931:. A spark gap was typically connected to the high voltage side in parallel to the tube and used for diagnostic purposes. The spark gap allowed detecting the polarity of the sparks, measuring voltage by the length of the sparks thus determining the "hardness" of the vacuum of the tube, and it provided a load in the event the X-ray tube was disconnected. To detect the hardness of the tube, the spark gap was initially opened to the widest setting. While the coil was operating, the operator reduced the gap until sparks began to appear. A tube in which the spark gap began to spark at around 6.4 centimeters (2.5 in) was considered soft (low vacuum) and suitable for thin body parts such as hands and arms. A 13-centimeter (5 in) spark indicated the tube was suitable for shoulders and knees. An 18-to-23-centimeter (7 to 9 in) spark would indicate a higher vacuum suitable for imaging the abdomen of larger individuals. Since the spark gap was connected in parallel to the tube, the spark gap had to be opened until the sparking ceased to operate the tube for imaging. Exposure time for photographic plates was around half a minute for a hand to a couple of minutes for a thorax. The plates may have a small addition of fluorescent salt to reduce exposure times.
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originate within the eye itself. Upon hearing this, Röntgen reviewed his record books and found he too had seen the effect. When placing an X-ray tube on the opposite side of a wooden door Röntgen had noted the same blue glow, seeming to emanate from the eye itself, but thought his observations to be spurious because he only saw the effect when he used one type of tube. Later he realized that the tube which had created the effect was the only one powerful enough to make the glow plainly visible and the experiment was thereafter readily repeatable. The knowledge that X-rays are actually faintly visible to the dark-adapted naked eye has largely been forgotten today; this is probably due to the desire not to repeat what would now be seen as a recklessly dangerous and potentially harmful experiment with
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be the equivalent to 2–3 years of background radiation to the whole body, or 4–5 years to the abdomen or chest, increasing the lifetime cancer risk between 1 per 1,000 to 1 per 10,000. This is compared to the roughly 40% chance of a US citizen developing cancer during their lifetime. For instance, the effective dose to the torso from a CT scan of the chest is about 5 mSv, and the absorbed dose is about 14 mGy. A head CT scan (1.5 mSv, 64 mGy) that is performed once with and once without contrast agent, would be equivalent to 40 years of background radiation to the head. Accurate estimation of effective doses due to CT is difficult with the estimation uncertainty range of about ±19% to ±32% for adult head scans depending upon the method used.
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1517:. The strength of these interactions depends on the energy of the X-rays and the elemental composition of the material, but not much on chemical properties, since the X-ray photon energy is much higher than chemical binding energies. Photoabsorption or photoelectric absorption is the dominant interaction mechanism in the soft X-ray regime and for the lower hard X-ray energies. At higher energies, Compton scattering dominates.
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diagnostic imaging because this does not use radiation. If there is too much radiation exposure there could be harmful effects on the fetus or the reproductive organs of the mother. In the US, there are an estimated 62 million CT scans performed annually, including more than 4 million on children. Avoiding unnecessary X-rays (especially CT scans) reduces radiation dose and any associated cancer risk.
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Kβ. The frequencies of these lines depend on the material of the target and are therefore called characteristic lines. The Kα line usually has greater intensity than the Kβ one and is more desirable in diffraction experiments. Thus the Kβ line is filtered out by a filter. The filter is usually made of a metal having one proton less than the anode material (e.g. Ni filter for Cu anode or Nb filter for Mo anode).
2712:) accounted for 14% of total radiation exposure. By 2006, however, medical procedures in the United States were contributing much more ionizing radiation than was the case in the early 1980s. In 2006, medical exposure constituted nearly half of the total radiation exposure of the U.S. population from all sources. The increase is traceable to the growth in the use of medical imaging procedures, in particular
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572:. He noticed a faint green glow from the screen, about 1 meter (3.3 ft) away. Röntgen realized some invisible rays coming from the tube were passing through the cardboard to make the screen glow. He found they could also pass through books and papers on his desk. Röntgen threw himself into investigating these unknown rays systematically. Two months after his initial discovery, he published his paper.
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2439:, such as a knee, hip or shoulder replacement, is situated in the body with respect to the surrounding bone. This can be assessed in two dimensions from plain radiographs, or it can be assessed in three dimensions if a technique called '2D to 3D registration' is used. This technique purportedly negates projection errors associated with evaluating implant position from plain radiographs.
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2136:; however, microscopic simulations have shown that the duration of electric field enhancement between two streamers is too short to produce a significant number of run-away electrons. Recently, it has been proposed that air perturbations in the vicinity of streamers can facilitate the production of run-away electrons and hence of X-rays from discharges.
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1045:. It made possible the continuous emissions of X-rays. Modern X-ray tubes are based on this design, often employing the use of rotating targets which allow for significantly higher heat dissipation than static targets, further allowing higher quantity X-ray output for use in high-powered applications such as rotational CT scanners.
2380:, absorbs X-rays efficiently. This reduces the amount of X-rays reaching the detector in the shadow of the bones, making them clearly visible on the radiograph. The lungs and trapped gas also show up clearly because of lower absorption compared to tissue, while differences between tissue types are harder to see.
76:
1317:), defined as gamma radiation. This criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. (Some measurement techniques do not distinguish between detected wavelengths.) However, these two definitions often coincide since the electromagnetic radiation emitted by
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While generally considered invisible to the human eye, in special circumstances X-rays can be visible. Brandes, in an experiment a short time after Röntgen's landmark 1895 paper, reported after dark adaptation and placing his eye close to an X-ray tube, seeing a faint "blue-gray" glow which seemed to
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interferometry, refraction-enhanced imaging, and X-ray interferometry. These methods provide higher contrast compared to normal absorption-based X-ray imaging, making it possible to distinguish from each other details that have almost similar density. A disadvantage is that these methods require more
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refers to a variety of techniques that use phase information of an X-ray beam to form the image. Due to its good sensitivity to density differences, it is especially useful for imaging soft tissues. It has become an important method for visualizing cellular and histological structures in a wide range
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Crookes tubes were unreliable. They had to contain a small quantity of gas (invariably air) as a current will not flow in such a tube if they are fully evacuated. However, as time passed, the X-rays caused the glass to absorb the gas, causing the tube to generate "harder" X-rays until it soon stopped
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Hall-Edwards developed a cancer (then called X-ray dermatitis) sufficiently advanced by 1904 to cause him to write papers and give public addresses on the dangers of X-rays. His left arm had to be amputated at the elbow in 1908, and four fingers on his right arm soon thereafter, leaving only a thumb.
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A photoabsorbed photon transfers all its energy to the electron with which it interacts, thus ionizing the atom to which the electron was bound and producing a photoelectron that is likely to ionize more atoms in its path. An outer electron will fill the vacant electron position and produce either a
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Medical science also used the motion picture to study human physiology. In 1913, a motion picture was made in
Detroit showing a hard-boiled egg inside a human stomach. This early X-ray movie was recorded at a rate of one still image every four seconds. Dr Lewis Gregory Cole of New York was a pioneer
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reported hair loss after Dudley was X-rayed. A child who had been shot in the head was brought to the
Vanderbilt laboratory in 1896. Before trying to find the bullet, an experiment was attempted, for which Dudley "with his characteristic devotion to science" volunteered. Daniel reported that 21 days
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material, within the tube. On 3 February 1896, Gilman Frost, professor of medicine at the college, and his brother Edwin Frost, professor of physics, exposed the wrist of Eddie McCarthy, whom Gilman had treated some weeks earlier for a fracture, to the X-rays and collected the resulting image of the
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California, San
Francisco Area Funeral Home Records, 1835–1979. Database with images. FamilySearch. Jacob Fleischman in the entry for Elizabeth Aschheim. 3 August 1905. Citing funeral home J.S. Godeau, San Francisco, San Francisco, California. Record book Vol. 06, p. 1–400, 1904–1906. San Francisco
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Dosage due to dental X-rays varies significantly depending on the procedure and the technology (film or digital). Depending on the procedure and the technology, a single dental X-ray of a human results in an exposure of 5 to 40 μSv. A full mouth series of X-rays may result in an exposure of up
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Medical X-rays are a significant source of human-made radiation exposure. In 1987, they accounted for 58% of exposure from human-made sources in the United States. Since human-made sources accounted for only 18% of the total radiation exposure, most of which came from natural sources (82%), medical
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that people are exposed to (depending upon location) every day over 10 days, while exposure from a dental X-ray is approximately equivalent to 1 day of environmental background radiation. Each such X-ray would add less than 1 per 1,000,000 to the lifetime cancer risk. An abdominal or chest CT would
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of X-rays at a few discrete frequencies, sometimes referred to as spectral lines. Usually, these are transitions from the upper shells to the K shell (called K lines), to the L shell (called L lines) and so on. If the transition is from 2p to 1s, it is called Kα, while if it is from 3p to 1s it is
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of the X-ray photon by an outer shell electron. Part of the energy of the photon is transferred to the scattering electron, thereby ionizing the atom and increasing the wavelength of the X-ray. The scattered photon can go in any direction, but a direction similar to the original direction is more
939:, a mineral that traps relatively large quantities of air within its structure. A small electrical heater heated the mica, causing it to release a small amount of air, thus restoring the tube's efficiency. However, the mica had a limited life, and the restoration process was difficult to control.
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also reported burns. Elihu
Thomson deliberately exposed a finger to an X-ray tube over a period of time and suffered pain, swelling, and blistering. Other effects were sometimes blamed for the damage including ultraviolet rays and (according to Tesla) ozone. Many physicians claimed there were no
332:
Starting in 1888, Philipp Lenard conducted experiments to see whether cathode rays could pass out of the
Crookes tube into the air. He built a Crookes tube with a "window" at the end made of thin aluminium, facing the cathode so the cathode rays would strike it (later called a "Lenard tube"). He
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From the early 1920s through to the 1950s, X-ray machines were developed to assist in the fitting of shoes and were sold to commercial shoe stores. Concerns regarding the impact of frequent or poorly controlled use were expressed in the 1950s, leading to the practice's eventual end that decade.
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The risk of radiation is greater to a fetus, so in pregnant patients, the benefits of the investigation (X-ray) should be balanced with the potential hazards to the fetus. If there is 1 scan in 9 months, it can be harmful to the fetus. Therefore, women who are pregnant get ultrasounds as their
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below which there is no increased risk of cancer. However, this is under increasing doubt. Cancer risk can start at the exposure of 1100 mGy. It is estimated that the additional radiation from diagnostic X-rays will increase the average person's cumulative risk of getting cancer by age 75 by
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is limited by the energy of the incident electron, which is equal to the voltage on the tube times the electron charge, so an 80 kV tube cannot create X-rays with an energy greater than 80 keV. When the electrons hit the target, X-rays are created by two different atomic processes:
650:
Röntgen immediately noticed X-rays could have medical applications. Along with his 28 December
Physical-Medical Society submission, he sent a letter to physicians he knew around Europe (1 January 1896). News (and the creation of "shadowgrams") spread rapidly with Scottish electrical engineer
2347:. The first medical use was less than a month after his paper on the subject. Up to 2010, five billion medical imaging examinations had been conducted worldwide. Radiation exposure from medical imaging in 2006 made up about 50% of total ionizing radiation exposure in the United States.
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Monico L, Van der Snickt G, Janssens K, De Nolf W, Miliani C, Verbeeck J, et al. (February 2011). "Degradation process of lead chromate in paintings by
Vincent van Gogh studied by means of synchrotron X-ray spectromicroscopy and related methods. 1. Artificially aged model samples".
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spectrum falling off to zero at the tube voltage, plus several spikes at the characteristic lines. The voltages used in diagnostic X-ray tubes range from roughly 20 kV to 150 kV and thus the highest energies of the X-ray photons range from roughly 20 keV to 150 keV.
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to obtain real-time moving images of the internal structures of a patient through the use of a fluoroscope. In its simplest form, a fluoroscope consists of an X-ray source and a fluorescent screen, between which a patient is placed. However, modern fluoroscopes couple the screen to an
1328:. Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to historical precedent, based on measurement (detection) technique, or based on their intended use rather than their wavelength or source. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for example
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of biological and medical studies. There are several technologies being used for X-ray phase-contrast imaging, all using different principles to convert phase variations in the X-rays emerging from an object into intensity variations. These include propagation-based phase contrast,
2585:) of cancer; it requires higher radiation doses than those received for imaging alone. X-rays beams are used for treating skin cancers using lower energy X-ray beams while higher energy beams are used for treating cancers within the body such as brain, lung, prostate, and breast.
8254:
Monico L, Van der Snickt G, Janssens K, De Nolf W, Miliani C, Dik J, et al. (February 2011). "Degradation process of lead chromate in paintings by
Vincent van Gogh studied by means of synchrotron X-ray spectromicroscopy and related methods. 2. Original paint layer samples".
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Röntgen discovered their medical use when he made a picture of his wife's hand on a photographic plate formed due to X-rays. The photograph of his wife's hand was the first photograph of a human body part using X-rays. When she saw the picture, she said "I have seen my death."
1313:, or sometimes the method of generation is not known. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength (or, equivalently, frequency or photon energy), with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10 m (0.1
2868:(computed tomography), a process that uses X-ray equipment to produce three-dimensional representations of components both externally and internally. This is accomplished through computer processing of projection images of the scanned object in many directions.
444:'s Physical-Medical Society journal. This was the first paper written on X-rays. Röntgen referred to the radiation as "X", to indicate that it was an unknown type of radiation. Some early texts refer to them as Chi-rays, having interpreted "X" as the uppercase
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for low photon energies and high atomic numbers is very strong. For soft tissue, photoabsorption dominates up to about 26 keV photon energy where
Compton scattering takes over. For higher atomic number substances, this limit is higher. The high amount of
2051:
Short nanosecond bursts of X-rays peaking at 15 keV in energy may be reliably produced by peeling pressure-sensitive adhesive tape from its backing in a moderate vacuum. This is likely to be the result of recombination of electrical charges produced by
333:
found that something came through, that would expose photographic plates and cause fluorescence. He measured the penetrating power of these rays through various materials. It has been suggested that at least some of these "Lenard rays" were actually X-rays.
356:. While developing the plates, Jennings noticed disks of unknown origin on some of the plates, but nobody could explain them, and they moved on. Only in 1896 they realized that they accidentally made an X-ray photograph (they didn't claim a discovery).
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alone, as many as 49 essays and 1044 articles about the new rays were published. This was probably a conservative estimate, if one considers that nearly every paper around the world extensively reported about the new discovery, with a magazine such as
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and several tens of MeV. In laboratory discharges with a gap size of approximately 1 meter length and a peak voltage of 1 MV, X-rays with a characteristic energy of 160 keV are observed. A possible explanation is the encounter of two
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and the U.S. government. Diagnostic X-rays (primarily from CT scans due to the large dose used) increase the risk of developmental problems and cancer in those exposed. It is estimated that 0.4% of current cancers in the United States are due to
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placed between the skull and the head. The tube was fastened at the other side at a distance of one-half-inch from the hair." Beyond burns, hair loss, and cancer, X-rays can be linked to infertility in males based on the amount of radiation used.
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burned after his death, but this is a likely reconstruction by his biographers: Röntgen was investigating cathode rays from a
Crookes tube which he had wrapped in black cardboard so that the visible light from the tube would not interfere, using a
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In medical diagnostic applications, the low energy (soft) X-rays are unwanted, since they are totally absorbed by the body, increasing the radiation dose without contributing to the image. Hence, a thin metal sheet, often of aluminium, called an
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irradiated frogs and insects with X-rays, concluding that the rays "not only photograph, but also affect the living function". At around the same time, the zoological illustrator James Green began to use X-rays to examine fragile specimens.
351:
Arthur W. Goodspeed were making photographs of coins with electric sparks. On 22nd February after the end of their experiments two coins were left on a stack of photographic plates before Goodspeed demonstrated to Jennings the operation of
851:(with an exposure time of one hour), he noticed a bald spot 5 centimeters (2 in) in diameter on the part of his head nearest the X-ray tube: "A plate holder with the plates towards the side of the skull was fastened and a
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conducted his "electric photography" experiments in 1891-1893 by photographing coins in the light of electric sparks, like Jennings and Goodspeed, he may have unknowingly generated and detected X-rays. His letter of
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dedicating as many as 23 articles to it in that year alone. Sensationalist reactions to the new discovery included publications linking the new kind of rays to occult and paranormal theories, such as telepathy.
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Each dot, called a reflection, in this diffraction pattern forms from the constructive interference of scattered X-rays passing through a crystal. The data can be used to determine the crystalline structure.
1184:, powered by a thermonuclear explosion) gave inconclusive results. For technical and political reasons, the overall project (including the X-ray laser) was defunded (though was later revived by the second
754:
Many experimenters, including Röntgen himself in his original experiments, came up with methods to view X-ray images "live" using some form of luminescent screen. Röntgen used a screen coated with barium
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operating. Larger and more frequently used tubes were provided with devices for restoring the air, known as "softeners". These often took the form of a small side tube that contained a small piece of
791:, using a calcium tungstate screen developed by Edison, found that using a fluorescent screen decreased the exposure time it took to create an X-ray for medical imaging from an hour to a few minutes.
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in Birmingham, England on 11 January 1896, when he radiographed a needle stuck in the hand of an associate. On 14 February 1896, Hall-Edwards was also the first to use X-rays in a surgical operation.
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and swallowing disorders). As of recent, modern fluoroscopy utilizes short bursts of x-rays, rather than a continuous beam, to effectively lower radiation exposure for both the patient and operator.
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image produced using this method, in addition to the method itself. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms, they are also useful for determining crystal structures by
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in a futile attempt to save his life; in 1904, he became the first known death attributed to X-ray exposure. During the time the fluoroscope was being developed, Serbian American physicist
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or slices of specific areas of the body are obtained from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken in different directions. These cross-sectional images can be combined into a
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has been injected into the blood vessels within this area. These two images are then digitally subtracted, leaving an image of only the iodinated contrast outlining the blood vessels. The
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image of the inside of the body. CT scans are a quicker and more cost effective imaging modality that can be used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in various medical disciplines.
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The many applications of X-rays immediately generated enormous interest. Workshops began making specialized versions of Crookes tubes for generating X-rays and these first-generation
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0.6–3.0%. The amount of absorbed radiation depends upon the type of X-ray test and the body part involved. CT and fluoroscopy entail higher doses of radiation than do plain X-rays.
970:. This idea was quickly applied to X-ray tubes, and hence heated-cathode X-ray tubes, called "Coolidge tubes", completely replaced the troublesome cold cathode tubes by about 1920.
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is the energy of the incident photon. This rule is not valid close to inner shell electron binding energies where there are abrupt changes in interaction probability, so called
722:
tested all of the discharge tubes in the physics laboratory and found that only the Puluj tube produced X-rays. This was a result of Puluj's inclusion of an oblique "target" of
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Upton AC (July 2003). "The state of the art in the 1990's: NCRP Report No. 136 on the scientific bases for linearity in the dose-response relationship for ionizing radiation".
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to capture the human skeleton in motion. In 1920, it was used to record the movements of tongue and teeth in the study of languages by the Institute of Phonetics in England.
718:
The first medical X-ray made in the United States was obtained using a discharge tube of Puluj's design. In January 1896, on reading of Röntgen's discovery, Frank Austin of
2025:
Both of these X-ray production processes are inefficient, with only about one percent of the electrical energy used by the tube converted into X-rays, and thus most of the
642:
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by scientists, physicians, and inventors came many stories of burns, hair loss, and worse in technical journals of the time. In February 1896, Professor John Daniel and
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Biomedical Applications of Synchrotron Radiation: Proceedings of the 128th Course at the International School of Physics -Enrico Fermi- 12–22 July 1994, Varenna, Italy
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being the first after Röntgen to create an X-ray photograph (of a hand). Through February, there were 46 experimenters taking up the technique in North America alone.
1384:. In medical imaging, this increased cancer risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be used in
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275:) undoubtedly radiated X-rays, because early researchers noticed effects that were attributable to them, as detailed below. Crookes tubes created free electrons by
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However, the effect of ionizing radiation on matter (especially living tissue) is more closely related to the amount of energy deposited into them rather than the
2810:, a technique in which X-rays are generated within a specimen and detected. The outgoing energy of the X-ray can be used to identify the composition of the sample.
336:
Helmholtz formulated mathematical equations for X-rays. He postulated a dispersion theory before Röntgen made his discovery and announcement. He based it on the
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Financial incentives have been shown to have a significant impact on X-ray use with doctors who are paid a separate fee for each X-ray providing more X-rays.
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allowing the images to be recorded and played on a monitor. This method may use a contrast material. Examples include cardiac catheterization (to examine for
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of X-rays through the closely spaced lattice of atoms in a crystal is recorded and then analysed to reveal the nature of that lattice. A related technique,
410:. After Röntgen identified the X-ray, Tesla began making X-ray images of his own using high voltages and tubes of his own design, as well as Crookes tubes.
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X-ray spectromicroscopy has been used to analyse the reactions of pigments in paintings. For example, in analysing colour degradation in the paintings of
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Tesla's technical publications indicate that he invented and developed a single-electrode X-ray tube. Morton, William James and Hammer, Edwin W. (1896)
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Baganha, M. F.; Marques, M. A.; Botelho, M. F.; Teixeira, M. L.; Carvalheira, V.; Calisto, J.; Silva, A.; Fernandes, A.; Torres, M.; Brito, J. (1993).
