Chemical warfare - Knowledge

4905:. Russia met its treaty obligations by destroying 1 percent of its chemical agents by the 2002 deadline set out by the Chemical Weapons Convention, but requested an extension on the deadlines of 2004 and 2007 due to technical, financial, and environmental challenges of chemical disposal. Since, Russia has received help from other countries such as Canada which donated C$ 100,000, plus a further C$ 100,000 already donated, to the Russian Chemical Weapons Destruction Program. This money will be used to complete work at Shchuch'ye and support the construction of a chemical weapons destruction facility at Kizner (Russia), where the destruction of nearly 5,700 tons of nerve agent, stored in approximately 2 million artillery shells and munitions, will be undertaken. Canadian funds are also being used for the operation of a Green Cross Public Outreach Office, to keep the civilian population informed on the progress made in chemical weapons destruction activities. 3117: 3208: 1179: 5155: 1274: 3059: 4853:, Ambassador Rogelio Pfirter, welcomed Iraq's decision to join the OPCW as a significant step to strengthening global and regional efforts to prevent the spread and use of chemical weapons. The OPCW announced "The government of Iraq has deposited its instrument of accession to the Chemical Weapons Convention with the Secretary General of the United Nations and within 30 days, on 12 February 2009, will become the 186th State Party to the Convention". Iraq has also declared stockpiles of chemical weapons, and because of their recent accession is the only State Party exempted from the destruction time-line. 5202:, dropping large quantities of Agent Orange in each of those countries. According on one estimate, the U.S. dropped 475,500 US gallons (1,800,000 L) of Agent Orange in Laos and 40,900 US gallons (155,000 L) in Cambodia. Because Laos and Cambodia were officially neutral during the Vietnam War, the U.S. attempted to keep secret its military involvement in these countries. The U.S. has stated that Agent Orange was not widely used and therefore hasn't offered assistance to affected Cambodians or Laotians, and limits benefits American veterans and CIA personnel who were stationed there. 2956: 10868: 12199: 4189: 1629: 12161: 10880: 895: 2872: 12209: 4201: 588: 3250: 12190: 12182: 12174: 2997:

range of gas, making any target within reach of guns vulnerable. Second, gas shells could be delivered without warning, especially the clear, nearly odorless phosgene—there are numerous accounts of gas shells, landing with a "plop" rather than exploding, being initially dismissed as dud high explosive or shrapnel shells, giving the gas time to work before the soldiers were alerted and took precautions.

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unfounded: the Allies made comprehensive plans for defensive and retaliatory use of chemical weapons, and stockpiled large quantities. Japanese forces, as part of the Axis, used them more widely, though only against their Asian enemies, as they also feared that using it on Western powers would result in retaliation. Chemical weapons were frequently used against the

5068:. On April 24, 1997, the Senate gave its consent to ratification of the CWC by a 74–26 vote (satisfying the required two-thirds majority). The U.S. deposited its instrument of ratification at the United Nations on April 25, 1997, a few days before the CWC entered into force. The U.S. ratification allowed the U.S. to participate in the 5052:(unilateral caveats). During the Reagan administration and the George H. W. Bush administration, the U.S. participated in the negotiations toward the CWC. The CWC was concluded on September 3, 1992, and opened for signature on January 13, 1993. The U.S. became one of 87 original state parties to the CWC. President 5014:. In the 1990 agreement, the U.S. and Soviet Union agreed to begin destroying their chemical weapons stockpiles before 1993 and to reduce them to no more than 5,000 agent tons each by the end of 2002. The agreement also provided for exchanges of data and inspections of sites to verify destruction. Following the 1214:. Though largely ineffective over the long run, it decidedly changed the nature of the war. In many cases the gasses used did not kill, but instead horribly maimed, injured, or disfigured casualties. Some 1.3 million gas casualties were recorded, which may have included up to 260,000 civilian casualties. 5120:

in Kentucky. By May 2021, the U.S. destroyed all of its Category 2 and Category 3 chemical weapons and 96.52% of its Category 1 chemical weapons. The U.S. is scheduled to complete the elimination of all its chemical weapons by the September 2023 deadline. In July 2023 OPCW confirmed the last chemical

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Upon U.S. ratification of the CWC, the U.S. declared a total of 29,918 tons of chemical weapons, and committed to destroying all of the U.S.'s chemical weapons and bulk agent. The U.S. was one of eight states to declare a stockpile of chemical weapons and to commit to their safe elimination. The U.S.

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Thermal dissemination devices, though common, are not particularly efficient. First, a percentage of the agent is lost by incineration in the initial blast and by being forced onto the ground. Second, the sizes of the particles vary greatly because explosive dissemination produces a mixture of liquid

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Although there have been many advances in chemical weapon delivery since World War I, it is still difficult to achieve effective dispersion. The dissemination is highly dependent on atmospheric conditions because many chemical agents act in gaseous form. Thus, weather observations and forecasting are

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Modern doctrine requires very high concentrations almost instantly in order to be effective (one breath should contain a lethal dose of the agent). To achieve this, the primary weapons used would be rocket artillery or bombs and large ballistic missiles with cluster warheads. The contamination in the

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Apart from the agent used, the delivery mode is very important. To achieve a nonpersistent deployment, the agent is dispersed into very small droplets comparable with the mist produced by an aerosol can. In this form not only the gaseous part of the agent (around 50%) but also the fine aerosol can be

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Orange while the Red Cross of Vietnam estimates that up to one million people were disabled or have health problems associated with Agent Orange. The United States government has described these figures as unreliable. During the war, the U.S. fought the North Vietnamese and their allies in

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For decontaminating equipment and buildings exposed to persistent agents, such as blister agents, VX or other agents made persistent by mixing with a thickener, special equipment and materials might be needed. Some type of neutralizing agent will be needed; e.g. in the form of a spraying device with

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Dispersion is placing the chemical agent upon or adjacent to a target immediately before dissemination, so that the material is most efficiently used. Dispersion is the simplest technique of delivering an agent to its target. The most common techniques are munitions, bombs, projectiles, spray tanks

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is a less common requirement for people than equipment, since people may be immediately affected and treatment is the action required. It is a requirement when people have been contaminated with persistent agents. Treatment and decontamination may need to be simultaneous, with the medical personnel

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This technique eliminates many of the limitations of thermal dissemination by eliminating the flashing effect and theoretically allowing precise control of particle size. In actuality, the altitude of dissemination, wind direction and velocity, and the direction and velocity of the aircraft greatly

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Gas clouds gave plenty of warning, allowing the enemy time to protect themselves, though many soldiers found the sight of a creeping gas cloud unnerving. This made the gas doubly effective, as, in addition to damaging the enemy physically, it also had a psychological effect on the intended victims.

