organized medical help.)

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and eyelids, forcing them closed and rendering the victim temporarily blind. Where it contacted the skin, moist red patches would immediately appear which after 24 hours would have formed into blisters. Other symptoms included severe headache, elevated pulse and temperature (fever), and

1523:(LBR) or "Harrison's Tower", was deemed too bulky—the box canister needed to be carried on the back. The LBR had no mask, just a mouthpiece and nose clip; separate gas goggles had to be worn. It continued to be issued to the artillery gun crews but the infantry were supplied with the " 1450:

wrote in his diary: "My officers and I were aware that such weapon would cause harm to women and children living in nearby towns, as strong winds were common on the battlefront. However, because the weapon was to be directed against the enemy, none of us were overly concerned at all."

439:, which was a flannel bag with a celluloid window, which entirely covered the head. The race was then on between the introduction of new and more effective poison gases and the production of effective countermeasures, which marked gas warfare until the armistice in November 1918. 1407:

Case four. Aged 39 years. Gassed 29 July 1917. Admitted to casualty clearing station the same day. Died about ten days later. Brownish pigmentation present over large surfaces of the body. A white ring of skin where the wrist watch was. Marked superficial burning of the face and

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newspaper encouraged women to manufacture cotton pads, and within one month a variety of pad respirators were available to British and French troops, along with motoring goggles to protect the eyes. The response was enormous and a million gas masks were produced in a day. The

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from Algeria. Faced with an unfamiliar threat these troops broke ranks, abandoning their trenches and creating an 8,000-yard (7 km) gap in the Allied line. The German infantry were also wary of the gas and, lacking reinforcements, failed to exploit the break before the

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A British chlorine cylinder, known as an "oojah", weighed 190 lb (86 kg), of which 60 lb (27 kg) was chlorine gas, and required two men to carry. Phosgene gas was introduced later in a cylinder, known as a "mouse", that weighed 50 lb (23 kg).

38:. They were primarily used to demoralize, injure, and kill entrenched defenders, against whom the indiscriminate and generally very slow-moving or static nature of gas clouds would be most effective. The types of weapons employed ranged from disabling chemicals, such as 988:

The contribution of gas weapons to the total casualty figures was relatively minor. British figures, which were accurately maintained from 1916, recorded that 3% of gas casualties were fatal, 2% were permanently invalid and 70% were fit for duty again within six weeks.

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The problems are especially acute in some northern regions of France. The French government no longer disposes of chemical weapons at sea. For this reason, piles of untreated chemical weapons accumulated. In 2001, it became evident that the pile stored at a depot in

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None of the First World War's combatants were prepared for the introduction of poison gas as a weapon. Once gas was introduced, development of gas protection began and the process continued for much of the war, producing a series of increasingly effective gas masks.

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Gas never reproduced the dramatic success of 22 April 1915; it became a standard weapon which, combined with conventional artillery, was used to support most attacks in the later stages of the war. Gas was employed primarily on the Western Front—the static, confined

384: 314:. The British Official History stated that at Hill 60, "90 men died from gas poisoning in the trenches or before they could be got to a dressing station; of the 207 brought to the nearest dressing stations, 46 died almost immediately and 12 after long suffering." 1394:

They cannot be bandaged or touched. We cover them with a tent of propped-up sheets. Gas burns must be agonizing because usually the other cases do not complain even with the worst wounds but gas cases are invariably beyond endurance and they cannot help crying

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troops. Exacerbating the situation were the primitive flannel gas masks distributed to the British. The masks got hot, and the small eye-pieces misted over, reducing visibility. Some of the troops lifted the masks to get fresh air, causing them to be gassed.

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For mustard gas, which could cause severe damage by simply making contact with skin, no effective countermeasure was found during the war. The kilt-wearing Scottish regiments were especially vulnerable to mustard gas injuries due to their bare legs. At

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in August 1914. The small quantities of gas delivered, roughly 19 cm (1.2 cu in) per cartridge, were not even detected by the Germans. The stocks were rapidly consumed and by November a new order was placed by the French military. As

167:; the concentration achieved was so small that it too was barely noticed. None of the combatants considered the use of tear gas to be in conflict with the Hague Treaty of 1899, which specifically prohibited the launching of projectiles containing 1519:. The box filter contained granules of chemicals that neutralised the gas, delivering clean air to the wearer. Separating the filter from the mask enabled a bulky but efficient filter to be supplied. Nevertheless, the first version, known as the 1069:, 1978), a fatal dose of phosgene eventually led to "shallow breathing and retching, pulse up to 120, an ashen face and the discharge of four pints (2 litres) of yellow liquid from the lungs each hour for the 48 of the drowning spasms." 1849:

Another difficulty is the current stringency of environmental legislation. In the past, a common method of getting rid of unexploded chemical ammunition was to detonate or dump it at sea; this is currently prohibited in most countries.

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Rousselare 2 Januar 15 ... Auf anderen Kriegsschauplätzen ist es ja auch nicht besser und die Wirkung von unserem Chlor soll ja sehr gut sein. Es sollen 140 englische Offiziere erledigt worden sein. Es ist doch eine furchtbare

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vulnerable. Gas shells could be delivered without warning, especially the clear, nearly odourless phosgene—there are numerous accounts of gas shells, landing with a "plop" rather than exploding, being initially dismissed as dud

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contained abundant gas. The lungs fairly voluminous. The right lung showing extensive collapse at the base. Liver congested and fatty. Stomach showed numerous submucous haemorrhages. The brain substance was unduly wet and very

1580: 101:, which prohibited the use of "poison or poisoned weapons" in warfare. Widespread horror and public revulsion at the use of gas and its consequences led to far less use of chemical weapons by combatants during World War II. 7914: 2341: 7904: 1226:

After July 1917 gas partly usurped the role of high explosive in bringing to head a natural unfitness for war. The gassed men were an expression of trench fatigue, a menace when the manhood of the nation had been picked

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The proportion of mustard gas fatalities to total casualties was low; 2% of mustard gas casualties died and many of these succumbed to secondary infections rather than the gas itself. Once it was introduced at the

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of the siege guns, a compressed air strombus horn was used, which could be heard nine miles (14 km) away. Notices would be posted on all approaches to an affected area, warning people to take precautions.

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cloud capable of overwhelming the gas mask defences. The disadvantages of cylinder releases were numerous. First and foremost, delivery was at the mercy of the wind. If the wind was fickle, as was the case at

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Chemical weapons have been used in at least a dozen wars since the end of the First World War; they were not used in combat on a large scale until Iraq used mustard gas and the more deadly nerve agents in the

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By the end of the war, chemical weapons had lost much of their effectiveness against well trained and equipped troops. By that time, chemical weapon agents had inflicted an estimated 1.3 million casualties.

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when dissolved in the water in the lungs. Despite its limitations, chlorine was an effective psychological weapon—the sight of an oncoming cloud of the gas was a continual source of dread for the infantry.

8178: 882:. The full conflict's use of such weaponry killed around 20,000 Iranian troops (and injured another 80,000), around a quarter of the number of deaths caused by chemical weapons during the First World War. 803:, and the 1st Gas Regiment was recruited. The 1st Gas Regiment eventually served in France, where it used phosgene gas in several attacks. The Artillery used mustard gas with significant effect during the 8163: 7795: 426:

s design was useless when dry and caused suffocation when wet—the respirator was responsible for the deaths of scores of men. By 6 July 1915, the entire British army was equipped with the more effective

285:. At 17:30, in a slight easterly breeze, the liquid chlorine was siphoned from the tanks, producing gas which formed a grey-green cloud that drifted across positions held by French Colonial troops from 7790: 7702: 7677: 74:. In the later stages of the war, as the use of gas increased, its overall effectiveness diminished. The widespread use of these agents of chemical warfare, and wartime advances in the composition of 8158: 8135: 7735: 5282: 831:

Nevertheless, in the following years, chemical weapons were used in several, mainly colonial, wars where one side had an advantage in equipment over the other. The British used poison gas, possibly

771:, after their armies had captured a stockpile of German mustard gas shells. It took the British more than a year to develop their own mustard gas weapon, with production of the chemicals centred on 8090: 7872: 7800: 7750: 1472:. When going into combat, gas helmets were typically worn rolled up on top of the head, to be pulled down and secured about the neck when the gas alarm was given. The first British version was the 819:

was producing 10 tons per day of the substance, for a total of about 150 tons. It is uncertain what effect this new chemical would have had on the battlefield, as it degrades in moist conditions.

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The polluting nature of mustard gas meant that it was not always suitable for supporting an attack as the assaulting infantry would be exposed to the gas when they advanced. When Germany launched

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Self-contained box respirators represented the culmination of gas mask development during the First World War. Box respirators used a two-piece design; a mouthpiece connected via a hose to a box

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near Ypres, Belgium on 19 December 1915, 88 tons of the gas were released from cylinders causing 1069 casualties and 69 deaths. The British P gas helmet, issued at the time, was impregnated with

8075: 7820: 7815: 7810: 7760: 7755: 218:, used by the German military. Chlorine is a powerful irritant that can inflict damage to the eyes, nose, throat and lungs. At high concentrations and prolonged exposure it can cause death by 8125: 7876: 7785: 7780: 7775: 8168: 472:, was the agent to be used (140 tons arrayed in 5,100 cylinders), and the attack was dependent on a favourable wind. On this occasion the wind proved fickle, and the gas either lingered in 736:

with mustard gas instead of attacking it directly, believing that the harassing effect of the gas, coupled with threats to the salient's flanks, would make the British position untenable.

8120: 7682: 1620: 949:. Neither Germany nor the Allied nations used any of their war gases in combat, despite maintaining large stockpiles and occasional calls for their use. Poison gas played an important 8522: 499: 599:

Phosgene was never as notorious in public consciousness as mustard gas, but it killed far more people: about 85% of the 90,000 deaths caused by chemical weapons during World War I.

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risk that cylinders would be prematurely breached during a bombardment. A leaking cylinder could issue a telltale wisp of gas that, if spotted, would be sure to attract shellfire.

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took 9,000 casualties, with more than 1,000 fatalities. In response, the artillery branch of the Russian Army organised a commission to study the delivery of poison gas in shells.

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The goggles rapidly dimmed over, and the air came through in such suffocatingly small quantities as to demand a continuous exercise of will-power on the part of the wearers.

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Countermeasures were quickly introduced in response to the use of chlorine. The Germans issued their troops with small gauze pads filled with cotton waste, and bottles of a

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Gas alert procedure became a routine for the front-line soldier. To warn of a gas attack, a bell would be rung, often made from a spent artillery shell. At the noisy

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Jones, E.; Everitt, B.; Ironside, S.; Palmer, I.; Wessely, S. (2008). "Psychological effects of chemical weapons: a follow-up study of First World War veterans".

8014: 7132: 310:, the Germans used gas on three more occasions; on 24 April against the 1st Canadian Division, on 2 May near Mouse Trap Farm and on 5 May against the British at 5327:. History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. II. London: HMSO. 1858:

was unsafe; the inhabitants of the neighbouring town were evacuated, and the pile moved, using refrigerated trucks and under heavy guard, to a military camp in

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Van der Kloot, W. (2004). "April 1915: Five Future Nobel Prize-winners inaugurate weapons of mass destruction and the academic-industrial-military complex".

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Thouin, Hugues; Battaglia-Brunet, Fabienne; Norini, Marie-Paule; Le Forestier, Lydie; Charron, Mickael; Dupraz, Sébastien; Gautret, Pascale (15 June 2018).

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to buy more and local French women were employed making up rudimentary pads with string ties. Other units used lint bandages manufactured in the convent at

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The US reportedly had about 135,000 tons of chemical warfare agents during WW II; Germany had 70,000 tons, Britain 40,000 and Japan 7,500 tons. The German

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A common fate of those exposed to gas was blindness, chlorine gas or mustard gas being the main causes. One of the most famous First World War paintings,

8034: 8019: 8009: 7979: 7934: 7363: 7118: 4356: 775:. (The only option available to the British was the Despretz–Niemann–Guthrie process.) This was used first in September 1918 during the breaking of the 8024: 7949: 7929: 7909: 7358: 7048: 6999: 6914: 651: 527: 179: 8029: 8004: 7959: 7944: 7202: 840: 447:

The British expressed outrage at Germany's use of poison gas at Ypres and responded by developing their own gas warfare capability. The commander of

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Mary Fox, Frank Curriero, Kathryn Kulbicki, Beth Resnick, Thomas Burke, "Evaluating the Community Health Legacy of WWI Chemical Weapons Testing,"

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Mary Fox, Frank Curriero, Kathryn Kulbicki, Beth Resnick, Thomas Burke, "Evaluating the Community Health Legacy of WWI Chemical Weapons Testing,"

4880:"Influence of environmental changes on the biogeochemistry of arsenic in a soil polluted by the destruction of chemical weapons: A mesocosm study" 1570:

dust was tried. A proposal was made to equip front-line sentries with diving helmets, air being pumped to them through a 100 ft (30 m) hose.

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tribesmen throughout the 1920s and Italy used mustard gas in Libya in 1930 and again during its invasion of Ethiopia in 1936. In 1925, a Chinese

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The distribution of gas cloud casualties was not limited to the front. Nearby towns were at risk from winds blowing the poison gases through.

5894: 1480:(commonly known as "hypo"). The British P gas helmet, partially effective against phosgene and with which all infantry were equipped with at 66:

of the 20th century. The killing capacity of gas was profound, with about 90,000 fatalities from a total of 1.3 million casualties caused by

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Other British attempts at countermeasures were not so effective. An early plan was to use 100,000 fans to disperse the gas. Burning coal or

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In both Axis and Allied nations, children in school were taught to wear gas masks in case of gas attack. Germany developed the poison gases

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Many of those who were fairly soon recorded as fit for service were left with scar tissue in their lungs. This tissue was susceptible to

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Entry into the war by the United States allowed the Allies to increase mustard gas production far more than Germany. Also the prevailing

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was blowing from west to east, which meant the Allies more frequently had favourable conditions for a gas release than did the Germans.

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It was remarked as a joke that if someone yelled 'Gas', everyone in France would put on a mask. ... Gas shock was as frequent as

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Medical Services: Diseases of the War: Including the Medical Aspects of Aviation and Gas Warfare and Gas Poisoning in Tanks and Mines

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The solution to achieving a lethal concentration without releasing from cylinders was the "gas projector", essentially a large-bore

7712: 5677: 5420: 3305: 7353: 5020: 1862:. The capacity of the plant is meant to be 25 tons per year (extensible to 80 tons at the beginning), for a lifetime of 30 years. 7835: 7285: 7123: 7110: 7067: 6976: 6702: 6504: 6411: 6313: 6071: 5718: 4114: 1219: 748:, where the lack of effective countermeasures resulted in deaths of over 56,000 Russians, while Britain experimented with gas in 607: 4329: 7954: 7477: 7467: 7335: 1865:

Germany has to deal with unexploded ammunition and polluted lands resulting from the explosion of an ammunition train in 1919.

3956: 8497: 8492: 8039: 7765: 7249: 7183: 7020: 6899: 6572: 5591: 5447: 5299: 4589: 4564: 3861: 3657: 3365: 3288: 2828: 2682: 2406: 3253: 679:. The Germans marked their shells yellow for mustard gas and green for chlorine and phosgene; hence they called the new gas 8502: 7672: 7424: 6844: 5629: 4605: 4303: 2323:

were deadlier than the old-style suffocants (chlorine, phosgene) and blistering agents (mustard gas) in Allied stockpiles.

5259:

Cook, Tim. "‘Against God-Inspired Conscience’: The Perception of Gas Warfare as a Weapon of Mass Destruction, 1915–1939."

4069: 8140: 8130: 7195: 6519: 6147: 5652: 7409: 4091: 1259:

attack. It was from this that many of the 1918 casualties died, around the time of the Second World War, shortly before

377: 8095: 7394: 6684: 6086: 5844: 4407: 1636: 1539:

of 1918, it was found that while some troops had discarded their rifles, hardly any had left behind their respirators.

914:, but the only reports of its use in the conflict were the Japanese use of relatively small amounts of mustard gas and 452: 1586:

A smelling case to allow officers to identify the gas by smell and thus act appropriately for protection and treatment

7590: 7269: 6963: 6779: 6051: 5522: 4748: 4704: 4628: 4535: 4506: 4477: 4450: 3910: 3886: 3791: 3721: 3577: 3529: 3473: 3340: 3229: 3204: 3159: 2920: 2868: 2758: 2620: 2567: 2542: 2513: 2377: 1712: 311: 2889: 2327:

and several American generals reportedly called for their use against Germany and Japan, respectively (Weber, 1985).

1694: 1535:. The SBR was the prized possession of the ordinary infantryman; when the British were forced to retreat during the 8110: 8105: 7616: 6449: 5487: 4280: 7667: 7520: 7325: 7305: 7092: 7028: 6720: 5624: 5544: 5482: 5404: 4942: 4721: 4423: 1497: 1082:, captures such a scene of mustard gas casualties which he witnessed at a dressing station at Le Bac-du-Sud near 807:

on at least three occasions. The United States began large-scale production of an improved vesicant gas known as

6185: 5271: 890: 812: 409:. Pad respirators were sent up with rations to British troops in the line as early as the evening of 24 April. 8335: 7320: 7315: 7310: 7300: 6994: 5639: 5614: 5512: 5366: 2699: 2534: 1690: 1508:

A modified version of the P helmet, called the PH helmet, was issued in January 1916, and was impregnated with

1444: 398: 238:

conglomerate in 1925) had been making chlorine as a by-product of their dye manufacturing. In cooperation with

4376: 70:. Gas was unlike most other weapons of the period because it was possible to develop countermeasures, such as 7722: 7295: 7290: 7254: 7188: 7080: 6926: 6509: 6361: 5899: 5827: 5758: 5527: 5497: 5492: 2244: 1231:

Mustard gas did not need to be inhaled to be effective—any contact with skin was sufficient. Exposure to 0.1

110: 1761: 8340: 7891: 7244: 6871: 6811: 6708: 6613: 6376: 6162: 5866: 5705: 5604: 2288: 1532: 511: 432: 325:. Surviving defenders drove back the attack and retained the fortress. The event would later be called the 187:

The first instance of large-scale use of gas as a weapon was on 31 January 1915, when Germany fired 18,000

78:, gave rise to an occasionally expressed view of World War I as "the chemist's war" and also the era where 972: 711:

mustard gas remained active for several days, weeks, or even months, depending on the weather conditions.

8537: 8507: 7639: 7482: 6919: 6904: 6762: 6714: 6479: 6030: 5904: 5817: 5812: 5581: 5569: 5564: 2284: 1797:

concentrated cloud and hence artillery was the ideal vehicle for delivery of this battlefield pollutant.

843:

chemical weapons against Iraqi insurgents in the 1920s; Bolshevik troops used poison gas to suppress the

792: 745: 640: 436: 333: 6091: 5308:

Jones, Edgar. "Terror weapons: The British experience of gas and its treatment in the First World War."

2423: 1812:

in 1917) was a simple device; an 8-inch (200 mm) diameter tube sunk into the ground at an angle, a

578:

Around 36,600 tons of phosgene were manufactured during the war, out of a total of 190,000 tons for all

8453: 8345: 8065: 8060: 7853: 7462: 7419: 6696: 6454: 6439: 6341: 6210: 5778: 5690: 5647: 1990: 1817:

1917. On 31 March 1918 the British conducted their largest ever "gas shoot", firing 3,728 cylinders at

1738: 919: 780: 270: 129: 79: 4879: 3782:

Lockwood, John C. (2003). "Chapter 3. The Earth's Climates". In Hewitt, C. N.; Jackson, A. V. (eds.).

30:

The use of toxic chemicals as weapons dates back thousands of years, but the first large-scale use of

7404: 7172: 6756: 6744: 6499: 6484: 6205: 6096: 5790: 5768: 5517: 5507: 5440: 4847: 4773: 2790: 2505: 2270: 448: 6351: 8380: 8203: 7634: 7629: 7379: 6866: 6856: 6785: 6738: 6726: 6666: 6474: 6469: 6391: 5800: 5773: 5477: 4527: 3385: 1675: 1095:, mustard gas produced 90% of all British gas casualties and 14% of battle casualties of any type. 800: 624: 243: 164: 157: 98: 5351: 2366:

Greek Fire, Poison Arrows and Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World

1555:

some Scottish battalions took to wearing women's tights beneath the kilt as a form of protection.

7654: 7624: 7450: 7442: 7384: 7144: 6839: 6602: 6429: 6424: 6356: 6215: 6200: 6195: 6175: 6056: 5933: 3073: 2449: 2211: 1679: 1536: 875: 804: 572: 6396: 5394: 4202: 2721: 744:

was ideal for achieving an effective concentration. Germany also used gas against Russia on the

8293: 7217: 6941: 6876: 6732: 6459: 6386: 6336: 6321: 6303: 6276: 6190: 6157: 5822: 5783: 5763: 5574: 5467: 1509: 1260: 668: 326: 307: 5268:

Holding Their Breath: How the Allies Confronted the Threat of Chemical Warfare in World War II

4228: 3517: 3494: 3411: 8228: 8223: 8218: 7644: 7583: 7207: 6861: 6750: 6526: 6489: 6419: 6366: 6288: 6256: 6230: 6180: 6111: 6013: 5966: 5750: 5619: 5502: 5377:

Toxic Exposures: Mustard Gas and the Health Consequences of World War II in the United States

5238: 4254: 3814: 3194: 2395:

CBRN Protection: Managing the Threat of Chemical, Biological, Radioactive and Nuclear Weapons

2049: 1877: 1809: 1730: 1092: 759: 753: 676: 616: 341: 299: 278: 196: 3713:

The Armies of Industry: Our Nation's Manufacture of Munitions for a World in Arms, 1917–1918

1725: 7662: 7557: 7472: 6152: 6126: 6076: 5433: 4891: 4152: 3451:. University of California Libraries. New York McGraw-Hill Book Company, inc. p. 176. 3036: 1790: 1524: 1050: 1037: 6101: 2988: 2476: 8: 8273: 7539: 6678: 6542: 6494: 6371: 6331: 6326: 6271: 5954: 5948: 5849: 3309: 2228: 1818: 1611: 1548: 1403:

account from the British official medical history records one of the British casualties:

1273: 1079: 976: 930: 318: 7492: 5313: 4895: 4156: 3040: 8278: 8238: 8208: 7607: 7499: 7414: 6773: 6637: 6619: 6584: 6548: 6381: 6346: 6298: 6283: 6170: 6121: 5960: 5919: 5599: 5225: 5137: 5120: 5085: 5060: 5002: 4923: 4823:"Terror in Tokyo: The Poison; Sarin Just One of Many Deadly Gases Terrorists Could Use" 4670: 4645: 4402:. Washington, DC: Borden Institute, Walter Reed Army Medical Center. pp. 300–301. 4253:. Public Health Emergency Preparedness and Response, Pinal County. 2003. Archived from 4184: 4038: 3463: 3120: 3054: 2980: 2655: 2275: 1919: 1477: 1440: 1417: 961: 957: 946: 749: 733: 620: 393: 160: 137: 5398: 3688: 2342:

Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter

8355: 8330: 8325: 8258: 8233: 7858: 7532: 7526: 7487: 7389: 7222: 6805: 6660: 6643: 6444: 6266: 6246: 6081: 6066: 5996: 5984: 5685: 5662: 5609: 5380: 5362: 5328: 5322: 5295: 5230: 5142: 5090: 4994: 4986: 4915: 4907: 4766:"Sécurité. Les 55 tonnes d'obus chimiques sont stockées au camp militaire de Suippes" 4744: 4700: 4694: 4675: 4624: 4585: 4560: 4531: 4502: 4473: 4446: 4403: 4368: 4333: 4176: 4168: 3906: 3882: 3857: 3808: 3787: 3717: 3653: 3573: 3543: 3535: 3525: 3515: 3469: 3361: 3336: 3284: 3225: 3200: 3155: 3112: 2972: 2916: 2864: 2858: 2824: 2754: 2748: 2678: 2659: 2638: 2616: 2563: 2538: 2509: 2402: 2373: 2324: 1782:, giving the gas time to work before the soldiers were alerted and took precautions. 1559: 1232: 1074: 981: 918:

in China, Italy's use of gas in Ethiopia (in what is more often considered to be the

879: 836: 726: 639:

gas. Thousands of Italian soldiers died in this first chemical weapons attack on the

628: 575:(urotropine) to improve the protection against phosgene, was issued in January 1916. 559:

In the first combined chlorine–phosgene attack by Germany, against British troops at

373: 372:

Chlorine required a concentration of 1,000 parts per million to be fatal, destroying

208: 5006: 4903: 4092:"File:Soviet chemical weapons canisters from a stockpile in Albania.jpg - Knowledge" 2984: 2499: 2338:

Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft

8471: 8410: 8375: 8365: 8298: 8253: 8248: 8213: 7707: 7576: 6590: 6560: 6554: 6464: 6293: 6261: 6251: 5990: 5914: 5909: 5837: 5657: 5557: 5220: 5212: 5132: 5080: 5072: 4978: 4927: 4899: 4665: 4657: 4160: 3960: 3524:. Office of The Surgeon General, Department of the Army, United States of America. 3124: 3104: 3044: 2964: 2647: 2136: 2116: 2038: 1805: 1485: 1447: 923: 911: 866:

Public opinion had by then turned against the use of such weapons which led to the

844: 816: 564: 473: 322: 211:. Instead of vaporizing, the chemical froze and failed to have the desired effect. 183:

Russian Red Cross nurses tend to gassed Russians brought from the front lines, 1915

55: 5277:

Fitzgerald, Gerard J. "Chemical warfare and medical response during World War I."

5121:"Chemical Warfare as Developed During the World War – Probable Future Development" 4982: 4188: 1252:

and half of these were still unfit by the end of the war, over three years later.

397:

Lieutenant-Colonel N. C. Ferguson, the Assistant Director Medical Services of the

8395: 8263: 7845: 7399: 7239: 6578: 6131: 6106: 5805: 5713: 5552: 5414: 4696:

Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen

4498: 4467: 3711: 3446: 3257: 2292: 2174: 1961: 1801: 1646: 1567: 1167: 950: 899: 867: 776: 772: 579: 544: 75: 31: 5242: 4966: 4799: 3623: 3175: 956:

Britain made plans to use mustard gas on the landing beaches in the event of an

582:, making it second only to chlorine (93,800 tons) in the quantity manufactured: 8415: 8370: 8360: 8320: 7232: 7212: 6883: 6596: 6434: 6225: 6116: 5972: 5876: 5859: 4469:

A higher form of killing: the secret history of chemical and biological warfare

2191: 1983: 1972: 1785: 1779: 1775: 1751: 1489: 1488:. A mouthpiece was added through which the wearer would breathe out to prevent 1481: 1152: 1117: 741: 490: 465: 146: 51: 3108: 2968: 2675:

Chemical warfare agents: chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and therapeutics

1745:

The first system employed for the mass delivery of gas involved releasing the

763:

Australian gunners of the 55th Siege Battery working during a gas attack, 1917

730: 8486: 8448: 8438: 8385: 8308: 8288: 8150: 7343: 6631: 6625: 6061: 5978: 5889: 5332: 5216: 5200: 4990: 4911: 4172: 3593: 3547: 1911: 1734: 1083: 719: 337: 192: 150: 4738: 4661: 4229:"Chemical Weapons and their Unforeseen Impact on Health and the Environment" 3753:"Chemical Warfare: From the European Battlefield to the American Laboratory" 2821:

A Strange and Formidable Weapon: British Responses to World War I Poison Gas

8443: 8390: 8350: 8303: 6793: 6220: 5234: 5146: 5094: 5076: 4998: 4919: 4679: 4372: 4180: 3986: 3116: 3049: 3024: 2976: 2672: 2651: 2070: 2022: 1843: 1746: 1516: 1256: 1033: 856: 250:, they began developing methods of discharging chlorine gas against enemy 71: 5321:

MacPherson, W. G.; Herringham, W. P.; Elliott, T. R.; Balfour, A. (1923).

4443:

No Place to Run: The Canadian Corps and Gas Warfare in the First World War

3222:

Before big science: the pursuit of modern chemistry and physics, 1800–1940

3152:

No Place to Run: The Canadian Corps and Gas Warfare in the First World War

3094: 2593: 365:

rather than water, as it was known at the time that chlorine reacted with

18: 8283: 8268: 7004: 6909: 6607: 6035: 5456: 4524:

Dew of Death: The Story of Lewisite, America's World War I Weapon of Mass

1473: 1362: 1240: 994: 664: 468:, 25 September 1915, but the attempt was a disaster. Chlorine, codenamed 428: 290: 239: 200: 125: 35: 4877: 4014:. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. 2005. Archived from 3358:

A comprehensive guide to the hazardous properties of chemical substances

2950:"The Great War, the Russian Civil War, and the Invention of Big Science" 4164: 3879:

James B. Conant: Harvard to Hiroshima and the Making of the Nuclear Age

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Fries, Amos A. (Amos Alfred); West, Clarence J. (Clarence Jay) (1921).

2126: 2006: 1942: 1838: 1813: 1400: 414: 352: 286: 227: 86: 67: 5409: 4967:"Sea-dumped chemical weapons: environmental risk, occupational hazard" 4141:"Destruction of chemical weapons – Technologies and practical aspects" 3025:"The Action of Chlorine upon Urea Whereby a Dichloro Urea is Produced" 667:. Despite the name it is not a gas but a volatile oily liquid, and is 8243: 6799: 6566: 4556: 4140: 3853: 3058: 2750:

German Industry and Global Enterprise, BASF: The History of a Company

2594:"Chemical Warfare in World War I: The American Experience, 1917–1918" 2398: 2320: 2296: 1938: 1829: 1435: 1245: 811:, for use in an offensive planned for early 1919. By the time of the 568: 531:

Microscopic section of human lung from phosgene shell poisoning from

505:

Football team of British soldiers with gas masks, Western front, 1916

406: 235: 188: 90: 63: 59: 5346:

Padley, Anthony Paul. "Gas: the greatest terror of the Great War."

4422: 3650:

Allenby's military medicine: life and death in World War I Palestine

3570:

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Sidell, F. R.; Urbanetti, J. S.; Smith, W. J.; Hurst, C. G. (1997).

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The deficiencies of chlorine were overcome with the introduction of

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1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War

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War Made New: Weapons, Warriors, and the Making of the Modern World

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Future War and Counterproliferation: U.S. Military Responses to NBC

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The First World War and the End of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1914–1918

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The most widely reported chemical agent of the First World War was

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The new Chemical Weapons Convention – implementation and prospects

4553:

Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents, Second Edition

3850:

Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents, Second Edition

2531:

Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Era

1842:

instance, uncovered when farmers plough their fields (termed the '

859:, contracted a German company to build him a mustard gas plant in 655:

Microscopic section of human lung from mustard gas poisoning from

8433: 8405: 8400: 8315: 4965:

Greenberg, M. I.; Sexton, K. J.; Vearrier, D. (7 February 2016).

4848:"File:First Chemical weapons destroyed at JACADS.jpg - Knowledge" 4233:

Seattle Journal of Technology, Environmental & Innovation Law

1859: 1421: 1409: 1236: 1049:

Plate III, Pallid type of asphyxia from phosgene poisoning, with

960:

in 1940. The United States considered using gas to support their

852: 768: 560: 294: 263: 142: 133: 5292:

Gas! GAS! Quick, boys! How Chemistry Changed the First World War

3539: 3199:. Wordsworth Military Library. Wordsworth Editions. p. 37. 7599: 2163: 1413: 611:

Italian dead after the Austrian gas attack on Monte San Michele

356:

British emplacement after German gas attack (probably phosgene)

251: 247: 204: 5425: 2776:"Die Feldpostbriefe Karl v. Zinglers aus dem Ersten Weltkrieg" 1881:

Chemical munition being destroyed at disposal facility, 1990.

1598:

Various gas masks employed on the Western Front during the war

556:

incapacitated by the effects of the gas on the following day.

7227: 3709: 2528: 1627: 938: 934: 696: 402: 362: 282: 231: 163:

filled with a chemical irritant against British positions at

89:

by all major belligerents throughout World War I constituted

4495:

The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War

3784:

Handbook of Atmospheric Science: Principles and Applications

3647: 3493:. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from 3333:

The poisonous cloud: chemical warfare in the First World War

2860:

War of Nerves: Chemical Warfare from World War I to Al-Queda

2560:

The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War

910:

All major combatants stockpiled chemical weapons during the

767:

The British Army first used mustard gas in November 1917 at

552:

after the marking painted on shells containing the mixture.

4251:"History of Chemical and Biological Warfare: 1901–1939 A.D" 2913:

The Riddle of the Rhine: Chemical Strategy in Peace and War

2291:(1933). The United States was an original signatory of the 1855: 1837:

Over 16,000,000 acres (65,000 km) of France had to be

1469: 788: 366: 223: 120:

The most frequently used chemicals during World War I were

7568: 5415:

Gas-Poisoning, by Arthur Hurst, M.A., MD (Oxon), FRCP 1917

5201:"Chemical Warfare and Medical Response During World War I" 4646:"Chemical Warfare and Medical Response During World War I" 3813:. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. 3520:. In Sidell, F. R.; Takafuji, E. T.; Franz, D. R. (eds.). 671:

as a fine mist of liquid droplets. It was introduced as a

543:, which was prepared by a group of French chemists led by 8523:

World War I crimes by the British Empire and Commonwealth

4739:

Bothe, Michael; Ronzitti, Natalino; Rosas, Allan (1998).

3716:. Vol. 5. Yale University Press. pp. 491, 500. 1804:

that fired the entire cylinder as a missile. The British

848: 274: 174: 3382:"A Short History of Chemical Warfare During World War I" 2673:

Romano, James A.; Lukey, Brian J.; Salem, Harry (2007).

1869:

farmers or construction workers who were clearing them.

1222:, who had been a medical officer during the war, wrote: 847:

in 1920, Spain used chemical weapons in Morocco against

548:

the denser phosgene. The Allies called this combination

4964: 4036: 3881:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 47. 1872: 567:

and partially effective against phosgene. The modified

54:. These chemical weapons caused medical problems. This 5159:

Glyn Volans, "Long-term effects of chemical weapons,"

3924:"Winston Churchill's shocking use of chemical weapons" 2501:

The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials: A Personal Memoir

2475:. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Archived from 1439:

during the conflict and tens of thousands (along with

1061:

Death by gas was often slow and painful. According to

5421:

Understanding Chemical Weapons in the First World War

4039:"Text of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention" 2910: 1833:

Phosgene delivery system unearthed at the Somme, 2006

1390:

A British nurse treating mustard gas cases recorded:

1053:, American Red Cross and Medical Research Committee, 706:

A Canadian soldier with mustard gas burns, 1917/1918

347: 95:

1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases

2610: 1626:Australian infantry wearing small box respirators, 1500:, recalled his experience of the P helmet at Loos: 1021:

Dim, through the misty panes and thick green light,

1019:

And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime ...

592:

United Kingdom 1,400 tons (also used French stocks)

321:used chlorine gas against Russian troops defending 132:was the first to employ tear gas, using 26 mm 3710:Crowell, Benedict; Wilson, Robert Forrest (1921). 3522:Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare 2783:Nobilitas, Zeitschrift für deutsche Adelsforschung 2697: 595:United States 1,400 tons (also used French stocks) 571:, which was impregnated with phenate hexamine and 4332:. Council for British Archaeology. Archived from 4113:Robin Coupland, Kobi-Renée Leins (20 July 2005). 4012:"High Contracting Parties to the Geneva Protocol" 3781: 2700:"The Germans develop a new weapon: the gas cloud" 8484: 4793: 4791: 4521: 3689:"Photographic Archive of Avonmouth Bristol BS11" 3360:(3rd ed.). Wiley-Interscience. p. 85. 3023:Chattaway, Frederick Daniel (22 December 1908). 2600:(10). US Army Command and General Staff College. 2274:British troops blinded by poison gas during the 1027:He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning. 1017:But someone still was yelling out and stumbling, 1013:Gas! GAS! Quick, boys! — An ecstasy of fumbling, 675:by Germany on July 12, 1917, weeks prior to the 8528:World War I crimes by the Third French Republic 6402:Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers 4550: 3847: 2287:(1921–22), Geneva Conference (1923–25) and the 464:The first use of gas by the British was at the 317:On 6 August, German troops under Field Marshal 4637: 4618: 4357:"Why We Didn't Use Poison Gas in World War II" 4355:Bernstein, Barton J. (August–September 1985). 4112: 3980: 3978: 3278: 2497: 2392: 2363: 1737:, June 1916 – part of the preparation for the 1614:crew wearing PH gas helmets with exhaust tubes 1214:Mustard gas was a source of extreme dread. In 376:in the lungs, likely through the formation of 124:rather than fatal or disabling poison. During 7584: 5441: 4788: 4062:"In Iran, grim reminders of Saddam's arsenal" 2635: 277:of chlorine deployed in 5,730 cylinders from 266:near Ypres, on 19 December 1915 (see below). 149:allies, the active ingredient was changed to 5125:Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 4743:. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 208. 4606:"Canadians & the Poison Gas of Flanders" 4465: 4145:Environmental Science and Pollution Research 3617: 3615: 885: 6892: 5114: 5112: 5110: 5108: 5106: 5104: 4492: 3975: 3957:"Blister Agent: Sulfur Mustard (H, HD, HS)" 3951: 3949: 3947: 3945: 3836:Annual Report of the Secretary of War, 1919 3071: 3012:Edmonds and Wynne (1927): pp. 177–178. 2746: 2265: 1693:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1263:became widely available for its treatment. 1025:In all my dreams, before my helpless sight, 388:A sentry stands watch next to a "gas gong". 7591: 7577: 5448: 5434: 5289: 5198: 4940: 4719: 4643: 4304:"Sixty secret mustard gas sites uncovered" 3468:. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. 3465:Handbook of Chemical Warfare and Terrorism 3283:. Vol. 1. Murdoch Books. p. 74. 3247: 3245: 3243: 3241: 3029:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 2947: 2587: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2579: 2421: 522: 489:British infantry advancing through gas at 369:(present in urine) to form dichloro urea. 22:A French gas attack on German trenches in 5224: 5136: 5084: 4669: 4354: 4094:. commons.wikimedia.org. 30 November 2006 3984: 3916: 3876: 3612: 3444: 3422: 3410:(Vienna, Austria: Böhlau Verlag, 2014), 3224:. Harvard University Press. p. 193. 3149: 3048: 3022: 1713:Learn how and when to remove this message 1023:As under a green sea, I saw him drowning. 905: 6691:Revolutions and interventions in Hungary 5101: 5054: 4579: 4037:Third Geneva Convention (17 June 1925). 3942: 3786:. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 72–74. 3746: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3567: 3136: 3134: 2943: 2941: 2911:Lefebure, Victor; Wilson, Henry (2004). 2888:. Veteran Affairs Canada. Archived from 2529:Thomas Graham; Damien J. Lavera (2003). 2269: 1876: 1828: 1784: 1760: 1724: 1512:to improve protection against phosgene. 1044: 1015:Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time; 971: 894:Chemical weapons canister and stockpile. 889: 758: 701: 650: 606: 526: 383: 351: 178: 17: 8543:United Kingdom chemical weapons program 8533:World War I crimes by the United States 7068:Occupied Enemy Territory Administration 5356: 5052: 5050: 5048: 5046: 5044: 5042: 5040: 5038: 5036: 5034: 4301: 4115:"Science and Prohibited Weapons – ICRC" 4059: 3806: 3800: 3648:Dolev, Eran; Lillywhite, Louis (2007). 3355: 3335:. Oxford University Press. p. 70. 3238: 2576: 1765:German gas attack on the eastern front. 839:troops beginning on 27 August 1919 and 453:Lieutenant General Sir Charles Ferguson 8518:World War I crimes by Imperial Germany 8485: 5118: 5058: 4820: 4692: 4397: 3461: 3434:– via American Chemical Society. 3192: 2856: 2818: 2773: 2677:(2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 5. 2591: 2452:. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 1429: 1420:was covered by a yellow membrane. The 715:weeks to die of mustard gas exposure. 442: 175:1915: Large-scale use and lethal gases 8513:World War I crimes by Austria-Hungary 7572: 7021:Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia 6357:Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele) 5429: 4960: 4958: 4956: 4873: 4871: 4869: 4797: 4763: 4400:Medical aspects of biological warfare 3750: 3737: 3621: 3488: 3330: 3303: 3251: 3131: 2938: 2883: 2714: 2611:Taylor, L. B.; Taylor, C. L. (1992). 2557: 2470: 2447: 2046:Severe irritant, causes asphyxiation 1824: 1272:British forces gas casualties on the 729:on 21 March 1918, they saturated the 602: 332:Germany used chemical weapons on the 156:In October 1914, German troops fired 99:1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare 7425:Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne 5031: 4821:Browne, Malcomb W. (22 March 1995). 4623:. Wordsworth Editions. p. 103. 4440: 4424:Wilson, Charles McMoran (Lord Moran) 4302:Bellamy, Christopher (4 June 1996). 4226: 4138: 3281:An Incomplete History of World War I 3279:Kiester, Edwin; et al. (2007). 2615:(Revised ed.). Franklin Watts. 2592:Heller, Charles E (September 1984). 2450:"The Growing Menace of Chemical War" 2306: 1873:Disposal methods of chemical weapons 1691:adding citations to reliable sources 1658: 1476:, the fabric of which was soaked in 1266: 646: 104: 7354:Ottomans against the Triple Entente 6148:Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes 4713: 4330:"Chemical Weapons against Invasion" 4227:Chen, Alexandra (19 January 2022). 4060:Fassihi, Farnaz (27 October 2002). 3810:The Story of the First Gas Regiment 3572:. New York: The Macmillan Company. 3416: 3219: 2847:, Charles-Lavauzelle, 1972, p. 283. 1654: 378:hypochlorous and hydrochloric acids 58:was a major component of the first 13: 6087:First Battle of the Masurian Lakes 5252: 4953: 4934: 4866: 4430:(1st ed.). London: Constable. 2886:"On the Western Front: Ypres 1915" 2422:Weisberger, Mindy (6 April 2017). 2203:(blistering agent), lung irritant 1454: 14: 8554: 5417:effects of chlorine gas poisoning 5387: 5379:(Rutgers University Press, 2017) 5279:American journal of public health 5205:American Journal of Public Health 5061:"Chemical Warfare and the Doctor" 4650:American Journal of Public Health 4644:Fitzgerald, Gerard (April 2008). 3985:Rosenheck, Dan (25 August 2003). 3672: 3622:Duffy, Michael (22 August 2009). 3423:Tinnesand, Michael (April 2005). 3140:Edmonds and Wynne (1927): p. 217. 2935:Edmonds and Wynne (1927): p. 289. 1543:mules, and even carrier pigeons. 1416:much congested. The whole of the 683:. It was known to the British as 348:Effectiveness and countermeasures 115: 8467: 8466: 6450:Second Battle of the Piave River 6072:Russian invasion of East Prussia 5192: 5189:, 35, (18 November 2009): 96–97. 5179: 5166: 5153: 4884:Science of the Total Environment 3751:Gross, Daniel A. (Spring 2015). 3652:. I. B. Tauris. pp. 37–38. 2823:. University of Nebraska Press. 1663: 1635: 1619: 1603: 1591: 1579: 1248:(from blistering in the lungs). 510: 498: 482: 303:than the use of gas projectors. 7521:Arrest of a Suspect in Sarajevo 6721:Lithuanian Wars of Independence 5455: 5405:Chemical Weapons in World War I 5013: 4904:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.158 4840: 4814: 4757: 4732: 4686: 4612: 4598: 4573: 4544: 4515: 4486: 4459: 4434: 4416: 4391: 4348: 4322: 4295: 4269: 4243: 4220: 4195: 4132: 4106: 4084: 4053: 4030: 4004: 3959:. CBWInfo. 2005. Archived from 3895: 3870: 3841: 3829: 3775: 3703: 3681: 3666: 3641: 3594:"German Spring Offensives 1918" 3586: 3561: 3509: 3482: 3455: 3438: 3400: 3374: 3349: 3324: 3297: 3272: 3213: 3186: 3168: 3143: 3088: 3065: 3015: 3006: 2929: 2904: 2877: 2850: 2837: 2812: 2767: 2740: 2691: 2666: 2629: 2613:Chemical and Biological Warfare 2604: 2330: 2313: 2299:did not ratify it until 1975. 878:near the end of the eight-year 863:, which was completed in 1927. 7344:Austria-Hungary against Serbia 7203:Deportations from East Prussia 7000:1915 typhus epidemic in Serbia 5348:Anaesthesia and intensive care 5059:Cowell, E. M. (October 1939). 5025:Canada and the First World War 5021:"Weapons on Land – Poison Gas" 4466:Harris, T; Paxman, J. (2002). 4203:"Arms Control and Disarmament" 3987:"WMDs: the biggest lie of all" 3807:Addison, James Thayer (1919). 3675:The Port of Bristol, 1848–1884 2753:. Cambridge University Press. 2551: 2535:University of Washington Press 2522: 2491: 2464: 2441: 2415: 2386: 2357: 2030:Irritant, lachrymatory, toxic 2014:Severe irritant, causes burns 1729:A British cylinder release at 958:invasion of the United Kingdom 1: 7255:Ukrainian Canadian internment 5176:, 35, (18 November 2009): 96. 4983:10.3109/15563650.2015.1121272 4139:Haas, Rainer (1 March 1999). 3624:"Weapons of War – Poison Gas" 2774:Aksulu, N. Melek (May 2006). 2698:Legg, J.; Parker, G. (2002). 2448:Reddy, Chris (2 April 2007). 2351: 2194:(Bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide) 2086:Monobromomethyl ethyl ketone 2007:Trichloromethyl chloroformate 1998:Irritant – Eyes, skin, lungs 1889: 967: 111:Technology during World War I 8498:Chemical warfare by conflict 8493:World War I chemical weapons 7410:Sazonov–Paléologue Agreement 6709:Estonian War of Independence 6377:Southern Palestine offensive 5119:Gibson, Adelno (July 1937). 4941:Freemantle, Michael (2018). 4720:Freemantle, Michael (2018). 4584:. Gotham. pp. 245–250. 3901:Schneider, Barry R. (1999). 3877:Hershberg, James G. (1993). 3491:"Facts About Sulfur Mustard" 3331:Haber, Ludwig Fritz (1986). 2948:Kojevnikov, A. (June 2002). 2857:Tucker, Jonathan B. (2006). 2747:Abelshauser, Werner (2003). 2558:Haber, Ludwig Fritz (1986). 