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Chandra's image of the galaxy cluster Abell 2125 reveals a complex of several massive multimillion-degree-Celsius gas clouds in the process of merging.
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is the (obsolete) corresponding traditional unit, equal to 10 millijoules of energy deposited per kilogram. 100 rad = 1 gray.
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consumed by the tube is released as waste heat. When producing a usable flux of X-rays, the X-ray tube must be designed to dissipate the excess heat.
1966:
for more specialized applications, such as when softer X-rays are needed as in mammography. In crystallography, a copper target is most common, with
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Using X-ray for inspection and quality control: the differences in the structures of the die and bond wires reveal the left chip to be counterfeit.
783:, one of his glassblowers. Dally had a habit of testing X-ray tubes on his own hands, developing a cancer in them so tenacious that both arms were
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Ahi K, Anwar M (May 2016). "Advanced terahertz techniques for quality control and counterfeit detection". In Anwar MF, Crowe TW, Manzur T (eds.).
2119:. The underlying mechanism is the acceleration of electrons in lightning related electric fields and the subsequent production of photons through
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X-rays have much shorter wavelengths than visible light, which makes it possible to probe structures much smaller than can be seen using a normal
859:
In August 1896, H. D. Hawks, a graduate of Columbia College, suffered severe hand and chest burns from an X-ray demonstration. It was reported in
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and began studying them. He wrote an initial report "On a new kind of ray: A preliminary communication" and on 28 December 1895, submitted it to
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of the target atom. After that, electrons from higher energy levels fill the vacancies, and X-ray photons are emitted. This process produces an
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715:(sciagraph is an obsolete name for an X-ray photograph), by Green and James H. Gardiner, with a foreword by Boulenger, was published in 1897.
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or surgeon then compares the image obtained to normal anatomical images to determine whether there is any damage or blockage of the vessel.
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mechanism in the X-ray regime. Inelastic forward scattering gives rise to the refractive index, which for X-rays is only slightly below 1.
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was the most effective substance. In May 1896, he developed the first mass-produced live imaging device, his "Vitascope", later called the
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7585:
Berrington de González A, Darby S (January 2004). "Risk of cancer from diagnostic X-rays: estimates for the UK and 14 other countries".
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Davis TJ, Gao D, Gureyev TE, Stevenson AW, Wilkins SW (1995). "Phase-contrast imaging of weakly absorbing materials using hard X-rays".
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which are often (but not always) visible. Traditional plain X-rays are less useful in the imaging of soft tissues such as the brain or
2005:: This is radiation given off by the electrons as they are scattered by the strong electric field near the nuclei. These X-rays have a
6452:"Angular distribution of Bremsstrahlung photons and of positrons for calculations of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes and positron beams"
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1095:. The cars would allow for rapid X-ray imaging of wounded soldiers so battlefield surgeons could quickly and more accurately operate.
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started research soon after Röntgen's discovery and investigated materials' ability to fluoresce when exposed to X-rays, finding that
10340:
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5823:
Momose A, Takeda T, Itai Y, Hirano K (April 1996). "Phase-contrast X-ray computed tomography for observing biological soft tissues".
2472:) an initial image is taken of the anatomical region of interest. A second image is then taken of the same region after an iodinated
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7679:
Caon M, Bibbo G, Pattison J (2000). "Monte Carlo calculated effective dose to teenage girls from computed tomography examinations".
2976:. It is not known what exact mechanism in the eye produces the visibility: it could be due to conventional detection (excitation of
582:(Hand with Rings): print of Wilhelm Röntgen's first "medical" X-ray, of his wife's hand, taken on 22 December 1895 and presented to
9407:
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4058:"System of Electric Lighting". These differed from other X-ray tubes in having no target electrode and worked with the output of a
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or EPT (as of 2015) along with other techniques are being researched as potential alternatives to X-rays for imaging applications.
1501:. The attenuation length is about four orders of magnitude longer for hard X-rays (right half) compared to soft X-rays (left half).
406:
noticed damaged film in his lab that seemed to be associated with Crookes tube experiments and began investigating this invisible,
7003:"Accuracy of total knee implant position assessment based on postoperative X-rays, registered to pre-operative CT-based 3D models"
4074:"Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen On a New Kind of Rays: translation of a paper read before the Würzburg Physical and Medical Society, 1895"
2040:. Its unique features are X-ray outputs many orders of magnitude greater than those of X-ray tubes, wide X-ray spectra, excellent
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molecules in the retina), direct excitation of retinal nerve cells, or secondary detection via, for instance, X-ray induction of
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exposure, and it is the amount of radiation required to create one coulomb of charge of each polarity in one kilogram of matter.
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and led to many other reports of problems associated with X-rays being sent in to the publication. Many experimenters including
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Oakley, P. A., Navid Ehsani, N., & Harrison, D. E. (2020). 5 Reasons Why Scoliosis X-Rays Are Not Harmful. Dose-Response.
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Compton scattering is the predominant interaction between X-rays and soft tissue in medical imaging. Compton scattering is an
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8379:
8210:
7937:
7768:
Giles D, Hewitt D, Stewart A, Webb J (September 1956). "Malignant disease in childhood and diagnostic irradiation in utero".
7036:
6309:
6282:
6189:
6109:
6084:
6018:
5993:
5966:
5941:
5877:
4405:
4027:
3133:
2853:
2320:
7954:
7891:
Donnelly LF (February 2005). "Reducing radiation dose associated with pediatric CT by decreasing unnecessary examinations".
759:. On 5 February 1896, live imaging devices were developed by both Italian scientist Enrico Salvioni (his "cryptoscope") and
11708:
11677:
11622:
10586:
9364:
9359:
8333:
7725:
Gregory KJ, Bibbo G, Pattison JE (August 2008). "On the Uncertainties in Effective Dose Estimates of Adult CT Head Scans".
7131:
Hill R, Healy B, Holloway L, Kuncic Z, Thwaites D, Baldock C (March 2014). "Advances in kilovoltage x-ray beam dosimetry".
1927:
779:, which became the standard for medical X-ray examinations. Edison dropped X-ray research around 1903, before the death of
8056:
7341:
De Santis M, Cesari E, Nobili E, Straface G, Cavaliere AF, Caruso A (September 2007). "Radiation effects on development".
7233:
6272:
6245:. Center for X-ray Optics and Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 1 October 2009. Archived from
11341:
11307:
10503:
10049:
10014:
9437:
9422:
9291:
7182:
Thwaites DI, Tuohy JB (July 2006). "Back to the future: the history and development of the clinical linear accelerator".
3646:
2656:
2465:
6599:
Cooray V, Arevalo L, Rahman M, Dwyer J, Rassoul H (2009). "On the possible origin of X-rays in long laboratory sparks".
5737:
Wilkins SW, Gureyev TE, Gao D, Pogany A, Stevenson AW (1996). "Phase-contrast imaging using polychromatic hard X-rays".
1301:. One common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source: X-rays are emitted by
11657:
11201:
10785:
8316:
6239:
4994:
4936:
4343:
3770:"The History, Development and Impact of Computed Imaging in Neurological Diagnosis and Neurosurgery: CT, MRI, and DTI"
2928:
were popularized in the 1920s, banned in the US in the 1960s, in the UK in the 1970s, and later in continental Europe.
2719:
363:
noticed a flash of light from a fluorescent screen immediately before the covered tube he was switching on punctured.
11829:
11824:
9865:
9744:
8499:
6338:
4708:
3740:
2639:
2457:, is usually placed over the window of the X-ray tube, absorbing the low energy part in the spectrum. This is called
2307:
795:
3124:(Gy). 1 Sv = 1 Gy. For the "effective dose" of X-rays, it is usually not equal to the Gray (Gy).
2288:
11723:
11095:
10960:
9495:
9339:
9318:
4856:"Visible Proofs: Forensic Views of the Body: Galleries: Cases: Could X-rays Have Saved President William McKinley?"
2937:
2874:
luggage scanners use X-rays for inspecting the interior of luggage for security threats before loading on aircraft.
2834:
alterations in the course of painting or by later restorers, and sometimes previous paintings on the support. Many
2562:
1446:
over the X-ray spectrum. This allows the photon energy to be adjusted for the application so as to give sufficient
5410:
3590:
3034:(R) is an obsolete traditional unit of exposure, which represented the amount of radiation required to create one
2260:
1988:(X-ray electroluminescence): If the electron has enough energy, it can knock an orbital electron out of the inner
452:. The name X-rays stuck, although (over Röntgen's great objections) many of his colleagues suggested calling them
11038:
10872:
10474:
10352:
10009:
9870:
6177:
5867:
4855:
2823:
2372:
is the practice of producing two-dimensional images using X-ray radiation. Bones contain a high concentration of
2069:
818:
to Buffalo to find the stray bullet. It arrived but was not used. While the shooting itself had not been lethal,
652:
337:
2150:
X-ray detectors vary in shape and function depending on their purpose. Imaging detectors such as those used for
321:
through a partially evacuated glass tube, producing a glow created by X-rays. This work was further explored by
11028:
10877:
10335:
5983:
5306:
5238:
5123:
4843:
4674:
3105:, or, in other words, 10 millijoules of energy deposited per kilogram. 100 rem = 1 Sv.
2245:
1683:
likely, especially for high-energy X-rays. The probability for different scattering angles is described by the
5280:
5254:
4184:"Tomodensitometry and radioisotopic methods in the study of unilateral lung hyperlucencies of vascular origin"
2680:(CT scans) performed in the past and that this may increase to as high as 1.5–2% with 2007 rates of CT usage.
135:. There is no universally accepted, strict definition of the bounds of the X-ray band. Roughly, X-rays have a
11789:
10802:
10635:
10059:
9987:
9369:
9334:
5384:
3664:
3174:
2931:
2691:
To place the increased risk in perspective, a plain chest X-ray will expose a person to the same amount from
2267:
598:
The discovery of X-rays generated significant interest. Röntgen's biographer Otto Glasser estimated that, in
5332:
1654:) in bones, together with their high density, is what makes them show up so clearly on medical radiographs.
11145:
10882:
10591:
10345:
9842:
9432:
9402:
9261:
9234:
3652:
3605:
1195:
1185:
1177:
708:
669:
Images by James Green, from "Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles" (1897), featuring (from left)
8467:
4170:
Rats have been trained to respond to signals consisting of very low doses of chi-ray directed to the head.
626:
apparatus, late 1800s. The Crookes tube is visible in center. The standing man is viewing his hand with a
11834:
11545:
11295:
11208:
11180:
11137:
11102:
10940:
10767:
10705:
10530:
10434:
10320:
9788:
9488:
9412:
9379:
9349:
9313:
9019:
8614:
2116:
2068:
X-rays can also be produced by fast protons or other positive ions. The proton-induced X-ray emission or
1715:
Whenever charged particles (electrons or ions) of sufficient energy hit a material, X-rays are produced.
1667:
1173:
11849:
6509:"Calculation of beams of positrons, neutrons, and protons associated with terrestrial gamma ray flashes"
6099:
6074:
3799:"Electrical Experiments Made in Order to Ascertain the Non-Conducting Power of a Perfect Vacuum, &c"
3539:
3501:
3462:
3433:
1261:. Due to their penetrating ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects (e.g. in
1038:
928:
31:
This article is about the nature, production, and uses of the radiation. For the method of imaging, see
11777:
11632:
11605:
11129:
10988:
10667:
10185:
10142:
9994:
9458:
9298:
9186:
8609:
8151:
3482:
3117:
2724:
2274:
2107:
refers to that of the target atom. An overview of these cross sections is given in the same reference.
348:
344:
7092:
1970:
often being used when fluorescence from iron content in the sample might otherwise present a problem.
1076:
of the technique, which he called "serial radiography". In 1918, X-rays were used in association with
231:
186:
X-rays can penetrate many solid substances such as construction materials and living tissue, so X-ray
11662:
11515:
11283:
10965:
10574:
10357:
6411:
Paul H, Muhr J (1986). "Review of experimental cross sections for K-shell ionization by light ions".
4279:
3615:
2801:
2684:
2499:
1684:
1110:
699:
101:
3892:"The first radiation accident in America: a centennial account of the x-ray photograph made in 1890"
3089:
is the measure of the biological effect of radiation on human tissue. For X-rays it is equal to the
2328:
1125:, which gives a relatively stable view of the universe, the X-ray universe is unstable. It features
11839:
11819:
11814:
11600:
11510:
11374:
11213:
11055:
10955:
10867:
10076:
9962:
9922:
9734:
9125:
8909:
8522:
4585:
Grove AW (1 January 1997). "Röntgen's ghosts: photography, X-rays, and the Victorian imagination".
4393:
3831:
2925:
2369:
2356:
1692:
1381:
1229:
1189:
302:
8174:
2435:. One area where projectional radiographs are used extensively is in evaluating how an orthopedic
2256:
1435:
738:
11540:
11334:
11118:
11085:
11060:
10674:
10451:
10257:
10180:
10137:
10120:
10081:
10004:
8959:
6937:
6217:
5185:
4721:
4310:
3928:
3530:
3453:
3098:
2547:
2521:
2234:
2073:
799:
704:
314:
11043:
6848:
11781:
11692:
11366:
10950:
10237:
9781:
9427:
9276:
9012:
4639:
Feldman A (November 1989). "A sketch of the technical history of radiology from 1896 to 1920".
2813:
2683:
Experimental and epidemiological data currently do not support the proposition that there is a
2241:
1688:
1616:
1431:
1427:
1030:
performed crystallography experiments with X-rays emanating from various metals and formulated
1012:
985:
977:
discovered that X-rays could be scattered by gases, and that each element had a characteristic
839:
814:
and could not be found. A worried McKinley aide sent word to inventor Thomas Edison to rush an
780:
587:
553:
391:
40:
17:
8306:
8200:
7706:
6326:
5358:
4984:
4953:
3862:
2991:
of the air molecules if the intensity of the X-ray beam is high enough. The beamline from the
2984:
in the eyeball with conventional retinal detection of the secondarily produced visible light.
2461:
the beam since it shifts the center of the spectrum towards higher energy (or harder) X-rays.
2343:
Since Röntgen's discovery that X-rays can identify bone structures, X-rays have been used for
638:. No precautions against radiation exposure are taken; its hazards were not known at the time.
11785:
11520:
11244:
10980:
10935:
10397:
10325:
10252:
10247:
10212:
9999:
9967:
9754:
9681:
9387:
9256:
9064:
7002:
5931:
4333:
3943:
3020:
2992:
2761:
2551:
2207:
2203:
2033:
1528:
1525:
The probability of a photoelectric absorption per unit mass is approximately proportional to
1466:
1282:
1209:
1016:
885:
843:
760:
310:
8480:
7927:
1309:. This definition has several problems: other processes can also generate these high-energy
11844:
11642:
11530:
11487:
11437:
11155:
10930:
10915:
10232:
10190:
10026:
9932:
9860:
9224:
9156:
9089:
8919:
8914:
8411:
7734:
7487:
7191:
7140:
6938:"Medical Radiation Exposure Of The U.S. Population Greatly Increased Since The Early 1980s"
6802:
6745:
6704:
6647:
6608:
6565:
6520:
6469:
6420:
6370:
6138:
5789:
5746:
5709:
5657:
4893:
4755:
4221:
Takahashi, K.; Case, B. W.; Dufresne, A.; Fraser, R.; Higashi, T.; Siemiatycki, J. (1994).
4129:
4087:
3641:
3038:
of charge of each polarity in one cubic centimeter of dry air. 1 roentgen =
2941:
2909:
2692:
2558:
2175:
2171:
2053:
2037:
1983:
1679:
1506:
1494:
1069:
947:
877:
764:
880:, an American X-ray pioneer, died from complications as a result of her work with X-rays.
8:
11759:
11637:
11550:
11254:
11065:
10850:
10444:
10312:
10290:
10115:
9972:
9739:
9701:
9534:
9176:
9151:
9130:
8954:
8949:
8924:
8904:
8655:
6885:
6883:
4422:
4397:
4387:
2951:
2713:
2677:
2566:
2542:
2513:
2507:
2473:
2045:
2006:
1514:
1443:
1262:
1065:
1042:
1008:
675:
646:
Surgical removal of a bullet whose location was diagnosed with X-rays (see inset) in 1897
521:
493:
367:
191:
86:
11718:
8415:
8292:
Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems X: Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense
7738:
7491:
7195:
7144:
6806:
6749:
6708:
6651:
6612:
6577:
6569:
6524:
6473:
6424:
6374:
6142:
5793:
5750:
5713:
5661:
4897:
4759:
4722:"Green, James (Zoological Artist), Sciagraphs of British batrachians and reptiles, 1897"
4133:
4091:
2727:, England. The maker's sticker states that it is equivalent to 2.24mm of lead at 150Kv.
1321:
generally has a longer wavelength and lower photon energy than the radiation emitted by
1068:, England. Then in 1908, he had to have his left arm amputated because of the spread of
11754:
11575:
11555:
11535:
11419:
11327:
11234:
10970:
10807:
10734:
10545:
10195:
10165:
10149:
10132:
9776:
9666:
9614:
9564:
9511:
9417:
9196:
9161:
9094:
8944:
8792:
8765:
8675:
8660:
7868:
7843:
7692:
7610:
7562:
7537:
7511:
7453:
7410:
7323:
7215:
7164:
6823:
6790:
6766:
6733:
6668:
6635:
6581:
6485:
6459:
6386:
6100:
Bushberg, Jerrold T.; Seibert, J. Anthony; Leidholdt, Edwin M.; Boone, John M. (2002).
6075:
Bushberg, Jerrold T.; Seibert, J. Anthony; Leidholdt, Edwin M.; Boone, John M. (2002).
6049:
Government of Canada, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (9 May 2019).
5848:
5805:
5762:
5675:
5179:
5036:
5011:
4963:
4773:
4610:
4544:"A Cosmology of Invisible Fluids: Wireless, X-Rays, and Psychical Research Around 1900"
4524:
4255:
4223:"Relation between lung asbestos fibre burden and exposure indices based on job history"
4222:
4161:
3679:
3610:
3268:
3035:
3024:
2973:
2807:
2664:
2442:
2436:
2179:
2155:
2129:
1704:
1663:
1510:
1498:
1418:
the inside of visually opaque objects. The most often seen applications are in medical
1400:
1377:
1365:
1286:
1160:
1134:
909:
732:
635:
549:
545:
505:
481:
465:
461:
215:
207:
7781:
7638:. Radiological Society of North America (RSNA) and American College of Radiology (ACR)
7598:
7519:
7203:
7152:
6880:
6795:
Philosophical Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences
6356:"Correlation between nanosecond X-ray flashes and stick–slip friction in peeling tape"
6150:
5438:"Marie Curie and her X-ray vehicles' contribution to World War I battlefield medicine"
4652:
1631:
735:
obtained from Howard Langill, a local photographer also interested in Röntgen's work.
433:
422:
109:
11647:
11525:
11462:
11427:
10302:
10095:
9982:
9957:
9895:
9852:
9696:
9691:
9686:
9529:
9465:
9397:
9392:
9219:
9191:
9084:
8800:
8796:
8777:
8773:
8769:
8375:
8312:
8272:
8244:
8206:
8133:
7980:
7933:
7908:
7873:
7785:
7750:
7602:
7567:
7503:
7445:
7441:
7402:
7358:
7315:
7280:
7207:
7156:
7112:
7064:
7032:
6983:
6913:
6869:
6828:
6771:
6673:
6432:
6334:
6305:
6278:
6185:
6105:
6080:
6014:
5989:
5962:
5937:
5873:
5840:
5679:
5385:"X-ray movies perfected. Will show motions of bones and joints of human body. (1918)"
5041:
4990:
4932:
4909:
4839:
4817:
4704:
4656:
4602:
4528:
4401:
4339:
4260:
4242:
4203:
4195:
4153:
4145:
4023:
4000:
3911:
3891:
3736:
3626:
3600:
3240:
3182:
2773:
2769:
2578:
2412:
2199:
2159:
2133:
2057:
1993:
1687:. The transferred energy can be directly obtained from the scattering angle from the
1620:
1451:
1439:
1396:
1257:. The intermediate range with photon energies of several keV is often referred to as
1061:
1057:
868:
803:
772:
746:, a medical journal. In the left a hand deformity, in the right same hand seen using
719:
659:
605:
537:
529:
525:
497:
203:
8294:. Vol. 9856. Society of Photographic Instrumentation Engineers. pp. 31–44.
8017:
7631:
7457:
7382:
7327:
7168:
6585:
6489:
6154:
5852:
4614:
4165:
3907:
896:
876:
effects from X-ray exposure at all. On 3 August 1905, in San Francisco, California,
68:
of a wine scene. Note the edges of hollow cylinders as compared to the solid candle.
11652:
11150:
10205:
10170:
9927:
9917:
9805:
9793:
9634:
9629:
9619:
9609:
9604:
9181:
9059:
8934:
8705:
8680:
8548:
8419:
8264:
8236:
8123:
8118:
8113:
8101:
8036:
7900:
7863:
7855:
7777:
7742:
7688:
7614:
7594:
7557:
7549:
7515:
7495:
7437:
7414:
7394:
7350:
7307:
7298:
Brenner DJ (2010). "Should we be concerned about the rapid increase in CT usage?".