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As of July 2011, Russia has destroyed 48 percent (18,241 tons) of its stockpile at destruction facilities located in Gorny (Saratov Oblast) and Kambarka (Udmurt Republic) – where operations have finished – and Schuch'ye (Kurgan Oblast), Maradykovsky (Kirov Oblast), Leonidovka (Penza Oblast) whilst

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Detection has been referred to above, as a technical MASINT discipline; specific military procedures, which are usually the model for civilian procedures, depend on the equipment, expertise, and personnel available. When chemical agents are detected, an alarm needs to sound, with specific warnings

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simply opened cylinders of chlorine and allowed the wind to carry the gas across enemy lines. While simple, this technique had numerous disadvantages. Moving large numbers of heavy gas cylinders to the front-line positions from where the gas would be released was a lengthy and difficult logistical

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to deliver chemical agents. This technique, developed in the 1920s, was a major improvement over earlier dispersal techniques, in that it allowed significant quantities of an agent to be disseminated over a considerable distance. Thermal dissemination remains the principal method of disseminating

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Shortly after this "open canister" dissemination, French forces developed a technique for delivery of phosgene in a non-explosive artillery shell. This technique overcame many of the risks of dealing with gas in cylinders. First, gas shells were independent of the wind and increased the effective

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Initially, only well-known commercially available chemicals and their variants were used. These included chlorine and phosgene gas. The methods used to disperse these agents during battle were relatively unrefined and inefficient. Even so, casualties could be heavy, due to the mainly static troop

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and U.S. veterans of the war. The government of Vietnam says that around 24% of the forests of Southern Vietnam were defoliated and up to four million people in Vietnam were exposed to Agent Orange. They state that as many as three million people have developed illness because of Agent

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The CWC was ratified by the Senate that same month. In the following years, Albania, Libya, Russia, the United States, and India declared over 71,000 metric tons of chemical weapon stockpiles, and destroyed a third of them. Under the terms of the agreement, the United States and Russia agreed to

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ship believes there is a serious threat of chemical, biological, or radiological attack, the crew may be ordered to set Circle William, which means closing all openings to outside air, running breathing air through filters, and possibly starting a system that continually washes down the exterior

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Collective protection allows continued functioning of groups of people in buildings or shelters, the latter which may be fixed, mobile, or improvised. With ordinary buildings, this may be as basic as plastic sheeting and tape, although if the protection needs to be continued for any appreciable

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The most important factor in the effectiveness of chemical weapons is the efficiency of its delivery, or dissemination, to a target. The most common techniques include munitions (such as bombs, projectiles, warheads) that allow dissemination at a distance and spray tanks which disseminate from

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lose effectiveness after only a few minutes or hours or even only a few seconds. Purely gaseous agents such as chlorine are nonpersistent, as are highly volatile agents such as sarin. Tactically, nonpersistent agents are very useful against targets that are to be taken over and controlled very

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used them only very sparingly. The reason for the lack of use by the Nazis, despite the considerable efforts that had gone into developing new varieties, might have been a lack of technical ability or fears that the Allies would retaliate with their own chemical weapons. Those fears were not

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The droplet size used for persistent delivery goes up to 1 mm increasing the falling speed and therefore about 80% of the deployed agent reaches the ground, resulting in heavy contamination. Deployment of persistent agents is intended to constrain enemy operations by denying access to

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and smoke. Despite this tendency, there have been several attempts to initiate large-scale implementation of poison gas in several wars, but with the notable exception of World War I, the responsible authorities generally rejected the proposals for ethical reasons or fears of retaliation.

5084:, by April 29, 2007), However, at a 2012 conference, the parties to the CWC parties agreed to extend the U.S. deadline to 2023. By 2012, stockpiles had been eliminated at seven of the U.S.'s nine chemical weapons depots and 89.75% of the 1997 stockpile was destroyed. The depots were the 1823:

A special form of persistent agents are thickened agents. These comprise a common agent mixed with thickeners to provide gelatinous, sticky agents. Primary targets for this kind of use include airfields, due to the increased persistency and difficulty of decontaminating affected areas.

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on chemical weapons that falls into four major categories: new and more deadly agents; more efficient methods of delivering agents to the target (dissemination); more reliable means of defense against chemical weapons; and more sensitive and accurate means of detecting chemical agents.

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Possible targets include enemy flank positions (averting possible counterattacks), artillery regiments, command posts or supply lines. Because it is not necessary to deliver large quantities of the agent in a short period of time, a wide variety of weapons systems can be used.

5128:" policy that warns potential adversaries that a chemical or biological attack against the U.S. or its allies will prompt a "overwhelming and devastating" response. The policy deliberately leaves open the question of whether the U.S. would respond to a chemical attempt with 3011:

Over the years, there were some refinements in this technique. In the 1950s and early 1960s, chemical artillery rockets and cluster bombs contained a multitude of submunitions, so that a large number of small clouds of the chemical agent would form directly on the target.

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Aerodynamic dissemination is the non-explosive delivery of a chemical agent from an aircraft, allowing aerodynamic stress to disseminate the agent. This technique is the most recent major development in chemical agent dissemination, originating in the mid-1960s.