2289:World Disarmament Conference 1533:American Expeditionary Force 1331:December 1915 – August 1916 1235:was enough to cause massive 691:), and the French called it 517:A British gas bomb from 1915 222:. German chemical companies 214:The first killing agent was 7: 8503:Environmental impact of war 7881:National Revolutionary Army 7598: 7364:USA against Austria-Hungary 6763:Turkish War of Independence 6715:Latvian War of Independence 6440:Treaty of Bucharest of 1918 6031:Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo 5187:Journal of Community Health 5174:Journal of Community Health 5163:, 360, (December 2002): 36. 5065:The British Medical Journal 4772:(in French). Archived from 2845:L'Armee d'Afrique 1830–1962 2562:. Oxford University press. 2285:Washington Naval Conference 1383: 1380: 1375:April 1915 – November 1918 1369: 1366: 1353: 1350: 1339: 1336: 1325: 1322: 1309: 1306: 1207: 1204: 1196: 1193: 1185: 1182: 1174: 1171: 1161: 1158: 1146: 1143: 1135: 1132: 1124: 1121: 822: 80:weapons of mass destruction 10: 8559: 7693:War of the Triple Alliance 7447:Treaties of Brest-Litovsk 6995:1899–1923 cholera pandemic 6455:Second Battle of the Marne 6342:Second battle of the Aisne 6211:Second Battle of Champagne 6052:German invasion of Belgium 5350:44.1_suppl (2016): 24-30. 4041:. Brigham Young University 3489:Staff (22 February 2006). 3462:Hoenig, Steven L. (2002). 3406:Rauchensteiner, Manfried, 3304:Staff (22 February 2006). 2220:Irritant, can blur vision 1991:Chloromethyl chloroformate 1359:July 1917 – November 1918 920:Second Italo-Ethiopian War 108: 8462: 8426: 8196: 8149: 8048: 7890: 7844: 7721: 7713:Pre-20th century firearms 7653: 7615: 7606: 7553: 7512: 7433: 7372: 7334: 7278: 7267: 7228:Assyrian genocide (Sayfo) 7171: 7143: 7091: 7013: 6987: 6939: 6832: 6825: 6757:Irish War of Independence 6653: 6535: 6500:Armistice of Villa Giusti 6485:Battle of Vittorio Veneto 6410: 6312: 6239: 6140: 6097:First Battle of the Marne 6044: 6006: 5941: 5932: 5875: 5749: 5738: 5704: 5676: 5638: 5590: 5543: 5536: 5463: 5199:Fitzgerald, G.J. (2008). 4522:Joel A. Vilensky (1986). 4207:The Canadian Encyclopedia 3356:Patnaik, Pradyot (2007). 3256:. CBWInfo. Archived from 3154:. UBC Press. p. 37. 3109:10.1017/S003329170800278X 3076:. University College Cork 2969:10.1017/S0269889702000443 2726:Science History Institute 2506:Little, Brown and Company 2473:"Paul Saffo presentation" 1496:of the 1/23rd Battalion, 1285: 1282: 1279: 1099:Estimated gas casualties 1055:An Atlas of Gas Poisoning 962:planned invasion of Japan 941:during the war, and used 924:casualties in Bari, Italy 886:The Geneva Protocol, 1925 657:An Atlas of Gas Poisoning 533:An Atlas of Gas Poisoning 191:shells containing liquid 8101:Cambodian–Vietnamese War 8091:South African Border War 7873:Second Sino-Japanese War 7380:Constantinople Agreement 6673:Armenian–Azerbaijani War 6536:Co-belligerent conflicts 6505:Second Romanian campaign 6475:Third Transjordan attack 6186:Gorlice–Tarnów offensive 6092:Battle of Grand Couronné 5357:Richter, Donald (1994). 5217:10.2105/AJPH.2007.111930 4943:"The great war clean-up" 4722:"The great war clean-up" 4551:D. Hank Ellison (2007). 4528:Indiana University Press 3848:D. Hank Ellison (2007). 2915:. Kessinger Publishing. 2789:(41): 57. Archived from 2266:Long-term health effects 2139:(sulphuretted hydrogen) 1112:(Fatal & non-fatal) 813:armistice on 11 November 801:Camp American University 244:Kaiser Wilhelm Institute 93:as its use violated the 42:, to lethal agents like 8081:Portuguese Colonial War 7443:Modus vivendi of Acroma 7395:Bulgaria–Germany treaty 6703:Greater Poland Uprising 6603:National Protection War 6480:Meuse–Argonne offensive 6430:German spring offensive 6425:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 6201:Siege of Novogeorgievsk 6176:Second Battle of Artois 6057:Battle of the Frontiers 5290:Freemantle, M. (2012). 4798:J. C. (17 April 2001). 4764:J. C. (17 April 2001). 4662:10.2105/AJPH.2007.11930 4619:Warner, Philip (2000). 3568:Brittain, Vera (1933). 3193:Warner, Philip (2000). 3072:O'Leary, Donal (2000). 2819:Girard, Marion (2008). 2498:Telford Taylor (1993). 2393:Andre Richardt (2012). 2364:Adrienne Mayor (2003). 2214:(dichloromethyl ether) 2212:Bis(chloromethyl) ether 2183:Irritant, lachrymatory 2092:Lachrymatory, irritant 2078:Lachrymatory, irritant 1574:times the 1915 levels. 1537:German spring offensive 1484:, was impregnated with 876:Halabja chemical attack 805:Meuse-Argonne Offensive 781:Hundred Days' Offensive 573:hexamethylene tetramine 523:1915: More deadly gases 122:tear-inducing irritants 8449:Civilian gun ownership 7468:Paris Peace Conference 7456:Ukraine–Central Powers 7250:Massacres of Albanians 7218:Late Ottoman genocides 7025:Bulgarian occupations 6733:Third Anglo-Afghan War 6697:Hungarian–Romanian War 6515:Naval Victory Bulletin 6510:Armistice with Germany 6460:Hundred Days Offensive 6387:Battle of La Malmaison 6337:Second battle of Arras 6304:Battle of Transylvania 6158:Second Battle of Ypres 6026:Sarajevo assassination 5915:South African Republic 5312:21.3 (2014): 355-375. 5281:98.4 (2008): 611-625. 5077:10.1136/bmj.2.4109.736 4428:The Anatomy of Courage 4398:Dembek, Z. F. (2007). 3518:"Chapter 7. Vesicants" 3306:"Facts About Phosgene" 3097:Psychological Medicine 3050:10.1098/rspa.1908.0094 2884:Staff (29 July 2004). 2652:10.1098/rsnr.2004.0053 2279: 2156:(Diphenyl chlorasine) 1882: 1834: 1793: 1766: 1742: 1510:hexamethylenetetramine 1506: 1427: 1397: 1345:July 1916 – July 1917 1286:Casualties (official) 1229: 1216:The Anatomy of Courage 1058: 1043: 1009: 985: 906:Effect on World War II 895: 764: 707: 660: 612: 536: 462: 389: 357: 340:, west of Warsaw. The 327:Attack of the Dead Men 308:Second Battle of Ypres 269:By 22 April 1915, the 184: 27: 8126:Nicaraguan Revolution 8076:Araguaia Guerilla War 7645:Early thermal weapons 7478:Treaty of St. Germain 7451:Russia–Central Powers 7405:Sykes–Picot Agreement 7233:Pontic Greek genocide 7208:Destruction of Kalisz 7184:Eastern Mediterranean 6745:Polish–Lithuanian War 6527:Armistice of Belgrade 6490:Armistice of Salonica 6420:Operation Faustschlag 6367:Third Battle of Oituz 6289:Baranovichi offensive 6257:Lake Naroch offensive 6231:Battle of Robat Karim 6206:Vistula–Bug offensive 6181:Battles of the Isonzo 6112:First Battle of Ypres 5294:. The History Press. 4852:commons.wikimedia.org 4693:Croddy, Eric (2002). 4472:. Random House, Inc. 4279:. CNN. Archived from 3308:. CDC. Archived from 3220:Nye, Mary Jo (1999). 2273: 1880: 1832: 1791:Livens gas projectors 1789:Loading a battery of 1788: 1764: 1728: 1502: 1405: 1392: 1315:May 1915 – June 1916 1224: 1093:third battle of Ypres 1048: 1010: 991: 975: 951:role in the Holocaust 893: 837:Russian revolutionary 762: 754:Second Battle of Gaza 705: 677:Third Battle of Ypres 654: 617:Austro-Hungarian Army 615:On 29 June 1916, the 610: 530: 457: 437:Newfoundland Regiment 387: 355: 300:1st Canadian Division 289:, as well as the 1st 279:Langemark-Poelkapelle 257:It may appear from a 182: 145:was scarce among the 109:Further information: 21: 8131:Salvadoran Civil War 7698:Spanish–American War 7673:American Indian Wars 7473:Treaty of Versailles 7189:Mount Lebanon famine 7104:in the United States 7072:Russian occupations 6786:Turkish–Armenian War 6727:Polish–Ukrainian War 6667:Ukrainian–Soviet War 6614:Central Asian Revolt 6397:Armistice of Focșani 6127:Battle of Sarikamish 6077:Battle of Tannenberg 5473:Military engagements 4776:on 21 September 2006 4559:. pp. 567–570. 4501:. pp. 106–108. 4493:L. F. Haber (1986). 4379:on 29 September 2007 3673:Large, David (ed.). 2479:on 27 September 2007 2471:Saffo, Paul (2000). 2154:Diphenylchloroarsine 2108:Lachrymatory, toxic 2062:Lachrymatory, toxic 1964:. Corrosive, toxic 1960:Irritant – Skin and 1687:improve this section 1525:small box respirator 1521:large box respirator 1038:Dulce et Decorum est 926:, in December 1943. 431:" designed by Major 8184:Russo-Ukrainian War 8121:Dominican Civil War 8096:Cambodian Civil War 8057:First Indochina War 7540:They shall not pass 7463:Treaty of Bucharest 7420:Treaty of Bucharest 7359:USA against Germany 7336:Declarations of war 7040:German occupations 6953:British casualties 6812:Soviet–Georgian War 6739:Egyptian Revolution 6679:Armeno-Georgian War 6543:Somaliland campaign 6495:Armistice of Mudros 6372:Battle of Caporetto 6362:Battle of Mărășești 6332:Zimmermann telegram 6327:February Revolution 6272:Battle of the Somme 6196:Bug-Narew Offensive 6171:Battle of Gallipoli 6163:Sinking of the RMS 5955:Scramble for Africa 5949:Franco-Prussian War 5605:Sinai and Palestine 5270:(Cornell UP, 2023) 5266:Dorsey, M. Girard. 5263:18.1 (2000): 47-69. 4971:Clinical Toxicology 4896:2018ScTEn.627..216T 4283:on 23 November 2007 4157:1999ESPR....6...19H 4072:on 13 December 2007 3691:. BristolPast.co.uk 3254:"Choking Agent: CG" 3041:1908RSPSA..81..381C 2598:Leaveanworth Papers 2229:Ethyldichloroarsine 1810:Captain W.H. Livens 1739:Battle of the Somme 1612:Vickers machine gun 1498:The London Regiment 1430:Civilian casualties 1276: 1100: 1080:John Singer Sargent 1051:circulatory failure 977:John Singer Sargent 947:extermination camps 586:Germany 18,100 tons 493:, 25 September 1915 443:British gas attacks 319:Paul von Hindenburg 306:In what became the 8538:Italian war crimes 8508:World War I crimes 8174:Russo-Georgian War 8116:Lebanese Civil War 8086:Rhodesian Bush War 7703:Mexican Revolution 7688:American Civil War 7678:War of the Pacific 7668:Napoleonic Warfare 7500:Treaty of Lausanne 7415:Paris Economy Pact 7349:UK against Germany 7279:Entry into the war 7245:Urkun (Kyrgyzstan) 6964:Ottoman casualties 6774:Franco-Turkish War 6654:Post-War conflicts 6638:Russian Revolution 6620:Invasion of Darfur 6585:Kelantan rebellion 6573:Kurdish rebellions 6549:Mexican Revolution 6382:October Revolution 6347:Kerensky offensive 6322:Capture of Baghdad 6299:Monastir offensive 6284:Brusilov offensive 6122:Battle of Kolubara 5961:Russo-Japanese War 5393:Faith, Thomas I.: 5381:online book review 4827:The New York Times 4802:(in French). Sénat 4621:The Battle of Loos 4608:. 8 November 2018. 4530:. pp. 78–80. 4441:Cook, Tim (1999). 4257:on 14 October 2007 4165:10.1007/BF02987115 3930:. 1 September 2013 3905:. Praeger. p. 84. 3388:on 23 October 1999 3196:The Battle of Loos 3182:. First World War. 3150:Cook, Tim (1999). 3021:For example, see: 2957:Science in Context 2892:on 6 December 2008 2863:. Pantheon Books. 2280: 2276:Battle of Estaires 2177:(Benzyl chloride) 2166:(causes sneezing) 2056:Ethyl iodoacetate 1883: 1835: 1825:Unexploded weapons 1794: 1767: 1743: 1478:sodium hyposulfite 1441:military personnel 1271: 1156:(includes Canada) 1098: 1059: 986: 896: 841:contemplated using 765: 708: 661: 621:Royal Italian Army 613: 603:1916: Austrian use 589:France 15,700 tons 537: 390: 358: 234:(which formed the 185: 171:or poisonous gas. 138:ethyl bromoacetate 28: 8480: 8479: 8192: 8191: 8136:Soviet–Afghan War 8111:Laotian Civil War 7859:Spanish Civil War 7566: 7565: 7549: 7548: 7533:The Golden Virgin 7527:Mutilated victory 7508: 7507: 7488:Treaty of Trianon 7483:Treaty of Neuilly 7390:Damascus Protocol 7263: 7262: 7223:Armenian genocide 7180:Allied blockades 7152:Belgian refugees 6935: 6934: 6845:Strategic bombing 6821: 6820: 6806:Franco-Syrian War 6780:Greco-Turkish War 6768:Anglo-Turkish War 6751:Polish–Soviet War 6685:German Revolution 6661:Russian Civil War 6644:Finnish Civil War 6470:Battle of Megiddo 6445:Battle of Goychay 6392:Battle of Cambrai 6352:Battle of Mărăști 6267:Battle of Jutland 6247:Erzurum offensive 6102:Siege of Przemyśl 6082:Siege of Tsingtao 6067:Battle of Galicia 5997:Second Balkan War 5985:Italo-Turkish War 5942:Pre-War conflicts 5928: 5927: 5818:Portuguese Empire 5734: 5733: 5696:German New Guinea 5678:Asian and Pacific 5359:Chemical Soldiers 5301:978-0-7524-6601-9 5261:War & Society 5071:(4109): 736–738. 