7272:
7219:
7199:
7148:
7104:
6975:
6903:
6861:
6818:
6810:
6761:
6753:
6712:
6663:
6655:
6616:
6573:
6528:
6481:
6477:
6428:
6390:
6378:
6146:
5832:
5809:
5797:
5766:
5754:
5717:
5665:
5208:
5031:
5023:
4901:
4807:
4777:
4763:
4648:
4594:
4565:
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4514:
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4250:
4234:
4137:
4095:
4078:
3990:
3903:
3843:
3810:
3777:
2871:
2846:
2797:
2752:
2709:
2503:
2396:
2333:
2281:
1612:
1594:
1570:
1462:
1423:
1369:
1266:
1146:
1103:
1031:
1004:
963:
951:
685:
517:
513:
509:
489:
485:
371:
318:
199:
7658:"National Cancer Institute: Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) data"
6355:
4141:
2913:
11809:
11764:
11749:
11565:
11477:
11467:
11319:
11048:
11008:
10462:
10276:
10200:
10175:
10021:
9814:
9716:
9706:
9671:
9549:
9539:
9453:
9308:
9171:
9135:
9054:
8983:
8896:
8738:
8670:
8088:
8043:
8024:
7958:
7713:
5242:
4510:
3674:
3414:
3301:
3113:
3086:
3051:
3031:
2981:
2945:
2885:
2787:
2408:
2404:
2344:
2191:
1950:
to a high velocity. The high velocity electrons collide with a metal target, the
1490:
1415:
1084:
1023:
992:
982:
943:
905:
835:
815:
599:
541:
501:
473:
469:
457:
399:
381:
326:
306:
272:
248:
218:. Their generation and use is strictly controlled by public health authorities.
210:, and exposure to high intensities can be hazardous to health, causing damage to
113:
10540:
6865:
6620:
4560:
4543:
3798:
3101:(rem) is the traditional unit of equivalent dose. For X-rays it is equal to the
11612:
11570:
11560:
11482:
11472:
11442:
11003:
10998:
10993:
10743:
10650:
10619:
10601:
10125:
10031:
9977:
9942:
9875:
9822:
9676:
9569:
9554:
9544:
8929:
8713:
8060:
7904:
7538:"The Scoliosis Quandary: Are Radiation Exposures From Repeated X-Rays Harmful?"
7311:
7108:
7056:
6908:
6891:
6717:
6692:
6554:"Analyzing x-ray emissions from meter-scale negative discharges in ambient air"
4116:
Garcia, J.; Buchwald, N. A.; Feder, B. H.; Koelling, R. A.; Tedrow, L. (1964).
3595:
3583:
2879:
2732:
to 60 (digital) to 180 (film) μSv, for a yearly average of up to 400 μSv.
2617:
2187:
2145:
2026:
2001:
1989:
1922:
1659:
1392:
1373:
1361:
1325:
1306:
978:
974:
924:
756:
691:
618:
583:
569:
533:
477:
407:
360:
280:
256:
240:
11023:
7029:
Fundamentals of Computerized Tomography: Image Reconstruction from Projections
5592:
5566:
5540:
5488:
5462:
5213:
4812:
4795:
3945:
Illustrated Electrical Review: A Journal of Scientific and Electrical Progress
3847:
908:, which displayed continuous moving images. This image was used to argue that
11803:
11687:
11447:
11432:
11188:
10479:
9885:
9726:
9229:
8939:
8876:
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8761:
8695:
8690:
8685:
7553:
7116:
6987:
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5618:
5514:
4905:
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4199:
4149:
4054:
4048:
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3090:
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2446:
2377:
2337:
2097:
2072:
is widely used as an analytical procedure. For high energies, the production
1588:
1447:
1246:
1200:
1034:
which relates the frequency of the X-rays to the atomic number of the metal.
1027:
864:
788:
768:
195:
8567:
7944:, data credited to NCRP (US National Committee on Radiation Protection) 1987
6892:"Radiation-reduction strategies in cardiac computed tomographic angiography"
6246:
5027:
2032:
A specialized source of X-rays which is becoming widely used in research is
1289:
of 600 eV (~2 nm) X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer.
1180:
in the 1980s, but the only test of the device (a sort of laser "blaster" or
429:
301:
The earliest experimenter thought to have (unknowingly) produced X-rays was
11667:
11627:
11492:
10754:
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9581:
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9166:
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8248:
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7754:
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7406:
7362:
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7284:
7276:
7211:
7160:
7068:
7024:
6917:
6873:
6832:
6814:
6775:
6677:
5698:"Differential x-ray phase contrast imaging using a shearing interferometer"
5045:
4913:
4157:
4117:
4004:
3815:
3684:
3669:
3636:
3211:
2919:
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823:
623:
445:
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403:
353:
322:
268:
236:
176:
7263:
Hall EJ, Brenner DJ (May 2008). "Cancer risks from diagnostic radiology".
7093:"Fluoroscopy: basic science, optimal use, and patient/operator protection"
5844:
4821:
4660:
4606:
4264:
4207:
4183:
1056:
The use of X-rays for medical purposes (which developed into the field of
387:
Without Lens or Light, Photographs Taken With Plate and Object in Darkness
206:
and detecting weak points in construction materials). However X-rays are
11409:
11165:
10812:
10402:
9909:
9880:
9120:
8988:
8665:
8647:
8543:
7398:
6757:
6734:"High-Energy Emissions Induced by Air Density Fluctuations of Discharges"
6659:
6533:
5149:
4598:
4238:
3995:
3978:
3347:
3309:
3121:
3063:
2765:
2538:
2533:
2469:
2392:
2167:
2151:
2041:
1947:
1939:
1419:
1322:
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There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and
1233:
1205:
1169:
1154:
1117:, has been allowing the exploration of the very violent processes in the
1092:
1088:
1000:
959:
955:
901:
848:
834:
With the widespread experimentation with X‑rays after their discovery in
776:
747:
727:
627:
565:
376:
260:
187:
128:
32:
8102:"First do no harm – The impact of financial incentives on dental X-rays"
7859:
7707:
Doses from Computed Tomography (CT) examinations in the UK – 2003 Review
6382:
4570:
4494:
3710:
2954:
is the use of high energy X-rays generated from a fission explosion (an
559:
There are conflicting accounts of his discovery because Röntgen had his
441:
294:
to a high enough velocity that they created X-rays when they struck the
290:
and 100 kV. This voltage accelerated the electrons coming from the
60:
11457:
11404:
10518:
9244:
9110:
8969:
8637:
8632:
8586:
8563:
8128:
7354:
5836:
4059:
3959:
Wyman T (Spring 2005). "Fernando Sanford and the Discovery of X-rays".
3658:
3395:
3102:
3078:
3008:
2988:
2934:
is used to track movement of bones based on the implantation of markers
2897:
2839:
2831:
2668:
2621:
2582:
2517:
2248: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2183:
1963:
1935:
1797:
1458:
1411:
1357:
1318:
1130:
784:
767:(his "Skiascope"), both using barium platinocyanide. American inventor
631:
276:
136:
124:
8268:
8240:
7837:
7835:
7833:
7746:
6979:
6195:
5883:
5722:
5697:
5670:
5645:
4519:
2892:
2794:, which deals with the study of X-ray emission from celestial objects.
2708:
American radiation exposure; medical procedures as a whole (including
1426:
scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry (e.g.
418:
11744:
11617:
11452:
11399:
11389:
11350:
11160:
10523:
10513:
9641:
9594:
9559:
9480:
8978:
8825:
8601:
8579:
8558:
8533:
8424:
8399:
6549:
6504:
6447:
6051:"Radiation – Quantities and Units of Ionizing Radiation: OSH Answers"
5801:
5758:
4768:
4743:
4100:
4073:
3972:
3970:
3192:
2977:
2791:
2477:
2420:
2400:
2384:
2194:
can be measured either by energy dispersive or wavelength dispersive
1724:
Characteristic X-ray emission lines for some common anode materials.
1406:
Hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much
1389:
1298:
1224:
1181:
1150:
252:
148:
144:
140:
132:
65:
36:
11018:
8433:
7499:
6791:"Transforming X-ray detection with hybrid photon counting detectors"
5255:"X-ray movies show hard boiled egg fighting digestive organs (1913)"
5235:
5127:
4881:
4678:
2223:
2110:
1954:, creating the X-rays. In medical X-ray tubes the target is usually
1003:
of X-rays by crystals. This discovery, along with the early work of
11394:
11379:
11249:
10892:
10887:
10827:
10496:
10424:
10407:
10392:
10367:
10110:
9599:
9115:
8993:
8753:
8553:
8253:
8225:
7830:
7811:
7241:
3961:"Imprint", from the Associates of the Stanford University Libraries
3282:
2445:
is commonly used in the diagnoses of common oral problems, such as
2361:
1955:
1943:
1917:
1775:
1385:
1314:
1302:
1274:
1253:, while those with lower energy (and longer wavelength) are called
1236:. Different applications use different parts of the X-ray spectrum.
1118:
819:
560:
287:
264:
8046:. Dentalgentlecare.com (6 February 2008). Retrieved on 2011-05-05.
7955:"ANS / Public Information / Resources / Radiation Dose Calculator"
7929:
Health Risks from Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation, BEIR 7 phase 2
6464:
3977:
Hrabak M, Padovan RS, Kralik M, Ozretic D, Potocki K (July 2008).
3967:
1908:
1249:
above 5–10 keV (below 0.2–0.1 nm wavelength) are called
456:. They are still referred to as such in many languages, including
11672:
11218:
11170:
11033:
11013:
10412:
10387:
9827:
9658:
9646:
9624:
9589:
9239:
8862:
8848:
6788:
5109:
Editor. (5 August 1905). Obituary Notice. Elizabeth Fleischmann.
4986:
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the Early History of the Roentgen Rays
4335:
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the early history of the roentgen rays
3492:
3424:
3278:
3109:
3016:
2987:
Though X-rays are otherwise invisible, it is possible to see the
2835:
2817:
2489:
2416:
2373:
1959:
1913:
1863:
1747:
1625:
1474:
923:
A typical early 20th-century medical X-ray system consisted of a
822:
had developed along the path of the bullet, and McKinley died of
811:
807:
291:
283:
9004:
7383:"Computed tomography—an increasing source of radiation exposure"
3979:"Scenes from the past: Nikola Tesla and the discovery of X-rays"
2494:
1114:
10822:
10817:
10797:
10777:
10762:
10645:
10382:
10362:
10330:
9074:
8886:
8881:
8871:
8843:
8838:
8833:
8804:
8733:
7001:
Van Haver A, Kolk S, DeBoodt S, Valkering K, Verdonk P (2018).
3757:. Vol. 1. United States: The Greystone Press. p. 394.
3631:
2959:
2958:) to compress nuclear fuel to the point of fusion ignition (an
2955:
2804:
in the soft X-ray band to produce images of very small objects.
2432:
2060:
is sufficient for it to be used as a source for X-ray imaging.
1974:
1967:
1885:
1841:
1819:
1353:
1310:
967:
51:
47:
8369:
6922:
Of the 5 billion imaging investigations performed worldwide...
6889:
6553:
6508:
6451:
3929:
http://www.smj.org.sg/sites/default/files/3605/3605hdxray1.pdf
3066:(Gy), which has units of (joules/kilogram), is the SI unit of
1485:
1344:
11384:
11239:
11196:
10859:
10715:
10508:
10372:
8728:
7340:
7000:
6297:
4181:
3621:
3355:
3120:. For X-rays the "equivalent dose" is numerically equal to a
3071:
2816:
uses X-rays for inspection of industrial parts, particularly
2608:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
2324:
Patient undergoing an X-ray exam in a hospital radiology room
1951:
1497:, as well as a leveling off at higher photon energies due to
1122:
1048:
707:
first mentioned this work in a paper he delivered before the
436:
stumbled on X-rays while experimenting with Lenard tubes and
295:
156:
152:
7925:
6693:"Streamer properties and associated x-rays in perturbed air"
5411:"Talk is cheap? X-ray used by Institute of Phonetics (1920)"
4453:"'I Have Seen My Death': How the World Discovered the X-Ray"
3070:, and it is the amount of radiation required to deposit one
2415:, free air (from visceral perforations), and free fluid (in
2017:
So, the resulting output of a tube consists of a continuous
1662:. These effects can be used for elemental detection through
10720:
10609:
10419:
10377:
8723:
8718:
8485:
A web for learning how X-rays can "see" inside the crystals
7584:
6890:
Roobottom CA, Mitchell G, Morgan-Hughes G (November 2010).
6547:
5307:"Homeopaths to show movies of body's organs at work (1915)"
5012:"Early victims of X-rays: a tribute and current perception"
4430:
4220:
4115:
3718:
2652:
2388:
1470:
1285:. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air; the
1138:
1126:
1091:
developed radiological cars to support soldiers injured in
936:
852:
723:
8175:"Scientists achieve X-ray vision with safe, visible light"
8027:. Doctorspiller.com (9 May 2007). Retrieved on 2011-05-05.
6353:
4389:
Naked to the Bone Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century
3976:
2922:, a method popular in the 1920s but now banned by the FDA.
267:
beams that were first observed in 1869. Many of the early
10693:
10557:
8743:
7099:. Imaging for Interventional Management of Chronic Pain.
6789:
Förster A, Brandstetter S, Schulze-Briese C (June 2019).
6690:
6636:"Electron acceleration during streamer collisions in air"
5695:
5087:
Public Library. San Francisco History and Archive Center.
3369:
3054:
generated. This measure of energy absorbed is called the
2781:
1489:
Attenuation length of X-rays in water showing the oxygen
1333:
999:, Paul Knipping, and Walter Friedrich first observed the
658:
The first use of X-rays under clinical conditions was by
211:
180:
8308:
Milady's Hair Removal Techniques: A Comprehensive Manual
6598:
6008:
5779:
2716:(CT), and to the growth in the use of nuclear medicine.
2383:
Projectional radiographs are useful in the detection of
1505:
X-rays interact with matter in three main ways, through
698:
In early 1896, several weeks after Röntgen's discovery,
226:
7130:
6220:. NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory. 9 December 2011
6050:
5736:
4836:
Eminent Lives in Twentieth-Century Science and Religion
2541:
is an imaging technique commonly used by physicians or
2419:). X-rays may also be used to detect pathology such as
1912:
Spectrum of the X-rays emitted by an X-ray tube with a
7767:
6304:. US: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 116.
5981:
5822:
5009:
4929:
The South in the Building of the Nation: Biography A-J
2399:, which can be used to identify lung diseases such as
1634:
1597:
1573:
1531:
1399:. It is also used for material characterization using
750:. The authors named the technique Röntgen photography.
8219:
7841:
7097:
Techniques in Regional Anesthesia and Pain Management
6964:"Air and Gas in the Soft Tissues: A Radiologic Study"
6354:
Camara CG, Escobar JV, Hird JR, Putterman SJ (2008).
5201:"Structural biology: How proteins got their close-up"
2862:
Authentication and quality control of packaged items.
1450:
through the object and at the same time provide good
1336:, can in this context also be referred to as X-rays.
7724:
7535:
6849:"The first 50 years of military radiology 1895–1945"
6601:
Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics
6298:
Bushburg J, Seibert A, Leidholdt E, Boone J (2002).
6048:
5956:
4796:"The first clinical X-ray made in America—100 years"
2561:), embolization procedures (to stop bleeding during
884:
He died of cancer in 1926. His left hand is kept at
6731:
6633:
2912:, artistic use of X-rays, for example the works by
2391:as well as for detecting some disease processes in
2115:X-rays are also produced in lightning accompanying
2063:
920:or Crookes X-ray tubes were used until about 1920.
11349:
10243:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
7932:. National Academies Press. pp. 5, fig.PS–2.
7705:Shrimpton, P.C; Miller, H.C; Lewis, M.A; Dunn, M.
7536:Oakley PA, Ehsani NN, Harrison DE (1 April 2019).
6847:
5057:
5055:
5010:Sansare K, Khanna V, Karjodkar F (February 2011).
4309:. Medcyclopedia.com, GE Healthcare. Archived from
2581:and is largely used for the management (including
2516:(CT scanning) is a medical imaging modality where
2123:. This produces photons with energies of some few
1646:
1603:
1579:
1559:
1380:, while lower doses can give an increased risk of
27:Form of short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation
7844:""Doctor, will that x-ray harm my unborn child?""
7842:Ratnapalan S, Bentur Y, Koren G (December 2008).
7678:
6691:Köhn C, Chanrion O, Babich LP, Neubert T (2018).
6104:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 38.
6079:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 42.
5961:. Vol. 1. US: Addison-Wesley. pp. 2–8.
5116:
4744:"Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles1"
3753:Caldwell, Wallace E.; Merrill, Edward H. (1964).
2888:use X-rays for inspecting the interior of trucks.
2111:Production in lightning and laboratory discharges
11801:
7470:
7376:
7374:
7372:
7129:Advances in kilovoltage x-ray beam dosimetry in
6033:
6009:Grupen C, Cowan G, Eidelman SD, Stroh T (2005).
5181:Electro-medical Instruments and their Management
3867:. US: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 182–186.
3074:of energy in one kilogram of any kind of matter.
3002:
2940:is a chemical analysis technique relying on the
2178:direct exposure hazard is often evaluated using
798:in an assassination attempt while attending the
259:. They were noticed by scientists investigating
8304:
7063:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
5096:Editor. (5 August 1905). Aschheim. Obituaries.
5052:
4955:Understanding Ionizing Radiation and Protection
3803:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
3752:
2013:is limited by the energy of incident electrons.
1465:to acquire high-resolution images, and also in
912:during the X-ray procedure would be negligible.
810:, another had lodged somewhere deep inside his
340:. However, he did not work with actual X-rays.
175:) and photon energies in the range of 100
6324:
6274:Essentials of Dental Radiography and Radiology
6175:
6036:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th Ed
5865:
5696:David C, Nöhammer B, Solak H, Ziegler (2002).
4634:
4632:
4630:
4628:
4626:
4624:
4361:"Google doodle celebrates 115 years of X-rays"
796:U.S. President William McKinley was shot twice
713:Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles
11335:
10946:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
9496:
9020:
8507:
8374:. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 40–41.
8099:
7369:
7181:
6932:
6930:
6270:
6182:Soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet radiation
5869:Soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet radiation
5184:. Bemrose & Sons Ltd. Printers. pp.
3948:. Electrical Review Publishing Company. 1894.
3854:
3141:
2606:The examples and perspective in this section
2577:The use of X-rays as a treatment is known as
1414:. For this reason, X-rays are widely used to
1376:over a short period of time causes burns and
8521:
8359:European Synchrotron Radiation Facility ID11
8198:
7343:Birth Defects Research. Part C, Embryo Today
7054:
6634:Köhn C, Chanrion O, Neubert T (March 2017).
6513:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
6277:. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 15–20.
5063:"ISU Health Physics Radinf – First 50 Years"
4303:"W. C. Roentgen and the discovery of x-rays"
2395:. Some notable examples are the very common
263:produced by such tubes, which are energetic
7380:
7262:
6839:
5929:
5493:Telegraph (Brisbane, Qld. : 1872–1947)
5173:
5171:
4968:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
4621:
4106:see also pp. 268 and 276 of the same issue.
3864:The Discharge of Electricity through Gasses
2826:, most often X-rays of paintings to reveal
2673:International Agency for Research on Cancer
2350:
1942:that uses a high voltage to accelerate the
1520:
826:due to bacterial infection six days later.
385:was duly published and an article entitled
11342:
11328:
9503:
9489:
9027:
9013:
8583:
8514:
8500:
7808:eMedicine Live online medical consultation
7471:Calabrese EJ, Baldwin LA (February 2003).
6927:
6732:Köhn C, Chanrion O, Neubert T (May 2018).
6347:
5643:
5571:Brisbane Telegraph (Qld. : 1948–1954)
3148:
3134:
2624:, or create a new section, as appropriate.
1718:
1480:
891:
279:of the residual air in the tube by a high
251:, X-rays were just a type of unidentified
104:. In many languages, it is referred to as
8423:
8370:Als-Nielsen, Jens; Mcmorrow, Des (2001).
8334:"Wilhelm Röntgen and the Invisible Light"
8127:
8117:
7867:
7699:
7561:
6961:
6907:
6822:
6765:
6716:
6667:
6532:
6502:
6463:
6445:
5721:
5669:
5519:Sunday Times (Perth, WA : 1902–1954)
5435:
5212:
5126:. Birmingham City Council. Archived from
5035:
4811:
4767:
4677:. Birmingham City Council. Archived from
4569:
4559:
4518:
4254:
4099:
3994:
3814:
3781:
3735:. Harvard University Press. 5th edition.
2640:Learn how and when to remove this message
2308:Learn how and when to remove this message
2162:, but are now mostly replaced by various
1973:The maximum energy of the produced X-ray
1920:. The smooth, continuous curve is due to
1493:at 540 eV, the energy dependence of
900:A patient being examined with a thoracic
744:"Nouvelle Iconographie de la Salpetrière"
214:, cancer, and at high dosages, burns and
120:to signify an unknown type of radiation.