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Before 1915 the use of poisonous chemicals in battle was typically the result of local initiative, and not the result of an active government chemical weapons program. There are many reports of the isolated use of chemical agents in individual battles or

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If all the preventive measures fail and there is a clear and present danger, then there is a need for detection of chemical attacks, collective protection, and decontamination. Since industrial accidents can cause dangerous chemical releases (e.g., the

1848:. The agents are organized into several categories according to the manner in which they affect the human body. The names and number of categories varies slightly from source to source, but in general, types of chemical warfare agents are as follows: 2988:

Another disadvantage was that gas clouds had limited penetration, capable only of affecting the front-line trenches before dissipating. Although it produced limited results in World War I, this technique shows how simple chemical weapon dissemination

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Significant research is still being applied toward this technique. For example, by modifying the properties of the liquid, its breakup when subjected to aerodynamic stress can be controlled and an idealized particle distribution achieved, even at

1149:. Both have been used as chemical weapons but phosgene is an important precursor in the manufacture of plastics, and chloropicrin is used as a fumigant. The OPCW must be notified of, and may inspect, any plant producing more than 30 tons per year. 2924:

in October 1914 went unnoticed by them. Hans Tappen, a chemist in the Heavy Artillery Department of the War Ministry, suggested to his brother, the Chief of the Operations Branch at German General Headquarters, the use of the tear-gases

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were taken from the U.S. Army weapons storage depots such as Miesau and then-classified FSTS (Forward Storage / Transportation Sites) and transported from Bremerhaven, Germany to Johnston Atoll in the Pacific, a 46-day nonstop journey.

3008:. This was effectively a large-bore mortar, dug into the ground that used the gas cylinders themselves as projectiles – firing a 14 kg cylinder up to 1500 m. This combined the gas volume of cylinders with the range of artillery. 4831:. By 2006, India had destroyed more than 75 percent of its chemical weapons and material stockpile and was granted an extension to complete a 100 percent destruction of its stocks by April 2009. On May 14, 2009, India informed the 3207: 1712:). About 70 different chemicals have been used or stockpiled as chemical warfare agents during the 20th and 21st centuries. These agents may be in liquid, gas or solid form. Liquid agents that evaporate quickly are said to be 3047:

The efficacy of thermal detonation is greatly limited by the flammability of some agents. For flammable aerosols, the cloud is sometimes totally or partially ignited by the disseminating explosion in a phenomenon called

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agents tend to remain in the environment for as long as several weeks, complicating decontamination. Defense against persistent agents requires shielding for extended periods of time. Nonvolatile liquid agents, such as

1085:– Have few, if any, legitimate uses. These may only be produced or used for research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective purposes (i.e. testing of chemical weapons sensors and protective clothing). Examples include 4793:

are not likely to ever constitute a military threat to the United States. The governments we should be concerned about are likely to cheat on the CWC, even if they do participate," reads the letter, published by the

4827:. By 2005, from among six nations that had declared their possession of chemical weapons, India was the only country to meet its deadline for chemical weapons destruction and for inspection of its facilities by the 2694:, in which precursors for chemical warfare agents are automatically mixed in shell to produce the agent just prior to its use, are indicated by a "-2" following the agent's designation (for example, GB-2 and VX-2). 3052:. Explosively disseminated VX will ignite roughly one third of the time. Despite a great deal of study, flashing is still not fully understood, and a solution to the problem would be a major technological advance. 5116:. The U.S. closed each site after the completion of stockpile destruction. In 2019, the U.S. began to eliminate its chemical-weapon stockpile at the last of the nine U.S. chemical weapons storage facilities: the 4744:

prohibited the use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases. It was signed by the United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy, but France objected to other provisions in the treaty and it never went into

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Under the convention, chemicals that are toxic enough to be used as chemical weapons, or that may be used to manufacture such chemicals, are divided into three groups according to their purpose and treatment:

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and, depending on the nature of the threat, through various levels of protective clothing up to a complete chemical-resistant suit with a self-contained air supply. The US military defines various levels of

1059:(CWC). Under this convention, any toxic chemical, regardless of its origin, is considered a chemical weapon unless it is used for purposes that are not prohibited (an important legal definition known as the 4722:

Concerning the Laws and Customs of War is signed, specifically forbidding the "employment of poison or poisoned weapons", although the treaty was not adopted by any nation whatsoever and it never went into

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Stockpiles of cylinders had to be stored at the front line, posing a great risk if hit by artillery shells. Gas delivery depended greatly on wind speed and direction. If the wind was fickle, as at the

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that prohibited the development, production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons, and required the elimination of existing stockpiles. The treaty expressly prohibited state parties from making

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Despite the limitations of central bursters, most nations use this method in the early stages of chemical weapon development, in part because standard munitions can be adapted to carry the agents.

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Most thermal dissemination devices consist of a bomb or projectile shell that contains a chemical agent and a central "burster" charge; when the burster detonates, the agent is expelled laterally.

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There are many instances of the use of chemical weapons in battles documented in Greek and Roman historical texts; the earliest example was the deliberate poisoning of Kirrha's water supply with

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prohibits signatories from acquiring, stockpiling, developing, and using chemical weapons in all circumstances except for very limited purposes (research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective).

6971:"The U.S.'s Toxic Agent Orange Legacy: Washington Has Admitted to the Long-Lasting Effects of Dioxin Use in Vietnam, But Has Largely Sidestepped the Issue in Neighboring Cambodia and Laos" 4285:, in the harbor of Bari, Italy, after a German bombing on December 2, 1943, came when rescue workers, not knowing of the contamination, bundled cold, wet seamen in tight-fitting blankets. 6538: 1753:

causes incapacitation, e.g., through nausea or visual problems. The distinction between lethal and incapacitating substances is not fixed, but relies on a statistical average called the

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on January 13, 1993, and ratified it on November 5, 1995. Declaring an arsenal of 39,967 tons of chemical weapons in 1997, by far the largest arsenal, consisting of blister agents:

4148: 1199:. It was not until the 19th century that the modern conception of chemical warfare emerged, as various scientists and nations proposed the use of asphyxiating or poisonous gasses. 12130: 5573: 4143: 7230:

Adrienne Mayor, "Greek Fire, Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World" Overlook-Duckworth, 2003, rev ed with new Introduction 2008

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Adrienne Mayor, "Greek Fire, Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World" Overlook-Duckworth, 2003, rev ed with new Introduction 2008

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enters into force, prohibiting the use of "asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and of all analogous liquids, materials or devices" and "bacteriological methods of warfare".

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The earliest target of chemical warfare agent research was not toxicity, but development of agents that can affect a target through the skin and clothing, rendering protective

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The major drawback of artillery delivery was the difficulty of achieving a killing concentration. Each shell had a small gas payload and an area would have to be subjected to

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installations are under construction in Pochep (Bryansk Oblast) and Kizner (Udmurt Republic). As August 2013, 76 percent (30,500 tons) were destroyed, and Russia leaves the

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In June 1997, India declared that it had a stockpile of 1044 tons of sulphur mustard in its possession. India's declaration of its stockpile came after its entry into the

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eliminate the rest of their supplies of chemical weapons by 2012, but ended up taking far longer to do so as shown in the previous and following section of this article.

