372:
The release of the
Turkish detainees in Malta was accomplished in exchange for 22 British prisoners held by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. As a result of this, the British authorities did not use any of the – mostly documentary – evidence on Armenian atrocities of which Turkish prisoners had been accused and
318:
by the Greek forces in May 1919, large manifestations in protest occurred on the
Anatolian mainland raising pressure upon the courts martial. The judges then ordered the release of 41 suspects in order to calm down the situation. The release was not what the allied forces had in mind, and caused them
219:
The court sat for nearly a year, from April 1919 through March 1920, although it became clear after just a few months that the tribunal was simply going through the motions. The judges had conveniently condemned the first set of defendants (Enver, et al.) when they were safely out of the country, but
491:
By 1921 the
British High Commission had gathered a body of information from its Greek and Armenian sources about the Turkish prisoners held at Malta, and about 1000 others, all alleged to have been directly or indirectly guilty of participation in massacres. The Allies had "a mountain of documents"
542:
The less we say about these people the better ... I had to explain why we released the
Turkish deportees from Malta skating over thin ice as quickly as I could. There would have been a row I think ... The staunch belief among members that one British prisoner is worth a shipload of Turks, and so
368:
reasoned about the detainees in Malta on the occasion of the congress in Sivas 4 September 1919: "...should any of the detainees either already brought or yet to be brought to
Constantinople be executed, even at the order of the vile Constantinople government, we would seriously consider executing
533:
The repatriation of
Turkish prisoners of war and interned civilians now in the hands of the British authorities shall commence at once, and shall continue as quickly as possible. This will not apply, however, to persons whom it is intended to try for alleged offences in violation of the laws and
389:
was in charge of the operation, together with Lord Curzon; they did so owing to the lack of transparency of the
Turkish courts-martial. They were held there for three years, while searches were made of archives in Constantinople, London, Paris and Washington to find a way to put them on trial.
255:
to its own paths to criminal justice and doubted the propriety of relying on it". Or, possibly, the
Turkish government never came round to hand over the incriminating documents used by the military courts. Whatever the reason, with the advent of power of AtatĂĽrk, all the documents on which the
628:, none of which was held in Malta—commented that "The trials represent a milestone in the history of war-crimes tribunals." Although they were truncated in the end by political pressures, and directed by Turkey's domestic laws rather than an international tribunal, the Constantinople trials (
228:, took the trials out of Turkish hands, and removed the proceedings to Malta. There an attempt was made to seat an international tribunal, but the Turks bungled the investigations and mishandled the documentary evidence so that nothing of their work could be used by the international court.
422:
because of the type and scope of the atrocities they were accused of having perpetrated. In its final report, completed on March 29, 1919, the commission on
Responsibilities through Annex 1, table 2, identified thirteen Turkish categories of outrages liable to criminal prosecution.
522:, Britain would set free 64 Turkish prisoners from Malta. These excluded those it was intended to prosecute for alleged offences in violation of the laws and customs of war or for massacres committed in any part of the Turkish Empire after war had broken out. British Admiral
167:
Just as de-Nazification became a guiding principle of Allied policy in
Germany after the Second World War, cleansing Turkey of the CUP and punishment for the Unionist crimes weighed heavily on British – and Allied – thinking after the conclusion of the armistice at Mudros.
149:
In the view of these ... crimes of Turkey against humanity and civilization ... the Allied governments announce publicly ... that they will hold personally responsible ... all members of the Ottoman Government and those of their agents who are implicated in such
345:
starting in 1919, where they were believed to be held for some three years while searches were made in the archives of Constantinople, London, Paris and Washington to find a way to prosecute them. The prisoners were secluded in three different groups.
562:
Separate Turkish domestic prosecutions resulted in the convictions and sentencing to death of many of the masterminds of the Armenian genocide. As many of the principal architects of the genocide had managed to escape prior to sentencing, the
480:... to hand over to the Allied Powers the persons whose surrender may be required by the latter as being responsible for the massacres committed during the continuance of the state of war on territory which formed part of the
674:
states ambassador Birgi was effectively in charge of destroying evidence during the 1980s. During the process of eliminating the evidence, ambassador Birgi stated in reference to the Armenians: "We really slaughtered them."
418:. A similar, but larger list, was prepared in 1917 in France by Tancrede Martel, an international law expert, who argued that the men he indicated deserved to be tried as common criminals by ordinary civil and criminal
89:, because following World War I no international norms for regulating war crimes existed. The release of the Turkish detainees was accomplished in exchange for 22 British prisoners held by Mustafa Kemal AtatĂĽrk.