4591:978-1-5924-0315-8 4580:Max Boot (2007). 4566:978-0-8493-1434-6 4361:American Heritage 3863:978-0-8493-1434-6 3659:978-1-84511-290-5 3628:firstworldwar.com 3367:978-0-471-71458-3 3290:978-1-74045-970-9 3260:on 14 August 2007 3103:(10): 1419–1426. 2843:General R. Hure, 2830:978-0-8032-2223-6 2684:978-1-4200-4661-8 2639:Notes and Records 2408:978-3-527-32413-2 2307:Explanatory notes 2295:in 1925, but the 2263: 2262: 1723: 1722: 1715: 1388: 1387: 1267:British testimony 1212: 1211: 1004:Towards the Flame 979:'s 1918 painting 727:Operation Michael 647:1917: Mustard gas 629:Monte San Michele 625:Brigade "Ferrara" 246:for Chemistry in 209:Battle of Bolimov 197:Russian positions 105:Use of poison gas 26:, Belgium (1917). 8550: 8470: 8469: 8346:Mass destruction 8254:Blunt instrument 8179:Syrian Civil War 7613: 7612: 7593: 7586: 7579: 7570: 7569: 7493:Treaty of Sèvres 7385:Treaty of London 7276: 7275: 7054:Northeast France 6985: 6984: 6957:Parliamentarians 6890: 6889: 6852:Chemical weapons 6830: 6829: 6591:Senussi campaign 6561:Muscat rebellion 6555:Maritz rebellion 6523: 6465:Vardar offensive 6294:Battle of Romani 6262:Battle of Asiago 6252:Battle of Verdun 6216:Kosovo offensive 5991:First Balkan War 5939: 5938: 5838:Russian Republic 5747: 5746: 5541: 5540: 5483:Economic history 5450: 5443: 5436: 5427: 5426: 5375:Smith, Susan I. 5372: 5343: 5341: 5339: 5305: 5247: 5246: 5228: 5196: 5190: 5183: 5177: 5170: 5164: 5157: 5151: 5150: 5140: 5116: 5099: 5098: 5088: 5056: 5029: 5028: 5017: 5011: 5010: 4962: 4951: 4950: 4938: 4932: 4931: 4875: 4864: 4863: 4861: 4859: 4844: 4838: 4837: 4835: 4833: 4818: 4812: 4811: 4809: 4807: 4795: 4786: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4761: 4755: 4754: 4736: 4730: 4729: 4717: 4711: 4710: 4690: 4684: 4683: 4673: 4641: 4635: 4634: 4616: 4610: 4609: 4602: 4596: 4595: 4577: 4571: 4570: 4548: 4542: 4541: 4519: 4513: 4512: 4490: 4484: 4483: 4463: 4457: 4456: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4420: 4414: 4413: 4395: 4389: 4388: 4386: 4384: 4375:. 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Archived from 3378: 3372: 3371: 3353: 3347: 3346: 3328: 3322: 3321: 3319: 3317: 3312:on 17 April 2003 3301: 3295: 3294: 3276: 3270: 3269: 3267: 3265: 3249: 3236: 3235: 3217: 3211: 3210: 3190: 3184: 3183: 3172: 3166: 3165: 3147: 3141: 3138: 3129: 3128: 3092: 3086: 3085: 3083: 3081: 3069: 3063: 3062: 3052: 3035:(549): 381–388. 3019: 3013: 3010: 3004: 3003: 3001: 2999: 2993: 2987:. Archived from 2954: 2945: 2936: 2933: 2927: 2926: 2908: 2902: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2881: 2875: 2874: 2854: 2848: 2841: 2835: 2834: 2816: 2810: 2809: 2803: 2801: 2795: 2780: 2771: 2765: 2764: 2744: 2738: 2737: 2735: 2733: 2718: 2712: 2711: 2709: 2707: 2695: 2689: 2688: 2670: 2664: 2663: 2633: 2627: 2626: 2608: 2602: 2601: 2589: 2574: 2573: 2555: 2549: 2548: 2537:. pp. 7–9. 2526: 2520: 2519: 2495: 2489: 2488: 2486: 2484: 2468: 2462: 2461: 2459: 2457: 2445: 2439: 2438: 2436: 2434: 2419: 2413: 2412: 2390: 2384: 2383: 2361: 2345: 2334: 2328: 2317: 2145:Irritant, toxic 2137:Hydrogen sulfide 2117:Hydrogen cyanide 2039:Stannic chloride 1962:mucous membranes 1894: 1893: 1806:Livens projector 1718: 1711: 1707: 1704: 1698: 1667: 1659: 1655:Delivery systems 1639: 1630:, September 1917 1623: 1607: 1595: 1583: 1486:sodium phenolate 1448:Sir Douglas Haig 1277: 1270: 1101: 1097: 1041: 1007: 912:Second World War 845:Tambov Rebellion 817:Willoughby, Ohio 580:chemical weapons 565:sodium phenolate 514: 502: 486: 433:Cluny MacPherson 425: 336:in an attack at 323:Osowiec Fortress 56:chemical warfare 32:chemical weapons 8558: 8557: 8553: 8552: 8551: 8549: 8548: 8547: 8483: 8482: 8481: 8476: 8458: 8454:Science fiction 8422: 8294:Directed-energy 8188: 8164:Afghanistan War 8145: 8044: 7886: 7846:Interwar period 7840: 7741:Austria-Hungary 7717: 7649: 7602: 7597: 7567: 7562: 7545: 7504: 7436: 7429: 7400:Treaty of Darin 7368: 7330: 7286:Austria-Hungary 7272: 7259: 7240:Rape of Belgium 7167: 7139: 7087: 7081:Western Armenia 7076:Eastern Galicia 7009: 6983: 6947: 6946:Civilian impact 6945: 6931: 6888: 6817: 6649: 6579:Ovambo Uprising 6531: 6517: 6406: 6308: 6235: 6153:Battle of Łomża 6136: 6132:Christmas truce 6107:Race to the Sea 6040: 6002: 5924: 5895:Austria-Hungary 5871: 5806:Empire of Japan 5743: 5741: 5730: 5714:U-boat campaign 5700: 5672: 5634: 5586: 5532: 5513:Popular culture 5459: 5454: 5390: 5385: 5369: 5337: 5335: 5302: 5255: 5253:Further reading 5250: 5197: 5193: 5184: 5180: 5171: 5167: 5158: 5154: 5117: 5102: 5057: 5032: 5019: 5018: 5014: 4963: 4954: 4947:Chemistry World 4939: 4935: 4876: 4867: 4857: 4855: 4846: 4845: 4841: 4831: 4829: 4819: 4815: 4805: 4803: 4796: 4789: 4779: 4777: 4762: 4758: 4751: 4737: 4733: 4726:Chemistry World 4718: 4714: 4707: 4691: 4687: 4642: 4638: 4631: 4617: 4613: 4604: 4603: 4599: 4592: 4578: 4574: 4567: 4549: 4545: 4538: 4520: 4516: 4509: 4499:Clarendon Press 4491: 4487: 4480: 4464: 4460: 4453: 4439: 4435: 4421: 4417: 4410: 4396: 4392: 4382: 4380: 4353: 4349: 4339: 4337: 4328: 4327: 4323: 4313: 4311: 4308:The Independent 4300: 4296: 4286: 4284: 4275: 4274: 4270: 4260: 4258: 4249: 4248: 4244: 4225: 4221: 4211: 4209: 4201: 4200: 4196: 4137: 4133: 4123: 4121: 4111: 4107: 4097: 4095: 4090: 4089: 4085: 4075: 4073: 4066:The Star-Ledger 4058: 4054: 4044: 4042: 4035: 4031: 4021: 4019: 4018:on 11 July 2007 4010: 4009: 4005: 3995: 3993: 3983: 3976: 3966: 3964: 3963:on 24 July 2007 3955: 3954: 3943: 3933: 3931: 3922: 3921: 3917: 3900: 3896: 3889: 3875: 3871: 3864: 3856:. p. 456. 3846: 3842: 3838:, pp. 4386–4387 3834: 3830: 3820: 3818: 3817:, 146, 158, 168 3805: 3801: 3794: 3780: 3776: 3766: 3764: 3749: 3738: 3728: 3726: 3724: 3708: 3704: 3694: 3692: 3687: 3686: 3682: 3671: 3667: 3660: 3646: 3642: 3632: 3630: 3620: 3613: 3603: 3601: 3600:. 21 March 2018 3598:WW1 East Sussex 3592: 3591: 3587: 3580: 3566: 3562: 3552: 3550: 3532: 3514: 3510: 3500: 3498: 3487: 3483: 3476: 3460: 3456: 3443: 3439: 3427: 3421: 3417: 3405: 3401: 3391: 3389: 3380: 3379: 3375: 3368: 3354: 3350: 3343: 3329: 3325: 3315: 3313: 3302: 3298: 3291: 3277: 3273: 3263: 3261: 3250: 3239: 3232: 3218: 3214: 3207: 3191: 3187: 3174: 3173: 3169: 3162: 3148: 3144: 3139: 3132: 3093: 3089: 3079: 3077: 3070: 3066: 3020: 3016: 3011: 3007: 2997: 2995: 2994:on 13 June 2012 2991: 2952: 2946: 2939: 2934: 2930: 2923: 2909: 2905: 2895: 2893: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2855: 2851: 2842: 2838: 2831: 2817: 2813: 2799: 2797: 2796:on 5 March 2009 2793: 2778: 2772: 2768: 2761: 2745: 2741: 2731: 2729: 2720: 2719: 2715: 2705: 2703: 2702:. The Great War 2696: 2692: 2685: 2671: 2667: 2634: 2630: 2623: 2609: 2605: 2590: 2577: 2570: 2556: 2552: 2545: 2527: 2523: 2516: 2496: 2492: 2482: 2480: 2469: 2465: 2455: 2453: 2446: 2442: 2432: 2430: 2420: 2416: 2409: 2391: 2387: 2380: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2349: 2348: 2335: 2331: 2318: 2314: 2309: 2293:Geneva Protocol 2268: 2259:Central Powers 2248:-Ethylcarbazole 2239:Central Powers 2223:Central Powers 2186:Central Powers 2175:α-chlorotoluene 2169:Central Powers 2119:(Prussic acid) 2095:Central Powers 1892: 1875: 1827: 1780:shrapnel shells 1719: 1708: 1702: 1699: 1684: 1668: 1657: 1650: 1647:Arthur Streeton 1640: 1631: 1624: 1615: 1608: 1599: 1596: 1587: 1584: 1457: 1455:Countermeasures 1432: 1299:April–May 1915 1269: 1168:Austria-Hungary 1155: 1111: 1042: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1024: 1022: 1020: 1018: 1016: 1014: 1008: 1001: 970: 908: 900:Geneva Protocol 888: 868:Geneva Protocol 825: 815:, a plant near 777:Hindenburg Line 773:Avonmouth Docks 649: 631:with a mix of 605: 545:Victor Grignard 525: 518: 515: 506: 503: 494: 487: 455:, said of gas: 445: 423: 412:In Britain the 350: 177: 118: 113: 107: 76:high explosives 12: 11: 5: 8556: 8546: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8530: 8525: 8520: 8515: 8510: 8505: 8500: 8495: 8478: 8477: 8475: 8474: 8463: 8460: 8459: 8457: 8456: 8451: 8446: 8441: 8436: 8430: 8428: 8424: 8423: 8421: 8420: 8419: 8418: 8408: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8388: 8383: 8378: 8373: 8368: 8363: 8358: 8353: 8348: 8343: 8338: 8333: 8328: 8323: 8318: 8313: 8312: 8311: 8306: 8296: 8291: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8271: 8266: 8261: 8256: 8251: 8246: 8241: 8236: 8231: 8229:Anti-personnel 8226: 8224:Anti-ballistic 8221: 8216: 8211: 8206: 8200: 8198: 8194: 8193: 8190: 8189: 8187: 8186: 8181: 8176: 8171: 8166: 8161: 8155: 8153: 8147: 8146: 8144: 8143: 8138: 8133: 8128: 8123: 8118: 8113: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8088: 8083: 8078: 8073: 8068: 8063: 8058: 8054: 8052: 8046: 8045: 8043: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8025:United Kingdom 8022: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8002: 7997: 7992: 7987: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7967: 7962: 7957: 7952: 7947: 7942: 7940:Czechoslovakia 7937: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7917: 7912: 7907: 7902: 7896: 7894: 7888: 7887: 7885: 7884: 7870: 7856: 7850: 7848: 7842: 7841: 7839: 7838: 7833: 7828: 7826:United Kingdom 7823: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7788: 7783: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7763: 7758: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7727: 7725: 7719: 7718: 7716: 7715: 7710: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7665: 7659: 7657: 7651: 7650: 7648: 7647: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7621: 7619: 7610: 7604: 7603: 7596: 7595: 7588: 7581: 7573: 7564: 7563: 7561: 7560: 7554: 7551: 7550: 7547: 7546: 7544: 7543: 7536: 7529: 7524: 7516: 7514: 7510: 7509: 7506: 7505: 7503: 7502: 7497: 7496: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7465: 7460: 7459: 7458: 7453: 7445: 7439: 7437: 7435:Peace treaties 7434: 7431: 7430: 7428: 7427: 7422: 7417: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7387: 7382: 7376: 7374: 7370: 7369: 7367: 7366: 7361: 7356: 7351: 7346: 7340: 7338: 7332: 7331: 7329: 7328: 7323: 7321:United Kingdom 7318: 7313: 7311:Ottoman Empire 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7282: 7280: 7273: 7268: 7265: 7264: 7261: 7260: 7258: 7257: 7252: 7247: 7242: 7237: 7236: 7235: 7230: 7225: 7215: 7213:Sack of Dinant 7210: 7205: 7200: 7199: 7198: 7193: 7192: 7191: 7177: 7175: 7169: 7168: 7166: 7165: 7164: 7163: 7161:United Kingdom 7158: 7149: 7147: 7141: 7140: 7138: 7137: 7136: 7135: 7130: 7121: 7115:POW locations 7113: 7108: 7107: 7106: 7097: 7095: 7089: 7088: 7086: 7085: 7084: 7083: 7078: 7070: 7065: 7064: 7063: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7038: 7037: 7036: 7031: 7023: 7017: 7015: 7011: 7010: 7008: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6991: 6989: 6982: 6981: 6980: 6979: 6974: 6966: 6961: 6960: 6959: 6950: 6948: 6940: 6937: 6936: 6933: 6932: 6930: 6929: 6924: 6923: 6922: 6915:United Kingdom 6912: 6910:Ottoman Empire 6907: 6902: 6896: 6894: 6887: 6886: 6884:Trench warfare 6881: 6880: 6879: 6869: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6848: 6847: 6836: 6834: 6827: 6823: 6822: 6819: 6818: 6816: 6815: 6809: 6803: 6797: 6791: 6790: 6789: 6783: 6777: 6771: 6760: 6754: 6748: 6742: 6736: 6730: 6724: 6718: 6712: 6706: 6700: 6694: 6688: 6682: 6676: 6670: 6664: 6657: 6655: 6651: 6650: 6648: 6647: 6641: 6635: 6629: 6623: 6617: 6611: 6605: 6600: 6597:Volta-Bani War 6594: 6588: 6582: 6576: 6570: 6564: 6558: 6552: 6546: 6539: 6537: 6533: 6532: 6530: 6529: 6524: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6435:Zeebrugge Raid 6432: 6427: 6422: 6416: 6414: 6408: 6407: 6405: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6318: 6316: 6310: 6309: 6307: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6280: 6279: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6243: 6241: 6237: 6236: 6234: 6233: 6228: 6226:Battle of Loos 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6160: 6155: 6150: 6144: 6142: 6138: 6137: 6135: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6117:Black Sea raid 6114: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6048: 6046: 6042: 6041: 6039: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6022: 6021: 6019:Historiography 6010: 6008: 6004: 6003: 6001: 6000: 5994: 5988: 5982: 5976: 5973:Bosnian Crisis 5970: 5967:Tangier Crisis 5964: 5958: 5952: 5945: 5943: 5936: 5930: 5929: 5926: 5925: 5923: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5900:Ottoman Empire 5897: 5892: 5887: 5881: 5879: 5877:Central Powers 5873: 5872: 5870: 5869: 5864: 5863: 5862: 5860:British Empire 5855:United Kingdom 5852: 5847: 5842: 5841: 5840: 5835: 5833:Russian Empire 5825: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5809: 5808: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5787: 5786: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5755: 5753: 5751:Entente Powers 5744: 5739: 5736: 5735: 5732: 5731: 5729: 5728: 5723: 5722: 5721: 5719:North Atlantic 5710: 5708: 5702: 5701: 5699: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5682: 5680: 5674: 5673: 5671: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5644: 5642: 5636: 5635: 5633: 5632: 5630:Central Arabia 5627: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5596: 5594: 5592:Middle Eastern 5588: 5587: 5585: 5584: 5579: 5578: 5577: 5567: 5562: 5561: 5560: 5549: 5547: 5538: 5534: 5533: 5531: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5495: 5493:Historiography 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5464: 5461: 5460: 5453: 5452: 5445: 5438: 5430: 5424: 5423: 5418: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5389: 5388:External links 5386: 5384: 5383: 5373: 5367: 5361:. Leo Cooper. 5354: 5344: 5317: 5316: 5310:War in History 5306: 5300: 5286: 5285: 5275: 5264: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5248: 5211:(4): 611–625. 5191: 5178: 5165: 5152: 5131:(7): 397–421. 5100: 5030: 5012: 4952: 4933: 4865: 4854:. 30 June 1990 4839: 4813: 4787: 4756: 4749: 4731: 4712: 4705: 4685: 4656:(4): 611–625. 4636: 4629: 4611: 4597: 4590: 4572: 4565: 4543: 4536: 4514: 4507: 4485: 4478: 4458: 4451: 4433: 4415: 4409:978-0160797316 4408: 4390: 4347: 4336:on 9 July 2007 4321: 4294: 4268: 4242: 4219: 4194: 4131: 4105: 4083: 4052: 4029: 4003: 3974: 3941: 3915: 3894: 3887: 3869: 3862: 3840: 3828: 3799: 3792: 3774: 3736: 3722: 3702: 3680: 3665: 3658: 3640: 3611: 3585: 3578: 3560: 3530: 3508: 3481: 3474: 3454: 3437: 3415: 3399: 3373: 3366: 3348: 3341: 3323: 3296: 3289: 3271: 3252:Staff (2004). 3237: 3230: 3212: 3205: 3185: 3167: 3160: 3142: 3130: 3087: 3064: 3014: 3005: 2963:(2): 239–275. 2937: 2928: 2921: 2903: 2876: 2869: 2849: 2836: 2829: 2811: 2807:Waffe ... 2766: 2759: 2739: 2713: 2690: 2683: 2665: 2646:(2): 149–260. 2628: 2621: 2603: 2575: 2568: 2550: 2543: 2521: 2514: 2490: 2463: 2440: 2414: 2407: 2385: 2378: 2370:Overlook Books 2355: 2353: 2350: 2347: 2346: 2329: 2311: 2310: 2308: 2305: 2267: 2264: 2261: 2260: 2257: 2254: 2251: 2241: 2240: 2237: 2234: 2231: 2225: 2224: 2221: 2218: 2215: 2208: 2207: 2204: 2198: 2195: 2188: 2187: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2171: 2170: 2167: 2160: 2157: 2150: 2149: 2146: 2143: 2140: 2133: 2132: 2129: 2123: 2120: 2113: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2097: 2096: 2093: 2090: 2087: 2083: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2067: 2066: 2063: 2060: 2057: 2053: 2052: 2047: 2044: 2041: 2035: 2034: 2031: 2028: 2025: 2019: 2018: 2015: 2012: 2009: 2003: 2002: 1999: 1996: 1993: 1987: 1986: 1984:Central Powers 1981: 1978: 1975: 1973:Benzyl bromide 1969: 1968: 1965: 1958: 1955: 1949: 1948: 1945: 1936: 1933: 1927: 1926: 1923: 1917: 1914: 1908: 1907: 1904: 1901: 1898: 1891: 1888: 1874: 1871: 1826: 1823: 1721: 1720: 1671: 1669: 1662: 1656: 1653: 1652: 1651: 1641: 1634: 1632: 1625: 1618: 1616: 1609: 1602: 1600: 1597: 1590: 1588: 1585: 1578: 1492:build-up. The 1490:carbon dioxide 1456: 1453: 1431: 1428: 1386: 1385: 1382: 1379: 1376: 1372: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1360: 1356: 1355: 1352: 1349: 1346: 1342: 1341: 1338: 1335: 1332: 1328: 1327: 1324: 1321: 1316: 1312: 1311: 1308: 1305: 1300: 1296: 1295: 1292: 1288: 1287: 1284: 1281: 1268: 1265: 1210: 1209: 1206: 1203: 1199: 1198: 1195: 1192: 1188: 1187: 1184: 1181: 1180:United States 1177: 1176: 1173: 1170: 1164: 1163: 1160: 1157: 1153:British Empire 1149: 1148: 1145: 1142: 1138: 1137: 1134: 1131: 1127: 1126: 1123: 1120: 1114: 1113: 1108: 1105: 1030: 1011: 999: 969: 966: 907: 904: 887: 884: 824: 821: 648: 645: 604: 601: 597: 596: 593: 590: 587: 524: 521: 520: 519: 516: 509: 507: 504: 497: 495: 488: 481: 466:Battle of Loos 444: 441: 349: 346: 176: 173: 165:Neuve Chapelle 117: 116:1914: Tear gas 114: 106: 103: 82:were created. 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8555: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8526: 8524: 8521: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8509: 8506: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8494: 8491: 8490: 8488: 8473: 8465: 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8062: 8059: 8056: 8055: 8053: 8051: 8047: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8030:United States 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8001: 7998: 7996: 7993: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7958: 7956: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7941: 7938: 7936: 7933: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7897: 7895: 7893: 7889: 7882: 7878: 7874: 7871: 7868: 7864: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7851: 7849: 7847: 7843: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7831:United States 7829: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7787: 7784: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7728: 7726: 7724: 7720: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7663:Early Warfare 7661: 7660: 7658: 7656: 7652: 7646: 7643: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7622: 7620: 7618: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7605: 7601: 7594: 7589: 7587: 7582: 7580: 7575: 7574: 7571: 7559: 7556: 7555: 7552: 7542: 7541: 7537: 7535: 7534: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7522: 7518: 7517: 7515: 7511: 7501: 7498: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7470: 7469: 7466: 7464: 7461: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7449: 7448: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7440: 7438: 7432: 7426: 7423: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7377: 7375: 7371: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7345: 7342: 7341: 7339: 7337: 7333: 7327: 7326:United States 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7283: 7281: 7277: 7274: 7271: 7266: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7226: 7224: 7221: 7220: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7197: 7194: 7190: 7187: 7186: 7185: 7182: 7181: 7179: 7178: 7176: 7174: 7170: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7153: 7151: 7150: 7148: 7146: 7142: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7116: 7114: 7112: 7109: 7105: 7102: 7101: 7099: 7098: 7096: 7094: 7090: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7073: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7062: 7061: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7041: 7039: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7026: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7018: 7016: 7012: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6992: 6990: 6986: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6969: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6958: 6955: 6954: 6952: 6951: 6949: 6943: 6938: 6928: 6927:United States 6925: 6921: 6918: 6917: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6897: 6895: 6891: 6885: 6882: 6878: 6877:Convoy system 6875: 6874: 6873: 6872:Naval warfare 6870: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6846: 6843: 6842: 6841: 6838: 6837: 6835: 6831: 6828: 6824: 6813: 6810: 6807: 6804: 6801: 6798: 6795: 6792: 6787: 6784: 6781: 6778: 6775: 6772: 6769: 6766: 6765: 6764: 6761: 6758: 6755: 6752: 6749: 6746: 6743: 6740: 6737: 6734: 6731: 6728: 6725: 6722: 6719: 6716: 6713: 6710: 6707: 6704: 6701: 6698: 6695: 6692: 6689: 6686: 6683: 6680: 6677: 6674: 6671: 6668: 6665: 6662: 6659: 6658: 6656: 6652: 6645: 6642: 6639: 6636: 6633: 6632:Kaocen revolt 6630: 6627: 6626:Easter Rising 6624: 6621: 6618: 6615: 6612: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6598: 6595: 6592: 6589: 6586: 6583: 6580: 6577: 6574: 6571: 6568: 6565: 6562: 6559: 6556: 6553: 6550: 6547: 6544: 6541: 6540: 6538: 6534: 6528: 6525: 6521: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6417: 6415: 6413: 6409: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6319: 6317: 6315: 6311: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6278: 6275: 6274: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6244: 6242: 6238: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6191:Great Retreat 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6166: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6145: 6143: 6139: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6062:Battle of Cer 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6049: 6047: 6043: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6020: 6017: 6016: 6015: 6012: 6011: 6009: 6005: 5998: 5995: 5992: 5989: 5986: 5983: 5980: 5979:Agadir Crisis 5977: 5974: 5971: 5968: 5965: 5962: 5959: 5956: 5953: 5950: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5931: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5882: 5880: 5878: 5874: 5868: 5867:United States 5865: 5861: 5858: 5857: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5830: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5807: 5804: 5803: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5785: 5784:French Empire 5782: 5781: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5756: 5754: 5752: 5748: 5745: 5737: 5727: 5726:Mediterranean 5724: 5720: 5717: 5716: 5715: 5712: 5711: 5709: 5707: 5706:Naval warfare 5703: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5683: 5681: 5679: 5675: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5645: 5643: 5641: 5637: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5597: 5595: 5593: 5589: 5583: 5582:Italian Front 5580: 5576: 5573: 5572: 5571: 5570:Eastern Front 5568: 5566: 5565:Western Front 5563: 5559: 5556: 5555: 5554: 5551: 5550: 5548: 5546: 5542: 5539: 5535: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5523:Puppet states 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5465: 5462: 5458: 5451: 5446: 5444: 5439: 5437: 5432: 5431: 5428: 5422: 5419: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5391: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5364: 5360: 5355: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5325: 5319: 5318: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5297: 5293: 5288: 5287: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5262: 5258: 5257: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5195: 5188: 5182: 5175: 5169: 5162: 5156: 5148: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5115: 5113: 5111: 5109: 5107: 5105: 5096: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5055: 5053: 5051: 5049: 5047: 5045: 5043: 5041: 5039: 5037: 5035: 5026: 5022: 5016: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4961: 4959: 4957: 4948: 4944: 4937: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4874: 4872: 4870: 4853: 4849: 4843: 4828: 4824: 4817: 4801: 4794: 4792: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4760: 4752: 4750:90-411-1099-2 4746: 4742: 4735: 4727: 4723: 4716: 4708: 4706:0-387-95076-1 4702: 4698: 4697: 4689: 4681: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4640: 4632: 4630:1-84022-229-8 4626: 4622: 4615: 4607: 4601: 4593: 4587: 4583: 4576: 4568: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4547: 4539: 4537:0-2533-4612-6 4533: 4529: 4525: 4518: 4510: 4508:0-1985-8142-4 4504: 4500: 4496: 4489: 4481: 4479:0-8129-6653-8 4475: 4471: 4470: 4462: 4454: 4452:0-7748-0740-7 4448: 4445:. UBC Press. 4444: 4437: 4429: 4425: 4419: 4411: 4405: 4401: 4394: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4351: 4335: 4331: 4325: 4309: 4305: 4298: 4282: 4278: 4272: 4256: 4252: 4246: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4223: 4208: 4204: 4198: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4135: 4120: 4116: 4109: 4093: 4087: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4056: 4040: 4033: 4017: 4013: 4007: 3992: 3991:New Statesman 3988: 3981: 3979: 3962: 3958: 3952: 3950: 3948: 3946: 3929: 3925: 3919: 3912: 3911:0-275-96278-4 3908: 3904: 3898: 3890: 3888:0-8047-2619-1 3884: 3880: 3873: 3865: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3844: 3837: 3832: 3816: 3812: 3811: 3803: 3795: 3793:0-632-05286-4 3789: 3785: 3778: 3762: 3758: 3757:Distillations 3754: 3747: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3725: 3723:1-60105-114-X 3719: 3715: 3714: 3706: 3690: 3684: 3676: 3669: 3661: 3655: 3651: 3644: 3629: 3625: 3618: 3616: 3599: 3595: 3589: 3581: 3579:0-14-012251-6 3575: 3571: 3564: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3531:99973-209-1-3 3527: 3523: 3519: 3512: 3496: 3492: 3485: 3477: 3475:0-313-32407-7 3471: 3467: 3466: 3458: 3450: 3449: 3441: 3433: 3426: 3425:"Mustard Gas" 3419: 3413: 3409: 3403: 3387: 3383: 3377: 3369: 3363: 3359: 3352: 3344: 3342:0-19-858142-4 3338: 3334: 3327: 3311: 3307: 3300: 3292: 3286: 3282: 3275: 3259: 3255: 3248: 3246: 3244: 3242: 3233: 3231:0-674-06382-1 3227: 3223: 3216: 3208: 3206:1-84022-229-8 3202: 3198: 3197: 3189: 3181: 3177: 3171: 3163: 3161:0-7748-0740-7 3157: 3153: 3146: 3137: 3135: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3091: 3075: 3068: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3018: 3009: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2951: 2944: 2942: 2932: 2924: 2922:1-4179-3546-4 2918: 2914: 2907: 2891: 2887: 2880: 2872: 2870:0-375-42229-3 2866: 2862: 2861: 2853: 2846: 2840: 2832: 2826: 2822: 2815: 2808: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2777: 2770: 2762: 2760:0-521-82726-4 2756: 2752: 2751: 2743: 2727: 2723: 2722:"Fritz Haber" 2717: 2701: 2694: 2686: 2680: 2676: 2669: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2640: 2632: 2624: 2622:0-531-13029-0 2618: 2614: 2607: 2599: 2595: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2582: 2580: 2571: 2569:0-19-858142-4 2565: 2561: 2554: 2546: 2544:0-295-98296-9 2540: 2536: 2532: 2525: 2517: 2515:0-316-83400-9 2511: 2507: 2503: 2502: 2494: 2478: 2474: 2467: 2451: 2444: 2429: 2425: 2418: 2410: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2389: 2381: 2379:1-58567-348-X 2375: 2371: 2367: 2360: 2356: 2343: 2339: 2333: 2326: 2322: 2316: 2312: 2304: 2300: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2277: 2272: 2258: 2255: 2252: 2249: 2247: 2243: 2242: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2230: 2227: 2226: 2222: 2219: 2216: 2213: 2210: 2209: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2190: 2189: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2176: 2173: 2172: 2168: 2165: 2161: 2158: 2155: 2152: 2151: 2147: 2144: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2134: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2121: 2118: 2115: 2114: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2102: 2099: 2098: 2094: 2091: 2088: 2085: 2084: 2080: 2077: 2074: 2072: 2069: 2068: 2064: 2061: 2058: 2055: 2054: 2051: 2048: 2045: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2036: 2032: 2029: 2026: 2024: 2021: 2020: 2016: 2013: 2010: 2008: 2005: 2004: 2000: 1997: 1994: 1992: 1989: 1988: 1985: 1982: 1980:Lachrymatory 1979: 1976: 1974: 1971: 1970: 1966: 1963: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1951: 1950: 1946: 1944: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1932: 1929: 1928: 1924: 1921: 1918: 1915: 1913: 1912:Xylyl bromide 1910: 1909: 1905: 1902: 1899: 1896: 1895: 1887: 1879: 1870: 1866: 1863: 1861: 1857: 1851: 1847: 1845: 1840: 1831: 1822: 1820: 1815: 1811: 1808:(invented by 1807: 1803: 1798: 1792: 1787: 1783: 1781: 1777: 1771: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1753: 1748: 1747:gas cylinders 1740: 1736: 1732: 1727: 1717: 1714: 1706: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1682: 1681: 1677: 1672:This section 1670: 1666: 1661: 1660: 1648: 1644: 1638: 1633: 1629: 1622: 1617: 1613: 1606: 1601: 1594: 1589: 1582: 1577: 1576: 1575: 1571: 1569: 1564: 1561: 1556: 1554: 1550: 1544: 1540: 1538: 1534: 1528: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1511: 1505: 1501: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1465: 1461: 1452: 1449: 1446: 1445:Field Marshal 1442: 1437: 1426: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1404: 1402: 1396: 1391: 1377: 1374: 1373: 1364: 1361: 1358: 1357: 1347: 1344: 1343: 1333: 1330: 1329: 1320: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1304: 1301: 1298: 1297: 1293: 1290: 1289: 1278: 1275: 1274:Western Front 1264: 1262: 1258: 1253: 1249: 1247: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1228: 1223: 1221: 1217: 1201: 1200: 1190: 1189: 1179: 1178: 1169: 1166: 1165: 1154: 1151: 1150: 1140: 1139: 1129: 1128: 1119: 1116: 1115: 1109: 1106: 1103: 1102: 1096: 1094: 1088: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1076: 1070: 1068: 1064: 1056: 1052: 1047: 1039: 1035: 1028: 1005: 998: 996: 990: 984: 983: 978: 974: 965: 963: 959: 954: 952: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 927: 925: 921: 917: 913: 903: 901: 892: 883: 881: 880:Iran–Iraq War 877: 871: 869: 864: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 834: 829: 820: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 796: 794: 793:Western Front 790: 784: 782: 778: 774: 770: 761: 757: 755: 751: 747: 746:Eastern Front 743: 742:trench system 737: 735: 732: 728: 723: 721: 720:Vera Brittain 716: 712: 704: 700: 698: 695:(named after 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 658: 653: 644: 642: 641:Italian Front 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 619:attacked the 618: 609: 600: 594: 591: 588: 585: 584: 583: 581: 576: 574: 570: 569:PH Gas Helmet 566: 562: 557: 553: 551: 546: 542: 534: 529: 513: 508: 501: 496: 492: 485: 480: 479: 478: 475: 474:no man's land 471: 467: 461: 456: 454: 450: 440: 438: 434: 430: 422: 417: 416: 410: 408: 404: 400: 399:28th Division 395: 386: 382: 379: 375: 370: 368: 364: 354: 345: 343: 339: 338:Rawka (river) 335: 334:Eastern Front 330: 328: 324: 320: 315: 313: 309: 304: 301: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 272: 267: 265: 260: 255: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 212: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 193:xylyl bromide 190: 181: 172: 170: 166: 162: 159: 158:fragmentation 154: 152: 151:chloroacetone 148: 144: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 112: 102: 100: 96: 92: 88: 83: 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 25: 20: 16: 8341:Martial arts 8304:Depth charge 8274:Conventional 8015:Soviet Union 7892:World War II 7730: 7538: 7531: 7519: 7126: / 7058: 6893:Conscription 6857:Cryptography 6851: 6794:Iraqi Revolt 6221:Siege of Kut 6164: 5742:participants 5691:German Samoa 5625:South Arabia 5376: 5358: 5347: 5336:. Retrieved 5323: 5309: 5291: 5278: 5267: 5260: 5208: 5204: 5194: 5186: 5181: 5173: 5168: 5160: 5155: 5128: 5124: 5068: 5064: 5024: 5015: 4977:(2): 79–91. 4974: 4970: 4946: 4936: 4887: 4883: 4856:. Retrieved 4851: 4842: 4830:. Retrieved 4826: 4816: 4804:. Retrieved 4778:. Retrieved 4774:the original 4769: 4759: 4740: 4734: 4725: 4715: 4699:. Springer. 4695: 4688: 4653: 4649: 4639: 4620: 4614: 4600: 4581: 4575: 4552: 4546: 4523: 4517: 4494: 4488: 4468: 4461: 4442: 4436: 4427: 4418: 4399: 4393: 4381:. Retrieved 4377:the original 4367:(5): 40–45. 4364: 4360: 4350: 4338:. Retrieved 4334:the original 4324: 4312:. Retrieved 4307: 4297: 4285:. Retrieved 4281:the original 4271: 4259:. Retrieved 4255:the original 4245: 4236: 4232: 4222: 4210:. Retrieved 4206: 4197: 4148: 4144: 4134: 4122:. Retrieved 4118: 4108: 4096:. Retrieved 4086: 4074:. Retrieved 4070:the original 4065: 4055: 4043:. Retrieved 4032: 4020:. Retrieved 4016:the original 4006: 3994:. Retrieved 3990: 3965:. 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