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munition of the U.S., and that the last chemical weapon from the stockpiles declared by all States Parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention was verified as destroyed.

5383:"Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction (CWC): Annexes and Original Signatories" 1298:

is considered the "father of chemical warfare" for his years of pioneering work developing and weaponizing chlorine and other poisonous gases during World War I.

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Multiservice Tactics, Techniques, and Procedure for NBC Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (NBC) Protection (FM 3-11.4 / MCWP 3-37.2 / NTTP 3-11.27 / AFTTP(I) 3-2.46)

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allow an ideal direction, speed, and altitude to be calculated, such that warfare agent of a predetermined particle size can predictably and reliably hit a target.

5825:" The Sarin Gas Attack in Japan and the Related Forensic Investigation. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, June 1, 2001. Web. February 24, 2017. 4949: 5792: 5505: 6174:

Multiservice Tactics, Techniques, and Procedure for NBC Defense of Theater Fixed Sites, Ports, and Airfields (FM 3-11.34/MCRP 3-37.5/NWP 3-11.23/AFTTP(I) 3-2.33)

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Multiple international treaties were passed banning chemical weapons based upon the alarm of nations and scientists. This however did not prevent the extensive

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Although crude chemical warfare has been employed in many parts of the world for thousands of years, "modern" chemical warfare began during World War I – see

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tribes poisoned the wells of their enemies, with Roman jurists having been recorded as declaring "armis bella non venenis geri", meaning "war is fought with

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will dissipate in an open area, but things contaminated with CS powder need to be aired out, washed by people wearing protective gear, or safely discarded.

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opposed the signing ratification of a treaty banning the use of chemical weapons, a recently unearthed letter shows. In a letter dated April 8, 1997, then

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neutralizing agents such as Chlorine, Fichlor, strong alkaline solutions or enzymes. In other cases, a specific chemical decontaminant will be required.

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of someone building a chemical weapons capability. These include a wide range of intelligence disciplines, such as economic analysis of exports of

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World War I saw the earliest implementation of this technique. The actual first chemical ammunition was the French 26 mm cartouche suffocante

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Germany, the first side to employ chemical warfare on the battlefield, simply opened canisters of chlorine upwind of the opposing side and let the

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There are other chemicals used militarily that are not scheduled by the CWC, and thus are not controlled under the CWC treaties. These include:

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has seen limited, though devastating, use of chemical weapons. Some 100,000 Iranian troops were casualties of Iraqi chemical weapons during the

12148: 10611: 7008: 6512: 4153: 825: 626: 6542: 6490: 6376: 9530: 6982: 5360: 4968: 2645:) because their destructive effects are primarily due to fire or explosive force, and not direct chemical action. Their use is classified as 830: 5135:. Commentators have noted that this policy gives policymakers more flexibility, at the possible cost of decreased strategic unpreparedness. 7302: 6761: 5560: 4281:

for nerve agents. Decontamination is especially important for people contaminated with persistent agents; many of the fatalities after the

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Detels, Abdool Karim, Baum, Li, H. Leyland, Roger, Quarraisha, Fran, Liming, Alastair; S. Levy, Barry (2022). "Collective violence: war".

5822: 5342: 3160:), these activities are things that civilian, as well as military, organizations must be prepared to carry out. In civilian situations in 11843: 9664: 5019: 4869:. The weapon stock mostly containing sulfur mustard-lewisite mixture. The weapons are classified as abandoned chemical weapons under the 4231: 3919: 805: 790: 750: 740: 735: 5174:, its main purpose is to disrupt agricultural food production and/or to destroy plants which provide cover or concealment to the enemy. 5060:

for ratification on November 23, 1993. Ratification was blocked in the Senate for years, largely as a result of opposition from Senator

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in the Pacific, seven years before the Chemical Weapons Treaty came into effect. In 1986 President Ronald Reagan made an agreement with

9767: 6970: 6724: 6138: 835: 6584:"OPCW Director-General Commends Major Milestone as Russia Completes Destruction of Chemical Weapons Stockpile under OPCW Verification" 6565: 7333: 6647: 5085: 917: 650: 645: 6675: 6312: 5407: 4256:), will dissipate from open areas, although powerful exhaust fans may be needed to clear out buildings where they have accumulated. 3149: 2936:

Shells were tested successfully at the Wahn artillery range near Cologne on January 9, 1915, and an order was placed for 15 cm

10770: 10708: 7281: 5097: 4373: 760: 745: 660: 5324:"The Current State of Customary International Law with regard to the Use of Chemical Weapons in Non-International Armed Conflicts" 4767:

Despite numerous efforts to reduce or eliminate them, some nations continue to research and/or stockpile chemical warfare agents.

12082: 9443: 7155: 6398: 5731: 5251: 5105: 1772:, a measure of the length of time that a chemical agent remains effective after dissemination. Chemical agents are classified as 820: 765: 730: 685: 640: 635: 7294: 6849: 5878: 5361:"Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction" 4873:, and from September 2010 Japan has started their destruction in Nanjing using mobile destruction facilities in order to do so. 1270:, resulting in the overwhelming majority of some three million deaths. This remains the deadliest use of poison gas in history. 7126: 2944:

on January 31, 1915; the liquid failed to vaporize in the cold weather, and again the experiment went unnoticed by the Allies.

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are the civilian equivalent, but go farther to include a fully independent air supply, rather than the filters of a gas mask.