1104:
54:
to prosecute war criminals, but these failed on account of political pressure. The main effort by the Allied administration that occupied Constantinople fell short of establishing an international tribunal in
511:, because following World War I no international norms for regulating war crimes existed, due to a legal vacuum in international law; therefore contrary to Turkish sources, no trials were ever held in Malta.
784:
610:, for instance, who had "work with great energy for the destruction of the Armenians", later became the Turkish Minister of Finance and Speaker of the Assembly and, for one day, following the death of
752:
930:, p.236. These sources use the documents: Britain FO 371/5091, E 16080/27/44; 371/6509, E 5141 f.130; E 8562 f.13; E 10662 f.159; 371/7882, E 4425 f.182; as a source to reach their judgements
235:
replaced Admiral Gough-Calthorpe on August 5, 1919, as "Commander in Chief, Mediterranean, and High Commissioner, at Constantinople". In August 1920, the proceedings were halted, and Admiral
469:
and developed a mechanism to bring to trial those accused of "barbarous and illegitimate methods of warfare... offenses against the laws and customs of war and the principles of humanity".
1278:
526:, who had been second-in-command of Allied naval forces at the Dardanelles, commented: "It would be hard under these conditions to convict most of the exiles before an Allied court."
112:, a covert operation conducted by Armenians during which Ottoman political and military figures who fled prosecution were assassinated for their role in the Armenian genocide.
1632:
320:
1662:
518:
and the British Foreign Office signed an agreement in London. In exchange for the 22 British prisoners in Turkey, among them a relative of Lord Curzon and brother of
2287:
1652:
1637:
644:
1057:
534:
customs of war, or for massacres committed during the continuance of the state of war in territory which formed part of the Turkish Empire on 1st August, 1914 ...
488:
As a signatory to the treaty, the Ottoman Empire specifically recognized the right of the Allies to convene international tribunals to conduct war crimes trials.
2322:
507:
the suspension of prosecutions, the repatriation and release of Turkish detainees was amongst others a result of the lack of an appropriate legal framework with
85:
the suspension of prosecutions, the repatriation and release of Turkish detainees was amongst others a result of the lack of an appropriate legal framework with
220:
now, with Turkish lives genuinely on the line, the Tribunal, despite making a great show of its efforts, had no intention of returning convictions. Admiral Sir
1566:
2114:
614:, President. General Vehip Pasa, and various German sources, also implicated AbdĂĽlhalik in the burning to death of thousands of people in Mus Province.
1990:
1980:
571:
from September 27 to the end of October 1919, to pursue an assassination campaign against those it perceived to be responsible. A task force, led by
2384:
2282:
1779:
1731:
130:
918:, p.281–291; Dadrian V.N. (1986), "The Naim Andonian documents on the world war I destruction of Ottoman Armenians: the anatomy of a Genocide".
621:
commented that the Allied efforts at prosecution were an example of "a retributive justice gave way to expedience of political accommodation".
2312:
1374:
239:
informed London of the futility of continuing the tribunal with the remark: "Its findings cannot be held of any account at all." According to
1581:
17:
1269:
216:
conducted its own investigation into alleged war crimes, debating whether the process was adequately dealt with by Turkish courts martial.
2409:
2389:
1863:
1784:
1466:
373:
convicted by Turkish military courts shortly after the armistice. Ottoman military members and high-ranking politicians convicted by the
369:
all British prisoners in our custody." From February 1921 the military court in Constantinople begun releasing prisoners without trials.
2292:
2017:
1964:
394:
held by the government in Ankara, including a relative of Lord Curzon. The government in Ankara was opposed to political power of the
2179:
1298:
538:
British Foreign Secretary Lord Curzon said the subsequent release of many of the Turkish prisoners was "a great mistake", and wrote:
390:
However, the war criminals were eventually released without trial and returned to Constantinople in 1921, in exchange for 22 British
2107:
671:
2404:
1165:
Vahakn N. Dadrian; The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus page 310.
1138:
Vahakn N. Dadrian "The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus" page 314
966:
Vahakn N. Dadrian "The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus" page 308
1837:
1384:
1312:
1117:
1084:
762:
629:
431:
demanded 141 Turks be tried for crimes against British soldiers, and 17 for the crimes against Armenians during World War I.
374:
160:
1611:
667:
519:
395:
2100:
2071:
2034:
2024:
1853:
1697:
2149:
1876:
954:
828:
1330:"The Executions of Some of the Arch-perpetrators of the Armenian Genocide by the Ittihadists and Kemalists, 1915-1926"
2012:
1858:
1591:
1435:
1416:
989:
886:
625:
564:
189:
492:
related to the Armenian genocide, but these were mostly general and did not clearly implicate specific individuals.
1896:
684:
51:
1800:
1561:
1489:
1459:
694:
213:
185:
2399:
2353:
2297:
2081:
1667:
785:
Turkey's EU Minister, Judge Giovanni Bonello and the Armenian Genocide – 'Claim About Malta Trials Is Nonsense'
501:
466:
410:
In 1918 an American list of 11 "outlaws of civilization" was drawn up to be targeted for "condign punishment":
240:
78:
92:
Since there were no international laws in place under which they could be tried, the men who orchestrated the
2169:
1997:
1985:
1911:
1647:
1540:
1010:"The Documentation of the World War I Armenian Massacres in the Proceedings of the Turkish Military Tribunal"
943:
Shadow of the Sultan's Realm: The Destruction of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle Eas
529:
In relation to prisoner exchange Article 2 under the Agreement For the Immediate Release of Prisoners reads:
330:
sent sixty seven war criminals to Malta in a prosecution attempt coordinated by the British forces. Ottoman
2317:
2302:
2131:
1928:
1571:
1535:
869:
576:
557:
435:
307:
74:
39:
2358:
2139:
2076:
1951:
1714:
1692:
1642:
607:
2195:
2123:
1627:
1586:
1452:
606:
Some of those accused as war criminals led politically influential lives in the nascent Turkish state.
649:
2348:
1767:
709:
699:
438:, with the establishment of "The Commission on Responsibilities and Sanctions", which was chaired by
1390:
2002:
1747:
1672:
515:
386:
334:
were named and relocated from Constantinople's jails to the British colony of Malta on board of SS
221:
875:
611:
365:
2394:
2206:
1958:
1944:
1530:
2363:
2338:
2231:
2054:
1353:
458:
439:
428:
184:
The initial prosecution of war criminals was established between 1919 and 1920 by the Turkish
1752:
1576:
1525:
1509:
1304:
788:
580:
327:
323:, well aware that the prison might be captured by the protestors and its prisoners released.
311:
299:
205:
193:
134:
126:
56:
2307:
2164:
1871:
1545:
1274:
315:
248:
1354:"WikiLeaks: Stepping Out of Ottoman Archives, Diplomat Says 'We Really Slaughtered Them!'"
1294:
1192:
from Taner Akcam "The Investigations and Prosecution of the War Crimes and Genocide" p 358
8:
2264:
2211:
2174:
1702:
1499:
946:
804:
303:
473:
462:
446:
43:
2248:
2243:
2216:
2154:
1918:
1504:
1109:
1039:
903:
Armenien und der Völkermord: Die Istanbuler Prozesse und die Türkische Nationalbewegung
704:
1830:
2159:
1906:
1599:
1494:
1475:
1431:
1412:
1380:
1308:
1113:
1080:
1031:
985:
977:
950:
882:
824:
758:
618:
553:
361:
339:
209:
109:
93:
2277:
2226:
2007:
1940:
1772:
1707:
1604:
1370:
1156:
M. Cherif Bassiouni "Crimes Against Humanity in International Criminal Law" page 67
1021:
633:
588:
584:
504:
377:
were transferred from Constantinople prisons to the Crown Colony of Malta on board
279:
244:
197:
82:
73:
states that protecting war criminals from prosecution became a key priority of the
2343:
2144:
2029:
1762:
1739:
1282:
818:
434:
The Allied authority to proceed with any prosecutions was created as part of the
64:
1105:
A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility
754:
A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility
2059:
1514:
1243:
1225:
1179:
800:
572:
523:
481:
450:
442:
356:
C: for people who were not suspected of having taken direct action in massacres
295:
294:(including high-ranking soldiers, political figures and administrators) of the
236:
232:
142:
138:
47:
1099:
1026:
1009:
70:
2378:
2092:
1825:
1035:
331:
225:
67:
by the British forces in Malta. In the end, no tribunals were held in Malta.
1147:
British foreign archive: FO 371/5091/E15109 Malta Internees, 8 November 1920
655:
256:
Turkish military courts had based their trials and convictions were "lost".
2184:
1901:
1815:
1805:
864:
848:
The Nazi Seizure of Power: The Experience of a Single German Town 1922–1945
596:
508:
415:
291:
275:
270:
173:
105:
86:
640:
1820:
1810:
1519:
1238:
1220:
1174:
1077:
Confiscation and Destruction: The Young Turk Seizure of Armenian Property
689:
600:
298:
who were selected from Constantinople prisons and sent into exile to the
286:) (between March 1919 – October 1920) is the term used by
31:
850:, Franklin Watts; Revised edition (1984). Also see: William A. Schabas,
1720:
592:
414:
The list included the three leading Young Turk leaders, comprising the
1043:
2253:
1757:
1657:
454:
1444:
449:
to effect indictments against the acting heads of government of the
2221:
1062:
Die Türkei in Europa: Beiträge des Südosteuropa-arbeitskreises der…
201:
881:. Woodstock & New York: The Overlook Press. pp. 202–203.
1270:
On April 24, the world must remember victims of Armenian genocide
568:
97:
1329:
2238:
1428:
Understanding the Armenian Question: Malta Tribunal (1919-1921)
287:
120:
306:, in a failed attempt of prosecution that occurred during the
96:
escaped prosecution and traveled relatively freely throughout
2064:
1210:
British Foreign Office Archives, FO 371/7882/E4425, folio 182
101:
1376:
Histories of Malta - Confessions and Transgressions, Vol.9
1159:
445:. The commission's work saw several articles added to the
2288:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
975:
Public Record Office, Foreign Office, 371/4174/136069 in
391:
350:
A: for people suspected of having taken part in massacres
639:
In 1926, Kemal had six genocide perpetrators, including
2323:
International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals
916:
Genocide as a problem of national and international law
567:
decided at its 9th General Congress, which convened in
1567:
Deportation of Armenian intellectuals on 24 April 1915
877:
AtatĂĽrk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey
364:
was strictly opposed to trials against war criminals.
190:
charged and tried several former leaders and officials
734:
732:
730:
728:
726:
724:
385:
by the British forces, starting in 1919. Admiral Sir
353:
B: for people suspected of having tolerated massacres
154:
852:
Genocide in International Law: The Crimes of Crimes
575:, working with Grigor Merjanov, was established to
27:
Attempts to try war criminals following World War I
2278:International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)
1430:. Offenbach am Main: Manzara Verlag. p. 304.
1411:. Offenbach am Main: Manzara Verlag. p. 357.
874:
868:
721:
247:, "quite likely the British found the continental
817:Bartrop, Paul R.; Jacobs, Steven Leonard (2014).
319:to consider a better detention facility than the
2376:
2308:Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
2283:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
1075:Üngör, Uğur Ümit; Polatel, Mehmet (2011-08-11).
131:Armenian resistance during the Armenian genocide
1056:
2122:
670:signed by David Arnett on July 4, 2004 at the
129:, US Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, of the
2108:
1460:
1347:
1345:
854:, Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp. 16–17
816:
1074:
1014:International Journal of Middle East Studies
920:International Journal of Middle East Studies
495:
121:Allied reactions to the massacres, 1915–1917
905:(Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1996), p. 185.
603:, and others, including several Armenians.
2293:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
2115:
2101:
1467:
1453:
1409:The Relocation Trials in Occupied Istanbul
1351:
1342:
1141:
780:
778:
776:
774:
700:Outline and timeline of the Greek genocide
2313:Special Panels of the Dili District Court
1300:The Armenian Genocide: A Complete History
1293:
1050:
1025:
969:
938:
936:
791:. 19 April 2012. Retrieved 10 August 2013
36:effort to prosecute Ottoman war criminals
1620:
1352:Barsoumian, Nanore (10 September 2011).
1064:(in German). Berghahn Books. p. 35.
2385:Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire
1369:
1219:German Consul Walter Rössler quoted by
1007:
976:
794:
771:
738:
672:Consulate General of the US in Istanbul
259:
52:a series of courts martial in 1919–1920
14:
2377:
933:
842:
840:
661:
42:(1919) and ultimately included in the
2096:
1474:
1448:
1003:
1001:
863:
750:
500:According to the former judge at the
1425:
1201:British National Archives CAB 24/127
982:The History of the Armenian Genocide
2072:Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
1854:May 1915 Triple Entente declaration
1406:
870:"10: Figures in a Ruined Landscape"
837:
626:post-war Ottoman military tribunals
405:
50:. The Ottoman government organized
24:
2410:Aftermath of World War I in Turkey
2390:Aftermath of the Armenian genocide
1877:National Armenian Relief Committee
1129:TĂĽrkei By Klaus-Detlev. Grothusen.
998:
398:. They are often mentioned as the
251:of penal procedure used in Turkey
25:
2421:
2013:Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day
630:Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919–20
565:Armenian Revolutionary Federation
161:Turkish courts-martial of 1919–20
155:Turkish courts martial, 1919–1920
1379:. Fondazzjoni Patrimonju Malti.
1258:History of the Armenian Genocide
624:Peter Balakian—referring to the
212:. At the same time the British
63:, Ottoman war criminals held as
1801:Committee of Union and Progress
1490:Armenians in the Ottoman Empire
1327:
1321:
1287:
1263:
1250:
1232:
1213:
1204:
1195:
1186:
1168:
1150:
1132:
1123:
1093:
1068:
984:. Berghahn Books. p. 342.
960:
807:", p. 16-17. Basic Books, 2002.
751:Akcam, Taner (21 August 2007).
695:Committee of Union and Progress
264:
186:Committee of Union and Progress
108:. This led to the formation of
2354:International humanitarian law
2298:Special Court for Sierra Leone
1505:Hamidian massacres (1894–1897)
1079:. A&C Black. p. 153.
908:
895:
857:
810:
744:
502:European Court of Human Rights
467:Democratic Republic of Armenia
420:courts of the Allied countries
241:European Court of Human Rights
200:, and with what is now called
79:European Court of Human Rights
13:
1:
2405:World War I war crimes trials
1912:Assassination of Talaat Pasha
1541:Ottoman Empire in World War I
715:
476:required the Ottoman Empire:
115:
18:Inter-allied tribunal attempt
2318:Special Tribunal for Lebanon
2303:International Criminal Court
1510:Young Turk Revolution (1908)
685:Istanbul trials of 1919–1920
632:) were an antecedent to the
558:Assassination of Talat Pasha
547:
543:the exchange was excused ...
436:Paris Peace Conference, 1919
396:government in Constantinople
308:Occupation of Constantinople
75:Turkish nationalist movement
7:
2359:International speech crimes
2140:Customary international law
2082:Hitler's Armenian reference
2077:Assassination of Hrant Dink
1952:The Forty Days of Musa Dagh
1008:Dadrian, Vahakn N. (1991).
949:, Potomac Books Inc, 2011,
678:
656:plotting to assassinate him
125:Following the reportage by
10:
2426:
2180:Convention Against Torture
2124:International criminal law
757:. Macmillan. p. 221.
551:
524:Sir John Michael de Robeck
509:supranational jurisdiction
268:
158:
87:supranational jurisdiction
2349:Joint criminal enterprise
2331:
2262:
2193:
2130:
2047:
1981:Witnesses and testimonies
1973:
1927:
1887:
1846:
1793:
1730:
1685:
1554:
1482:
1027:10.1017/S0020743800023412
710:War crimes in World War I
496:Suspension of prosecution
2269:(in order of foundation)
1703:Post-genocide population
1363:
926:338–355; Helmreich P.C.
823:. ABC-CLIO. p. 89.
636:following World War II.
608:Mustafa AbdĂĽlhalik Renda
577:assassinate Talaat Pasha
516:Turkish Foreign Minister
465:gave recognition of the
387:Somerset Gough-Calthorpe
321:BekiraÄźa military prison
222:Somerset Gough-Calthorpe
2207:Crimes against humanity
1868:Foreign aid and relief
1693:Pre-genocide population
1531:1914 Greek deportations
1058:Detlev Grothusen, Klaus
654:, hanged for allegedly
514:On March 16, 1921, the
2364:Universal jurisdiction
2339:Command responsibility
2232:Incitement to genocide
2170:United Nations Charter
2055:Late Ottoman genocides
1847:International response
1356:. The Armenian Weekly.
545:
536:
486:
459:Damat Adil Ferit Pasha
440:U.S Secretary of State
429:British Foreign Office
425:
375:Turkish courts-martial
314:forces. Following the
283:
170:
152:
145:on 24 May 1915 that:
40:Paris Peace Conference
2400:20th century in Malta
1577:20 Hunchakian gallows
1526:1914 Armenian reforms
1515:Adana massacre (1909)
1426:Uluç, Gürkan (2024).
1407:Ata, Ferudun (2018).
1305:Bloomsbury Publishing
789:The Malta Independent
552:Further information:
540:
531:
478:
412:
366:Mustafa Kemal AtatĂĽrk
300:Crown Colony of Malta
196:of the Constitution,
165:
147:
127:Henry Morgenthau, Sr.
59:to try the so-called
2265:International courts
2165:Nuremberg principles
1872:Near East Foundation
1838:Special Organization
1596:Concentration camps
1546:Battle of Sarikamish
922:, Cambridge, Mass.,
645:Yenibahçeli Nail Bey
589:Behaeddin Shakir Bey
316:occupation of Smyrna
260:Prosecution in Malta
249:inquisitorial system
141:formally warned the
38:was taken up by the
2212:Crime of aggression
2175:Genocide Convention
1929:Cultural depictions
1780:Rescue of Armenians
1698:Genocide casualties
1536:Congress at Erzerum
1500:Turkish nationalism
947:Daniel Allen Butler
805:A Problem from Hell
662:Purging of evidence
617:Armenian historian
472:Article 230 of the
416:Ittihad triumvirate
304:armistice of Mudros
2217:Crime of apartheid
2155:Geneva Conventions
1919:Treaty of Lausanne
1785:Turkish opposition
1295:KĂ©vorkian, Raymond
1281:2020-05-26 at the
1110:Metropolitan Books
846:William S. Allen,
705:Turkish war crimes
484:on August 1, 1914.
336:Princess Ena Malta
2372:
2371:
2198:international law
2160:Nuremberg Charter
2150:Hague Conventions
2090:
2089:
2018:100th anniversary
1907:Operation Nemesis
1681:
1680:
1495:Armenian question
1476:Armenian genocide
1386:978-99932-7-224-3
1371:Bonello, Giovanni
1314:978-0-85771-930-0
1247:. 2006, page 363.
1229:. 2006, page 362.
1183:. 2006, page 358.
1118:978-0-8050-7932-6
1086:978-1-4411-3578-0
764:978-0-8050-8665-2
619:Vahakn N. Dadrian
554:Operation Nemesis
402:in some sources.
362:Ankara government
328:Allied Government
224:protested to the
110:Operation Nemesis
94:Armenian genocide
16:(Redirected from
2417:
2332:Related concepts
2270:
2227:Genocidal intent
2117:
2110:
2103:
2094:
2093:
2035:notable visitors
2008:Hidden Armenians
1937:Ravished Armenia
1859:Imperial Germany
1768:Shabin-Karahisar
1740:Armenian militia
1708:Hidden Armenians
1618:
1617:
1469:
1462:
1455:
1446:
1445:
1441:
1422:
1401:
1399:
1398:
1389:. Archived from
1358:
1357:
1349:
1340:
1339:
1337:
1336:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1291:
1285:
1267:
1261:
1254:
1248:
1236:
1230:
1217:
1211:
1208:
1202:
1199:
1193:
1190:
1184:
1172:
1166:
1163:
1157:
1154:
1148:
1145:
1139:
1136:
1130:
1127:
1121:
1112:, New York 2006
1097:
1091:
1090:
1072:
1066:
1065:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1029:
1005:
996:
995:
973:
967:
964:
958:
940:
931:
914:Dadrian V.N. in
912:
906:
899:
893:
892:
880:
872:
861:
855:
844:
835:
834:
814:
808:
798:
792:
782:
769:
768:
748:
742:
736:
653:
634:Nuremberg Trials
585:Said Halim Pasha
505:Giovanni Bonello
474:Treaty of Sèvres
463:Treaty of Sèvres
447:Treaty of Sèvres
406:Legal foundation
392:prisoners of war
284:Malta sĂĽrgĂĽnleri
245:Giovanni Bonello
198:War profiteering
180:
83:Giovanni Bonello
46:(1920) with the
44:Treaty of Sèvres
21:
2425:
2424:
2420:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2375:
2374:
2373:
2368:
2344:Superior orders
2327:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2258:
2200:
2197:
2189:
2145:Peremptory norm
2126:
2121:
2091:
2086:
2043:
2030:Tsitsernakaberd
1969:
1923:
1883:
1842:
1831:Bahaeddin Ĺžakir
1789:
1726:
1677:
1616:
1550:
1478:
1473:
1438:
1419:
1396:
1394:
1387:
1366:
1361:
1350:
1343:
1334:
1332:
1326:
1322:
1315:
1307:. p. 805.
1292:
1288:
1283:Wayback Machine
1268:
1264:
1255:
1251:
1237:
1233:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1173:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1133:
1128:
1124:
1098:
1094:
1087:
1073:
1069:
1055:
1051:
1006:
999:
992:
978:Dadrian, Vahakn
974:
970:
965:
961:
941:
934:
913:
909:
900:
896:
889:
862:
858:
845:
838:
831:
820:Modern Genocide
815:
811:
801:Power, Samantha
799:
795:
783:
772:
765:
749:
745:
737:
722:
718:
681:
664:
647:
560:
550:
498:
408:
273:
267:
262:
182:
172:
163:
157:
133:at the city of
123:
118:
77:. According to
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2423:
2413:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2395:Greek genocide
2392:
2387:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2335:
2333:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2274:
2272:
2263:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2235:
2234:
2229:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2203:
2201:
2196:Crimes against
2194:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2136:
2134:
2128:
2127:
2120:
2119:
2112:
2105:
2097:
2088:
2087:
2085:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2060:Greek genocide
2057:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2038:
2037:
2022:
2021:
2020:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1994:
1993:
1983:
1977:
1975:
1971:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1962:
1955:
1948:
1933:
1931:
1925:
1924:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1904:
1899:
1897:Courts-martial
1893:
1891:
1885:
1884:
1882:
1881:
1880:
1879:
1874:
1866:
1864:Press coverage
1861:
1856:
1850:
1848:
1844:
1843:
1841:
1840:
1835:
1834:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1790:
1788:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1776:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1742:
1736:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1725:
1724:
1717:
1712:
1711:
1710:
1700:
1695:
1689:
1687:
1683:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1676:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1624:
1622:
1615:
1614:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1602:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1558:
1556:
1552:
1551:
1549:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1486:
1484:
1480:
1479:
1472:
1471:
1464:
1457:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1436:
1423:
1417:
1403:
1402:
1385:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1359:
1341:
1320:
1313:
1286:
1262:
1249:
1244:A Shameful Act
1231:
1226:A Shameful Act
1212:
1203:
1194:
1185:
1180:A Shameful Act
1167:
1158:
1149:
1140:
1131:
1122:
1092:
1085:
1067:
1049:
1020:(4): 554–555.