10858:
8475:https://doi.org/10.1177/1559325820957797
8459:"La découverte des rayons X par Röntgen"
8446:"Index of Early Bremsstrahlung Articles"
8289:
8059:. Idaho State University. Archived from
7890:
7473:"Toxicology rethinks its central belief"
6410:
6301:The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging
6127:"RTAB: the Rayleigh scattering database"
6102:The essential physics of medical imaging
6077:The essential physics of medical imaging
5925:
5923:
5691:
5689:
5198:
5192:
5168:
4277:
3836:Transactions of the Faculty of Actuaries
3829:
2891:
2852:
2751:
2718:
2671:by both the World Health Organization's
2651:
2493:
2360:
2327:
2319:
1907:
1484:
1343:
1223:
1159:
1047:
895:
737:
664:
641:
617:
613:
574:
417:
230:
71:
59:
8298:
7804:"Pregnant Women and Radiation Exposure"
7626:
7624:
7297:
7055:Hermena, Shady; Young, Michael (2024),
6038:. US: Chemical Rubber Co. p. 2850.
5957:Feynman R, Leighton R, Sands M (1963).
5859:
4982:
4926:
4793:
4638:
4477:
4331:
4325:
4280:"The Nobel Prizes in Physics 1901–2000"
4227:Occupational and Environmental Medicine
4071:
3860:
3790:
3661:– 1897 British short silent comedy film
2999:is one example of such high intensity.
2997:European Synchrotron Radiation Facility
1962:(5%) and tungsten (95%), but sometimes
1240:
1216:, and high resolution X-ray detectors.
413:
14:
11802:
11683:Wireless electronic devices and health
10873:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
9510:
8456:
7893:AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology
7632:"Radiation Dose in X-Ray and CT Exams"
7090:
7086:
7084:
7050:
7048:
7023:
6845:
6124:
5593:"X-ray shoe sets in S.A. 'controlled'"
5177:
4879:
4800:AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology
4789:
4787:
4541:
4492:
4450:
4420:
4385:
4358:
4300:
4017:
3889:
3796:
3767:
3725:
3129:Ionizing radiation related quantities
2790:, which is an observational branch of
2749:Other notable uses of X-rays include:
2565:), and barium swallow (to examine for
2483:
2190:the person has been exposed to. X-ray
1698:
1305:, while gamma rays are emitted by the
1164:Phase-contrast X-ray image of a spider
11323:
11115:
10878:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
10287:
10274:
9484:
9008:
8495:
7926:US National Research Council (2006).
7427:
7381:Brenner DJ, Hall EJ (November 2007).
7057:"CT-scan Image Production Procedures"
7017:
6697:Plasma Sources Science and Technology
6558:Plasma Sources Science and Technology
5920:
5686:
5623:Canberra Times (ACT : 1926–1995)
5619:"Ban On Shoe X-ray Machines Resented"
5545:Biz (Fairfield, NSW : 1928–1972)
5281:"X-ray moving pictures latest (1913)"
4951:
4584:
4338:. Norman Publishing. pp. 10–15.
3958:
3938:
3936:
2764:in which the pattern produced by the
2336:of a female patient, demonstrating a
1673:
1615:. However, the general trend of high
829:
227:Pre-Röntgen observations and research
11709:List of civilian radiation accidents
11678:Wireless device radiation and health
11673:Biological dose units and quantities
11623:Electromagnetic radiation and health
11302:
10275:
8172:
7621:
6218:"X-ray Transition Energies Database"
5597:News (Adelaide, SA : 1923–1954)
5467:Warwick Daily News (Qld.: 1919–1954)
4714:
4020:Hydroenergy and Its Energy Potential
3809:. Royal Society of London: 272–278.
2592:
2468:, including the arteries and veins (
2376:, which, due to its relatively high
2246:adding citations to reliable sources
2217:
1703:Rayleigh scattering is the dominant
89:explains medical imaging and X-rays.
10883:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
8340:. Oak Ridge Associated Universities
8205:. Tokyo: Kodansha. pp. 291–2.
8202:X-ray diffraction by macromolecules
8154:. Open University. 24 February 2011
7387:The New England Journal of Medicine
7091:Davros, William J. (1 April 2007).
7081:
7045:
6846:Thomas, Adrian M.K. (August 2007).
5872:. Cambridge University. p. 2.
5489:"T. C. BEIRNE'S X-RAY SHOE FITTING"
5333:"How X-Ray Movies Are Taken (1918)"
4931:. Pelican Publishing. p. 300.
4784:
4444:
4022:. Pinnacle Technology. p. 88.
3647:Resonant inelastic X-ray scattering
3618:– 1896 documentary radiography film
1958:or a more crack-resistant alloy of
1172:device was proposed as part of the
847:after taking a picture of Dudley's
806:. While one bullet only grazed his
630:screen. The seated man is taking a
359:Also in 1890, Roentgen's assistant
24:
11658:Radioactivity in the life sciences
10692:
9843:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
8566:
8100:Chalkley M, Listl S (March 2018).
8008:, Princeton University Press, 2010
7814:. 28 December 2008. Archived from
7693:10.1093/oxfordjournals.rpd.a033172
6962:Rhinehart, D. A. (December 1931).
5985:Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis
4989:. Norman Publishing. p. 294.
4118:"Sensitivity of the head to X-ray"
3933:
3733:Squire's Fundamentals of Radiology
2588:
2506:) slice – a modern application of
2365:Plain radiograph of the right knee
2132:and the production of high-energy
1368:, and therefore harmful to living
317:describing the effects of passing
25:
11861:
9866:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
9765:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
9034:
8392:
8331:
5982:L'Annunziata M, Abrade M (2003).
4653:10.1148/radiographics.9.6.2685937
4548:Canadian Journal of Communication
4282:. Stockholm: The Nobel Foundation
4052:, "Incandescent Electric Light".
2704:X-rays only accounted for 10% of
2413:bowel (or intestinal) obstruction
1204:sophisticated equipment, such as
622:Taking an X-ray image with early
35:. For the medical specialty, see
11301:
11290:
11289:
11277:
10966:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
8372:Elements of Modern X-Ray Physics
8363:
8352:
8325:
8283:
8192:
8166:
8152:"Using lasers instead of x-rays"
8144:
8093:
8075:
8049:
8030:
8011:
7998:
7973:
7947:
7919:
7884:
7796:
7761:
7718:
7672:
7650:
7578:
7529:
7464:
7442:10.1097/00004032-200307000-00005
7421:
7334:
7291:
7265:The British Journal of Radiology
7256:
7226:
7175:
7123:
6994:
6955:
5933:Physics for Diagnostic Radiology
5436:Jorgensen TJ (10 October 2017).
5311:The Central New Jersey Home News
3589:
3577:
3524:
3447:
3363:
3295:
3205:
3011:ability is called the exposure:
2938:X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
2597:
2563:hemorrhoidal artery embolization
2222:
2208:hybrid photon counting detectors
2064:Production by fast positive ions
1348:Ionizing radiation hazard symbol
1232:, with wavelengths shorter than
1219:
1106:was developed during the 1950s.
10055:Historical stockpiles and tests
8410:(1369): 274–276. January 1896.
7660:. Seer.cancer.gov. 30 June 2010
7300:Reviews on Environmental Health
7184:Physics in Medicine and Biology
7133:Physics in Medicine and Biology
6782:
6725:
6684:
6627:
6592:
6541:
6496:
6439:
6404:
6318:
6291:
6264:
6232:
6210:
6169:
6131:Radiation Physics and Chemistry
6118:
6093:
6068:
6042:
6027:
6002:
5975:
5959:The Feynman Lectures on Physics
5950:
5898:
5816:
5773:
5730:
5646:"Phase-sensitive x-ray imaging"
5637:
5611:
5585:
5559:
5533:
5507:
5481:
5455:
5429:
5403:
5377:
5351:
5325:
5299:
5273:
5247:
5228:
5142:
5103:
5090:
5080:
5003:
4976:
4945:
4920:
4873:
4848:
4828:
4754:(1432): 539–540. 1 April 1897.
4736:
4693:
4667:
4578:
4535:
4486:
4471:
4414:
4379:
4352:
4294:
4278:Karlsson EB (9 February 2000).
4271:
4214:
4175:
4109:
4065:
4036:
4011:
3952:
3922:
3908:10.1148/radiology.181.3.1947073
2824:Radiography of cultural objects
2572:
2233:needs additional citations for
2213:
2070:particle-induced X-ray emission
1192:using different technologies).
929:cold cathode Crookes X-ray tube
653:Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton
634:of his hand by placing it on a
347:and associate professor of the
338:electromagnetic theory of light
298:or the glass wall of the tube.
10956:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
9838:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
8119:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2017.12.005
7681:Radiation Protection Dosimetry
6482:10.1016/j.atmosres.2013.03.012
6240:"X-Ray Data Booklet Table 1-3"
6184:. Cambridge University Press.
6034:Hodgman, Charles, ed. (1961).
5988:. Academic Press. p. 58.
5154:Engole the Elven for Knowledge
5016:Dento Maxillo Facial Radiology
3883:
3871:
3823:
3761:
3746:
3703:
2896:X-ray fine art photography of
2723:An X-ray protective window at
2527:
1934:X-rays can be generated by an
1722:
1469:to determine the positions of
1041:was invented the same year by
726:, used for holding samples of
202:(e.g., identification of some
131:rays and longer than those of
13:
1:
11284:Nuclear technology portal
8468:Röntgen's discovery of X-rays
8457:Samuel JJ (20 October 2013).
8006:Physics for Future Presidents
7981:"HOW DANGEROUS IS RADIATION?"
7782:10.1016/S0140-6736(56)91923-7
7599:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15433-0
6854:European Journal of Radiology
6578:10.1088/0963-0252/25/4/044002
6325:Emilio B, Ballerna A (1994).
6151:10.1016/S0969-806X(00)00290-5
6125:Kissel L (2 September 2000).
5936:. US: CRC Press. p. 12.
5573:. 28 February 1951. p. 7
5365:. 12 January 1919. p. 16
4838:, page 300, Peter Lang, 2009
4724:. Yale Centre for British Art
4451:Markel H (20 December 2012).
4142:10.1126/science.144.3625.1470
4072:Stanton A (23 January 1896).
3890:Walden, T L (December 1991).
3797:Morgan W (24 February 1785).
3696:
3665:X-ray absorption spectroscopy
3003:Units of measure and exposure
2966:
2932:Roentgen stereophotogrammetry
2744:
2117:terrestrial gamma-ray flashes
1710:
1339:
1332:, in the ranges of 6–20
1292:
1015:, gave birth to the field of
973:In about 1906, the physicist
552:. Röntgen received the first
108:, after the German scientist
11146:Field-reversed configuration
10756:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
7234:"11th Report on Carcinogens"
6738:Geophysical Research Letters
6640:Geophysical Research Letters
6552:, Van Deursen L (May 2016).
6433:10.1016/0370-1573(86)90149-3
6271:Whaites E, Cawson R (2002).
5417:. 2 January 1920. p. 13
5100:. San Francisco, California.
4511:10.1080/13688804.2011.602856
4495:"The Invisible Made Visible"
4493:Natale S (1 November 2011).
4427:The Electromagnetic Spectrum
4359:Arthur C (8 November 2010).
3830:Anderson JG (January 1945).
3653:Small-angle X-ray scattering
3606:Detective quantum efficiency
2464:To generate an image of the
2139:
1916:target, operated at 60
1196:Phase-contrast X-ray imaging
1178:Strategic Defense Initiative
1121:that produce X-rays. Unlike
709:Zoological Society of London
343:In early 1890, photographer
255:emanating from experimental
100:) are a form of high-energy
7:
11546:Cosmic background radiation
11103:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
10288:
10050:States with nuclear weapons
8615:Ultra-high-energy gamma ray
8311:. Thomson Delmar Learning.
8199:Kasai N, Kakudo, M (2005).
8173:Dent S (12 February 2015).
8106:Journal of Health Economics
7204:10.1088/0031-9155/51/13/R20
7153:10.1088/0031-9155/59/6/r183
6866:10.1016/j.ejrad.2007.05.024
6621:10.1016/j.jastp.2009.07.010
6137:(2). Lynn Kissel: 185–200.
5930:Denny PP, Heaton B (1999).
5599:. 27 April 1951. p. 12
5469:. 25 August 1921. p. 4
5391:. 7 January 1918. p. 7
5199:Stoddart C (1 March 2022).
4794:Spiegel PK (January 1995).
4703:. Nova Publishers. p. xxi.
4561:10.22230/cjc.2011v36n2a2368
4044:American Technical Book Co.
3832:"William Morgan and X-rays"
3715:Science Mission Directorate
3569:
3019:per kilogram (C/kg) is the
2886:domestic police departments
2685:threshold dose of radiation
2620:, discuss the issue on the
1668:Auger electron spectroscopy
1658:characteristic X-ray or an
1461:. This property is used in
733:gelatin photographic plates
568:screen painted with barium
432:, German physics professor
10:
11866:
11775:
11633:Lasers and aviation safety
11116:
10941:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
10065:Tests in the United States
9299:X-Ray Fluorescence Imaging
9187:Anomalous X-ray scattering
8610:Very-high-energy gamma ray
8470:(PDF; English translation)
7905:10.2214/ajr.184.2.01840655
7312:10.1515/REVEH.2010.25.1.63
7109:10.1053/j.trap.2007.02.005
7031:(2nd ed.). Springer.
6909:10.1016/j.crad.2010.04.021
5547:. 27 July 1955. p. 10
5463:"X-Rays for Fitting Boots"
5339:. 15 March 1918. p. 2
5287:. 22 June 1913. p. 32
4699:Kudriashov, Y. B. (2008).
4542:Natale S (4 August 2011).
4421:Sample S (27 March 2007).
3731:Novelline, Robert (1997).
2725:Birmingham Dental Hospital
2667:, and are classified as a
2531:
2487:
2354:
2143:
1364:. This makes it a type of
349:University of Pennsylvania
286:of anywhere between a few
247:Before their discovery in
221:
127:are shorter than those of
29:
11773:
11737:
11701:
11663:Radioactive contamination
11588:
11516:Electromagnetic radiation
11506:
11418:
11365:
11358:
11271:
11227:
11179:
11136:
11126:
11078:
11066:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
10979:
10961:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
10926:
10909:
10849:
10776:
10768:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
10742:
10733:
10685:
10665:
10618:
10600:
10556:
10461:
10443:
10311:
10298:
10283:
10270:
10225:
10158:
10103:
10094:
10042:
9950:
9941:
9908:
9851:
9813:
9804:
9725:
9657:
9580:
9522:
9518:
9446:
9378:
9327:
9212:
9205:
9144:
9103:
9042:
8968:
8895:
8824:
8752:
8704:
8646:
8623:
8600:
8529:
8438:The Cathode Ray Tube site
8338:Tales from the Atomic Age
7712:22 September 2011 at the
6333:. IOS Press. p. xv.
6013:. Springer. p. 109.
5625:. 26 June 1957. p. 4
5521:. 15 July 1928. p. 5
5495:. 17 July 1925. p. 8
5261:. 4 April 1913. p. 2
5241:28 September 2012 at the
5234:Birmingham City Council:
5214:10.1146/knowable-022822-1
5124:"Major John Hall-Edwards"
4813:10.2214/ajr.164.1.7998549
4675:"Major John Hall-Edwards"
3848:10.1017/s0071368600003001
3481:
3413:
3336:
3267:
3181:
2926:Shoe-fitting fluoroscopes
2842:show well in radiographs.
2802:electromagnetic radiation
2559:coronary artery blockages
2154:were originally based on
2056:. The intensity of X-ray
1741:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1111:Chandra X-ray Observatory
1060:) was pioneered by Major
742:1896 plaque published in
700:Ivan Romanovich Tarkhanov
102:electromagnetic radiation
11830:IARC Group 1 carcinogens
11825:Electromagnetic spectrum
11776:See also the categories
11714:1996 Costa Rica accident
11375:Acoustic radiation force
10971:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
10587:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
9923:Electron-beam processing
9126:Synchrotron light source
8523:Electromagnetic spectrum
8305:Bickmore, Helen (2003).
8082:D.O.E. – About Radiation
7554:10.1177/1559325819852810
6718:10.1088/1361-6595/aaa5d8
5313:. 10 May 1915. p. 6
4906:10.1126/science.3.67.562
4394:Rutgers University Press
3783:10.1038/npre.2009.3267.4
2370:Projectional radiography
2357:Projectional radiography
2351:Projectional radiographs
2186:are used to measure the
2036:, which is generated by
1560:{\textstyle Z^{3}/E^{3}}
1521:Photoelectric absorption
1382:radiation-induced cancer
1230:electromagnetic spectrum
1190:National Missile Defense
1145:that build up layers of
586:of the Physik Institut,
151:in the range of 30
46:Not to be confused with
11688:Radiation heat-transfer
11541:Gravitational radiation
11086:Organic nuclear reactor
10258:Nuclear power phase-out
10181:Nuclear decommissioning
10121:Reactor-grade plutonium
9871:Targeted alpha-particle
9750:Accidents and incidents
9145:Interaction with matter
9104:Sources and instruments
8481:"X-ray Crystallography"
8400:"On a New Kind of Rays"
7548:(2): 1559325819852810.
7007:Orthopaedic Proceedings
6176:Attwood, David (1999).
5866:Attwood, David (1999).
5702:Applied Physics Letters
5236:Major John Hall-Edwards
5111:San Francisco Chronicle
4880:Daniel J (April 1896).
4587:Literature and Medicine
3112:(Sv) is the SI unit of
3099:Roentgen equivalent man
2739:Early photon tomography
2548:X-ray image intensifier
2166:detector types such as
1719:Production by electrons
1617:absorption coefficients
1481:Interaction with matter
1356:carry enough energy to
1228:X-rays are part of the
892:20th century and beyond
800:Pan American Exposition
705:George Albert Boulenger
315:Royal Society of London
112:, who discovered it in
11729:1990 Zaragoza accident
11724:1984 Moroccan accident
11693:Linear energy transfer
11367:Non-ionizing radiation
9277:Diffraction tomography
8571:
6815:10.1098/rsta.2018.0241
5098:San Francisco Examiner
4482:. Springfield: Thomas.
4392:. Camden, New Jersey:
4188:Acta Médica Portuguesa
3816:10.1098/rstl.1785.0014
3616:Macintyre's X-Ray Film
3531:röntgen equivalent man
3454:röntgen equivalent man
3007:The measure of X-rays
2944:, usually employed in
2904:
2858:
2814:Industrial radiography
2757:
2728:
2660:
2510:
2366:
2340:
2325:
2202:applications, such as
2054:triboelectric charging
1931:
1928:characteristic K lines
1689:conservation of energy
1648:
1605:
1581:
1561:
1502:
1432:industrial CT scanning
1428:industrial radiography
1349:
1237:
1165:
1078:motion picture cameras
1053:
1013:William Lawrence Bragg
986:Nobel Prize in Physics
913:
840:William Lofland Dudley
781:Clarence Madison Dally
751:
711:in May 1896. The book
695:
647:
639:
591:
588:University of Freiburg
554:Nobel Prize in Physics
425:
392:San Francisco Examiner
244:
110:Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen
90:
69:
41:X-ray (disambiguation)
39:. For other uses, see
11719:1987 Goiânia accident
11521:Synchrotron radiation
11511:Earth's energy budget
11493:Radioactive materials
11488:Particle accelerators
10248:Anti-nuclear movement
9388:X-ray crystallography
9257:Soft x-ray microscopy
9225:Panoramic radiography
9065:Synchrotron radiation
8570:
8087:27 April 2012 at the
8023:15 March 2007 at the
7525:on 12 September 2011.
6011:Astroparticle Physics
5644:Fitzgerald R (2000).
5541:"X-RAY SHOE FITTINGS"
5359:"X-ray movies (1919)"
5028:10.1259/dmfr/73488299
4307:Textbook of Radiology
2895:
2856:
2800:analysis, which uses
2762:X-ray crystallography
2755:
2722:
2663:X-rays are a form of
2655:
2497:
2466:cardiovascular system
2364:
2331:
2323:
2204:X-ray crystallography
2038:particle accelerators
2034:synchrotron radiation
1926:, and the spikes are
1911:
1685:Klein–Nishina formula
1649:
1606:
1582:
1562:
1488:
1467:X-ray crystallography
1434:) and research (e.g.
1347:
1283:X-ray crystallography
1227:
1174:Reagan Administration
1163:
1051:
1017:X-ray crystallography
899:
886:Birmingham University
844:Vanderbilt University
761:William Francis Magie
741:
668:
645:
621:
614:Advances in radiology
578:
421:
234:
139:ranging from 10
85:
63:
11790:Radiation protection
11643:Radiation protection
11531:Black-body radiation
11438:Background radiation
11353:(physics and health)
11156:Reversed field pinch
10951:Traveling-wave (TWR)
10435:Supercritical (SCWR)
9933:Gemstone irradiation
9157:Photoelectric effect
9090:Characteristic X-ray
8257:Analytical Chemistry
8229:Analytical Chemistry
8042:4 April 2007 at the
7399:10.1056/NEJMra072149
7277:10.1259/bjr/01948454
6758:10.1029/2018GL077788
6660:10.1002/2016GL072216
6607:(17–18): 1890–1898.
6534:10.1002/2014JD022229
6458:. 135–136: 432–465.
6456:Atmospheric Research
5567:"SHOE X-RAY DANGERS"
5337:Davis County Clipper
5130:on 28 September 2012
4952:Ce4Rt (March 2014).
4701:Radiation Biophysics
4681:on 28 September 2012
4599:10.1353/lm.1997.0016
4239:10.1136/oem.51.7.461
3996:10.1148/rg.284075206
3755:History of the World
3642:Reflection (physics)
2942:photoelectric effect
2910:fine art photography
2693:background radiation
2657:Abdominal radiograph
2618:improve this section
2567:esophageal disorders
2543:radiation therapists
2242:improve this article
2176:radiation protection
2172:flat panel detectors
1984:Characteristic X-ray
1680:inelastic scattering
1632:
1595:
1571:
1529:
1442:varies with several
1241:Soft and hard X-rays
1129:being torn apart by
988:for this discovery.
954:, the first kind of
948:John Ambrose Fleming
878:Elizabeth Fleischman
765:Princeton University
414:Discovery by Röntgen
194:(e.g., checking for
64:Natural color X-ray
11760:Radiation hardening
11702:Radiation incidents
11638:Medical radiography
11597:Radiation syndrome
11551:Cherenkov radiation
10321:Aqueous homogeneous
10116:Reprocessed uranium
9789:Safety and security
9177:Photodisintegration
9152:Rayleigh scattering
9131:Free-electron laser
8656:Extreme ultraviolet
8416:1896Natur..53R.274.
8112:(March 2018): 1–9.
7860:10.1503/cmaj.080247
7739:2008MedPh..35.3501G
7492:2003Natur.421..691C
7196:2006PMB....51R.343T
7145:2014PMB....59R.183H
6807:2019RSPTA.37780241F
6750:2018GeoRL..45.5194K
6709:2018PSST...27a5017K
6652:2017GeoRL..44.2604K
6613:2009JASTP..71.1890C
6570:2016PSST...25d4002K
6548:Kochkin P, Köhn C,
6525:2015JGRD..120.1620K
6474:2014AtmRe.135..432K
6425:1986PhR...135...47P
6383:10.1038/nature07378
6375:2008Natur.455.1089C
6369:(7216): 1089–1092.
6198:on 11 November 2012
6157:on 12 December 2011
6143:2000RaPC...59..185K
5886:on 11 November 2012
5794:1995Natur.373..595D
5751:1996Natur.384..335W
5714:2002ApPhL..81.3287D
5662:2000PhT....53g..23F
5150:"JOHN HALL-EDWARDS"
4927:Fleming WL (1909).
4898:1896Sci.....3..562D
4834:Nicolaas A. Rupke,
4760:1897Natur..55..539.
4480:Dr. W. C. Ro ̈ntgen
4134:1964Sci...144.1470G
4128:(3625): 1470–1472.
4092:1896Natur..53R.274.
4055:U.S. patent 454,622
4049:U.S. patent 514,170
3861:Thomson JJ (1903).
3155:
2952:Radiation implosion
2884:truck scanners and
2714:computed tomography
2678:computed tomography
2659:of a pregnant woman
2514:Computed tomography
2508:medical radiography
2484:Computed tomography
2411:, which can detect
2180:ionization chambers
2156:photographic plates
2076:is proportional to
2046:linear polarization
2009:. The frequency of
2007:continuous spectrum
1725:
1699:Rayleigh scattering
1515:Rayleigh scattering
1444:orders of magnitude
1277:used to refer to a
1263:medical radiography
1186:Bush Administration
1135:galactic collisions
1043:William D. Coolidge
1039:Coolidge X-ray tube
1009:William Henry Bragg
676:Pelophylax lessonae
590:, on 1 January 1896
556:for his discovery.
368:Stanford University
319:electrical currents
243:that emitted X-rays
192:medical diagnostics
147:, corresponding to
11835:Ionizing radiation
11755:Radioactive source
11576:Radiation exposure
11556:Askaryan radiation
11536:Particle radiation
11420:Ionizing radiation
11235:Dense plasma focus
10150:Actinide chemistry
9615:Isotope separation
9512:Nuclear technology
9418:X-ray reflectivity
9197:X-ray fluorescence
9162:Compton scattering
9095:High-energy X-rays
8661:Vacuum ultraviolet
8572:
8450:Shade Tree Physics
8063:on 7 November 2012
7818:on 23 January 2009
7355:10.1002/bdrc.20099
7244:on 9 December 2010
6896:Clinical Radiology
6801:(2147): 20180241.
5908:. Physics.nist.gov
5906:"Physics.nist.gov"
5837:10.1038/nm0496-473
5259:The News-Palladium
4983:Glasser O (1934).
4478:Glasser O (1958).
4386:Kevles BH (1996).
4332:Glasser O (1993).
4018:Chadda PK (2009).
3878:Wiedmann's Annalen
3680:X-ray reflectivity
3611:High-energy X-rays
3596:Physics portal
3584:Medical portal
3128:
3036:electrostatic unit
3025:ionizing radiation
2974:ionizing radiation
2905:
2859:
2808:X-ray fluorescence
2758:
2729:
2665:ionizing radiation
2661:
2518:tomographic images
2511:
2443:Dental radiography
2423:(which are rarely
2403:, lung cancer, or
2367:
2341:
2326:
2134:run-away electrons
1932:
1930:for rhodium atoms.
1723:
1705:elastic scattering
1674:Compton scattering
1664:X-ray spectroscopy
1644:
1621:penetration depths
1601:
1577:
1557:
1511:Compton scattering
1503:
1499:Compton scattering
1401:X-ray spectroscopy
1378:radiation sickness
1366:ionizing radiation
1360:atoms and disrupt
1350:
1287:attenuation length
1238:
1166:
1054:
914:
910:radiation exposure
830:Hazards discovered
752:
696:
648:
640:
636:photographic plate
592:
426:
370:physics professor
325:and his assistant
245:
216:radiation sickness
208:ionizing radiation
190:is widely used in
91:
70:
11797:
11796:
11778:Radiation effects
11648:Radiation therapy
11584:
11583:
11526:Thermal radiation
11463:Neutron radiation
11428:Radioactive decay
11317:
11316:
11267:
11266:
11263:
11262:
11214:Magnetized-target
11111:
11110:
11074:
11073:
10905:
10904:
10901:
10900:
10845:
10844:
10729:
10728:
10661:
10660:
10266:
10265:
10221:
10220:
10090:
10089:
10077:Weapon-free zones
9904:
9903:
9896:Radiopharmacology
9478:
9477:
9474:
9473:
9466:X-ray lithography
9398:Backscatter X-ray
9393:X-ray diffraction
9220:X-ray radiography
9192:X-ray diffraction
9085:Siegbahn notation
9002:
9001:
8706:Visible (optical)
8434:"Ion X-Ray tubes"
8381:978-0-471-49858-2
8269:10.1021/ac1025122
8241:10.1021/ac102424h
8212:978-3-540-25317-4
8004:Muller, Richard.
7939:978-0-309-09156-5
7854:(12): 1293–1296.
7747:10.1118/1.2952359
7636:RadiologyInfo.org
7593:(9406): 345–351.
7486:(6924): 691–692.
7393:(22): 2277–2284.
7238:Ntp.niehs.nih.gov
7190:(13): R343–R362.
7038:978-1-85233-617-2
6980:10.1148/17.6.1158
6744:(10): 5194–5203.
6311:978-0-683-30118-2
6284:978-0-443-07027-3
6191:978-0-521-65214-8
6111:978-0-683-30118-2
6086:978-0-683-30118-2
6020:978-3-540-25312-9
5995:978-0-12-436603-9
5968:978-0-201-02116-5
5943:978-0-7503-0591-4
5879:978-0-521-65214-8
5788:(6515): 595–598.
5745:(6607): 335–338.
5723:10.1063/1.1516611
5708:(17): 3287–3289.
5671:10.1063/1.1292471
5415:New Castle Herald
5205:Knowable Magazine
5178:Schall K (1905).
4407:978-0-8135-2358-3
4301:Peters P (1995).
4029:978-1-61820-149-2
3774:Nature Precedings
3768:Filler A (2009).
3627:Neutron radiation
3601:Backscatter X-ray
3567:
3566:
3538:100 erg⋅g ×
3461:100 erg⋅g ×
2798:X-ray microscopic
2774:Rosalind Franklin
2770:fiber diffraction
2650:
2649:
2642:
2579:radiation therapy
2522:three-dimensional
2318:
2317:
2310:
2292:
2210:are widely used.
2200:X-ray diffraction
2160:photographic film
2058:triboluminescence
1994:emission spectrum
1906:
1905:
1647:{\textstyle Z=20}
1440:penetration depth
1397:radiation therapy
1245:X-rays with high
1062:John Hall-Edwards
1058:radiation therapy
869:William J. Morton
867:at Edison's lab,
861:Electrical Review
804:Buffalo, New York
773:calcium tungstate
720:Dartmouth College
660:John Hall-Edwards
309:, he presented a
271:(invented around
204:chemical elements
106:Röntgen radiation
83:
16:(Redirected from
11857:
11738:Related articles
11653:Radiation damage
11478:Nuclear reactors
11363:
11362:
11344:
11337:
11330:
11321:
11320:
11305:
11304:
11293:
11292:
11282:
11281:
11280:
11192:
11151:Levitated dipole
11121:
11113:
11112:
11061:Helium gas (GFR)
10924:
10923:
10919:
10856:
10855:
10740:
10739:
10690:
10689:
10683:
10682:
10678:
10677:
10459:
10458:
10455:
10454:
10293:
10285:
10284:
10277:Nuclear reactors
10272:
10271:
10171:High-level (HLW)
10101:
10100:
9948:
9947:
9928:Food irradiation
9918:Atomic gardening
9811:
9810:
9794:Nuclear meltdown
9620:Nuclear material
9610:Fissile material
9605:Fertile material
9520:
9519:
9505:
9498:
9491:
9482:
9481:
9304:X-ray holography
9210:
9209:
9182:Radiation damage
9029:
9022:
9015:
9006:
9005:
8593:
8591:
8584:
8577:
8516:
8509:
8502:
8493:
8492:
8488:
8466:
8463:Bibnum Education
8453:
8452:. 12 April 2010.
8441:
8429:
8427:
8425:10.1038/053274b0
8386:
8385:
8367:
8361:
8356:
8350:
8349:
8347:
8345:
8329:
8323:
8322:
8302:
8296:
8295:
8287:
8281:
8280:
8263:(4): 1224–1231.
8252:
8235:(4): 1214–1223.
8223:
8217:
8216:
8196:
8190:
8189:
8187:
8185:
8170:
8164:
8163:
8161:
8159:
8148:
8142:
8141:
8131:
8121:
8097:
8091:
8079:
8073:
8072:
8070:
8068:
8053:
8047:
8034:
8028:
8015:
8009:
8002:
7996:
7995:
7993:
7991:
7977:
7971:
7970:
7968:
7966:
7957:. Archived from
7951:
7945:
7943:
7923:
7917:
7916:
7888:
7882:
7881:
7871:
7839:
7828:
7827:
7825:
7823:
7800:
7794:
7793:
7765:
7759:
7758:
7733:(8): 3501–3510.
7722:
7716:
7703:
7697:
7696:
7676:
7670:
7669:
7667:
7665:
7654:
7648:
7647:
7645:
7643:
7628:
7619:
7618:
7582:
7576:
7575:
7565:
7533:
7527:
7526:
7524:
7518:. Archived from
7477:
7468:
7462:
7461:
7425:
7419:
7418:
7378:
7367:
7366:
7338:
7332:
7331:
7295:
7289:
7288:
7271:(965): 362–378.
7260:
7254:
7253:
7251:
7249:
7240:. Archived from
7230:
7224:
7223:
7179:
7173:
7172:
7139:(6): R183–R231.
7127:
7121:
7120:
7088:
7079:
7078:
7077:
7075:
7052:
7043:
7042:
7021:
7015:
7014:
6998:
6992:
6991:
6974:(6): 1158–1170.
6959:
6953:
6952:
6950:
6948:
6934:
6925:
6924:
6911:
6887:
6878:
6877:
6851:
6843:
6837:
6836:
6826:
6786:
6780:
6779:
6769:
6729:
6723:
6722:
6720:
6688:
6682:
6681:
6671:
6646:(5): 2604–2613.
6631:
6625:
6624:
6596:
6590:
6589:
6545:
6539:
6538:
6536:
6519:(4): 1620–1635.
6500:
6494:
6493:
6467:
6443:
6437:
6436:
6408:
6402:
6401:
6399:
6397:
6360:
6351:
6345:
6344:
6322:
6316:
6315:
6295:
6289:
6288:
6268:
6262:
6261:
6259:
6257:
6252:on 23 April 2009
6251:
6244:
6236:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6225:
6214:
6208:
6207:
6205:
6203:
6194:. Archived from
6173:
6167:
6166:
6164:
6162:
6153:. Archived from
6122:
6116:
6115:
6097:
6091:
6090:
6072:
6066:
6065:
6063:
6061:
6046:
6040:
6039:
6031:
6025:
6024:
6006:
6000:
5999:
5979:
5973:
5972:
5954:
5948:
5947:
5927:
5918:
5917:
5915:
5913:
5902:
5896:
5895:
5893:
5891:
5882:. Archived from
5863:
5857:
5856:
5820:
5814:
5813:
5802:10.1038/373595a0
5777:
5771:
5770:
5759:10.1038/384335a0
5734:
5728:
5727:
5725:
5693:
5684:
5683:
5673:
5641:
5635:
5634:
5632:
5630:
5615:
5609:
5608:
5606:
5604:
5589:
5583:
5582:
5580:
5578:
5563:
5557:
5556:
5554:
5552:
5537:
5531:
5530:
5528:
5526:
5511:
5505:
5504:
5502:
5500:
5485:
5479:
5478:
5476:
5474:
5459:
5453:
5452:
5450:
5448:
5442:The Conversation
5433:
5427:
5426:
5424:
5422:
5407:
5401:
5400:
5398:
5396:
5381:
5375:
5374:
5372:
5370:
5355:
5349:
5348:
5346:
5344:
5329:
5323:
5322:
5320:
5318:
5303:
5297:
5296:
5294:
5292:
5277:
5271:
5270:
5268:
5266:
5251:
5245:
5232:
5226:
5225:
5223:
5221:
5216:
5196:
5190:
5189:
5175:
5166:
5165:
5163:
5161:
5146:
5140:
5139:
5137:
5135:
5120:
5114:
5107:
5101:
5094:
5088:
5084:
5078:
5077:
5075:
5073:
5067:Sites.Google.com
5059:
5050:
5049:
5039:
5007:
5001:
5000:
4980:
4974:
4973:
4967:
4959:
4949:
4943:
4942:
4924:
4918:
4917:
4877:
4871:
4870:
4868:
4866:
4852:
4846:
4832:
4826:
4825:
4815:
4791:
4782:
4781:
4771:
4769:10.1038/055539a0
4740:
4734:
4733:
4731:
4729:
4718:
4712:
4697:
4691:
4690:
4688:
4686:
4671:
4665:
4664:
4647:(6): 1113–1128.
4636:
4619:
4618:
4582:
4576:
4575:
4573:
4563:
4539:
4533:
4532:
4522:
4490:
4484:
4483:
4475:
4469:
4468:
4466:
4464:
4448:
4442:
4441:
4439:
4437:
4418:
4412:
4411:
4383:
4377:
4376:
4374:
4372:
4356:
4350:
4349:
4329:
4323:
4322:
4320:
4318:
4298:
4292:
4291:
4289:
4287:
4275:
4269:
4268:
4258:
4218:
4212:
4211:
4179:
4173:
4172:
4113:
4107:
4105:
4103:
4101:10.1038/053274b0
4069:
4063:
4057:
4051:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4015:
4009:
4008:
3998:
3989:(4): 1189–1192.
3974:
3965:
3964:
3956:
3950:
3949:
3940:
3931:
3926:
3920:
3919:
3887:
3881:
3875:
3869:
3868:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3827:
3821:
3820:
3818:
3794:
3788:
3787:
3785:
3765:
3759:
3758:
3750:
3744:
3729:
3723:
3722:
3707:
3594:
3593:
3582:
3581:
3580:
3390:
3388:
3332:
3330:
3319:
3317:
3262:
3261:
3258:
3234:
3225:
3223:
3156:
3150:
3143:
3136:
3127:
3045:
3043:
2883:
2882:
2872:Airport security
2776:to discover the
2710:nuclear medicine
2645:
2638:
2634:
2631:
2625:
2601:
2600:
2593:
2504:transverse plane
2334:chest radiograph
2313:
2306:
2302:
2299:
2293:
2291:
2250:
2226:
2218:
1726:
1653:
1651:
1650:
1645:
1613:absorption edges
1610:
1608:
1607:
1602:
1586:
1584:
1583:
1578:
1566:
1564:
1563:
1558:
1556:
1555:
1546:
1541:
1540:
1463:X-ray microscopy
1424:airport security
1386:cancer treatment
1267:airport security
1104:X-ray microscope
1070:X-ray dermatitis
1005:Paul Peter Ewald
964:electric current
952:thermionic diode
686:Zootoca vivipara
681:Lacerta vivipara
446:Greek letter Chi
389:appeared in the
372:Fernando Sanford
345:William Jennings
200:material science
183:, respectively.
174:
172:
166:
164:
87:William Coolidge
84:
55:
44:
21:
11865:
11864:
11860:
11859:
11858:
11856:
11855:
11854:
11850:Wilhelm Röntgen
11840:Medical physics
11820:1895 in science
11815:1895 in Germany
11800:
11799:
11798:
11793:
11792:
11769:
11765:Havana syndrome
11750:Nuclear physics
11733:
11697:
11590:
11580:
11566:Unruh radiation
11502:
11483:Nuclear weapons
11468:Nuclear fission
11414:
11354:
11348:
11318:
11313:
11278:
11276:
11259:
11223:
11190:
11175:
11132:
11122:
11117:
11107:
11070:
10975:
10920:
10913:
10912:
10897:
10841:
10772:
10747:
10725:
10697:
10679:
10672:
10671:
10670:
10657:
10623:
10614:
10596:
10561:
10552:
10466:
10449:
10448:
10447:
10439:
10353:Natural fission
10307:
10306:
10294:
10289:
10279:
10262:
10238:Nuclear weapons
10217:
10176:Low-level (LLW)
10154:
10086:
10038:
9937:
9900:
9847:
9800:
9721:
9653:
9576:
9514:
9509:
9479:
9470:
9454:X-ray astronomy
9442:
9374:
9323:
9309:X-ray telescope
9201:
9172:Photoionization
9140:
9136:X-ray nanoprobe
9099:
9055:Absorption edge
9043:Characteristics
9038:
9033:
9003:
8998:
8964:
8891:
8866:
8852:
8820:
8748:
8700:
8642:
8619:
8596:
8589:
8582:
8575:
8573:
8525:
8520:
8479:
8444:
8432:
8398:
8395:
8390:
8389:
8382:
8368:
8364:
8357:
8353:
8343:
8341:
8330:
8326:
8319:
8303:
8299:
8288:
8284:
8224:
8220:
8213:
8197:
8193:
8183:
8181:
8171:
8167:
8157:
8155:
8150:
8149:
8145:
8098:
8094:
8089:Wayback Machine
8080:
8076:
8066:
8064:
8057:"Dental X-Rays"
8055:
8054:
8050:
8044:Wayback Machine
8035:
8031:
8025:Wayback Machine
8016:
8012:
8003:
7999:
7989:
7987:
7985:PhyAst.Pitt.edu
7979:
7978:
7974:
7964:
7962:
7953:
7952:
7948:
7940:
7924:
7920:
7889:
7885:
7840:
7831:
7821:
7819:
7802:
7801:
7797:
7766:
7762:
7727:Medical Physics
7723:
7719:
7714:Wayback Machine
7704:
7700:
7677:
7673:
7663:
7661:
7656:
7655:
7651:
7641:
7639:
7630:
7629:
7622:
7583:
7579:
7534:
7530:
7522:
7500:10.1038/421691a
7475:
7469:
7465:
7426:
7422:
7379:
7370:
7339:
7335:
7296:
7292:
7261:
7257:
7247:
7245:
7232:
7231:
7227:
7180:
7176:
7128:
7124:
7089:
7082:
7073:
7071:
7053:
7046:
7039:
7022:
7018:
6999:
6995:
6960:
6956:
6946:
6944:
6936:
6935:
6928:
6902:(11): 859–867.
6888:
6881:
6844:
6840:
6787:
6783:
6730:
6726:
6689:
6685:
6632:
6628:
6597:
6593:
6546:
6542:
6501:
6497:
6444:
6440:
6413:Physics Reports
6409:
6405:
6395:
6393:
6358:
6352:
6348:
6341:
6323:
6319:
6312:
6296:
6292:
6285:
6269:
6265:
6255:
6253:
6249:
6242:
6238:
6237:
6233:
6223:
6221:
6216:
6215:
6211:
6201:
6199:
6192:
6174:
6170:
6160:
6158:
6123:
6119:
6112:
6098:
6094:
6087:
6073:
6069:
6059:
6057:
6047:
6043:
6032:
6028:
6021:
6007:
6003:
5996:
5980:
5976:
5969:
5955:
5951:
5944:
5928:
5921:
5911:
5909:
5904:
5903:
5899:
5889:
5887:
5880:
5864:
5860:
5825:Nature Medicine
5821:
5817:
5778:
5774:
5735:
5731:
5694:
5687:
5642:
5638:
5628:
5626:
5617:
5616:
5612:
5602:
5600:
5591:
5590:
5586:
5576:
5574:
5565:
5564:
5560:
5550:
5548:
5539:
5538:
5534:
5524:
5522:
5515:"THE PEDOSCOPE"
5513:
5512:
5508:
5498:
5496:
5487:
5486:
5482:
5472:
5470:
5461:
5460:
5456:
5446:
5444:
5434:
5430:
5420:
5418:
5409:
5408:
5404:
5394:
5392:
5383:
5382:
5378:
5368:
5366:
5363:Tampa Bay Times
5357:
5356:
5352:
5342:
5340:
5331:
5330:
5326:
5316:
5314:
5305:
5304:
5300:
5290:
5288:
5285:Chicago Tribune
5279:
5278:
5274:
5264:
5262:
5253:
5252:
5248:
5243:Wayback Machine
5233:
5229:
5219:
5217:
5197:
5193:
5176:
5169:
5159:
5157:
5148:
5147:
5143:
5133:
5131:
5122:
5121:
5117:
5108:
5104:
5095:
5091:
5085:
5081:
5071:
5069:
5061:
5060:
5053:
5008:
5004:
4997:
4981:
4977:
4961:
4960:
4950:
4946:
4939:
4925:
4921:
4892:(67): 562–563.
4878:
4874:
4864:
4862:
4854:
4853:
4849:
4833:
4829:
4792:
4785:
4742:
4741:
4737:
4727:
4725:
4720:
4719:
4715:
4698:
4694:
4684:
4682:
4673:
4672:
4668:
4637:
4622:
4583:
4579:
4540:
4536:
4491:
4487:
4476:
4472:
4462:
4460:
4449:
4445:
4435:
4433:
4419:
4415:
4408:
4384:
4380:
4370:
4368:
4357:
4353:
4346:
4330:
4326:
4316:
4314:
4299:
4295:
4285:
4283:
4276:
4272:
4219:
4215:
4180:
4176:
4114:
4110:
4086:(1369): 274–6.
4070:
4066:
4053:
4047:
4041:
4037:
4030:
4016:
4012:
3975:
3968:
3957:
3953:
3942:
3941:
3934:
3927:
3923:
3888:
3884:
3876:
3872:
3859:
3855:
3828:
3824:
3795:
3791:
3766:
3762:
3751:
3747:
3730:
3726:
3709:
3708:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3675:X-ray nanoprobe
3588:
3578:
3576:
3572:
3556:
3547:
3518:
3509:
3470:
3441:
3415:Equivalent dose
3403:100 erg⋅g
3386:
3384:
3328:
3326:
3315:
3313:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3232:
3221:
3219:
3154:
3114:equivalent dose
3087:equivalent dose
3041:
3039:
3005:
2982:phosphorescence
2969:
2946:surface science
2878:
2877:
2788:X-ray astronomy
2747:
2646:
2635:
2629:
2626:
2615:
2602:
2598:
2591:
2589:Adverse effects
2575:
2536:
2530:
2492:
2486:
2409:abdominal x-ray
2405:pulmonary edema
2389:skeletal system
2359:
2353:
2345:medical imaging
2314:
2303:
2297:
2294:
2251:
2249:
2239:
2227:
2216:
2148:
2142:
2113:
2106:
2095:
2088:
2082:
2066:
1770:
1764:
1758:
1751:
1735:
1730:
1721:
1713:
1701:
1676:
1633:
1630:
1629:
1619:and thus short
1596:
1593:
1592:
1572:
1569:
1568:
1551:
1547:
1542:
1536:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1526:
1523:
1507:photoabsorption
1495:photoabsorption
1491:absorption edge
1483:
1436:small animal CT
1362:molecular bonds
1342:
1295:
1247:photon energies
1243:
1222:
1212:X-ray sources,
962:that caused an
927:connected to a
894:
832:
731:broken bone on
616:
580:Hand mit Ringen
434:Wilhelm Röntgen
430:8 November 1895
423:Wilhelm Röntgen
416:
382:Physical Review
327:Michael Faraday
257:discharge tubes
229:
224:
170:
168:
162:
160:
72:
56:
45:
30:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
11863:
11853:
11852:
11847:
11842:
11837:
11832:
11827:
11822:
11817:
11812:
11795:
11794:
11774:
11771:
11770:
11768:
11767:
11762:
11757:
11752:
11747:
11741:
11739:
11735:
11734:
11732:
11731:
11726:
11721:
11716:
11711:
11705:
11703:
11699:
11698:
11696:
11695:
11690:
11685:
11680:
11675:
11670:
11665:
11660:
11655:
11650:
11645:
11640:
11635:
11630:
11625:
11620:
11615:
11613:Health physics
11610:
11609:
11608:
11603:
11594:
11592:
11586:
11585:
11582:
11581:
11579:
11578:
11573:
11571:Dark radiation
11568:
11563:
11561:Bremsstrahlung
11558:
11553:
11548:
11543:
11538:
11533:
11528:
11523:
11518:
11513:
11507:
11504:
11503:
11501:
11500:
11495:
11490:
11485:
11480:
11475:
11473:Nuclear fusion
11470:
11465:
11460:
11455:
11450:
11445:
11443:Alpha particle
11440:
11435:
11430:
11424:
11422:
11416:
11415:
11413:
11412:
11407:
11402:
11397:
11392:
11387:
11382:
11377:
11371:
11369:
11360:
11356:
11355:
11347:
11346:
11339:
11332:
11324:
11315:
11314:
11312:
11311:
11299:
11287:
11272:
11269:
11268:
11265:
11264:
11261:
11260:
11258:
11257:
11252:
11247:
11245:Muon-catalyzed
11242:
11237:
11231:
11229:
11225:
11224:
11222:
11221:
11216:
11211:
11206:
11205:
11204:
11194:
11185:
11183:
11177:
11176:
11174:
11173:
11168:
11163:
11158:
11153:
11148:
11142:
11140:
11134:
11133:
11127:
11124:
11123:
11109:
11108:
11106:
11105:
11100:
11099:
11098:
11093:
11082:
11080:
11076:
11075:
11072:
11071:
11069:
11068:
11063:
11058:
11053:
11052:
11051:
11046:
11041:
11036:
11031:
11026:
11021:
11016:
11011:
11006:
11001:
10996:
10985:
10983:
10977:
10976:
10974:
10973:
10968:
10963:
10958:
10953:
10948:
10943:
10938:
10936:Integral (IFR)
10933:
10927:
10921:
10910:
10907:
10906:
10903:
10902:
10899:
10898:
10896:
10895:
10890:
10885:
10880:
10875:
10870:
10864:
10862:
10853:
10847:
10846:
10843:
10842:
10840:
10839:
10838:
10837:
10832:
10831:
10830:
10825:
10820:
10815:
10800:
10795:
10794:
10793:
10782:
10780:
10774:
10773:
10771:
10770:
10765:
10760:
10751:
10749:
10745:
10737:
10731:
10730:
10727:
10726:
10724:
10723:
10718:
10713:
10708:
10702:
10700:
10695:
10687:
10680:
10666:
10663:
10662:
10659:
10658:
10656:
10655:
10654:
10653:
10648:
10643:
10638:
10627:
10625:
10621:
10616:
10615:
10613:
10612:
10606:
10604:
10598:
10597:
10595:
10594:
10589:
10584:
10583:
10582:
10577:
10566:
10564:
10559:
10554:
10553:
10551:
10550:
10549:
10548:
10543:
10538:
10533:
10528:
10527:
10526:
10521:
10516:
10506:
10501:
10500:
10499:
10494:
10491:
10488:
10485:
10471:
10469:
10464:
10456:
10441:
10440:
10438:
10437:
10432:
10431:
10430:
10427:
10422:
10417:
10416:
10415:
10410:
10400:
10395:
10390:
10385:
10380:
10375:
10370:
10365:
10355:
10350:
10349:
10348:
10343:
10338:
10333:
10323:
10317:
10315:
10309:
10308:
10300:
10299:
10296:
10295:
10281:
10280:
10268:
10267:
10264:
10263:
10261:
10260:
10255:
10253:Uranium mining
10250:
10245:
10240:
10235:
10229:
10227:
10223:
10222:
10219:
10218:
10216:
10215:
10210:
10209:
10208:
10203:
10193:
10188:
10183:
10178:
10173:
10168:
10162:
10160:
10156:
10155:
10153:
10152:
10147:
10146:
10145:
10135:
10130:
10129:
10128:
10126:Minor actinide
10123:
10118:
10107:
10105:
10098:
10092:
10091:
10088:
10087:
10085:
10084:
10079:
10074:
10069:
10068:
10067:
10062:
10052:
10046:
10044:
10040:
10039:
10037:
10036:
10035:
10034:
10024:
10019:
10018:
10017:
10012:
10002:
9997:
9992:
9991:
9990:
9980:
9975:
9970:
9965:
9960:
9954:
9952:
9945:
9939:
9938:
9936:
9935:
9930:
9925:
9920:
9914:
9912:
9906:
9905:
9902:
9901:
9899:
9898:
9893:
9888:
9883:
9878:
9873:
9868:
9863:
9857:
9855:
9849:
9848:
9846:
9845:
9840:
9835:
9830:
9825:
9823:Autoradiograph
9819:
9817:
9808:
9802:
9801:
9799:
9798:
9797:
9796:
9786:
9785:
9784:
9774:
9773:
9772:
9762:
9757:
9752:
9747:
9742:
9737:
9731:
9729:
9723:
9722:
9720:
9719:
9714:
9709:
9704:
9699:
9694:
9689:
9684:
9679:
9674:
9669:
9663:
9661:
9655:
9654:
9652:
9651:
9650:
9649:
9644:
9639:
9638:
9637:
9632:
9617:
9612:
9607:
9602:
9597:
9592:
9586:
9584:
9578:
9577:
9575:
9574:
9573:
9572:
9567:
9557:
9552:
9547:
9545:Atomic nucleus
9542:
9537:
9532:
9526:
9524:
9516:
9515:
9508:
9507:
9500:
9493:
9485:
9476:
9475:
9472:
9471:
9469:
9468:
9463:
9462:
9461:
9450:
9448:
9444:
9443:
9441:
9440:
9435:
9430:
9425:
9420:
9415:
9410:
9405:
9400:
9395:
9390:
9384:
9382:
9376:
9375:
9373:
9372:
9367:
9362:
9357:
9352:
9347:
9342:
9337:
9331:
9329:
9325:
9324:
9322:
9321:
9316:
9311:
9306:
9301:
9296:
9295:
9294:
9289:
9284:
9274:
9269:
9264:
9259:
9254:
9253:
9252:
9247:
9237:
9232:
9227:
9222:
9216:
9214:
9207:
9203:
9202:
9200:
9199:
9194:
9189:
9184:
9179:
9174:
9169:
9164:
9159:
9154:
9148:
9146:
9142:
9141:
9139:
9138:
9133:
9128:
9123:
9118:
9113:
9107:
9105:
9101:
9100:
9098:
9097:
9092:
9087:
9082:
9077:
9072:
9067:
9062:
9057:
9052:
9046:
9044:
9040:
9039:
9032:
9031:
9024:
9017:
9009:
9000:
8999:
8997:
8996:
8991:
8986:
8981:
8975:
8973:
8966:
8965:
8963:
8962:
8957:
8952:
8947:
8942:
8937:
8932:
8927:
8922:
8917:
8912:
8907:
8901:
8899:
8893:
8892:
8890:
8889:
8884:
8879:
8874:
8869:
8864:
8860:
8855:
8850:
8846:
8841:
8836:
8830:
8828:
8822:
8821:
8819:
8818:
8813:
8808:
8786:
8781:
8758:
8756:
8750:
8749:
8747:
8746:
8741:
8736:
8731:
8726:
8721:
8716:
8710:
8708:
8702:
8701:
8699:
8698:
8693:
8688:
8683:
8678:
8673:
8668:
8663:
8658:
8652:
8650:
8644:
8643:
8641:
8640:
8635:
8629:
8627:
8621:
8620:
8618:
8617:
8612:
8606:
8604:
8598:
8597:
8595:
8594:
8561:
8556:
8551:
8546:
8541:
8536:
8530:
8527:
8526:
8519:
8518:
8511:
8504:
8496:
8490:
8489:
8477:
8471:
8454:
8442:
8430:
8394:
8393:External links
8391:
8388:
8387:
8380:
8362:
8351:
8324:
8318:978-1401815554
8317:
8297:
8282:
8218:
8211:
8191:
8165:
8143:
8092:
8074:
8048:
8029:
8010:
7997:
7972:
7961:on 16 May 2012
7946:
7938:
7918:
7899:(2): 655–657.
7883:
7829:
7795:
7760:
7717:
7698:
7687:(4): 445–448.
7671:
7649:
7620:
7577:
7528:
7463:
7430:Health Physics
7420:
7368:
7349:(3): 177–182.
7333:
7290:
7255:
7225:
7174:
7122:
7080:
7044:
7037:
7016:
6993:
6954:
6926:
6879:
6860:(2): 214–219.
6838:
6781:
6724:
6683:
6626:
6591:
6540:
6495:
6438:
6403:
6346:
6339:
6317:
6310:
6290:
6283:
6263:
6231:
6209:
6190:
6168:
6117:
6110:
6092:
6085:
6067:
6041:
6026:
6019:
6001:
5994:
5974:
5967:
5949:
5942:
5919:
5897:
5878:
5858:
5831:(4): 473–475.
5815:
5772:
5729:
5685:
5636:
5610:
5584:
5558:
5532:
5506:
5480:
5454:
5428:
5402:
5376:
5350:
5324:
5298:
5272:
5246:
5227:
5191:
5167:
5156:. 15 June 2018
5141:
5115:
5102:
5089:
5079:
5051:
5022:(2): 123–125.
5002:
4996:978-0930405229
4995:
4975:
4958:. p. 174.
4944:
4938:978-1589809468
4937:
4919:
4872:
4847:
4827:
4806:(1): 241–243.
4783:
4735:
4713:
4692:
4666:
4620:
4593:(2): 141–173.
4577:
4554:(2): 263–276.
4534:
4505:(4): 345–358.
4485:
4470:
4443:
4413:
4406:
4378:
4351:
4345:978-0930405229
4344:
4324:
4313:on 11 May 2008
4293:
4270:
4233:(7): 461–469.
4213:
4174:
4108:
4064:
4035:
4028:
4010:
3966:
3951:
3932:
3921:
3902:(3): 635–639.
3882:
3880:, Vol. XLVIII.
3870:
3853:
3822:
3789:
3760:
3745:
3724:
3701:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3656:
3650:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3586:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3565:
3564:
3563:0.010 Sv
3561:
3558:
3552:
3543:
3536:
3533:
3527:
3526:
3523:
3520:
3514:
3505:
3498:
3495:
3490:
3483:Effective dose
3479:
3478:
3477:0.010 Sv
3475:
3472:
3466:
3459:
3456:
3450:
3449:
3446:
3443:
3437:
3430:
3427:
3422:
3411:
3410:
3409:0.010 Gy
3407:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3392:
3391:
3382:
3379:
3376:
3373:
3366:
3365:
3362:
3359:
3353:
3350:
3345:
3334:
3333:
3324:
3321:
3307:
3304:
3298:
3297:
3294:
3291:
3288:
3285:
3276:
3265:
3264:
3252:
3249:
3246:
3243:
3237:
3236:
3229:
3226:
3217:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3204:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3190:
3179:
3178:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3153:
3152:
3145:
3138:
3130:
3126:
3125:
3118:effective dose
3116:, and also of
3106:
3083:
3082:
3075:
3048:
3047:
3028:
3004:
3001:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2963:
2949:
2935:
2929:
2923:
2916:
2908:X-ray art and
2890:
2889:
2880:Border control
2875:
2869:
2863:
2851:
2850:
2843:
2821:
2811:
2805:
2795:
2785:
2778:double helical
2772:, was used by
2746:
2743:
2648:
2647:
2630:September 2024
2612:of the subject
2610:worldwide view
2605:
2603:
2596:
2590:
2587:
2574:
2571:
2532:Main article:
2529:
2526:
2488:Main article:
2485:
2482:
2474:contrast agent
2355:Main article:
2352:
2349:
2316:
2315:
2230:
2228:
2221:
2215:
2212:
2188:radiation dose
2146:X-ray detector
2144:Main article:
2141:
2138:
2121:Bremsstrahlung
2112:
2109:
2104:
2096:refers to the
2093:
2086:
2080:
2065:
2062:
2027:electric power
2019:Bremsstrahlung
2015:
2014:
2011:Bremsstrahlung
2002:Bremsstrahlung
1998:
1990:electron shell
1946:released by a
1923:bremsstrahlung
1904:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1844:
1838:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1794:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1753:
1749:
1744:
1743:
1740:
1739:Photon energy
1737:
1732:
1720:
1717:
1712:
1709:
1700:
1697:
1675:
1672:
1660:Auger electron
1643:
1640:
1637:
1604:{\textstyle E}
1600:
1580:{\textstyle Z}
1576:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1539:
1535:
1522:
1519:
1482:
1479:
1454:in the image.
1374:radiation dose
1372:. A very high
1341:
1338:
1307:atomic nucleus
1294:
1291:
1242:
1239:
1221:
1218:
1113:, launched on
979:X-ray spectrum
975:Charles Barkla
958:. This used a
925:Ruhmkorff coil
893:
890:
831:
828:
757:platinocyanide
692:Lacerta agilis
671:Rana esculenta
615:
612:
584:Ludwig Zehnder
570:platinocyanide
415:
412:
408:radiant energy
377:6 January 1893
361:Ludwig Zehnder
303:William Morgan
241:discharge tube
228:
225:
223:
220:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11862:
11851:
11848:
11846:
11843:
11841:
11838:
11836:
11833:
11831:
11828:
11826:
11823:
11821:
11818:
11816:
11813:
11811:
11808:
11807:
11805:
11791:
11787:
11783:
11782:Radioactivity
11779:
11772:
11766:
11763:
11761:
11758:
11756:
11753:
11751:
11748:
11746:
11743:
11742:
11740:
11736:
11730:
11727:
11725:
11722:
11720:
11717:
11715:
11712:
11710:
11707:
11706:
11704:
11700:
11694:
11691:
11689:
11686:
11684:
11681:
11679:
11676:
11674:
11671:
11669:
11666:
11664:
11661:
11659:
11656:
11654:
11651:
11649:
11646:
11644:
11641:
11639:
11636:
11634:
11631:
11629:
11626:
11624:
11621:
11619:
11616:
11614:
11611:
11607:
11604:
11602:
11599:
11598:
11596:
11595:
11593:
11587:
11577:
11574:
11572:
11569:
11567:
11564:
11562:
11559:
11557:
11554:
11552:
11549:
11547:
11544:
11542:
11539:
11537:
11534:
11532:
11529:
11527:
11524:
11522:
11519:
11517:
11514:
11512:
11509:
11508:
11505:
11499:
11496:
11494:
11491:
11489:
11486:
11484:
11481:
11479:
11476:
11474:
11471:
11469:
11466:
11464:
11461:
11459:
11456:
11454:
11451:
11449:
11448:Beta particle
11446:
11444:
11441:
11439:
11436:
11434:
11433:Cluster decay
11431:
11429:
11426:
11425:
11423:
11421:
11417:
11411:
11408:
11406:
11403:
11401:
11398:
11396:
11393:
11391:
11388:
11386:
11383:
11381:
11378:
11376:
11373:
11372:
11370:
11368:
11364:
11361:
11359:Main articles
11357:
11352:
11345:
11340:
11338:
11333:
11331:
11326:
11325:
11322:
11310:
11309:
11300:
11298:
11297:
11288:
11286:
11285:
11274:
11273:
11270:
11256:
11253:
11251:
11248:
11246:
11243:
11241:
11238:
11236:
11233:
11232:
11230:
11226:
11220:
11217:
11215:
11212:
11210:
11207:
11203:
11202:electrostatic
11200:
11199:
11198:
11195:
11193:
11187:
11186:
11184:
11182:
11178:
11172:
11169:
11167:
11164:
11162:
11159:
11157:
11154:
11152:
11149:
11147:
11144:
11143:
11141:
11139:
11135:
11131:
11125:
11120:
11114:
11104:
11101:
11097:
11094:
11092:
11089:
11088:
11087:
11084:
11083:
11081:
11077:
11067:
11064:
11062:
11059:
11057:
11054:
11050:
11047:
11045:
11042:
11040:
11037:
11035:
11032:
11030:
11027:
11025:
11022:
11020:
11017:
11015:
11012:
11010:
11007:
11005:
11002:
11000:
10997:
10995:
10992:
10991:
10990:
10987:
10986:
10984:
10982:
10981:Generation IV
10978:
10972:
10969:
10967:
10964:
10962:
10959:
10957:
10954:
10952:
10949:
10947:
10944:
10942:
10939:
10937:
10934:
10932:
10931:Breeder (FBR)
10929:
10928:
10925:
10922:
10917:
10908:
10894:
10891:
10889:
10886:
10884:
10881:
10879:
10876:
10874:
10871:
10869:
10866:
10865:
10863:
10861:
10857:
10854:
10852:
10848:
10836:
10833:
10829:
10826:
10824:
10821:
10819:
10816:
10814:
10811:
10810:
10809:
10806:
10805:
10804:
10801:
10799:
10796:
10792:
10789:
10788:
10787:
10784:
10783:
10781:
10779:
10775:
10769:
10766:
10764:
10761:
10759:
10757:
10753:
10752:
10750:
10748:
10741:
10738:
10736:
10732:
10722:
10719:
10717:
10714:
10712:
10709:
10707:
10704:
10703:
10701:
10699:
10691:
10688:
10684:
10681:
10676:
10669:
10664:
10652:
10649:
10647:
10644:
10642:
10639:
10637:
10634:
10633:
10632:
10629:
10628:
10626:
10624:
10617:
10611:
10608:
10607:
10605:
10603:
10599:
10593:
10590:
10588:
10585:
10581:
10578:
10576:
10573:
10572:
10571:
10568:
10567:
10565:
10563:
10555:
10547:
10544:
10542:
10539:
10537:
10534:
10532:
10529:
10525:
10522:
10520:
10517:
10515:
10512:
10511:
10510:
10507:
10505:
10502:
10498:
10495:
10492:
10489:
10486:
10483:
10482:
10481:
10478:
10477:
10476:
10473:
10472:
10470:
10468:
10460:
10457:
10453:
10446:
10442:
10436:
10433:
10428:
10426:
10423:
10421:
10418:
10414:
10411:
10409:
10406:
10405:
10404:
10401:
10399:
10396:
10394:
10391:
10389:
10386:
10384:
10381:
10379:
10376:
10374:
10371:
10369:
10366:
10364:
10361:
10360:
10359:
10356:
10354:
10351:
10347:
10344:
10342:
10339:
10337:
10334:
10332:
10329:
10328:
10327:
10324:
10322:
10319:
10318:
10316:
10314:
10310:
10305:
10304:
10297:
10292:
10286:
10282:
10278:
10273:
10269:
10259:
10256:
10254:
10251:
10249:
10246:
10244:
10241:
10239:
10236:
10234:
10233:Nuclear power
10231:
10230:
10228:
10224:
10214:
10213:Transmutation
10211:
10207:
10204:
10202:
10199:
10198:
10197:
10194:
10192:
10189:
10187:
10184:
10182:
10179:
10177:
10174:
10172:
10169:
10167:
10164:
10163:
10161:
10157:
10151:
10148:
10144:
10141:
10140:
10139:
10136:
10134:
10131:
10127:
10124:
10122:
10119:
10117:
10114:
10113:
10112:
10109:
10108:
10106:
10102:
10099:
10097:
10093:
10083:
10080:
10078:
10075:
10073:
10070:
10066:
10063:
10061:
10058:
10057:
10056:
10053:
10051:
10048:
10047:
10045:
10041:
10033:
10030:
10029:
10028:
10025:
10023:
10020:
10016:
10013:
10011:
10010:high-altitude
10008:
10007:
10006:
10003:
10001:
10000:Proliferation
9998:
9996:
9993:
9989:
9986:
9985:
9984:
9981:
9979:
9976:
9974:
9971:
9969:
9966:
9964:
9961:
9959:
9956:
9955:
9953:
9949:
9946:
9944:
9940:
9934:
9931:
9929:
9926:
9924:
9921:
9919:
9916:
9915:
9913:
9911:
9907:
9897:
9894:
9892:
9889:
9887:
9886:Brachytherapy
9884:
9882:
9879:
9877:
9874:
9872:
9869:
9867:
9864:
9862:
9859:
9858:
9856:
9854:
9850:
9844:
9841:
9839:
9836:
9834:
9831:
9829:
9826:
9824:
9821:
9820:
9818:
9816:
9812:
9809:
9807:
9803:
9795:
9792:
9791:
9790:
9787:
9783:
9780:
9779:
9778:
9775:
9771:
9768:
9767:
9766:
9763:
9761:
9758:
9756:
9753:
9751:
9748:
9746:
9743:
9741:
9738:
9736:
9733:
9732:
9730:
9728:
9724:
9718:
9715:
9713:
9710:
9708:
9705:
9703:
9700:
9698:
9695:
9693:
9690:
9688:
9685:
9683:
9682:Cross section
9680:
9678:
9675:
9673:
9670:
9668:
9665:
9664:
9662:
9660:
9656:
9648:
9645:
9643:
9640:
9636:
9633:
9631:
9628:
9627:
9626:
9623:
9622:
9621:
9618:
9616:
9613:
9611:
9608:
9606:
9603:
9601:
9598:
9596:
9593:
9591:
9588:
9587:
9585:
9583:
9579:
9571:
9568:
9566:
9563:
9562:
9561:
9558:
9556:
9553:
9551:
9548:
9546:
9543:
9541:
9538:
9536:
9533:
9531:
9528:
9527:
9525:
9521:
9517:
9513:
9506:
9501:
9499:
9494:
9492:
9487:
9486:
9483:
9467:
9464:
9460:
9457:
9456:
9455:
9452:
9451:
9449:
9445:
9439:
9436:
9434:
9431:
9429:
9426:
9424:
9421:
9419:
9416:
9414:
9411:
9409:
9406:
9404:
9401:
9399:
9396:
9394:
9391:
9389:
9386:
9385:
9383:
9381:
9377:
9371:
9368:
9366:
9363:
9361:
9358:
9356:
9353:
9351:
9348:
9346:
9343:
9341:
9338:
9336:
9333:
9332:
9330:
9326:
9320:
9317:
9315:
9312:
9310:
9307:
9305:
9302:
9300:
9297:
9293:
9290:
9288:
9285:
9283:
9280:
9279:
9278:
9275:
9273:
9270:
9268:
9265:
9263:
9260:
9258:
9255:
9251:
9248:
9246:
9243:
9242:
9241:
9238:
9236:
9233:
9231:
9230:Tomosynthesis
9228:
9226:
9223:
9221:
9218:
9217:
9215:
9211:
9208:
9204:
9198:
9195:
9193:
9190:
9188:
9185:
9183:
9180:
9178:
9175:
9173:
9170:
9168:
9165:
9163:
9160:
9158:
9155:
9153:
9150:
9149:
9147:
9143:
9137:
9134:
9132:
9129:
9127:
9124:
9122:
9119:
9117:
9114:
9112:
9109:
9108:
9106:
9102:
9096:
9093:
9091:
9088:
9086:
9083:
9081:
9078:
9076:
9073:
9071:
9068:
9066:
9063:
9061:
9060:Moseley's law
9058:
9056:
9053:
9051:
9048:
9047:
9045:
9041:
9037:
9036:X-ray science
9030:
9025:
9023:
9018:
9016:
9011:
9010:
9007:
8995:
8992:
8990:
8987:
8985:
8982:
8980:
8977:
8976:
8974:
8971:
8967:
8961:
8958:
8956:
8953:
8951:
8948:
8946:
8943:
8941:
8938:
8936:
8933:
8931:
8928:
8926:
8923:
8921:
8918:
8916:
8913:
8911:
8908:
8906:
8903:
8902:
8900:
8898:
8894:
8888:
8885:
8883:
8880:
8878:
8875:
8873:
8870:
8868:
8861:
8859:
8856:
8854:
8847:
8845:
8842:
8840:
8837:
8835:
8832:
8831:
8829:
8827:
8823:
8817:
8814:
8812:
8809:
8806:
8802:
8798:
8794:
8790:
8787:
8785:
8782:
8779:
8775:
8771:
8767:
8763:
8760:
8759:
8757:
8755:
8751:
8745:
8742:
8740:
8737:
8735:
8732:
8730:
8727:
8725:
8722:
8720:
8717:
8715:
8712:
8711:
8709:
8707:
8703:
8697:
8694:
8692:
8689:
8687:
8684:
8682:
8679:
8677:
8674:
8672:
8669:
8667:
8664:
8662:
8659:
8657:
8654:
8653:
8651:
8649:
8645:
8639:
8636:
8634:
8631:
8630:
8628:
8626:
8622:
8616:
8613:
8611:
8608:
8607:
8605:
8603:
8599:
8592:
8588:
8581:
8569:
8565:
8562:
8560:
8557:
8555:
8552:
8550:
8547:
8545:
8542:
8540:
8537:
8535:
8532:
8531:
8528:
8524:
8517:
8512:
8510:
8505:
8503:
8498:
8497:
8494:
8486:
8482:
8478:
8476:
8472:
8469:
8464:
8460:
8455:
8451:
8447:
8443:
8439:
8435:
8431:
8426:
8421:
8417:
8413:
8409:
8405:
8401:
8397:
8396:
8383:
8377:
8373:
8366:
8360:
8355:
8339:
8335:
8328:
8320:
8314:
8310:
8309:
8301:
8293:
8286:
8278:
8274:
8270:
8266:
8262:
8258:
8250:
8246:
8242:
8238:
8234:
8230:
8222:
8214:
8208:
8204:
8203:
8195:
8180:
8176:
8169:
8153:
8147:
8139:
8135:
8130:
8125:
8120:
8115:
8111:
8107:
8103:
8096:
8090:
8086:
8083:
8078:
8062:
8058:
8052:
8045:
8041:
8038:
8033:
8026:
8022:
8019:
8014:
8007:
8001:
7986:
7982:
7976:
7960:
7956:
7950:
7941:
7935:
7931:
7930:
7922:
7914:
7910:
7906:
7902:
7898:
7894:
7887:
7879:
7875:
7870:
7865:
7861:
7857:
7853:
7849:
7845:
7838:
7836:
7834:
7817:
7813:
7809:
7805:
7799:
7791:
7787:
7783:
7779:
7776:(6940): 447.
7775:
7771:
7764:
7756:
7752:
7748:
7744:
7740:
7736:
7732:
7728:
7721:
7715:
7711:
7708:
7702:
7694:
7690:
7686:
7682:
7675:
7659:
7653:
7637:
7633:
7627:
7625:
7616:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7600:
7596:
7592:
7588:
7581:
7573:
7569:
7564:
7559:
7555:
7551:
7547:
7543:
7542:Dose-Response
7539:
7532:
7521:
7517:
7513:
7509:
7505:
7501:
7497:
7493:
7489:
7485:
7481:
7474:
7467:
7459:
7455:
7451:
7447:
7443:
7439:
7435:
7431:
7424:
7416:
7412:
7408:
7404:
7400:
7396:
7392:
7388:
7384:
7377:
7375:
7373:
7364:
7360:
7356:
7352:
7348:
7344:
7337:
7329:
7325:
7321:
7317:
7313:
7309:
7305:
7301:
7294:
7286:
7282:
7278:
7274:
7270:
7266:
7259:
7243:
7239:
7235:
7229:
7221:
7217:
7213:
7209:
7205:
7201:
7197:
7193:
7189:
7185:
7178:
7170:
7166:
7162:
7158:
7154:
7150:
7146:
7142:
7138:
7134:
7126:
7118:
7114:
7110:
7106:
7102:
7098:
7094:
7087:
7085:
7070:
7066:
7062:
7058:
7051:
7049:
7040:
7034:
7030:
7026:
7020:
7012:
7008:
7004:
6997:
6989:
6985:
6981:
6977:
6973:
6969:
6965:
6958:
6943:
6939:
6933:
6931:
6923:
6919:
6915:
6910:
6905:
6901:
6897:
6893:
6886:
6884:
6875:
6871:
6867:
6863:
6859:
6855:
6850:
6842:
6834:
6830:
6825:
6820:
6816:
6812:
6808:
6804:
6800:
6796:
6792:
6785:
6777:
6773:
6768:
6763:
6759:
6755:
6751:
6747:
6743:
6739:
6735:
6728:
6719:
6714:
6710:
6706:
6703:(1): 015017.
6702:
6698:
6694:
6687:
6679:
6675:
6670:
6665:
6661:
6657:
6653:
6649:
6645:
6641:
6637:
6630:
6622:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6606:
6602:
6595:
6587:
6583:
6579:
6575:
6571:
6567:
6564:(4): 044002.
6563:
6559:
6555:
6551:
6544:
6535:
6530:
6526:
6522:
6518:
6514:
6510:
6506:
6499:
6491:
6487:
6483:
6479:
6475:
6471:
6466:
6461:
6457:
6453:
6449:
6442:
6434:
6430:
6426:
6422:
6418:
6414:
6407:
6392:
6388:
6384:
6380:
6376:
6372:
6368:
6364:
6357:
6350:
6342:
6340:90-5199-248-3
6336:
6332:
6328:
6321:
6313:
6307:
6303:
6302:
6294:
6286:
6280:
6276:
6275:
6267:
6248:
6241:
6235:
6219:
6213:
6197:
6193:
6187:
6183:
6179:
6172:
6156:
6152:
6148:
6144:
6140:
6136:
6132:
6128:
6121:
6113:
6107:
6103:
6096:
6088:
6082:
6078:
6071:
6056:
6052:
6045:
6037:
6030:
6022:
6016:
6012:
6005:
5997:
5991:
5987:
5986:
5978:
5970:
5964:
5960:
5953:
5945:
5939:
5935:
5934:
5926:
5924:
5907:
5901:
5885:
5881:
5875:
5871:
5870:
5862:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5819:
5811:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5791:
5787:
5783:
5776:
5768:
5764:
5760:
5756:
5752:
5748:
5744:
5740:
5733:
5724:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5692:
5690:
5681:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5663:
5659:
5655:
5651:
5650:Physics Today
5647:
5640:
5624:
5620:
5614:
5598:
5594:
5588:
5572:
5568:
5562:
5546:
5542:
5536:
5520:
5516:
5510:
5494:
5490:
5484:
5468:
5464:
5458:
5443:
5439:
5432:
5416:
5412:
5406:
5390:
5386:
5380:
5364:
5360:
5354:
5338:
5334:
5328:
5312:
5308:
5302:
5286:
5282:
5276:
5260:
5256:
5250:
5244:
5240:
5237:
5231:
5215:
5210:
5206:
5202:
5195:
5187:
5183:
5182:
5174:
5172:
5155:
5151:
5145:
5129:
5125:
5119:
5112:
5106:
5099:
5093:
5083:
5068:
5064:
5058:
5056:
5047:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5021:
5017:
5013:
5006:
4998:
4992:
4988:
4987:
4979:
4971:
4965:
4957:
4956:
4948:
4940:
4934:
4930:
4923:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4883:
4876:
4861:
4857:
4851:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4831:
4823:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4790:
4788:
4779:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4739:
4723:
4717:
4710:
4709:9781600212802
4706:
4702:
4696:
4680:
4676:
4670:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4641:Radiographics
4635:
4633:
4631:
4629:
4627:
4625:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4581:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4538:
4530:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4499:Media History
4496:
4489:
4481:
4474:
4458:
4454:
4447:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4417:
4409:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4391:
4390:
4382:
4367:. Guardian US
4366:
4362:
4355:
4347:
4341:
4337:
4336:
4328:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4297:
4281:
4274:
4266:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4217:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4178:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4112:
4102:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4080:
4075:
4068:
4061:
4056:
4050:
4045:
4039:
4031:
4025:
4021:
4014:
4006:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3983:Radiographics
3980:
3973:
3971:
3962:
3955:
3947:
3946:
3939:
3937:
3930:
3925:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3886:
3879:
3874:
3866:
3865:
3857:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3826:
3817:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3793:
3784:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3764:
3756:
3749:
3742:
3741:0-674-83339-2
3738:
3734:
3728:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3706:
3702:
3691:
3690:X-ray welding
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3660:
3657:
3654:
3651:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3585:
3575:
3574:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3555:
3551:
3546:
3542:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3528:
3521:
3519:
3517:
3513:
3508:
3504:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3469:
3465:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3451:
3444:
3442:
3440:
3436:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3405:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3393:
3383:
3380:
3377:
3374:
3371:
3368:
3367:
3360:
3357:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3343:
3339:
3338:Absorbed dose
3335:
3325:
3322:
3311:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3299:
3292:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3280:
3277:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3253:
3250:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3238:
3230:
3227:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3164:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3151:
3146:
3144:
3139:
3137:
3132:
3131:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3091:absorbed dose
3088:
3080:
3076:
3073:
3069:
3068:absorbed dose
3065:
3061:
3060:
3059:
3057:
3056:absorbed dose
3053:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3013:
3012:
3010:
3000:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2985:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2950:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2936:
2933:
2930:
2927:
2924:
2921:
2917:
2915:
2914:Stane Jagodič
2911:
2907:
2906:
2903:
2902:Peter Dazeley
2899:
2894:
2887:
2881:
2876:
2873:
2870:
2867:
2866:Industrial CT
2864:
2861:
2860:
2855:
2848:
2844:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2822:
2819:
2815:
2812:
2809:
2806:
2803:
2799:
2796:
2793:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2780:structure of
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2754:
2750:
2742:
2740:
2736:
2733:
2726:
2721:
2717:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2701:
2697:
2694:
2689:
2686:
2681:
2679:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2658:
2654:
2644:
2641:
2633:
2623:
2619:
2613:
2611:
2604:
2595:
2594:
2586:
2584:
2580:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2553:
2549:
2544:
2540:
2535:
2525:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2481:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2462:
2460:
2456:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2429:kidney stones
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2381:
2379:
2378:atomic number
2375:
2371:
2363:
2358:
2348:
2346:
2339:
2338:hiatal hernia
2335:
2330:
2322:
2312:
2309:
2301:
2298:November 2017
2290:
2287:
2283:
2280:
2276:
2273:
2269:
2266:
2262:
2259: –
2258:
2254:
2253:Find sources:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2236:
2231:This section
2229:
2225:
2220:
2219:
2211:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2196:spectrometers
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2147:
2137:
2135:
2131:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2108:
2103:
2099:
2098:atomic number
2092:
2085:
2079:
2075:
2074:cross section
2071:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2049:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2030:
2028:
2023:
2020:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1985:
1981:
1980:
1979:
1976:
1971:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1929:
1925:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1910:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1876:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1854:
1851:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1839:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1817:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1795:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1766:
1760:
1754:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1727:
1716:
1708:
1706:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1681:
1671:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1655:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1598:
1590:
1589:atomic number
1574:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1537:
1533:
1518:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1487:
1478:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1346:
1337:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1275:metonymically
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1259:tender X-rays
1256:
1252:
1248:
1235:
1231:
1226:
1220:Energy ranges
1217:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1162:
1158:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1143:neutron stars
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1123:visible light
1120:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1105:
1100:
1096:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1079:
1073:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1035:
1033:
1032:Moseley's law
1029:
1028:Henry Moseley
1025:
1020:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
989:
987:
984:
981:. He won the
980:
976:
971:
969:
966:to flow in a
965:
961:
957:
953:
950:invented the
949:
945:
940:
938:
932:
930:
926:
921:
919:
911:
907:
903:
898:
889:
887:
881:
879:
874:
870:
866:
865:Elihu Thomson
862:
857:
854:
850:
845:
841:
837:
827:
825:
821:
817:
816:X-ray machine
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
792:
790:
789:Mihajlo Pupin
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
769:Thomas Edison
766:
762:
758:
749:
745:
740:
736:
734:
729:
725:
721:
716:
714:
710:
706:
701:
694:
693:
688:
687:
682:
678:
677:
672:
667:
663:
661:
656:
654:
644:
637:
633:
629:
625:
620:
611:
608:
607:
601:
596:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
571:
567:
562:
557:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
438:Crookes tubes
435:
431:
424:
420:
411:
409:
405:
401:
396:
394:
393:
388:
384:
383:
378:
373:
369:
364:
362:
357:
355:
354:Crookes tubes
350:
346:
341:
339:
334:
330:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
299:
297:
293:
289:
285:
282:
278:
274:
270:
269:Crookes tubes
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
242:
238:
235:Example of a
233:
219:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
184:
182:
178:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
121:
119:
116:and named it
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
88:
67:
62:
58:
53:
49:
42:
38:
34:
19:
11786:Radiobiology
11668:Radiobiology
11628:Laser safety
11497:
11306:
11294:
11275:
11255:Pyroelectric
11209:Laser-driven
10989:Sodium (SFR)
10916:fast-neutron
10755:
10301:
10191:Reprocessing
10072:WMD treaties
9891:Radiosurgery
9861:Fast-neutron
9833:Scintigraphy
9328:Spectroscopy
9272:Ptychography
9206:Applications
9167:Auger effect
9070:Water window
9049:
9035:
8624:
8574:
8538:
8484:
8465:(in French).
8462:
8449:
8437:
8407:
8403:
8371:
8365:
8354:
8342:. Retrieved
8337:
8327:
8307:
8300:
8291:
8285:
8260:
8256:
8232:
8228:
8221:
8201:
8194:
8182:. Retrieved
8178:
8168:
8156:. Retrieved
8146:
8109:
8105:
8095:
8077:
8065:. Retrieved
8061:the original
8051:
8037:X-Ray Safety
8032:
8013:
8005:
8000:
7988:. Retrieved
7984:
7975:
7963:. Retrieved
7959:the original
7949:
7928:
7921:
7896:
7892:
7886:
7851:
7847:
7820:. Retrieved
7816:the original
7807:
7798:
7773:
7769:
7763:
7730:
7726:
7720:
7701:
7684:
7680:
7674:
7662:. Retrieved
7652:
7640:. Retrieved
7635:
7590:
7586:
7580:
7545:
7541:
7531:
7520:the original
7483:
7479:
7466:
7436:(1): 15–22.
7433:
7429:
7423:
7390:
7386:
7346:
7342:
7336:
7306:(1): 63–68.
7303:
7299:
7293:
7268:
7264:
7258:
7246:. Retrieved
7242:the original
7237:
7228:
7187:
7183:
7177:
7136:
7132:
7125:
7103:(2): 44–54.
7100:
7096:
7072:, retrieved
7060:
7028:
7019:
7010:
7006:
6996:
6971:
6967:
6957:
6945:. Retrieved
6942:ScienceDaily
6941:
6921:
6899:
6895:
6857:
6853:
6841:
6798:
6794:
6784:
6741:
6737:
6727:
6700:
6696:
6686:
6643:
6639:
6629:
6604:
6600:
6594:
6561:
6557:
6543:
6516:
6512:
6498:
6455:
6441:
6419:(2): 47–97.
6416:
6412:
6406:
6394:. Retrieved
6366:
6362:
6349:
6330:
6320:
6300:
6293:
6273:
6266:
6254:. Retrieved
6247:the original
6234:
6222:. Retrieved
6212:
6200:. Retrieved
6196:the original
6181:
6171:
6159:. Retrieved
6155:the original
6134:
6130:
6120:
6101:
6095:
6076:
6070:
6058:. Retrieved
6054:
6044:
6035:
6029:
6010:
6004:
5984:
5977:
5958:
5952:
5932:
5910:. Retrieved
5900:
5888:. Retrieved
5884:the original
5868:
5861:
5828:
5824:
5818:
5785:
5781:
5775:
5742:
5738:
5732:
5705:
5701:
5656:(7): 23–26.
5653:
5649:
5639:
5627:. Retrieved
5622:
5613:
5601:. Retrieved
5596:
5587:
5575:. Retrieved
5570:
5561:
5549:. Retrieved
5544:
5535:
5523:. Retrieved
5518:
5509:
5497:. Retrieved
5492:
5483:
5471:. Retrieved
5466:
5457:
5445:. Retrieved
5441:
5431:
5419:. Retrieved
5414:
5405:
5393:. Retrieved
5388:
5379:
5367:. Retrieved
5362:
5353:
5341:. Retrieved
5336:
5327:
5315:. Retrieved
5310:
5301:
5289:. Retrieved
5284:
5275:
5263:. Retrieved
5258:
5249:
5230:
5218:. Retrieved
5204:
5194:
5180:
5158:. Retrieved
5153:
5144:
5132:. Retrieved
5128:the original
5118:
5110:
5105:
5097:
5092:
5082:
5070:. Retrieved
5066:
5019:
5015:
5005:
4985:
4978:
4954:
4947:
4928:
4922:
4889:
4885:
4882:"THE X-RAYS"
4875:
4863:. Retrieved
4859:
4850:
4835:
4830:
4803:
4799:
4751:
4747:
4738:
4726:. Retrieved
4716:
4700:
4695:
4683:. Retrieved
4679:the original
4669:
4644:
4640:
4590:
4586:
4580:
4571:2318/1770480
4551:
4547:
4537:
4502:
4498:
4488:
4479:
4473:
4461:. Retrieved
4457:PBS NewsHour
4456:
4446:
4434:. Retrieved
4426:
4416:
4388:
4381:
4369:. Retrieved
4365:The Guardian
4364:
4354:
4334:
4327:
4315:. Retrieved
4311:the original
4306:
4296:
4284:. Retrieved
4273:
4230:
4226:
4216:
4194:(1): 19–24.
4191:
4187:
4177:
4169:
4125:
4121:
4111:
4083:
4077:
4067:
4043:
4038:
4019:
4013:
3986:
3982:
3960:
3954:
3944:
3924:
3899:
3895:
3885:
3877:
3873:
3863:
3856:
3839:
3835:
3825:
3806:
3802:
3792:
3773:
3763:
3754:
3748:
3732:
3727:
3714:
3705:
3685:X-ray vision
3670:X-ray marker
3637:Radiographer
3553:
3549:
3544:
3540:
3515:
3511:
3506:
3502:
3486:
3467:
3463:
3438:
3434:
3418:
3341:
3331:10 C/kg
3290:C⋅kg of air
3272:
3186:
3084:
3049:
3044:10 C/kg
3006:
2986:
2970:
2920:hair removal
2828:underdrawing
2748:
2737:
2734:
2730:
2705:
2702:
2698:
2690:
2682:
2662:
2636:
2627:
2607:
2576:
2573:Radiotherapy
2555:video camera
2537:
2512:
2463:
2458:
2455:X-ray filter
2451:
2441:
2382:
2368:
2342:
2304:
2295:
2285:
2278:
2271:
2264:
2252:
2240:Please help
2235:verification
2232:
2214:Medical uses
2168:image plates
2149:
2120:
2114:
2101:
2100:of the ion,
2090:
2083:
2077:
2067:
2050:
2031:
2024:
2018:
2016:
2010:
2000:
1982:
1972:
1933:
1921:
1742:Wavelength
1714:
1702:
1677:
1656:
1524:
1504:
1456:
1448:transmission
1405:
1351:
1330:radiotherapy
1296:
1279:radiographic
1270:
1269:). The term
1258:
1254:
1250:
1244:
1214:X-ray optics
1194:
1167:
1115:23 July 1999
1108:
1101:
1097:
1082:
1074:
1072:on his arm.
1055:
1036:
1021:
997:Max von Laue
990:
972:
941:
933:
922:
918:cold cathode
915:
882:
873:Nikola Tesla
860:
858:
833:
824:septic shock
793:
753:
743:
717:
712:
697:
690:
684:
680:
674:
670:
657:
649:
624:Crookes tube
604:
597:
593:
579:
558:
454:Röntgen rays
453:
449:
427:
404:Nikola Tesla
397:
390:
386:
380:
365:
358:
342:
335:
331:
323:Humphry Davy
300:
261:cathode rays
246:
239:, a type of
237:Crookes tube
196:broken bones
185:
179:to 100
122:
117:
105:
97:
93:
92:
57:
11845:Radiography
11410:Ultraviolet
11405:Radio waves
11166:Stellarator
11130:confinement
11024:Superphénix
10851:Molten-salt
10803:VHTR (HTGR)
10580:HW BLWR 250
10546:R4 Marviken
10475:Pressurized
10445:Heavy water
10429:many others
10358:Pressurized
10313:Light water
10015:underground
9973:Disarmament
9881:Tomotherapy
9876:Proton-beam
9740:Power plant
9702:Temperature
9535:Engineering
9121:Synchrotron
8989:Medium wave
8666:Lyman-alpha
8648:Ultraviolet
8587:wavelengths
8580:frequencies
8544:Ultraviolet
8129:2066/190628
6256:19 February
6224:19 February
5473:27 November
5447:23 February
5421:26 November
5395:26 November
5369:26 November
5343:26 November
5317:26 November
5291:26 November
5265:26 November
4860:NLM.NIH.gov
4728:24 November
4396:. pp.
4286:24 November
3842:: 219–221.
3235:10 Bq
3177:equivalent
3168:Derivation
2766:diffraction
2539:Fluoroscopy
2534:Fluoroscopy
2528:Fluoroscopy
2478:radiologist
2470:angiography
2397:chest X-ray
2393:soft tissue
2152:radiography
2042:collimation
1948:hot cathode
1940:vacuum tube
1420:radiography
1323:radioactive
1319:X-ray tubes
1255:soft X-rays
1251:hard X-rays
1206:synchrotron
1170:X-ray laser
1131:black holes
1093:World War I
1089:Marie Curie
1001:diffraction
960:hot cathode
956:vacuum tube
902:fluoroscope
777:fluoroscope
748:radiography
728:fluorescent
628:fluoroscope
566:fluorescent
188:radiography
155:to 30
149:frequencies
143:to 10
129:ultraviolet
125:wavelengths
118:X-radiation
98:X-radiation
33:Radiography
11804:Categories
11591:and health
11589:Radiation
11458:Cosmic ray
11191:(acoustic)
10808:PBR (PBMR)
10196:Spent fuel
10186:Repository
10166:Fuel cycle
10133:Activation
9910:Processing
9777:Propulsion
9735:by country
9667:Activation
9380:Scattering
9245:Helical CT
9111:X-ray tube
8970:Wavelength
8826:Microwaves
8638:Hard X-ray
8633:Soft X-ray
8602:Gamma rays
8534:Gamma rays
8344:11 October
8067:7 November
7990:24 January
7822:16 January
7664:8 November
7642:24 January
7248:8 November
7061:StatPearls
6947:24 January
6396:2 February
6202:4 November
6161:8 November
5912:8 November
5890:4 November
5629:5 November
5603:5 November
5577:5 November
5551:5 November
5525:5 November
5499:5 November
5160:27 October
5113:. Page 10.
5072:24 January
4865:24 January
4844:3631581203
4520:2134/19408
4436:3 December
4371:5 February
4060:Tesla coil
3697:References
3659:The X-Rays
3389:10 Gy
3248:10 s
3241:rutherford
2989:ionization
2967:Visibility
2898:needlefish
2840:lead white
2832:pentimenti
2745:Other uses
2669:carcinogen
2583:palliation
2425:radiopaque
2421:gallstones
2407:, and the
2268:newspapers
2184:dosimeters
2158:and later
1964:molybdenum
1936:X-ray tube
1711:Production
1459:microscope
1340:Properties
1299:gamma rays
1293:Gamma rays
1210:microfocus
1149:that then
1066:Birmingham
632:radiograph
522:Lithuanian
494:Portuguese
277:ionization
173:10 Hz
165:10 Hz
145:picometers
141:nanometers
137:wavelength
133:gamma rays
11745:Half-life
11618:Dosimetry
11453:Gamma ray
11400:Microwave
11390:Starlight
11351:Radiation
11161:Spheromak
10860:Fluorides
10524:IPHWR-700
10519:IPHWR-540
10514:IPHWR-220
10303:Moderator
9983:Explosion
9958:Arms race
9745:Economics
9697:Reflector
9692:Radiation
9687:Generator
9642:Plutonium
9595:Deuterium
9560:Radiation
9530:Chemistry
8984:Shortwave
8979:Microwave
8559:Microwave
8332:Frame P.
7117:1084-208X
7025:Herman GT
7013:(Supp 4).
6988:0033-8419
6968:Radiology
6465:1202.4879
6327:"Preface"
5680:121322301
4964:cite book
4529:142518799
4247:1351-0711
4200:0870-399X
4150:0036-8075
4046:, p. 68.
3916:0033-8419
3896:Radiology
3372:per gram
3263: Bq
3224:10 s
3193:becquerel
3159:Quantity
2978:rhodopsin
2792:astronomy
2622:talk page
2459:hardening
2401:pneumonia
2385:pathology
2140:Detectors
2130:streamers
1944:electrons
1412:scattered
1390:malignant
1303:electrons
1182:death ray
794:In 1901,
785:amputated
561:lab notes
550:Norwegian
546:Icelandic
506:Slovenian
482:Bulgarian
466:Ukrainian
462:Hungarian
288:kilovolts
253:radiation
153:petahertz
66:photogram
37:Radiology
11395:Sunlight
11380:Infrared
11296:Category
11250:Polywell
11181:Inertial
11138:Magnetic
10893:TMSR-LF1
10888:TMSR-500
10868:Fuji MSR
10828:THTR-300
10668:Graphite
10531:PHWR KWU
10497:ACR-1000
10425:IPWR-900
10408:ACPR1000
10403:HPR-1000
10393:CPR-1000
10368:APR-1400
10159:Disposal
10111:Actinide
10104:Products
9963:Delivery
9806:Medicine
9635:depleted
9630:enriched
9600:Helium-3
9565:ionizing
9116:Betatron
8994:Longwave
8754:Infrared
8554:Infrared
8277:21314202
8249:21314201
8179:Engadget
8138:29408150
8085:Archived
8040:Archived
8021:Archived
7913:15671393
7878:19047611
7812:Medscape
7790:13358242
7755:18777910
7710:Archived
7607:15070562
7572:31217755
7508:12610596
7458:13301920
7450:12852466
7407:18046031
7363:17963274
7328:17264651
7320:20429161
7285:18440940
7212:16790912
7169:18082594
7161:24584183
7074:20 April
7069:34662062
7027:(2009).
6918:20933639
6874:17629432
6833:31030653
6776:30034044
6678:28503005
6586:43609721
6507:(2015).
6503:Köhn C,
6490:10679475
6450:(2014).
6446:Köhn C,
6055:CCOHS.ca
5853:23523144
5239:Archived
5220:25 March
5134:23 April
5046:21239576
4914:17779817
4615:35604474
4463:23 March
4423:"X-Rays"
4166:44719943
4158:14171545
4005:18635636
3711:"X-Rays"
3570:See also
3525:SI unit
3448:SI unit
3364:SI unit
3296:SI unit
3283:kilogram
3269:Exposure
3206:SI unit
3183:Activity
3032:roentgen
3023:unit of
3009:ionizing
2995:at the
2847:van Gogh
2838:such as
2836:pigments
2616:You may
2447:cavities
2182:, while
2089:, where
1986:emission
1956:tungsten
1731:material
1693:momentum
1567:, where
1475:crystals
1452:contrast
1408:absorbed
1388:to kill
1234:UV light
1119:universe
820:gangrene
538:Georgian
530:Japanese
526:Albanian
498:Estonian
442:Würzburg
265:electron
157:exahertz
11606:chronic
11308:Commons
11219:Z-pinch
11189:Bubble
11171:Tokamak
11034:FBR-600
11014:CFR-600
11009:BN-1200
10675:coolant
10602:Organic
10487:CANDU 9
10484:CANDU 6
10452:coolant
10413:ACP1000
10388:CAP1400
10326:Boiling
10291:Fission
10138:Fission
10082:Weapons
10022:Warfare
10005:Testing
9995:History
9988:effects
9943:Weapons
9853:Therapy
9828:RadBall
9815:Imaging
9707:Thermal
9672:Capture
9659:Neutron
9647:Thorium
9625:Uranium
9590:Tritium
9570:braking
9550:Fission
9540:Physics
9523:Science
9459:History
9213:Imaging
8585:longer
8578:higher
8549:Visible
8412:Bibcode
8184:28 July
8158:28 July
7869:2585137
7735:Bibcode
7615:8516754
7563:6560808
7516:4419048
7488:Bibcode
7415:2760372
7220:7672187
7192:Bibcode
7141:Bibcode
6824:6501887
6803:Bibcode
6767:6049893
6746:Bibcode
6705:Bibcode
6669:5405581
6648:Bibcode
6609:Bibcode
6566:Bibcode
6550:Ebert U
6521:Bibcode
6505:Ebert U
6470:Bibcode
6448:Ebert U
6421:Bibcode
6391:4372536
6371:Bibcode
6139:Bibcode
5845:8597962
5810:4287341
5790:Bibcode
5767:4273199
5747:Bibcode
5710:Bibcode
5658:Bibcode
5389:The Sun
5037:3520298
4894:Bibcode
4886:Science
4822:7998549
4778:4054184
4756:Bibcode
4661:2685937
4607:9368224
4265:8044245
4256:1128015
4208:8475784
4130:Bibcode
4122:Science
4088:Bibcode
3963:: 5–15.
3500:J⋅kg ×
3493:sievert
3432:J⋅kg ×
3425:sievert
3320:of air
3318: g
3302:röntgen
3279:coulomb
3165:Symbol
3110:sievert
3017:coulomb
2993:wiggler
2500:CT scan
2490:CT scan
2437:implant
2417:ascites
2387:of the
2374:calcium
2282:scholar
2257:"X-ray"
2192:spectra
2164:digital
1960:rhenium
1914:rhodium
1902:0.0455
1858:0.0497
1814:0.0632
1792:0.0184
1626:calcium
1587:is the
1438:). The
1354:photons
1311:photons
1151:explode
812:abdomen
808:sternum
689:), and
606:Science
518:Latvian
514:Russian
510:Turkish
490:Finnish
486:Swedish
379:to the
313:to the
292:cathode
284:voltage
222:History
11810:X-rays
11788:, and
11119:Fusion
11079:Others
11019:Phénix
11004:BN-800
10999:BN-600
10994:BN-350
10823:HTR-PM
10818:HTR-10
10798:UHTREX
10763:Magnox
10758:(UNGG)
10651:Lucens
10646:KS 150
10383:ATMEA1
10363:AP1000
10346:Kerena
10226:Debate
9978:Ethics
9968:Design
9951:Topics
9782:rocket
9760:Fusion
9755:Policy
9717:Fusion
9677:Poison
9555:Fusion
9447:Others
9408:GISAXS
9080:L-edge
9075:K-edge
8887:L band
8882:S band
8877:C band
8872:X band
8858:K band
8844:Q band
8839:V band
8834:W band
8739:Orange
8734:Yellow
8714:Violet
8625:X-rays
8539:X-rays
8404:Nature
8378:
8315:
8275:
8247:
8209:
8136:
8018:X-Rays
7965:16 May
7936:
7911:
7876:
7866:
7788:
7770:Lancet
7753:
7613:
7605:
7587:Lancet
7570:
7560:
7514:
7506:
7480:Nature
7456:
7448:
7413:
7405:
7361:
7326:
7318:
7283:
7218:
7210:
7167:
7159:
7115:
7067:
7035:
6986:
6916:
6872:
6831:
6821:
6774:
6764:
6676:
6666:
6584:
6488:
6389:
6363:Nature
6337:
6308:
6281:
6188:
6108:
6083:
6017:
5992:
5965:
5940:
5876:
5851:
5843:
5808:
5782:Nature
5765:
5739:Nature
5678:
5188:, 107.
5044:
5034:
4993:
4935:
4912:
4842:
4820:
4776:
4748:Nature
4707:
4685:17 May
4659:
4613:
4605:
4527:
4404:
4342:
4263:
4253:
4245:
4206:
4198:
4164:
4156:
4148:
4079:Nature
4026:
4003:
3914:
3739:
3655:(SAXS)
3649:(RIXS)
3632:NuSTAR
3378:erg⋅g
3375:erg/g
3052:charge
2960:H-bomb
2956:A-bomb
2918:X-ray
2433:muscle
2284:
2277:
2270:
2263:
2255:
2198:. For
2174:. For
2044:, and
1975:photon
1968:cobalt
1899:0.0512
1880:0.121
1855:0.0559
1836:0.139
1811:0.0709
1789:0.0209
1736:number
1734:Atomic
1513:, and
1395:using
1370:tissue
1358:ionize
1352:X-ray
1326:nuclei
1201:Talbot
1147:plasma
1141:, and
1137:, and
1011:, and
968:vacuum
871:, and
548:, and
542:Hebrew
502:Slovak
474:Polish
470:Danish
458:German
198:) and
123:X-ray
94:X-rays
52:X-band
48:X-wave
18:X rays
11601:acute
11498:X-ray
11385:Light
11240:Migma
11228:Other
11197:Fusor
11096:Piqua
11091:Arbus
11049:PRISM
10791:MHR-T
10786:GTMHR
10716:EGP-6
10711:AMB-X
10686:Water
10631:HWGCR
10570:HWLWR
10509:IPHWR
10480:CANDU
10341:ESBWR
10096:Waste
10060:Tests
10043:Lists
10027:Yield
9770:MMRTG
9727:Power
9438:EDXRD
9360:XANES
9355:EXAFS
9345:ARPES
9292:3DXRD
9050:X-ray
8972:types
8897:Radio
8793:Bands
8766:Bands
8729:Green
8564:Radio
7611:S2CID
7523:(PDF)
7512:S2CID
7476:(PDF)
7454:S2CID
7411:S2CID
7324:S2CID
7216:S2CID
7165:S2CID
6582:S2CID
6486:S2CID
6460:arXiv
6387:S2CID
6359:(PDF)
6250:(PDF)
6243:(PDF)
6060:9 May
5849:S2CID
5806:S2CID
5763:S2CID
5676:S2CID
4774:S2CID
4611:S2CID
4525:S2CID
4459:. PBS
4398:19–22
4317:5 May
4162:S2CID
3622:N ray
3560:1971
3522:1977
3474:1971
3445:1977
3406:1953
3381:1950
3361:1974
3323:1928
3314:0.001
3293:1974
3287:C/kg
3251:1946
3228:1953
3212:curie
3203:1974
3171:Year
3162:Unit
3072:joule
2818:welds
2706:total
2498:Head
2427:) or
2289:JSTOR
2275:books
1952:anode
1877:0.134
1874:10.26
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