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The U.S. began stockpile reductions in the 1980s with the removal of outdated munitions and destroying its entire stock of

4364:. The British Ordnance Department rejected the proposal as "as bad a mode of warfare as poisoning the wells of the enemy." 4309: 3412: 910: 898: 700: 695: 7235: 6868: 6346: 5691: 5154: 4948:

program that aimed to dispose of chemical weapons by sinking ships laden with the weapons in the deep Atlantic. After the

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in Syria has used chemical weapons against civilian populations, resulting in numerous deadly chemical attacks during the

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produced by living organisms are considered chemical weapons, although the boundary is blurry. Toxins are covered by the

2232: 1138: 1108: 1082: 12143: 12120: 11299: 10959: 10742: 9436: 8161: 6603:, Case Studies Series, Center for the Study of Weapons of Mass Destruction, National Defense University (October 2009). 5754: 5065: 4786: 4133: 4047: 3489: 992: 12185: 11932: 11818: 11312: 11307: 9762: 8176: 8166: 7306: 6065: 4795: 4741: 4345: 3989: 3894: 2616: 774: 20: 7239:. Leech Cup Books. A volume in the Army Military History Series published in association with the Army History Unit. 6438: 5436:

Samir S. Patel, "Early Chemical Warfare – Dura-Europos, Syria," Archaeology, Vol. 63, No. 1, January/February 2010,

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Members of the Ukrainian Army's 19th Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Battalion practice decontamination drill, at

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shells, designated 'T-shells' after Tappen. A shortage of shells limited the first use against the Russians at the

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low-flying aircraft. Developments in the techniques of filling and storage of munitions have also been important.

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target area is only low or not existent and after four hours sarin or similar agents are not detectable anymore.

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that destroy vegetation, but are not immediately toxic or poisonous to human beings. Their use is classified as

9732: 8893: 8702: 8456: 7277: 6816: 6283: 6015: 5839:(7th ed.). Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 396. 5630: 4789:, that it would be a mistake for America to join the convention. "Those nations most likely to comply with the 2612: 984: 7115: 6705: 6416: 2041:

VX is persistent and a contact hazard; other agents are non-persistent and present mostly inhalation hazards.

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rather than chemical warfare; however, the use of nonliving toxic products produced by living organisms (e.g.

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Chemical Warfare in Australia: Australia's Involvement In Chemical Warfare 1914 – Today, (2nd Edition), 2013.

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influence particle size. There are other drawbacks as well; ideal deployment requires precise knowledge of

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Gerard J Fitzgerald. American Journal of Public Health. Washington: Apr 2008. Vol. 98, Iss. 4; p. 611

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Ideal protection begins with nonproliferation treaties such as the CWC, and detecting, very early, the

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Category 3 – devices and equipment designed to use chemical weapons, without the substances themselves

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committed in the CWC to destroy its entire chemical arsenal within 10 years of the entry into force (

5033: 4964: 3949: 3914: 3874: 3527: 3494: 3344: 2781: 2410: 1323: 1060: 449: 6043: 3136:) such as diplomatic, refugee, and agent reports; photography from satellites, aircraft and drones ( 491: 12237: 11875: 11398: 11339: 11250: 10891: 10780: 10675: 10601: 10428: 10057: 9757: 9459: 9084: 9069: 8677: 8587: 8421: 8234: 8059: 7319: 6105: 4916:

In September 2017, OPCW announced that Russia had destroyed its entire chemical weapons stockpile.

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surfaces. Civilian authorities dealing with an attack or a toxic chemical accident will invoke the

2921: 1812:

nerve agent, do not easily evaporate into a gas, and therefore present primarily a contact hazard.

1686: 1356:. This has been done mainly by dropping a grenade with K-51 aerosol CS gas from an unmanned drone. 1131:, a precursor chemical used in the manufacture of mustard gas but also widely used as a solvent in 6986: 6601:

Case Study 1: President Nixon's Decision to Renounce the U.S. Offensive Biological Weapons Program

5323: 1111:– Have no large-scale industrial uses, but may have legitimate small-scale uses. Examples include 12087: 11853: 11383: 10934: 10886: 10455: 10310: 9606: 8632: 8627: 8202: 6402: 5109: 3974: 3929: 3549: 3181: 1311: 6758: 5925:"Military: 465 documented cases of Russia using chemical weapons in Ukraine since Feb. 24, 2022" 1682:

to contain phosgene – a much more effective method that became the principal means of delivery.

1267: 12046: 11436: 10901: 10735: 10682: 10576: 10399: 10244: 9602: 8657: 8411: 8239: 7590: 7580: 7427: 5113: 5003: 4953: 4844: 4112: 3599: 3193: 3001: 2948: 2691: 136: 126: 1250:. However, the Nazis did extensively use poison gas against civilians, mostly the genocide of 12016: 11848: 11724: 11632: 11322: 11215: 11015: 10305: 10117: 9579: 9540: 9029: 8556: 8357: 8265: 5286: 5281: 5117: 4999: 4976: 4609: 4082: 3924: 3790: 3702: 3399: 2101: 856: 382: 6779:"OPCW confirms: All declared chemical weapons stockpiles verified as irreversibly destroyed" 5603: 2955: 11823: 11478: 11174: 10670: 10467: 10369: 10234: 10196: 9946: 9750: 9644: 9356: 9184: 9104: 8765: 8692: 8647: 8612: 8592: 8141: 7640: 7510: 7504: 7442: 7351: 6805:"Not with Impunity: Assessing US Policy for Retaliating to a Chemical or Biological Attack" 4270: 3624: 3357: 2646: 2569: 2498: 2385: 1964: 1738:. Mustard agents easily penetrate leather and fabric to inflict painful burns on the skin. 1554: 1067: 965: 617: 436: 97: 92: 5006:(sarin artillery shells) from 1987 until 1990, but this was halted after the U.S. and the 2941: 8: 11890: 11828: 11795: 11734: 11666: 11531: 11526: 11504: 11078: 10811: 10591: 10462: 10384: 9982: 9928: 9876: 9839: 9829: 9535: 9389: 9049: 8817: 8745: 8740: 8672: 8597: 8280: 8229: 8100: 8090: 7860: 7671: 7498: 7472: 7462: 7432: 7199:

Role of Analytical Chemistry in Defense Strategies Against Chemical and Biological Attack

6613: 6321: 5236: 5199: 5132: 5125: 5045: 5023: 4983: 3959: 3904: 3869: 3795: 3722: 3672: 3667: 3652: 3309: 3105: 3004:

to produce a cloud to match cylinder delivery. A British solution to the problem was the

1933: 1182: 1008: 977: 454: 419: 414: 310: 187: 87: 6144:

Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biologic, or Radiologic Attacks

5022:

program helped eliminate some of the chemical, biological and nuclear stockpiles of the

12203: 12164: 12097: 12072: 12067: 11885: 11762: 11556: 11428: 11192: 11063: 10990: 10927: 10514: 10509: 10487: 10472: 10364: 10152: 10132: 10082: 10045: 10035: 9886: 9723: 9417: 9275: 9230: 9189: 9089: 8567: 8534: 8461: 8275: 8069: 7437: 7242: 6031: 5854: 5736: 5241: 5171: 5149: 4193: 3954: 3830: 3592: 3374: 3314: 3284: 3231: 3176: 3120:

Israel Defense Forces "Yanshuf" battalion soldiers at chemical warfare defense exercise

2902: 2899: 2863:

essential to optimize weapon delivery and reduce the risk of injuring friendly forces.