997:
990:
968:
959:
955:978-1597974967
932:
907:
894:
887:
856:
836:
830:978-1610693646
829:
809:
793:
770:
763:
743:
719:
717:
714:
713:
712:
707:
702:
697:
692:
687:
680:
677:
663:
660:
581:Javanshir Khan
573:Shahan Natalie
549:
546:
520:Lord Rawlinson
497:
494:
482:Ottoman Empire
451:Ottoman Empire
443:Robert Lansing
407:
404:
360:The competing
358:
357:
354:
351:
296:Ottoman Empire
269:Main article:
266:
263:
261:
258:
237:John de Robeck
233:John de Robeck
214:Foreign Office
164:
159:Main article:
156:
153:
143:Ottoman Empire
139:Triple Entente
122:
119:
117:
114:
48:Ottoman Empire
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2422:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2382:
2380:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2330:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2266:
2261:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2244:Slave trading
2242:
2240:
2237:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2224:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2192:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2118:
2113:
2111:
2106:
2104:
2099:
2098:
2095:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2023:
2019:
2016:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1992:
1991:United States
1989:
1988:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1960:
1956:
1954:
1953:
1949:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1920:
1917:
1913:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1890:
1886:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1849:
1845:
1839:
1836:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1803:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1796:
1792:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1733:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1709:
1706:
1705:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1690:
1688:
1684:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1613:
1610:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1587:Forced labour
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1557:
1553:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1470:
1465:
1463:
1458:
1456:
1451:
1450:
1447:
1439:
1437:9783911130004
1433:
1429:
1424:
1420:
1418:9783939795926
1414:
1410:
1405:
1404:
1393:on 2018-07-10
1392:
1388:
1382:
1378:
1377:
1372:
1368:
1367:
1355:
1348:
1346:
1331:
1324:
1316:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1301:
1296:
1290:
1284:
1280:
1277:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1260:, pp. 310—11.
1259:
1253:
1246:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1228:
1227:
1222:
1216:
1207:
1198:
1189:
1182:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1162:
1153:
1144:
1135:
1126:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1106:
1101:
1096:
1088:
1082:
1078:
1071:
1063:
1059:
1053:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1004:
1002:
993:
991:1-57181-666-6
987:
983:
979:
972:
963:
956:
952:
948:
944:
939:
937:
929:
925:
921:
917:
911:
904:
901:Taner Akçam,
898:
890:
888:1-58567-334-X
884:
879:
878:
871:
866:
865:Mango, Andrew
860:
853:
849:
843:
841:
832:
826:
822:
821:
813:
806:
802:
797:
790:
786:
781:
779:
777:
775:
766:
760:
756:
755:
747:
740:
735:
733:
731:
729:
727:
725:
720:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
688:
686:
683:
682:
676:
673:
669:
659:
657:
651:
646:
642:
637:
635:
631:
627:
622:
620:
615:
613:
612:Kemal AtatĂĽrk
609:
604:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
559:
555:
544:
539:
535:
530:
527:
525:
521:
517:
512:
510:
506:
503:
493:
489:
485:
483:
477:
475:
470:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
441:
437:
432:
430:
424:
421:
417:
411:
403:
401:
397:
393:
388:
384:
380:
376:
370:
367:
363:
355:
352:
349:
348:
347:
344:
343:
337:
333:
332:war criminals
329:
324:
322:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
292:war criminals
289:
285:
281:
277:
272:
257:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
229:
227:
226:Sublime Porte
223:
217:
215:
211:
207:
204:against both
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
181:
179:
175:
169:
162:
151:
146:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
113:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
90:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
66:
62:
58:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
2185:Rome Statute
1957:
1950:
1936:
1902:Malta exiles
1888:
1794:Perpetrators
1744:By location
1719:
1605:Ra's al-'Ayn
1582:Confiscation
1427:
1408:
1395:. Retrieved
1391:the original
1375:
1333:. Retrieved
1323:
1299:
1289:
1273:
1265:
1257:
1252:
1242:
1239:Akcam, Taner
1234:
1224:
1221:Akcam, Taner
1215:
1206:
1197:
1188:
1178:
1175:Akcam, Taner
1170:
1161:
1152:
1143:
1134:
1125:
1103:
1095:
1076:
1070:
1061:
1052:
1017:
1013:
981:
971:
962:
942:
927:
923:
919:
915:
910:
902:
897:
876:
859:
851:
847:
819:
812:
796:
753:
746:
739:Bonello 2008
668:leaked cable
665:
638:
623:
616:
605:
561:
541:
537:
532:
528:
513:
499:
490:
487:
479:
471:
433:
426:
419:
413:
409:
400:Malta exiles
399:
382:
379:Princess Ena
378:
371:
359:
341:
335:
325:
276:Malta exiles
274:
271:Malta exiles
265:Malta exiles
252:
230:
218:
183:
177:
174:Andrew Mango
171:
166:
148:
124:
106:Central Asia
91:
69:
61:Malta exiles
60:
35:
29:
1998:Reparations
1986:Recognition
1959:The Promise
1889:Prosecution
1612:Terminology
1600:Deir ez-Zor
1522:(1912–1913)
1520:Balkan Wars
1275:Times Union
1100:Taner Akçam
957:, p.211-212
690:Young Turks
648: [
601:Enver Pasha
597:Jemal Pasha
71:Taner Akçam
32:World War I
2379:Categories
2249:Starvation
1732:Resistance
1721:Vorpahavak
1686:Demography
1643:Diyarbekir
1572:Tehcir Law
1483:Background
1397:2015-03-24
1335:2023-08-24
716:References
593:Jemal Azmi
302:after the
194:subversion
150:massacres.
116:Background
2254:War crime
2025:Memorials
1974:Aftermath
1758:Musa Dagh
1715:Survivors
1668:Trebizond
1621:By region
1592:Mass rape
1256:Dadrian,
1036:0020-7438
641:Nazım Bey
548:Aftermath
455:Mehmed VI
453:, Sultan
340:HMS
253:repugnant
210:Armenians
2222:Genocide
1555:Genocide
1373:(2008).
1297:(2011).
1279:Archived
1120:, p. 354
980:(2003).
928:op. cit.
867:(2002).
679:See also
381:and HMS
231:Admiral
202:genocide
2132:Sources
2048:Related
1821:Djevdet
1648:Erzurum
1060:(197).
569:Yerevan
310:by the
280:Turkish
178:AtatĂĽrk
98:Germany
2239:Piracy
2003:Denial
1965:others
1826:Reshid
1816:Djemal
1806:Talaat
1748:Zeitun
1653:Harput
1638:Bitlis
1633:Aleppo
1562:Causes
1434:
1415:
1383:
1311:
1116:
1083:
1044:163884
1042:
1034:
988:
953:
924:18 (3)
885:
827:
761:
461:. The
383:Benbow
342:Benbow
312:Allied
288:Turkey
243:judge
206:Greeks
188:which
137:, the
104:, and
81:judge
34:, the
30:After
2065:Sayfo
1811:Enver
1773:Azakh
1663:Sivas
1628:Adana
1364:Books
1328:AAE.
1040:JSTOR
652:]
102:Italy
57:Malta
1945:film
1941:book
1763:Urfa
1432:ISBN
1413:ISBN
1381:ISBN
1309:ISBN
1114:ISBN
1081:ISBN
1032:ISSN
986:ISBN
951:ISBN
883:ISBN
825:ISBN
759:ISBN
643:and
556:and
457:and
427:The
338:and
326:The
290:for
208:and
192:for
65:POWs
1753:Van
1673:Van
1658:MuĹź
1022:doi
803:. "
135:Van
2381::
1943:,
1344:^
1303:.
1272:,
1241:.
1223:.
1177:.
1108:,
1102::
1038:.
1030:.
1018:23
1016:.
1012:.
1000:^
945:,
935:^
873:.
839:^
787:.
773:^
723:^
666:A
658:.
650:tr
599:,
595:,
591:,
587:,
583:,
579:,
282::
176:,
100:,
2116:e
2109:t
2102:v
1947:)
1939:(
1468:e
1461:t
1454:v
1440:.
1421:.
1400:.
1338:.
1317:.
1089:.
1046:.
1024::
994:.
891:.
833:.
767:.
741:.
278:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.