2660: 2630: 2596: 2350: 2301: 2195: 2140: 2109: 1754: 1338: 1331: 1327: 1285: 1105:(OPCW) and a country can have a stockpile of no more than one tonne of these chemicals. 1032: 961: 949: 6830: 5975: 5886: 5741: 5713: 3088:(less than 200–300 ft or 61–91 m above the ground), it puts pilots at risk. 1685:

Since the development of modern chemical warfare in World War I, nations have pursued

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A Brief History of Chemical and Biological Weapons: Ancient Times to the 19th Century

7041: 6876: 6465:"Ceremony Marks Start of Destruction of Chemical Weapons Abandoned by Japan in China" 6300: 6061: 5840: 5772: 5484: 5459: 5219: 5195: 5049: 4957: 4337: 3842: 3765: 3758: 3712: 3579: 3369: 3364: 3274: 3204:

length of time, there will need to be an air supply, typically an enhanced gas mask.

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Skin: Up to 36 hours after skin exposure to BZ. Duration is typically 72 to 96 hours.

2419: 2275: 2061: 1307: 1186: 516: 57: 5437: 5382: 3172:

over emergency broadcasts and the like. There may be a warning to expect an attack.

12036: 11937: 11895: 11863: 11711: 11671: 11578: 11546: 11514: 11499: 11483: 11458: 11243: 11197: 10896: 10831: 10660: 10638: 10482: 10450: 10438: 10414: 10040: 9987: 9977: 9936: 9866: 9861: 9590: 9372: 9199: 9079: 8642: 8617: 8607: 8285: 8151: 8095: 7850: 7832: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7723: 7712: 7572: 7412: 7391: 7380: 5769:

Bush War: The Road to Cuito Cuanavale: Soviet Soldiers' Accounts of the Angolan War

5574:

Sean Spicer takes his questionable claims to a new level in Hitler-Assad comparison

5425: 5211: 4991: 4982:

to remove the U.S. stockpile of chemical weapons from Germany. In 1990, as part of

4902: 4317: 4302: 4282: 4277:

There may need to be immediate intervention to prevent death, such as injection of

4102: 3999: 3939: 3778: 3727: 3687: 3662: 3647: 3629: 3604: 3544: 3429: 3379: 3093: 3005: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2727: 2430: 2170: 2066: 1968: 1944: 1939: 1809: 1672: 1346: 1342: 945: 602: 278: 273: 268: 258: 253: 248: 217: 119: 62: 7753: 7663: 6955:"The extent and patterns of usage of Agent Orange and other herbicides in Vietnam" 6245:"Status of Participation in the Chemical Weapons Convention as at 14 October 2013" 5951: 4737:

enters into force, prohibiting the use of "poison or poisoned weapons" in warfare.

3196:(mission-oriented protective posture) from mask to full chemical resistant suits; 1749:

categories. A substance is classified as incapacitating if less than 1/100 of the

1491: 11900: 11810: 11776: 11661: 11615: 11541: 11468: 11388: 11291: 11233: 11088: 10725: 10566: 10137: 9997: 9913: 9901: 9881: 9777: 9567: 9547: 9470: 9255: 9034: 8750: 8503: 8426: 8406: 8328: 7422: 7402: 7298: 7035: 6765: 5834: 5414: 5276: 4941: 4749: 4353: 3887: 3847: 3717: 3682: 3614: 3554: 3482: 3419: 3319: 3157: 2528: 2262: 2245:: Vapors: 4 to 6 hours, eyes and lungs affected more rapidly; Skin: 2 to 48 hours 1833: 1637: 1365: 1319: 1281: 1263: 1195:

Simple chemical weapons were used sporadically throughout antiquity and into the

1124: 1040: 1028: 1020: 1016: 988: 983:

The use of chemical weapons in international armed conflicts is prohibited under

957: 953: 607: 353: 36: 10867: 12213: 11947: 11833: 11790: 11784: 11780: 11625: 11610: 11561: 11551: 11463: 11317: 11073: 11044: 10703: 10643: 10628: 10581: 10477: 10423: 10283: 9941: 9918: 9891: 9809: 9799: 9701: 9696: 9562: 9513: 9174: 9114: 9039: 8978: 8712: 8652: 8401: 7842: 7613: 7538: 7452: 6350: 6109: 5538:, 2d ed. (eds. David H. Shinn & Thomas P. Ofcansky: Scarecrow Press, 2013). 5129: 5093: 5030: 4972: 4890: 4866: 4832: 4823:, and on January 14, 1993, India became one of the original signatories to the 4349: 4263:

as a neutralizer for hydrogen cyanide or chlorine. Riot control agents such as

4205: 4009: 3909: 3864: 3857: 3852: 3609: 3304: 3101: 3097: 3085: 3081: 2974: 2926: 2913: 2743: 2550: 2280: 2221: 2182: 2164: 1735: 1719: 1665: 1611: 1428: 1310:. Iraq used mustard gas and nerve agents against its own civilians in the 1988 1218: 1211: 1196: 1070:

as chemical warfare agents during the 20th century. The entire class, known as

1012: 795: 612: 396: 289: 145: 6199: 6079: 1221:

saw the occasional use of chemical weapons, mainly to put down rebellions. In

1116: 12226: 12198: 11967: 11868: 11654: 11583: 11355: 11103: 10967: 10846: 10730: 10687: 10633: 10621: 10606: 10596: 10519: 10433: 10409: 10404: 10278: 10273: 10268: 10184: 9772: 9713: 9676: 9628: 9378: 9325: 9320: 9250: 9194: 9059: 9044: 8998: 8823: 8786: 8755: 8602: 8451: 8334: 8260: 8186: 7557: 7482: 7407: 7341: 6880: 6743: 6142: 5343:"A Legal "Red Line"? Syria and the Use of Chemical Weapons in Civil Conflict" 4931: 4681: 4188: 4024: 3514: 3509: 3504: 3262: 2978: 2930: 2891: 2620: 2546: 2467:

Extremely persistent in soil and water and on most surfaces; contact hazard.

2426: 2422: 2406: 2083: 1971: 1805: 1255: 1251: 501: 80: 9428: 6634:

The Oceans and Environmental Security: Shared U.S. and Russian Perspectives.

5506:"Chemical Warfare: From the European Battlefield to the American Laboratory" 4937:, but the U.S. continued to maintain an offensive chemical weapons program. 4259:

In some cases, it might be necessary to neutralize them chemically, as with

1628: 11988: 11962: 11942: 11766: 11729: 11693: 11329: 11276: 11152: 11108: 11093: 11022: 10872: 10806: 10538: 10524: 10379: 10189: 10157: 10147: 10050: 9896: 9794: 9740: 9649: 9508: 9330: 9280: 9064: 9054: 9009: 9003: 8973: 8968: 8726: 8637: 8539: 8483: 8446: 8395: 8374: 8323: 8290: 8219: 8181: 8120: 8085: 7983: 7605: 7585: 7457: 7356: 6954: 5793:"Japan executes sarin gas attack cult leader Shoko Asahara and six members" 5163: 5053: 5007: 4313: 4057: 4019: 4004: 3835: 3800: 3745: 3464: 3324: 3212: 3148:); and detection of chemical manufacturing and chemical agents themselves ( 3077: 2809: 2600: 2435: 2363: 2334: 1731: 1633: 1420: 1303: 1230: 1222: 1146: 1128: 1086: 969: 506: 481: 409: 366: 131: 6137: 1225:, much research went into developing new chemical weapons, such as potent 11925: 11920: 11605: 11600: 11571: 11536: 11509: 11039: 10851: 10394: 10389: 10226: 10211: 10087: 10062: 9691: 9611: 9518: 9503: 9340: 9315: 9270: 9133: 9099: 8963: 8958: 8923: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8903: 8883: 8802: 8791: 8781: 8493: 8224: 8115: 8110: 8044: 7743: 7728: 7700: 7682: 7654: 7546: 7367: 6442: 5256: 5186: 5061: 5057: 4979: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4561: 4361: 4249: 4248:

agents, including most pulmonary agents (chlorine, phosgene, and so on),

3979: 3677: 3657: 3294: 3197: 3033: 2880: 2608: 2105: 2047: 1950: 1907: 1845: 1841: 1750: 1345:. The Syrian government has used sarin, chlorine, and mustard gas in the 1295: 1238: 1226: 1098: 197: 168: 108: 50: 10533: 4935:

unilaterally renounced the offensive use of biological and toxic weapons

1210:, among others, was used by both sides to try to break the stalemate of 12102: 11719: 11034: 11027: 11010: 10995: 10801: 10616: 10586: 10571: 10359: 10347: 10107: 9969: 9595: 9290: 9285: 9265: 9260: 9245: 9240: 9153: 9148: 9124: 8948: 8933: 8928: 8873: 8868: 8550: 8431: 8390: 8384: 8368: 8351: 8345: 8312: 8304: 8245: 8039: 7811: 7717: 7706: 7528: 7522: 6566:"New U.S.-Russian Security Deal Greatly Scales Back Scope, Experts Say" 6487:"Canada Contributes to Russia's Chemical Weapons Destruction Programme" 5297: 4029: 3785: 3289: 2638: 2565: 1979: 1915: 1243: 476: 377: 212: 207: 6586:(Press release). Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. 2413:

effects that are the opposite of those seen in nerve agent poisoning.

1191:, showing blind casualties on a battlefield after a mustard gas attack 1101:. Any production over 100 grams (3.5 oz) must be reported to the 12031: 11983: 11957: 11905: 11739: 11701: 11451: 11441: 11113: 10975: 10950: 10543: 10332: 10261: 10206: 10201: 10067: 9908: 9814: 9557: 9385: 9335: 9310: 9300: 9225: 8953: 8943: 8938: 8858: 8838: 8812: 8797: 8735: 8682: 8441: 8379: 8362: 8340: 8317: 8054: 7895: 7688: 7552: 7491: 7417: 7210:

The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture

6084: 5823:

The Sarin Gas Attack in Japan and the Related Forensic Investigation.

5455: 5178: 5073: 4956:, and nearly 4,200 tons of nerve agent by chemical neutralisation at 4926:

United States and weapons of mass destruction § Chemical weapons

4357: 4308:

One of the earliest reactions to the use of chemical agents was from

4298: 4244:

Decontamination varies with the particular chemical agent used. Some

4097: 4052: 4014: 3964: 3899: 3805: 3269: 3239: 2895: 2592: 2588: 2573: 2473: 2446: 2079: 1983: 1676: 1048: 467: 5994:

The Kaiser's Chemists: Science and Modernization in Imperial Germany

4913:(CTR) Program, which partially funded chemical weapons destruction. 4835:

that it has completely destroyed its stockpile of chemical weapons.

2871: 11676: 11620: 11281: 11130: 11098: 10836: 10821: 10352: 10337: 10239: 10077: 9525: 9394: 9295: 9204: 9169: 9074: 8988: 8898: 8848: 8731: 8720: 8697: 8687: 8667: 8562: 8529: 8523: 8513: 7913: 7885: 7880: 7875: 7516: 7375: 6539:"Russia destroys over 76 percent of its chemical weapons stockpile" 5481:

War Made New: Weapons, Warriors, and the Making of the Modern World

4886: 4577: 4278: 3469: 3129: 2937: 2905:, and was used in autumn 1914 – with little effect on the Germans. 2876: 2815: 2771: 2737: 2690:

weapon designation" in addition to, or in place of, a common name.

2656: 2642: 2402: 2393: 2358: 2305: 2285: 2270: 2207: 2176: 2156: 2123: 1955: 1837: 1679: 1645: 1449: 1424: 1416: 1322:. Terrorist groups have also used chemical weapons, notably in the 1259: 1207: 1142: 1094: 1024: 404: 371: 361: 335: 330: 325: 155: 150: 102: 7301:, from the Disaster Information Management Research Center of the 6676:

Case Study 4, U.S. Ratification of the Chemical Weapons Convention

5732:"Iraq Chemical Arms Condemned, but West Once Looked the Other Way" 5452:

Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents, Second Edition

11637: 11140: 11118: 11005: 11000: 10816: 10665: 10502: 10492: 10300: 10112: 9824: 9819: 9143: 9138: 8853: 8843: 8833: 8828: 8518: 8146: 8064: 8049: 8024: 8019: 8014: 8009: 7978: 7973: 7968: 7963: 7958: 7928: 7923: 7918: 7908: 7816: 7806: 7766: 7761: 7738: 7733: 7467: 5303:

United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense

5159: 4697: 4544: 4398: 4260: 3249: 3168:

organizations, which most commonly are part of fire departments.

3141: 2524: 2319: 2211: 2093: 2021: 2016: 1975: 462: 242: 237: 5294:, a town attacked with chemical weapons during the Iran–Iraq War 3020: 1141:– Have legitimate large-scale industrial uses. Examples include 587: 12041: 12021: 11915: 11590: 11083: 10826: 10752: 9361: 9024: 9019: 8807: 7953: 7943: 7938: 7933: 7595: 7397: 6746:, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (January 6, 2014). 5340: 5037: 4665: 4593: 4494: 4325: 4321: 4264: 4107: 4087: 3994: 3984: 3692: 3216: 3165: 3145: 3133: 2960: 2634: 2542: 2538: 2516: 2440: 2225: 2097: 2056: 1991: 1280:

with gas masks and rubber gloves during a chemical attack near

521: 511: 67: 7171:

Dirty War: Rhodesia and Chemical Biological Warfare, 1975–1980

7009:"4 Decades on, U.S. Starts Cleanup of Agent Orange in Vietnam" 5766: 4865:(1937–1945) Japan stored chemical weapons on the territory of 4379:

Countries with known or possible chemical weapons, as of 2021

4283:

explosion of a WWII US ammunition ship carrying sulfur mustard

1291: 12051: 11993: 11334: 11266: 11164: 11056: 10497: 10256: 9305: 9220: 9179: 8466: 7870: 7865: 7855: 7694: 7677: 7630: 5653:

American Arsenal: A Century of Weapon Technology and Strategy

5215: 4987: 4898: 4894: 4647: 4629: 4526: 4510: 4446: 4430: 4414: 4333: 4253: 4117: 4062: 3454: 3137: 3084:, and because the agent must usually be dispersed within the 3062:

Soviet chemical weapons canisters from a stockpile in Albania

2825: 2664: 2652: 2520: 2490: 2485: 2217: 1995: 1927: 1921: 1768:

Chemical warfare agents can be classified according to their

1120: 1090: 1044: 1036: 320: 315: 305: 300: 202: 192: 10919: 7949:

Octamethylene-bis(5-dimethylcarbamoxyisoquinolinium bromide)

7185:

The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War

5914:, Rick Gladstone, August 24, 2016 retrieved August 25, 2016. 4986:, two ships were loaded with over 100,000 shells containing 4967:(BZ or Agent 15) at the beginning of 1988. In June 1990 the 2370:

Causes severe stinging of the eyes and temporary blindness.

12026: 11147: 11135: 11051: 10841: 8476: 8471: 8030:

2-Ethoxycarbonyl-1-methylvinyl cyclohexyl methylphosphonate

6943:. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. p. 125. 5908:

Syria Used Chlorine in Bombs Against Civilians, Report Says

5771:. Auckland Park: Jacana Media (Pty) Ltd. pp. 128–130. 4478: 4462: 4092: 3339: 3334: 3299: 3025: 2947:

The first effective use were when the German forces at the

2687: 2686:

Most chemical weapons are assigned a one- to three-letter "

2572:

causes more pronounced signs and symptoms than exposure by

2297: 2191: 1102: 6908:"U.S. in first effort to clean up Agent Orange in Vietnam" 6725:

US Chemical Weapons Stockpile Elimination: Progress Update

6198:

Ciottone, Gregory R; Arnold, Jeffrey L (January 4, 2007),

5593:

Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, October 1988, pp. 16–17

4940:

From May 1964 to the early 1970s the U.S. participated in

4336:, but there was no true tradition of their use outside of 1832:

Chemical weapons are agents that come in four categories:

1229:. However, chemical weapons saw little battlefield use in 8863: 8416: 7140:. Военное Издательство Министерства Оборонны СССР.Москва. 6912: 6759:

Army Agency Completes Mission to Destroy Chemical Weapons

3184:, or local equivalent, to coordinate defensive measures. 2506: 1132: 7178:

International Handbook on Chemical Weapons Proliferation

6170: 6104: 5408:

Disarmament lessons from the Chemical Weapons Convention

4950:

Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972

4367: 2912:

contrarily tried to increase the effect of 10.5 cm

1233:. Both sides were prepared to use such weapons, but the 1055:

considered chemical warfare under the provisions of the

7259: 6682:, Center for the Study of Weapons of Mass Destruction, 4348:(later 1st Baron Playfair, GCB, PC, FRS (1818–1898), a 7225:

Shadows and Substance: The Chemical Weapons Convention

7160:

The Chemical Warfare Service: From Laboratory to Field

7158:, 1959; L. P. Brophy, W. D. Miles and C. C. Cochrane, 6850:"Agent Orange's Long Legacy, for Vietnam and Veterans" 6614:"Rocky Mountain Arsenal | Region 8 | US EPA" 6180:, Berlin Information-center for Transatlantic Security 6133: 6131: 5755:

On this day: 1988: Thousands die in Halabja gas attack

3111: 2425:

with erratic behaviors, shared realistic and distinct

1727:

so they can be dispersed over a large region quickly.

1675:

do the dissemination. Soon after, the French modified

9660:

Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal

6373:"India to destroy chemical weapons stockpile by 2009" 6320:, United States Senate, April 8, 1997, archived from 6314:

In Surprise Testimony Cheney Renews Opposition to CWC

5389:. Bureau of Arms Control, Verification and Compliance 3044:

droplets of variable and difficult to control sizes.

2308:; survivors often suffer chronic breathing problems. 9586:

Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments

7264: