Ionizing radiation

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recommendations are conservative limits and may represent an over representation of the actual health risk. Generally radiation safety organization recommend the most conservative limits assuming it is best to err on the side of caution. This level of caution is appropriate but should not be used to create fear about background radiation danger. Radiation danger from background radiation may be a serious threat but is more likely a small overall risk compared to all other factors in the environment.

754:. Modern technologies and discoveries have shown an overlap between X-ray and gamma energies. In many fields they are functionally identical, differing for terrestrial studies only in origin of the radiation. In astronomy, however, where radiation origin often cannot be reliably determined, the old energy division has been preserved, with X-rays defined as being between about 120 eV and 120 keV, and gamma rays as being of any energy above 100 to 120 keV, regardless of source. Most astronomical " 1318: 1059: 2428: 2436: 6741: 2831: 840: 2873: 868: 6729: 2887: 699: 688: 2795:, CARI, SIEVERT, PCAIRE are attempts to simulate exposure by aircrews and passengers. An example of a measured dose (not simulated dose) is 6 μSv per hour from London Heathrow to Tokyo Narita on a high-latitude polar route. However, dosages can vary, such as during periods of high solar activity. The United States FAA requires airlines to provide flight crew with information about cosmic radiation, and an 6753: 931:, energy that a particle transfers to the material it is moving through. This mechanism scatters the nuclei of the materials in the target area, causing direct ionization of the hydrogen atoms. When neutrons strike the hydrogen nuclei, proton radiation (fast protons) results. These protons are themselves ionizing because they are of high energy, are charged, and interact with the electrons in matter. 569:) as they pass through matter. Both of these can cause an indirect ionization effect. Bremsstrahlung is of concern when shielding beta emitters, as the interaction of beta particles with some shielding materials produces Bremsstrahlung. The effect is greater with material having high atomic numbers, so material with low atomic numbers is used for beta source shielding. 2325:

UNSCEAR 2000 Report (see links at bottom), airline flight crew workers receive more dose on average than any other worker, including those in nuclear power plants. Airline crews receive more cosmic rays if they routinely work flight routes that take them close to the North or South pole at high altitudes, where this type of radiation is maximal.

661:, sending both away with the energy of the first ball divided between the two unequally. When a charged nucleus strikes a relatively slow-moving nucleus of an object in space, LET occurs and neutrons, alpha particles, low-energy protons, and other nuclei will be released by the collisions and contribute to the total absorbed dose of tissue. 2504:, the thickness of material that reduces the radiation by half. This value is a function of the material itself and of the type and energy of ionizing radiation. Some generally accepted thicknesses of attenuating material are 5 mm of aluminum for most beta particles, and 3 inches of lead for gamma radiation. 2823:

Category 1, 2 and 3 sources defined as dangerous sources capable of death or serious injury, including food irradiators, teletherapy machines for cancer treatment and industrial radiography units. The symbol is to be placed on the device housing the source, as a warning not to dismantle the device or

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Charged nuclei are characteristic of galactic cosmic rays and solar particle events and except for alpha particles (charged helium nuclei) have no natural sources on earth. In space, however, very high energy protons, helium nuclei, and HZE ions can be initially stopped by relatively thin layers of

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for astronauts traveling to the Moon and to any distant location beyond the Earth orbit. Highly charged HZE ions in particular are known to be extremely damaging, although protons make up the vast majority of galactic cosmic rays. Evidence indicates past SPE radiation levels that would have been

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The background rate for natural radiation varies considerably with location, being as low as 1.5 mSv/a (1.5 mSv per year) in some areas and over 100 mSv/a in others. The highest level of purely natural radiation recorded on the Earth's surface is 90 μGy/h (0.8 Gy/a) on a

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was 640 mSv/a (64.0 rem/yr). This unique case is over 200 times higher than the world average background radiation. Despite the high levels of background radiation that the residents of Ramsar receive there is no compelling evidence that they experience a greater health risk. The ICRP

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range) also damage in DNA (for example, pyrimidine dimers). Thus, the mid and lower ultraviolet electromagnetic spectrum is damaging to biological tissues as a result of electronic excitation in molecules which falls short of ionization, but produces similar non-thermal effects. To some extent,

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from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons, with a dose rate that varies in different parts of the world and based largely on the geomagnetic field, altitude, and solar cycle. The cosmic-radiation dose rate on airplanes is so high that, according to the United Nations

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of polymers by ozone formed by ionization of air). Ionizing radiation can also accelerate existing chemical reactions such as polymerization and corrosion, by contributing to the activation energy required for the reaction. Optical materials deteriorate under the effect of ionizing radiation.

836:, 33 eV is close to the energy at the conventional 10 nm wavelength transition between extreme ultraviolet and X-ray radiation, which occurs at about 125 eV. Thus, X-ray radiation is always ionizing, but only extreme-ultraviolet radiation can be considered ionizing under all definitions. 454:

are three times as energetic, and penetrate proportionately farther in air. The helium nuclei that form 10–12% of cosmic rays, are also usually of much higher energy than those produced by radioactive decay and pose shielding problems in space. However, this type of radiation is significantly

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Herrera Ortiz AF, Fernández Beaujon LJ, García Villamizar SY, Fonseca López FF. Magnetic resonance versus computed tomography for the detection of retroperitoneal lymph node metastasis due to testicular cancer: A systematic literature review. European Journal of Radiology Open.2021;8:100372.

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to the disposal of the spent fuel. The effects of such exposure have not been reliably measured due to the extremely low doses involved. Opponents use a cancer per dose model to assert that such activities cause several hundred cases of cancer per year, an application of the widely accepted

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Ionizing radiation is generated through nuclear reactions, nuclear decay, by very high temperature, or via acceleration of charged particles in electromagnetic fields. Natural sources include the sun, lightning and supernova explosions. Artificial sources include nuclear reactors, particle

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shielding, clothes, or skin. However, the resulting interaction will generate secondary radiation and cause cascading biological effects. If just one atom of tissue is displaced by an energetic proton, for example, the collision will cause further interactions in the body. This is called "

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microelectronics employed in electronic equipment, with subsequent currents introducing operation errors or even permanently damaging the devices. Devices intended for high radiation environments such as the nuclear industry and extra-atmospheric (space) applications may be made

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in skin, which cause indirect damage since these are electronically excited molecules which can inflict reactive damage, although they do not cause sunburn (erythema). Like ionization-damage, all these effects in skin are beyond those produced by simple thermal effects.

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Hazardous levels of ionizing radiation are signified by the trefoil sign on a yellow background. These are usually posted at the boundary of a radiation controlled area or in any place where radiation levels are significantly above background due to human intervention.

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at energies beyond 5 MeV. The accompanying interaction diagram shows two Compton scatterings happening sequentially. In every scattering event, the gamma ray transfers energy to an electron, and it continues on its path in a different direction and with reduced energy.

406:. In the atmosphere such particles are often stopped by air molecules, and this produces short-lived charged pions, which soon decay to muons, a primary type of cosmic ray radiation that reaches the surface of the earth. Pions can also be produced in large amounts in 1039:

In the adjacent diagram, a neutron collides with a proton of the target material, and then becomes a fast recoil proton that ionizes in turn. At the end of its path, the neutron is captured by a nucleus in an (n,γ)-reaction that leads to the emission of a

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X-rays normally have a lower energy than gamma rays, and an older convention was to define the boundary as a wavelength of 10 m (or a photon energy of 100 keV). That threshold was driven by historic limitations of older X-ray tubes and low awareness of

719:. Either of those interactions will cause the ejection of an electron from an atom at relativistic speeds, turning that electron into a beta particle (secondary beta particle) that will ionize other atoms. Since most of the ionized atoms are due to the 380:, c) these particles have enough kinetic energy to be ionizing, but there is considerable speed variation. For example, a typical alpha particle moves at about 5% of c, but an electron with 33 eV (just enough to ionize) moves at about 1% of c. 2512:

is a major tool in reducing dose uptake and is effectively a combination of shielding and isolation from the open environment. Radioactive materials are confined in the smallest possible space and kept out of the environment such as in a

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The total absorption coefficient of lead (atomic number 82) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and contributions by the three effects. The photoelectric effect dominates at low energy, but above 5 MeV, pair production starts to

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operate within closed systems with multiple barriers that keep the radioactive materials contained. Work rooms, hot cells and gloveboxes have slightly reduced air pressures to prevent escape of airborne material to the open environment.

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The International Commission on Radiological Protection recommends limiting artificial irradiation to the public to an average of 1 mSv (0.001 Sv) of effective dose per year, not including medical and occupational exposures.

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Occupationally exposed individuals are controlled within the regulatory framework of the country they work in, and in accordance with any local nuclear licence constraints. These are usually based on the recommendations of the

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The global average exposure of humans to ionizing radiation is about 3 mSv (0.3 rem) per year, 80% of which comes from nature. The remaining 20% results from exposure to human-made radiation sources, primarily from

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beta (β). There are two forms of beta decay, β and β, which respectively give rise to the electron and the positron. Beta particles are much less penetrating than gamma radiation, but more penetrating than alpha particles.

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Ionizing radiation has many industrial, military, and medical uses. Its usefulness must be balanced with its hazards, a compromise that has shifted over time. For example, at one time, assistants in shoe shops in the US

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All earthly materials that are the building blocks of life contain a radioactive component. As humans, plants, and animals consume food, air, and water, an inventory of radioisotopes builds up within the organism (see

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Outside the nucleus, free neutrons are unstable and have a mean lifetime of 14 minutes, 42 seconds. Free neutrons decay by emission of an electron and an electron antineutrino to become a proton, a process known as

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to get any closer. It will not be visible under normal use, only if someone attempts to disassemble the device. The symbol will not be located on building access doors, transportation packages or containers.

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The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outside our solar system. This cosmic radiation consists of relativistic particles: positively charged nuclei (ions) from 1

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indicating a Helium ion with a +2 charge (missing its two electrons). If the ion gains electrons from its environment, the alpha particle can be written as a normal (electrically neutral) helium atom

470:, when he ranked the known radioactive emissions in descending order of ionising effect in 1899. The symbol is α or α. Because they are identical to helium nuclei, they are also sometimes written as 2803:

flightcrew members, to comply with a European Directive. The FAA has a recommended limit of 1 mSv total for a pregnancy, and no more than 0.5 mSv per month. Information originally based on

1238:, although most people with CML have not been exposed to radiation. The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial. 2383:, emit a high-energy gamma ray that can be measured by sensitive electronic radiation measurement systems. These internal radiation sources contribute to an individual's total radiation dose from 1284:. This energy may be less than ionizing, but near to it. A good example is ultraviolet spectrum energy which begins at about 3.1 eV (400 nm) at close to the same energy level which can cause 216:, research, and industrial manufacturing, but presents a health hazard if proper measures against excessive exposure are not taken. Exposure to ionizing radiation causes cell damage to living 7222: 4194: 3783: 1895: 816:

references, the ionization of a typical water molecule at an energy of 33 eV is referenced as the appropriate biological threshold for ionizing radiation: this value represents the so-called

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Kim, Myung-Hee Y.; Wilson, John W.; Cucinotta, Francis A.; Simonsen, Lisa C.; Atwell, William; Badavi, Francis F.; Miller, Jack, NASA Johnson Space Center; Langley Research Center, May 1999.

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decay chain. Uranium is found in soil throughout the world in varying concentrations. Radon is the largest cause of lung cancer among non-smokers and the second-leading cause overall.

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Mortazavi, S.M.J.; P.A. Karamb (2005). "Apparent lack of radiation susceptibility among residents of the high background radiation area in Ramsar, Iran: can we relax our standards?".

2566:. The ICRP recommends limiting artificial irradiation. For occupational exposure, the limit is 50 mSv in a single year with a maximum of 100 mSv in a consecutive five-year period. 1151:, have no chemical bonds to break and no crystal lattice to disturb, so they are immune to the chemical effects of ionizing radiation. Simple diatomic compounds with very negative 3862:

Sohrabi, Mehdi; Babapouran, Mozhgan (2005). "New public dose assessment from internal and external exposures in low- and elevated-level natural radiation areas of Ramsar, Iran".

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Neutrons that strike other nuclei besides hydrogen will transfer less energy to the other particle if linear energy transfer does occur. But, for many nuclei struck by neutrons,

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Indirectly ionizing radiation is electrically neutral and does not interact strongly with matter, therefore the bulk of the ionization effects are due to secondary ionization.

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Radiation level in a range of situations, from normal activities up to the Chernobyl reactor accident. Each step up the scale indicates a tenfold increase in radiation level.

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to originate in nuclear radioactive processes but, rather, result from processes like those that produce astronomical X-rays, except driven by much more energetic electrons.

3392: 7202: 3090: 1094:. A large enough number of transmutations can change macroscopic properties and cause targets to become radioactive themselves, even after the original source is removed. 821: 2464:: For people exposed to radiation in addition to natural background radiation, limiting or minimizing the exposure time will reduce the dose from the source of radiation. 3076: 2340:, even if in small quantities. Most of the dose received from these sources is from gamma-ray emitters in building materials, or rocks and soil when outside. The major 1321:

Relationship between radioactivity and detected ionizing radiation. Key factors are; strength of the radioactive source, transmission effects and instrument sensitivity

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is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second. Other stochastic effects of ionizing radiation are

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Radiation interaction: gamma rays are represented by wavy lines, charged particles and neutrons by straight lines. The small circles show where ionization occurs.

2480:: Air or skin can be sufficient to substantially attenuate alpha radiation, while sheet metal or plastic is often sufficient to stop beta radiation. Barriers of 3921: 825: 5692: 3178: 4904: 7207: 5219: 2906: 2796: 2563: 2159: 237: 107:. The boundary between ionizing and non-ionizing radiation in the ultraviolet area cannot be sharply defined, as different molecules and atoms ionize at 3498: 5514: 3483: 1087: 2500:

shields that stop beta particles, and air will stop most alpha particles. The effectiveness of a material in shielding radiation is determined by its

2227:/yr) ten times more than the ICRP recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources. Record levels were found in a house where the 765:

Photoelectric absorption is the dominant mechanism in organic materials for photon energies below 100 keV, typical of classical X-ray tube originated

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The ionization of materials temporarily increases their conductivity, potentially permitting damaging current levels. This is a particular hazard in

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are used to visualise ionizing radiation. This image show the tracks of particles, which ionise saturated air and leave a trail of water vapour.

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is always susceptible to damage by ionizing radiation, the DNA molecule may also be damaged by radiation with enough energy to excite certain

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Alpha particles are a strongly ionizing form of radiation, but when emitted by radioactive decay they have low penetration power and can be

5521: 4952: 4127: 3442: 2215:, primarily due to naturally radioactive limestone used as a building material. Some 2000 of the most exposed residents receive an average 4895: 4639: 4145: 4099: 3323: 6834: 5287: 2573:

and other radiological protection instruments which will measure radioactive particulate concentrations, area gamma dose readings and

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cause ionization in a single step or interaction with matter. However, fast neutrons will interact with the protons in hydrogen via

310:) radiation consists of free neutrons that are blocked by light elements, like hydrogen, which slow and/or capture them. Not shown: 3622: 2199:

comes from five primary sources: cosmic radiation, solar radiation, external terrestrial sources, radiation in the human body, and

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measures can help reduce exposure of populations by reducing ingestion of isotopes and occupational exposure. One is the issue of

1116:. These free radicals may then react chemically with neighbouring materials even after the original radiation has stopped. (e.g., 6240: 6080: 6019: 3385: 6160: 3932: 2488:, or water are often used to give effective protection from more penetrating forms of ionizing radiation such as gamma rays and 1211:

deterministic effects (harmful tissue reactions) due in large part to killing or malfunction of cells following high doses from

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which are helium nuclei ejected from the nucleus of an atom during radioactive decay, and energetic electrons, which are called

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visible light and also ultraviolet A (UVA) which is closest to visible energies, have been proven to result in formation of

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in digital circuits. The electrical effects of ionizing radiation are exploited in gas-filled radiation detectors, e.g. the

6036: 4634: 4603: 4548: 2901: 1774: 3029: 977:, which decays to oxygen-16. The short-lived nitrogen-16 decay emits a powerful beta ray. This process can be written as: 7217: 6860: 6757: 5953: 5499: 5464: 4267: 2405:

gas, which seeps continuously from bedrock but can, because of its high density, accumulate in poorly ventilated houses.

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Cosmic rays also include high-energy gamma rays, which are far beyond the energies produced by solar or human sources.

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While not a favorable reaction, the O (n,p) N reaction is a major source of X-rays emitted from the cooling water of a

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recommendation for the general public is no more than 1 mSv per year. In addition, many airlines do not allow

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are by far the most significant source of human-made radiation exposure to the general public. Some of the major

2609: 813: 3391:(4th ed.). Washington, D.C.: OET (Office of Engineering and Technology) Federal Communications Commission. 614:). As positrons are positively charged particles they can directly ionize an atom through Coulomb interactions. 330: 7020: 6478: 6327: 5785: 3618: 3386:"Questions and Answers about Biological Effects and Potential Hazards of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields" 2771: 889: 1662: 7353: 7303: 7248: 7243: 6915: 6896: 6865: 6252: 6085: 5509: 5437: 4715: 3509: 3471: 2783:

Air travel exposes people on aircraft to increased radiation from space as compared to sea level, including

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manages the International System of Radiological Protection, which sets recommended limits for dose uptake.

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with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. For example, ionizing radiation is one cause of

376:, and energetic charged nuclei stripped of their electrons. When moving at relativistic speeds (near the 240:(ICRP) issues guidance on ionizing radiation protection, and the effects of dose uptake on human health. 4147:

The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (Annals of the ICRP)

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of somatic cells or heritable disease in their offspring owing to mutation of reproductive (germ) cells.

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Most adverse health effects of exposure to ionizing radiation may be grouped in two general categories:

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absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, which is a radiation shield equivalent to about 10 meters of water.

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from cosmic sources. These high-energy charged nuclei are blocked by Earth's magnetic field but pose a

2620: 2281:). This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation that rains down, including 1719: 3782: 938:

occurs. Whether elastic or inelastic scatter occurs is dependent on the speed of the neutron, whether

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Pattison JE, Bachmann DJ, Beddoe AH (1996). "Gamma Dosimetry at Surfaces of Cylindrical Containers".

3703:"Irradiation of skin with visible light induces reactive oxygen species and matrix-degrading enzymes" 2892: 2759: 2732: 2624: 2574: 2525:

for medical use, for example, are dispensed in closed handling facilities, usually gloveboxes, while

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have a neutral electrical charge often misunderstood as zero electrical charge and thus often do not

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Contribution of High Charge and Energy (HZE) Ions During Solar-Particle Event of September 29, 1989

2228: 1867: 1824: 1246: 1231: 1219: 796:. However, US Federal Communications Commission material defines ionizing radiation as that with a 658: 450:

by a few centimeters of air, or by the top layer of human skin. More powerful alpha particles from

233: 202: 62: 4161: 7065: 6568: 6535: 6510: 6124: 5901: 5707: 5630: 5587: 5570: 5531: 5454: 4466: 4260: 2396: 2273:.) The energy of this radiation can far exceed that which humans can create, even in the largest 1302: 878: 349: 6493: 4123: 2819:

The red ionizing radiation warning symbol (ISO 21482) was launched in 2007, and is intended for

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nucleus, for example, undergoes neutron activation, rapidly decays by a proton emission forming

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These can all be applied to natural and human-made sources. For human-made sources the use of

1245:(LNT), holds that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly with 965:

of the nucleus. Neutron interactions with most types of matter in this manner usually produce

7343: 7299: 7108: 6694: 6430: 6385: 5847: 5775: 5702: 5697: 5662: 5449: 5417: 5204: 5131: 4711: 4446: 4202: 4198: 3307: 1927: 1862:. The sterilizing effects of ionizing radiation are useful for cleaning medical instruments, 1186: 1152: 1079: 1075: 947: 179: 166:), which in turn decay and emit ionizing radiation. Cosmic rays and the decay of radioactive 3508:. MacMaster University, Department of Medical Physics and Radiation Sciences. Archived from 3450: 3282: 2859:

Category 1, 2 and 3 sources defined as dangerous sources capable of death or serious injury.

1827:, but this practice was halted when the risks of ionizing radiation were better understood. 7328: 7120: 7113: 6952: 6938: 6891: 6605: 6380: 6365: 5682: 5640: 5476: 5382: 5310: 4883: 4733: 4568: 4456: 4413: 4363: 3958: 2958: 2943: 2767: 2452: 2274: 2196: 2171: 1589: 1490: 1444: 1383: 1254: 1129: 1074:

Neutron radiation, alpha radiation, and extremely energetic gamma (> ~20 MeV) can cause

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This high-energy β further interacts rapidly with other nuclei, emitting high-energy γ via

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are used to detect and measure it. However, very high energy particles can produce visible

171: 35: 3795: 2360:. Each of these sources has been decreasing in activity since the formation of the Earth. 1222:

and heritable effects involving either cancer development in exposed individuals owing to

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are made up primarily of relativistic protons but also include heavier atomic nuclei like

8: 7135: 7045: 6800: 6704: 6515: 6300: 5894: 5762: 5740: 5565: 5422: 5189: 5151: 4984: 4811: 4685: 4563: 4476: 4215:"XrayRisk.com : Radiation Risk Calculator. Calculate Radiation Dose and Cancer Risk" 2605: 2522: 2321: 1851: 1847: 1173: 1103: 1091: 943: 939: 751: 198: 189:

Ionizing radiation is not immediately detectable by human senses, so instruments such as

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part of the electromagnetic spectrum are ionizing radiation, whereas the lower energy

7333: 7025: 5752: 5545: 5432: 5407: 5345: 5302: 5146: 5141: 5136: 4979: 4878: 4873: 4573: 4451: 4388: 4353: 4151: 4089: 4009: 4005: 3970: 3929: 3844: 3834: 3765: 3724: 3593: 3583: 3349: 3313: 3286: 3275: 3145: 3091:"Ionizing Radiation - Health Effects | Occupational Safety and Health Administration" 3066: 3035: 2953: 2933: 2652: 2619:

Some human-made radiation sources affect the body through direct radiation, known as

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if produced outside the nucleus. The generic term "photon" is used to describe both.

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to resist such effects through design, material selection, and fabrication methods.

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The radiation exposure of these individuals is carefully monitored with the use of

2538: 2501: 2256: 2189: 2184:. Average human-made exposure is much higher in developed countries, mostly due to 1976: 1920: 1863: 1281: 1125: 1053: 1025: 954: 828:, which combines ionization energy plus the energy lost to other processes such as 731: 622: 217: 3647: 2979:

Treatment of infections after accidental or hostile exposure to ionizing radiation

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the remains of long-dead organisms (such as wood that is thousands of years old).

1838:. The penetrating power of x-ray, gamma, beta, and positron radiation is used for 7060: 7035: 6886: 6498: 6458: 5912: 5726: 5650: 5625: 5471: 5264: 5166: 5156: 5121: 4999: 4989: 4853: 4690: 4675: 4491: 4403: 4393: 4245: 4229: 3936: 3925: 3182: 2917: 2747: 2743: 2546: 2526: 2181: 2048: 1859: 1839: 1831: 1669: 1635: 1572: 1044:

photon. Such photons always have enough energy to qualify as ionizing radiation.

1041: 1003: 958: 774: 626: 451: 384: 221: 183: 135: 5990: 4186:

regulates most commercial radiation sources and non-medical exposures in the US:

633:. Positrons are common artificial sources of ionizing radiation used in medical 170:

are the primary sources of natural ionizing radiation on Earth, contributing to

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Pattison, J.E. (1999). "Finger Doses Received during Samarium-153 Injections".

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Lecture notes for MED PHYS 4R06/6R03 – Radiation & Radioisotope Methodology

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or somewhere in between. It is also dependent on the nuclei it strikes and its

770: 720: 716: 558: 550: 538: 521: 463: 436: 419: 377: 225: 190: 119: 58: 6473: 4027: 3875: 1317: 1062:

Ionized air glows blue around a beam of particulate ionizing radiation from a

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LET can be visualized as a billiard ball hitting another in the manner of the

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Of lesser magnitude, members of the public are exposed to radiation from the

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in rooms constructed of thick concrete or lined with lead. There are special

2427: 2040: 2019: 1642: 1266: 1258: 1168: 1113: 829: 797: 769:. At energies beyond 100 keV, photons ionize matter increasingly through the 388: 357: 353: 334: 213: 123: 4222: 3897: 1314:

The table below shows radiation and dose quantities in SI and non-SI units.

812:

of oxygen, and the ionization energy of hydrogen, both about 14 eV. In some

7130: 7050: 6987: 6204: 5340: 5282: 5209: 5161: 5031: 4919: 4834: 4790: 4593: 4553: 4418: 4013: 3769: 3728: 3652: 3149: 2723: 2656: 2380: 2341: 1937: 1850:

are used in medical and industrial applications, as well as biological and

1817: 1495: 1387: 1359: 1202: 1009:

For the best shielding of neutrons, hydrocarbons that have an abundance of

600: 588: 542: 383:

Two of the first types of directly ionizing radiation to be discovered are

194: 159: 112: 4081: 3542: 3472:"Fundamental Quantities and Units for Ionizing Radiation (ICRU Report 85)" 2679:. The public is also exposed to radiation from consumer products, such as 134:, and almost all are energetic enough to ionize. There are also secondary 7171: 7103: 7040: 6615: 6262: 5852: 5359: 5330: 4858: 4774: 4335: 3719: 3702: 3131: 2788: 2784: 2580:

Examples of activities where occupational exposure is a concern include:

2231:

due to external radiation was 135 mSv/a, (13.5 rem/yr) and the

1956: 1657: 1647: 1613: 1598: 1190: 966: 801: 787: 535: 440: 155: 139: 80: 1128:

of telltale bluish-purple color. The glow can be observed, e.g., during

1002:

and contributes enormously to the radiation generated by a water-cooled

7055: 6907: 5968: 4757: 4383: 4330: 3648:"Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)" 3062:

OSHA: Stallcup's High-voltage Telecommunications Regulations Simplified

2692: 2542: 2470:: Radiation intensity decreases sharply with distance, according to an 2439:

Various doses of radiation in sieverts, ranging from trivial to lethal.

2294: 2249: 2224: 1888: 1789: 1727: 1677: 1652: 1109: 1033: 892: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 755: 678: 592: 582: 546: 395: 175: 100: 43: 6769: 4195:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

3784:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

3383: 2447:

Visual comparison of radiological exposure from daily life activities.

2435: 1896:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

341:

Ionizing radiation may be grouped as directly or indirectly ionizing.

61:, and the electromagnetic waves are on the high-energy portion of the 7093: 7010: 6957: 6610: 5973: 5963: 5091: 5044: 5009: 4930: 4843: 4755: 4670: 4543: 4378: 4325: 4315: 4276: 2912: 2800: 2712: 2628: 2593: 2570: 2518: 2408: 2349: 2176:

Background radiation comes from both natural and human-made sources.

2121: 2082: 1984: 1948: 1871: 1364: 1339: 1063: 805: 727: 604: 603:

occurs, resulting in their conversion into the energy of two or more

566: 306:, is eventually absorbed as it penetrates a dense material. Neutron ( 163: 96: 68: 6468: 3343: 2492:. Some radioactive materials are stored or handled underwater or by 2211:. The highest background radiation in an inhabited area is found in 953:

In inelastic scattering, neutrons are readily absorbed in a type of

867: 439:. Alpha particle emissions are generally produced in the process of 7156: 6699: 6342: 6337: 6277: 5946: 5874: 5857: 5842: 5817: 5560: 5049: 4805: 4800: 4320: 4305: 3272: 3235: 2684: 2514: 2489: 2485: 2310: 2306: 2270: 2208: 2185: 1964: 1941: 1344: 1293: 1223: 1010: 839: 634: 596: 578: 531: 527: 403: 361: 323: 295: 267: 263: 209: 167: 151: 92: 54: 50: 4234: 981:

O (n,p) N (fast neutron capture possible with >11 MeV neutron)

599:. When a low-energy positron collides with a low-energy electron, 7187: 7070: 6668: 6620: 6483: 6463: 5862: 5837: 5277: 5108: 5096: 5074: 5039: 4863: 4795: 4598: 2973: 2872: 2727: 2716: 2700: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2550: 2497: 2416: 2357: 2353: 2314: 2078: 2001: 1794: 1732: 1682: 1435: 1285: 1250: 1017: 920: 853: 793: 429: 127: 3305: 356:

if it carries sufficient kinetic energy. Such particles include

6272: 6267: 6247: 6227: 6212: 6095: 5832: 5812: 5780: 4847: 4769: 2792: 2664: 2412: 2290: 2282: 2259: 1997: 1148: 1124:

High-intensity ionizing radiation in air can produce a visible

781: 682: 630: 607: 433: 425: 399: 373: 319: 315: 303: 208:

Ionizing radiation is used in a wide variety of fields such as

72: 39: 2269:

and even beyond. (The high-atomic number particles are called

707:

Even though photons are electrically neutral, they can ionize

698: 687: 6689: 6646: 6309: 6165: 5958: 5822: 4423: 4310: 2909:– manages the International System of Radiological Protection 2704: 2696: 2668: 2660: 2644: 2402: 2236: 2200: 1538: 1500: 1140:, or the inside of a damaged nuclear reactor like during the 766: 743: 467: 147: 88: 84: 4124:"New Symbol Launched to Warn Public About Radiation Dangers" 3582:(6th ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier. p. 530. 3559: 2999:"Ionizing radiation, health effects and protective measures" 1112:(breaking chemical bonds), and formation of highly reactive 792:

The lowest ionization energy of any element is 3.89 eV, for

6170: 6059: 5869: 5827: 3701:

Liebel F, Kaur S, Ruvolo E, Kollias N, Southall MD (2012).

2856: 2820: 2758:

Massive particles are a concern for astronauts outside the

2688: 2481: 2337: 2302: 2286: 2263: 1374: 1297: 708: 369: 365: 345: 143: 46: 4214: 3861: 3794:. Vol. 1. United Nations. p. 121. Archived from 3344:

Grupen, Claus; G. Cowan; S. D. Eidelman; T. Stroh (2005).

2726:

cycle, which includes the entire sequence from processing

2615:

Research laboratories (government, university and private)

572: 111:. The energy of ionizing radiation starts between 10 6143: 6007: 4126:. International Atomic Energy Agency. February 15, 2007. 4050:

NAIRAS (Nowcast of Atmospheric Ionizing Radiation System)

3273:

Feynman, Richard; Robert Leighton; Matthew Sands (1963).

2923:

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

2220: 1273: 232:, and lower level doses over a protracted time can cause 3928:

in Pazdur R, Wagman LD, Camphausen KA, Hoskins WJ (Eds)

3384:

Robert F. Cleveland, Jr.; Jerry L. Ulcek (August 1999).

2907:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

2746:, gamma rays from both the initial weapon explosion and 1159:

will reform rapidly and spontaneously after ionization.

4088:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 221–230. 4082:

Jeffrey R. Davis; Robert Johnson; Jan Stepanek (2008).

3700: 557:

High-energy beta particles may produce X-rays known as

174:. Ionizing radiation is also generated artificially by 4190:

NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Ionizing Radiation

4183: 3948: 723:

particles, photons are indirectly ionizing radiation.

57:

from them. Some particles can travel up to 99% of the

3116:"Ionizing Radiation: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly" 3816: 3744:"The Shoe-fitting Fluoroscope as a Radiation Hazard" 3368: 3176:

One kg of water per cm squared is 10 meters of water

2868: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3578:Huether, Sue E.; McCance, Kathryn L. (2016-01-22). 3528:"Particle Data Group Summary Data Table on Baryons" 2797:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

2564:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

2160:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

238:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

5693:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 4275: 4118: 4116: 3274: 3217: 3065:. US: Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 133. 2091:Exposures in extractive and processing industries 4208:Beginners Guide to Ionising Radiation Measurement 3642: 3640: 2810: 2457:There are three standard ways to limit exposure: 2336:Most materials on Earth contain some radioactive 1830:Neutron radiation is essential to the working of 1024:, causing a larger amount of ionization from the 826:mean energy expended in a gas per ion pair formed 314:that consist of energetic charged nuclei such as 7315: 3677: 3306:L'Annunziata, Michael; Mohammad Baradei (2003). 664: 4235:Health Physics Society Public Education Website 4113: 4028:"Superflares could kill unprotected astronauts" 3930:Cancer Management: A Multidisciplinary Approach 3742:Lewis, Leon; Caplan, Paul E (January 1, 1950). 2533:In nuclear conflicts or civil nuclear releases 2331: 1181:Proton radiation found in space can also cause 808:). Roughly, this corresponds to both the first 3991: 3637: 3577: 3371:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th Ed 2105:Radon exposure in workplaces other than mines 2027:Transport of nuclear and radioactive material 432:bound together into a particle identical to a 243: 6923: 6785: 6396:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 4946: 4741: 4261: 3810: 3031:Environmental, Safety, and Health Engineering 2631:the body from within. The latter is known as 2363: 1898:(UNSCEAR) itemized types of human exposures. 545:. The production of beta particles is termed 197:and inorganic matter (e.g. water lighting in 2750:would be the sources of radiation exposure. 2715:), electron tubes, and gas lantern mantles ( 2401:An important source of natural radiation is 782:Definition boundary for lower-energy photons 142:interact with Earth's atmosphere, including 7089:Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring 3855: 3741: 2545:(one of the major radioisotope products of 2064: 1906: 1309: 526:Beta particles are high-energy, high-speed 6930: 6916: 6792: 6778: 4953: 4939: 4748: 4734: 4268: 4254: 4150:. ICRP publication 103. Vol. 37:2–4. 3911: 3165:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejro.2021.100372 3034:. US: John Wiley & Sons. p. 476. 2584:Airline crew (the most exposed population) 1020:materials, secondary neutrons may produce 344:Any charged particle with mass can ionize 298:, is halted by an aluminium plate. Gamma ( 3792:Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation 3759: 3718: 3609: 3607: 3525: 3415: 3236:European Centre of Technological Safety. 3139: 2902:European Committee on Radiation Risk 2541:(KI) tablets, which blocks the uptake of 908:Learn how and when to remove this message 224:. In high acute doses, it will result in 6937: 6308: 4077: 4075: 4073: 4071: 4069: 4067: 4065: 4063: 3373:. USA: Chemical Rubber Co. p. 2850. 3120:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 3058: 3027: 2556: 2442: 2434: 2426: 1825:used X-rays to check a child's shoe size 1316: 1057: 838: 800:greater than 10 eV (equivalent to a far 697: 686: 329: 253: 6799: 4212: 3443:"Ionizing & Non-Ionizing Radiation" 3052: 3021: 2762:who would receive solar particles from 2643:Medical procedures, such as diagnostic 2165: 1881: 573:Positrons and other types of antimatter 322:nuclei, and high-charged nuclei called 7316: 6323:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 4960: 4609:Wireless electronic devices and health 3665:from the original on 29 September 2019 3604: 3277:The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol.1 3238:"Interaction of Radiation with Matter" 1846:, and a variety of industrial gauges. 262:) radiation consists of a fast-moving 7254:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960 6911: 6773: 6565: 6328:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 5737: 5724: 4934: 4756:Cancer-causing materials and agents ( 4729: 4249: 4060: 2964:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960 2422: 2415:-226. Both are a part of the natural 2032:Application other than nuclear power 1230:The most common impact is stochastic 1162: 302:) radiation, consisting of energetic 118:Ionizing subatomic particles include 6752: 5725: 4635:List of civilian radiation accidents 4604:Wireless device radiation and health 4599:Biological dose units and quantities 4549:Electromagnetic radiation and health 4143: 3688: 3565: 3496: 3113: 2411:is a gas produced by the α-decay of 1807: 1288:to unprotected skin, as a result of 1241:The most widely accepted model, the 1108:Ionization of molecules can lead to 890:adding citations to reliable sources 861: 742:within the nucleus. They are called 587:The positron or antielectron is the 6861:Radiation-induced cognitive decline 6333:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 4034:from the original on 27 March 2015. 2775:lethal for unprotected astronauts. 2243: 1253:. If this is correct, then natural 1097: 1047: 672: 13: 6142: 5293:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 4584:Radioactivity in the life sciences 4085:Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine 3951:Journal of Radiological Protection 3309:Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis 3009:from the original on 29 March 2020 2805:Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine 2791:events. Software programs such as 2638: 2577:. A legal record of dose is kept. 2207:Brazilian black beach composed of 2098:Gas and oil extraction industries 1069: 832:. At 38 nanometers wavelength for 413: 14: 7365: 5316:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 5215:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 4184:The Nuclear Regulatory Commission 4177: 3919:"Principles of Radiation Therapy" 3659:U.S. National Library of Medicine 3449:. EPA. 2014-07-16. Archived from 1326:Methods of radiation measurement 1196: 640: 515: 130:. These particles are created by 6751: 6740: 6739: 6727: 6416:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 4915:Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic) 4910:Group 2A (probably carcinogenic) 4130:from the original on 2007-02-17. 4056:from the original on 2016-03-05. 4030:. New Scientist. 21 March 2005. 4006:10.1097/00004032-199911000-00006 3819:Radioactivity in the Environment 3615:"Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)" 3486:from the original on 2012-04-20. 3281:. USA: Addison-Wesley. pp. 3079:from the original on 2015-10-17. 3048:from the original on 2015-10-19. 2969:Radiation protection of patients 2885: 2871: 2844: 2829: 866: 458:The alpha particle was named by 16:Harmful high-frequency radiation 5505:Historical stockpiles and tests 4102:from the original on 2020-08-03 4038: 4020: 3985: 3942: 3882: 3776: 3735: 3694: 3625:from the original on 2019-09-22 3619:Leukemia & Lymphoma Society 3571: 3526:W.-M. Yao; et al. (2007). 3519: 3490: 3464: 3435: 3424:from the original on 2011-11-26 3409: 3398:from the original on 2011-10-20 3377: 3362: 3337: 3326:from the original on 2021-04-16 3299: 3266: 3229: 3201:. 9 August 2000. Archived from 2687:-210), combustible fuels (gas, 2610:nuclear fuel reprocessing plant 2066:Occupational radiation exposure 1959:and power production from coal 877:needs additional citations for 814:Environmental Protection Agency 424:Alpha particles consist of two 7021:Computed tomography dose index 6406:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 5288:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 3312:. Academic Press. p. 58. 3187: 3169: 3156: 3114:Ryan, Julie (5 January 2012). 3107: 3083: 2991: 2811:Radiation hazard warning signs 2753: 2623:while others take the form of 1429:, particles per cm per second 1147:Monatomic fluids, e.g. molten 1082:. The relevant mechanisms are 820:, the colloquial name for the 773:, and then indirectly through 629:from a sufficiently energetic 617:Positrons can be generated by 612:electron–positron annihilation 462:after the first letter in the 1: 6897:Radiation dose reconstruction 6866:Radiation-induced lung injury 6734:Nuclear technology portal 4137: 3864:International Congress Series 3831:10.1016/S1569-4860(04)07140-2 3580:Understanding pathophysiology 3369:Charles Hodgman, Ed. (1961). 2985: 2778: 2128:Industrial uses of radiation 2047:Residues in the environment. 1854:. Alpha radiation is used in 665:Indirectly ionizing radiation 549:. They are designated by the 6596:Field-reversed configuration 6206:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 4223:Free Radiation Safety Course 3917:Camphausen KA, Lawrence RC. 2385:natural background radiation 2379:). Some radionuclides, like 2332:External terrestrial sources 2279:ultra-high-energy cosmic ray 2262:(about 85% of it) to 26 amu 1902:Type of radiation exposures 1236:chronic myelogenous leukemia 726:Radiated photons are called 635:positron emission tomography 534:emitted by certain types of 7: 6553:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 5738: 5500:States with nuclear weapons 4784:Prominent human carcinogens 4472:Cosmic background radiation 3059:Stallcup, James G. (2006). 2864: 2855:danger symbol intended for 1441:thermoluminescent dosimeter 847: 294:) radiation, consisting of 290:by a sheet of paper. Beta ( 244:Directly ionizing radiation 10: 7370: 7285: 6566: 6391:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 5515:Tests in the United States 4920:Group 3 (not classifiable) 4701: 4559:Lasers and aviation safety 4219:(from CT scans and xrays). 3971:10.1088/0952-4746/16/4/004 2925:– US national organisation 2621:effective dose (radiation) 2450: 2394: 2367: 2364:Internal radiation sources 2247: 2169: 2008:Other exposure situations 1913: 1811: 1218:stochastic effects, i.e., 1200: 1101: 1051: 851: 785: 730:if they are produced by a 676: 576: 519: 417: 247: 7283: 7262: 7231: 7180: 7144: 7079: 6996: 6978:Radioactive contamination 6945: 6874: 6843: 6807: 6721: 6677: 6629: 6586: 6576: 6528: 6516:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 6429: 6411:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 6376: 6359: 6299: 6226: 6218:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 6192: 6183: 6135: 6115: 6068: 6050: 6006: 5911: 5893: 5761: 5748: 5733: 5720: 5675: 5608: 5553: 5544: 5492: 5400: 5391: 5358: 5301: 5263: 5254: 5175: 5107: 5030: 4972: 4968: 4894: 4783: 4765: 4699: 4663: 4627: 4589:Radioactive contamination 4514: 4442:Electromagnetic radiation 4432: 4344: 4291: 4284: 4109:– via Google Books. 3876:10.1016/j.ics.2004.11.102 3348:. Springer. p. 109. 3003:World Health Organization 2893:Nuclear technology portal 2733:Linear no-threshold model 2625:radioactive contamination 2575:radioactive contamination 2145: 2122:Medical uses of radiation 2116:Nuclear power industries 2112: 2109: 2071: 2059: 2054: 2036: 2015: 2012: 1933: 1916: 1780: 1718: 1668: 1641: 1571: 1508: 1486: 1433: 1372: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1330: 1243:Linear no-threshold model 1000:pressurized water reactor 834:electromagnetic radiation 693:electromagnetic radiation 561:("braking radiation") or 7349:Radiation health effects 7286:See also the categories 7275:Radiation-induced cancer 7270:Acute radiation syndrome 6856:Radiation-induced cancer 6421:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 6037:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 5373:Electron-beam processing 4842:(e.g., from isotopes of 4702:See also the categories 4640:1996 Costa Rica accident 4301:Acoustic radiation force 3028:Woodside, Gayle (1997). 2474:(in an absolute vacuum). 2390: 2229:effective radiation dose 2077:Cosmic ray exposures of 2060:Exposure from accidents 1868:sterile insect technique 1310:Measurement of radiation 1247:effective radiation dose 659:conservation of momentum 650:" (LET), which utilizes 203:acute radiation syndrome 75:, and the higher energy 63:electromagnetic spectrum 6536:Organic nuclear reactor 5708:Nuclear power phase-out 5631:Nuclear decommissioning 5571:Reactor-grade plutonium 5321:Targeted alpha-particle 5200:Accidents and incidents 4614:Radiation heat-transfer 4467:Gravitational radiation 2397:Health effects of radon 1303:reactive oxygen species 1022:nuclear chain reactions 711:indirectly through the 621:nuclear decay (through 350:fundamental interaction 195:effects on both organic 162:on Earth (for example, 7126:Semiconductor detector 7082:measurement techniques 4905:Group 1 (carcinogenic) 4655:1990 Zaragoza accident 4650:1984 Moroccan accident 4619:Linear energy transfer 4293:Non-ionizing radiation 3499:"Gas Filled Detectors" 2760:Earth's magnetic field 2588:Industrial radiography 2502:half-value thicknesses 2448: 2440: 2432: 2377:banana equivalent dose 2141:Other exposed workers 2055:Historical situations 1844:nondestructive testing 1800:banana equivalent dose 1586:quartz fiber dosimeter 1582:semiconductor detector 1510:Linear energy transfer 1322: 1249:at a rate of 5.5% per 1066: 996: 961:and attributes to the 929:linear energy transfer 844: 704: 695: 648:linear energy transfer 338: 327: 105:non-ionizing radiation 87:, nearly all types of 26:in the UK), including 7145:Protection techniques 7109:Scintillation counter 5698:Anti-nuclear movement 4645:1987 Goiânia accident 4447:Synchrotron radiation 4437:Earth's energy budget 4419:Radioactive materials 4414:Particle accelerators 4242:Basic Radiation Facts 4240:Oak Ridge Reservation 4046:"Effective Dose Rate" 3896:. EPA. Archived from 3346:Astroparticle Physics 2557:Occupational exposure 2521:(for contamination). 2446: 2438: 2430: 2346:terrestrial radiation 2275:particle accelerators 1928:Terrestrial radiation 1320: 1187:Geiger-Muller counter 1153:enthalpy of formation 1130:criticality accidents 1080:induced radioactivity 1076:nuclear transmutation 1061: 979: 969:nuclei. The abundant 948:neutron cross section 842: 701: 690: 408:particle accelerators 333: 257: 180:particle accelerators 115:(eV) and 33 eV. 38:that have sufficient 36:electromagnetic waves 7354:Radiation protection 7304:Radiation protection 7121:Radiation monitoring 7114:Proportional counter 6999:quantities and units 6953:Background radiation 6939:Radiation protection 6892:Radiation protection 6606:Reversed field pinch 6401:Traveling-wave (TWR) 5885:Supercritical (SCWR) 5383:Gemstone irradiation 4716:Radiation protection 4569:Radiation protection 4457:Black-body radiation 4364:Background radiation 4279:(physics and health) 3720:10.1038/jid.2011.476 3655:Medical Encyclopedia 3447:Radiation Protection 3132:10.1038/jid.2011.411 2959:Radiation protection 2944:Exposure (radiation) 2772:major health concern 2768:galactic cosmic rays 2523:Radioactive isotopes 2453:Radiation protection 2197:background radiation 2172:Background radiation 2166:Background radiation 2149:UNSCEAR 2008 Annex B 1882:Sources of radiation 1590:Kearny fallout meter 1491:proportional counter 1445:film badge dosimeter 1384:proportional counter 1354:Disintegration rate 1255:background radiation 936:inelastic scattering 886:improve this article 752:isomeric transitions 713:photoelectric effect 312:galactic cosmic rays 172:background radiation 7136:Whole-body counting 7046:Mean glandular dose 6983:Radioactive sources 6835:Biological timeline 6801:Radiation poisoning 5771:Aqueous homogeneous 5566:Reprocessed uranium 5239:Safety and security 4812:Helicobacter pylori 4686:Radiation hardening 4628:Radiation incidents 4564:Medical radiography 4523:Radiation syndrome 4477:Cherenkov radiation 4164:on 16 November 2012 3963:1996JRP....16..249P 3748:California Medicine 3707:J. Invest. Dermatol 3541:(1). Archived from 3476:Journal of the ICRU 3418:"Ionisation Energy" 2836:Ionizing radiation 2807:published in 2008. 2764:solar proton events 2606:Nuclear power plant 2517:(for radiation) or 2133:Miscellaneous uses 1903: 1852:radiation chemistry 1848:Radioactive tracers 1327: 1232:induction of cancer 1183:single-event upsets 1104:Radiation chemistry 1092:photodisintegration 756:gamma-ray astronomy 691:Different types of 595:counterpart of the 563:secondary electrons 199:Cherenkov radiation 32:subatomic particles 7324:Ionizing radiation 6973:Internal dosimetry 6968:Ionizing radiation 6882:Dose fractionation 6685:Dense plasma focus 5600:Actinide chemistry 5065:Isotope separation 4962:Nuclear technology 4840:Ionizing radiation 4830:Diethylstilbestrol 4681:Radioactive source 4502:Radiation exposure 4482:Askaryan radiation 4462:Particle radiation 4346:Ionizing radiation 4228:2018-04-16 at the 3935:2013-10-04 at the 3924:2009-05-15 at the 3416:Jim Clark (2000). 3181:2016-01-01 at the 3126:(3 0 2): 985–993. 2949:Radiation hormesis 2543:radioactive iodine 2472:inverse-square law 2449: 2441: 2433: 2423:Radiation exposure 2223:per year, (1 2151:retrieved 2011-7-4 2110:Human-made sources 2013:Human-made sources 1917:Normal occurrences 1901: 1887:accelerators, and 1870:. Measurements of 1856:static eliminators 1814:Nuclear technology 1578:ionization chamber 1325: 1323: 1163:Electrical effects 1142:Chernobyl disaster 1084:neutron activation 1067: 984:N → O + β (Decay t 963:neutron activation 845: 804:wavelength of 124 736:subatomic particle 705: 696: 652:elastic scattering 339: 328: 250:Particle radiation 230:radiation sickness 201:) or humans (e.g. 109:different energies 24:ionising radiation 20:Ionizing radiation 7311: 7310: 7292:Radiation effects 7263:Radiation effects 7026:Counts per minute 6905: 6904: 6767: 6766: 6717: 6716: 6713: 6712: 6664:Magnetized-target 6561: 6560: 6524: 6523: 6355: 6354: 6351: 6350: 6295: 6294: 6179: 6178: 6111: 6110: 5716: 5715: 5671: 5670: 5540: 5539: 5527:Weapon-free zones 5354: 5353: 5346:Radiopharmacology 4928: 4927: 4859:Ultraviolet light 4723: 4722: 4704:Radiation effects 4574:Radiation therapy 4510: 4509: 4452:Thermal radiation 4389:Neutron radiation 4354:Radioactive decay 4203:Volume 2: Effects 4199:Volume 1: Sources 4157:978-0-7020-3048-2 3355:978-3-540-25312-9 3319:978-0-12-436603-9 3292:978-0-201-02116-5 3005:. 29 April 2016. 2954:Radiation physics 2934:Nuclear semiotics 2653:radiation therapy 2549:) into the human 2156: 2155: 2152: 2138:Military purposes 2113:Peaceful purposes 2037:Military purposes 2016:Peaceful purposes 1967:and gas drilling 1874:, can be used to 1808:Uses of radiation 1805: 1804: 1427:counts per minute 1282:pyrimidine dimers 1263:cognitive decline 1157:hydrogen fluoride 1138:nuclear explosion 1026:daughter products 1006:while operating. 918: 917: 910: 858:neutron radiation 810:ionization energy 740:radioactive decay 623:weak interactions 619:positron emission 460:Ernest Rutherford 286:) nucleus and is 158:may also produce 132:radioactive decay 28:nuclear radiation 7361: 7167:Radon mitigation 7162:Potassium iodide 7080:Instruments and 6932: 6925: 6918: 6909: 6908: 6794: 6787: 6780: 6771: 6770: 6755: 6754: 6743: 6742: 6732: 6731: 6730: 6642: 6601:Levitated dipole 6571: 6563: 6562: 6511:Helium gas (GFR) 6374: 6373: 6369: 6306: 6305: 6190: 6189: 6140: 6139: 6133: 6132: 6128: 6127: 5909: 5908: 5905: 5904: 5743: 5735: 5734: 5727:Nuclear reactors 5722: 5721: 5621:High-level (HLW) 5551: 5550: 5398: 5397: 5378:Food irradiation 5368:Atomic gardening 5261: 5260: 5244:Nuclear meltdown 5070:Nuclear material 5060:Fissile material 5055:Fertile material 4970: 4969: 4955: 4948: 4941: 4932: 4931: 4750: 4743: 4736: 4727: 4726: 4664:Related articles 4579:Radiation damage 4404:Nuclear reactors 4289: 4288: 4270: 4263: 4256: 4247: 4246: 4218: 4173: 4171: 4169: 4160:. Archived from 4132: 4131: 4120: 4111: 4110: 4108: 4107: 4079: 4058: 4057: 4042: 4036: 4035: 4024: 4018: 4017: 3989: 3983: 3982: 3946: 3940: 3915: 3909: 3908: 3906: 3905: 3886: 3880: 3879: 3859: 3853: 3852: 3814: 3808: 3807: 3805: 3803: 3798:on 4 August 2012 3780: 3774: 3773: 3763: 3739: 3733: 3732: 3722: 3713:(7): 1901–1907. 3698: 3692: 3686: 3675: 3674: 3672: 3670: 3644: 3635: 3634: 3632: 3630: 3611: 3602: 3601: 3575: 3569: 3563: 3557: 3556: 3554: 3553: 3547: 3532: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3514: 3503: 3494: 3488: 3487: 3468: 3462: 3461: 3459: 3458: 3439: 3433: 3432: 3430: 3429: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3404: 3403: 3397: 3390: 3381: 3375: 3374: 3366: 3360: 3359: 3341: 3335: 3334: 3332: 3331: 3303: 3297: 3296: 3280: 3270: 3264: 3263: 3261: 3259: 3253: 3247:. Archived from 3245:Radiation Hazard 3242: 3233: 3227: 3221: 3215: 3214: 3212: 3210: 3191: 3185: 3173: 3167: 3160: 3154: 3153: 3143: 3111: 3105: 3104: 3102: 3101: 3087: 3081: 3080: 3056: 3050: 3049: 3025: 3019: 3018: 3016: 3014: 2995: 2895: 2890: 2889: 2888: 2881: 2876: 2875: 2848: 2833: 2649:nuclear medicine 2598:nuclear medicine 2539:potassium iodide 2527:nuclear reactors 2348:are isotopes of 2244:Cosmic radiation 2190:nuclear medicine 2146: 1977:titanium dioxide 1934:Enhanced sources 1921:Cosmic radiation 1904: 1900: 1864:food irradiation 1832:nuclear reactors 1786:derived quantity 1750: 1748: 1747: 1744: 1741: 1724:derived quantity 1700: 1698: 1697: 1694: 1691: 1674:derived quantity 1631: 1629: 1628: 1625: 1622: 1610: 1608: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1567: 1565: 1564: 1561: 1558: 1550: 1548: 1547: 1544: 1541: 1531: 1529: 1528: 1525: 1522: 1514:derived quantity 1480: 1478: 1477: 1474: 1471: 1463: 1461: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1423: 1421: 1420: 1417: 1414: 1406: 1404: 1403: 1400: 1397: 1328: 1324: 1136:shortly after a 1126:ionized air glow 1098:Chemical effects 1088:alpha absorption 1054:Radiation damage 1048:Physical effects 955:nuclear reaction 913: 906: 902: 899: 893: 870: 862: 732:nuclear reaction 673:Photon radiation 511: 509: 508: 499: 498: 497: 490: 489: 480: 479: 478: 284: 283: 282: 275: 274: 136:cosmic particles 7369: 7368: 7364: 7363: 7362: 7360: 7359: 7358: 7314: 7313: 7312: 7307: 7306: 7288:Medical physics 7279: 7258: 7227: 7176: 7140: 7081: 7075: 7036:Equivalent dose 6998: 6992: 6941: 6936: 6906: 6901: 6887:Radioresistance 6870: 6839: 6803: 6798: 6768: 6763: 6728: 6726: 6709: 6673: 6640: 6625: 6582: 6572: 6567: 6557: 6520: 6425: 6370: 6363: 6362: 6347: 6291: 6222: 6197: 6175: 6147: 6129: 6122: 6121: 6120: 6107: 6073: 6064: 6046: 6011: 6002: 5916: 5899: 5898: 5897: 5889: 5803:Natural fission 5757: 5756: 5744: 5739: 5729: 5712: 5688:Nuclear weapons 5667: 5626:Low-level (LLW) 5604: 5536: 5488: 5387: 5350: 5297: 5250: 5171: 5103: 5026: 4964: 4959: 4929: 4924: 4890: 4779: 4761: 4754: 4724: 4719: 4718: 4695: 4691:Havana syndrome 4676:Nuclear physics 4659: 4623: 4516: 4506: 4492:Unruh radiation 4428: 4409:Nuclear weapons 4394:Nuclear fission 4340: 4280: 4274: 4230:Wayback Machine 4180: 4167: 4165: 4158: 4140: 4135: 4122: 4121: 4114: 4105: 4103: 4096: 4080: 4061: 4044: 4043: 4039: 4026: 4025: 4021: 3990: 3986: 3947: 3943: 3937:Wayback Machine 3926:Wayback Machine 3916: 3912: 3903: 3901: 3888: 3887: 3883: 3860: 3856: 3841: 3815: 3811: 3801: 3799: 3781: 3777: 3740: 3736: 3699: 3695: 3687: 3678: 3668: 3666: 3646: 3645: 3638: 3628: 3626: 3613: 3612: 3605: 3590: 3576: 3572: 3568:, paragraph 55. 3564: 3560: 3551: 3549: 3545: 3530: 3524: 3520: 3512: 3501: 3495: 3491: 3470: 3469: 3465: 3456: 3454: 3441: 3440: 3436: 3427: 3425: 3414: 3410: 3401: 3399: 3395: 3388: 3382: 3378: 3367: 3363: 3356: 3342: 3338: 3329: 3327: 3320: 3304: 3300: 3293: 3271: 3267: 3257: 3255: 3251: 3240: 3234: 3230: 3222: 3218: 3208: 3206: 3205:on 3 March 2016 3193: 3192: 3188: 3183:Wayback Machine 3174: 3170: 3161: 3157: 3112: 3108: 3099: 3097: 3089: 3088: 3084: 3073: 3057: 3053: 3042: 3026: 3022: 3012: 3010: 2997: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2983: 2918:Irradiated mail 2891: 2886: 2884: 2877: 2870: 2867: 2860: 2849: 2840: 2834: 2813: 2781: 2756: 2709:smoke detectors 2641: 2639:Public exposure 2559: 2547:nuclear fission 2455: 2425: 2399: 2393: 2372: 2366: 2344:of concern for 2334: 2299:alpha particles 2252: 2246: 2182:medical imaging 2174: 2168: 2072:Natural Sources 2049:Nuclear fallout 1996:Application of 1914:Natural Sources 1908:Public exposure 1884: 1860:smoke detectors 1840:medical imaging 1836:nuclear weapons 1820: 1812:Main articles: 1810: 1769: 1760: 1745: 1742: 1739: 1738: 1736: 1710: 1695: 1692: 1689: 1688: 1686: 1670:Equivalent dose 1626: 1623: 1620: 1619: 1617: 1605: 1602: 1597: 1596: 1594: 1562: 1559: 1556: 1555: 1553: 1545: 1542: 1537: 1536: 1534: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1519: 1517: 1475: 1472: 1469: 1468: 1466: 1458: 1455: 1452: 1451: 1449: 1418: 1415: 1412: 1411: 1409: 1401: 1398: 1395: 1394: 1392: 1312: 1278:molecular bonds 1213:radiation burns 1205: 1199: 1165: 1134:mushroom clouds 1106: 1100: 1072: 1070:Nuclear effects 1056: 1050: 1042:neutron capture 1004:nuclear reactor 987: 959:neutron capture 914: 903: 897: 894: 883: 871: 860: 852:Main articles: 850: 790: 784: 775:pair production 685: 675: 667: 643: 627:pair production 585: 577:Main articles: 575: 524: 518: 507: 504: 503: 502: 501: 496: 494: 493: 492: 488: 485: 484: 483: 482: 477: 475: 474: 473: 471: 452:ternary fission 422: 416: 414:Alpha particles 385:alpha particles 281: 279: 278: 277: 273: 271: 270: 269: 268: 252: 246: 226:radiation burns 191:Geiger counters 184:nuclear fission 138:produced after 120:alpha particles 17: 12: 11: 5: 7367: 7357: 7356: 7351: 7346: 7341: 7336: 7331: 7326: 7309: 7308: 7284: 7281: 7280: 7278: 7277: 7272: 7266: 7264: 7260: 7259: 7257: 7256: 7251: 7246: 7241: 7235: 7233: 7229: 7228: 7226: 7225: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7184: 7182: 7178: 7177: 7175: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7154: 7152:Lead shielding 7148: 7146: 7142: 7141: 7139: 7138: 7133: 7128: 7123: 7117: 7116: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7099:Geiger counter 7096: 7091: 7085: 7083: 7077: 7076: 7074: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7031:Effective dose 7028: 7023: 7018: 7016:Committed dose 7013: 7008: 7002: 7000: 6994: 6993: 6991: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6963:Health physics 6960: 6955: 6949: 6947: 6943: 6942: 6935: 6934: 6927: 6920: 6912: 6903: 6902: 6900: 6899: 6894: 6889: 6884: 6878: 6876: 6872: 6871: 6869: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6851:Radiation burn 6847: 6845: 6841: 6840: 6838: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6811: 6809: 6805: 6804: 6797: 6796: 6789: 6782: 6774: 6765: 6764: 6762: 6761: 6749: 6737: 6722: 6719: 6718: 6715: 6714: 6711: 6710: 6708: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6695:Muon-catalyzed 6692: 6687: 6681: 6679: 6675: 6674: 6672: 6671: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6655: 6654: 6644: 6635: 6633: 6627: 6626: 6624: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6592: 6590: 6584: 6583: 6577: 6574: 6573: 6559: 6558: 6556: 6555: 6550: 6549: 6548: 6543: 6532: 6530: 6526: 6525: 6522: 6521: 6519: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6502: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6451: 6446: 6435: 6433: 6427: 6426: 6424: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6403: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6386:Integral (IFR) 6383: 6377: 6371: 6360: 6357: 6356: 6353: 6352: 6349: 6348: 6346: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6314: 6312: 6303: 6297: 6296: 6293: 6292: 6290: 6289: 6288: 6287: 6282: 6281: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6250: 6245: 6244: 6243: 6232: 6230: 6224: 6223: 6221: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6201: 6199: 6195: 6187: 6181: 6180: 6177: 6176: 6174: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6152: 6150: 6145: 6137: 6130: 6116: 6113: 6112: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6105: 6104: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6077: 6075: 6071: 6066: 6065: 6063: 6062: 6056: 6054: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6033: 6032: 6027: 6016: 6014: 6009: 6004: 6003: 6001: 6000: 5999: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5977: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5956: 5951: 5950: 5949: 5944: 5941: 5938: 5935: 5921: 5919: 5914: 5906: 5891: 5890: 5888: 5887: 5882: 5881: 5880: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5866: 5865: 5860: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5805: 5800: 5799: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5773: 5767: 5765: 5759: 5758: 5750: 5749: 5746: 5745: 5731: 5730: 5718: 5717: 5714: 5713: 5711: 5710: 5705: 5703:Uranium mining 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5679: 5677: 5673: 5672: 5669: 5668: 5666: 5665: 5660: 5659: 5658: 5653: 5643: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5612: 5610: 5606: 5605: 5603: 5602: 5597: 5596: 5595: 5585: 5580: 5579: 5578: 5576:Minor actinide 5573: 5568: 5557: 5555: 5548: 5542: 5541: 5538: 5537: 5535: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5518: 5517: 5512: 5502: 5496: 5494: 5490: 5489: 5487: 5486: 5485: 5484: 5474: 5469: 5468: 5467: 5462: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5441: 5440: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5404: 5402: 5395: 5389: 5388: 5386: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5364: 5362: 5356: 5355: 5352: 5351: 5349: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5307: 5305: 5299: 5298: 5296: 5295: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5275: 5273:Autoradiograph 5269: 5267: 5258: 5252: 5251: 5249: 5248: 5247: 5246: 5236: 5235: 5234: 5224: 5223: 5222: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5181: 5179: 5173: 5172: 5170: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5113: 5111: 5105: 5104: 5102: 5101: 5100: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5088: 5087: 5082: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5036: 5034: 5028: 5027: 5025: 5024: 5023: 5022: 5017: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4995:Atomic nucleus 4992: 4987: 4982: 4976: 4974: 4966: 4965: 4958: 4957: 4950: 4943: 4935: 4926: 4925: 4923: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4901: 4899: 4892: 4891: 4889: 4888: 4887: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4816: 4815: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4787: 4785: 4781: 4780: 4778: 4777: 4772: 4766: 4763: 4762: 4753: 4752: 4745: 4738: 4730: 4721: 4720: 4700: 4697: 4696: 4694: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4667: 4665: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4631: 4629: 4625: 4624: 4622: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4539:Health physics 4536: 4535: 4534: 4529: 4520: 4518: 4512: 4511: 4508: 4507: 4505: 4504: 4499: 4497:Dark radiation 4494: 4489: 4487:Bremsstrahlung 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4433: 4430: 4429: 4427: 4426: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4401: 4399:Nuclear fusion 4396: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4376: 4371: 4369:Alpha particle 4366: 4361: 4356: 4350: 4348: 4342: 4341: 4339: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4297: 4295: 4286: 4282: 4281: 4273: 4272: 4265: 4258: 4250: 4244: 4243: 4237: 4232: 4220: 4210: 4205: 4192: 4187: 4179: 4178:External links 4176: 4175: 4174: 4156: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4133: 4112: 4094: 4059: 4037: 4019: 3994:Health Physics 3984: 3957:(4): 249–261. 3941: 3939:. 11 ed. 2008. 3910: 3890:"Health Risks" 3881: 3854: 3839: 3809: 3775: 3734: 3693: 3676: 3636: 3621:. 2015-02-26. 3603: 3588: 3570: 3558: 3518: 3515:on 2012-06-17. 3489: 3463: 3434: 3408: 3376: 3361: 3354: 3336: 3318: 3298: 3291: 3265: 3254:on 12 May 2013 3228: 3216: 3186: 3168: 3155: 3106: 3082: 3072:978-0763743475 3071: 3051: 3041:978-0471109327 3040: 3020: 2989: 2987: 2984: 2982: 2981: 2976: 2971: 2966: 2961: 2956: 2951: 2946: 2941: 2939:Radiant energy 2936: 2931: 2929:Nuclear safety 2926: 2920: 2915: 2910: 2904: 2898: 2897: 2896: 2882: 2866: 2863: 2862: 2861: 2850: 2843: 2841: 2835: 2828: 2812: 2809: 2780: 2777: 2755: 2752: 2640: 2637: 2633:committed dose 2617: 2616: 2613: 2603: 2602:Uranium mining 2600: 2590: 2585: 2558: 2555: 2506: 2505: 2494:remote control 2475: 2465: 2451:Main article: 2424: 2421: 2392: 2389: 2370:Committed dose 2365: 2362: 2333: 2330: 2245: 2242: 2233:committed dose 2217:radiation dose 2170:Main article: 2167: 2164: 2154: 2153: 2143: 2142: 2139: 2135: 2134: 2130: 2129: 2125: 2124: 2118: 2117: 2114: 2111: 2107: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2092: 2089: 2086: 2085: 2075: 2073: 2069: 2068: 2062: 2061: 2057: 2056: 2052: 2051: 2044: 2043: 2038: 2034: 2033: 2029: 2028: 2024: 2023: 2017: 2014: 2010: 2009: 2005: 2004: 1993: 1992: 1981: 1980: 1969: 1968: 1961: 1960: 1953: 1952: 1945: 1944: 1935: 1931: 1930: 1924: 1923: 1918: 1915: 1911: 1910: 1883: 1880: 1809: 1806: 1803: 1802: 1797: 1792: 1787: 1784: 1782:Committed dose 1778: 1777: 1772: 1765: 1756: 1730: 1725: 1722: 1720:Effective dose 1716: 1715: 1713: 1706: 1680: 1675: 1672: 1666: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1645: 1639: 1638: 1633: 1611: 1592: 1575: 1569: 1568: 1551: 1532: 1515: 1512: 1506: 1505: 1503: 1498: 1493: 1488: 1484: 1483: 1481: 1464: 1447: 1438: 1431: 1430: 1424: 1419:metre · second 1407: 1390: 1380:Geiger counter 1377: 1370: 1369: 1367: 1362: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1350: 1347: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1311: 1308: 1290:photoreactions 1228: 1227: 1216: 1201:Main article: 1198: 1197:Health effects 1195: 1175:radiation hard 1164: 1161: 1118:ozone cracking 1102:Main article: 1099: 1096: 1071: 1068: 1052:Main article: 1049: 1046: 993:Bremsstrahlung 985: 916: 915: 874: 872: 865: 849: 846: 783: 780: 771:Compton effect 721:secondary beta 717:Compton effect 674: 671: 666: 663: 642: 641:Charged nuclei 639: 574: 571: 559:bremsstrahlung 522:Beta particles 520:Main article: 517: 516:Beta particles 514: 505: 495: 486: 476: 464:Greek alphabet 420:Alpha particle 418:Main article: 415: 412: 389:beta particles 378:speed of light 335:Cloud chambers 280: 272: 248:Main article: 245: 242: 124:beta particles 59:speed of light 30:, consists of 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7366: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7339:Radioactivity 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7322: 7321: 7319: 7305: 7301: 7297: 7296:Radioactivity 7293: 7289: 7282: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7267: 7265: 7261: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7236: 7234: 7230: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7186: 7185: 7183: 7181:Organisations 7179: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7149: 7147: 7143: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7118: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7086: 7084: 7078: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7006:Absorbed dose 7004: 7003: 7001: 6995: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6950: 6948: 6946:Main articles 6944: 6940: 6933: 6928: 6926: 6921: 6919: 6914: 6913: 6910: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6879: 6877: 6873: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6848: 6846: 6842: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6812: 6810: 6806: 6802: 6795: 6790: 6788: 6783: 6781: 6776: 6775: 6772: 6760: 6759: 6750: 6748: 6747: 6738: 6736: 6735: 6724: 6723: 6720: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6682: 6680: 6676: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6653: 6652:electrostatic 6650: 6649: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6637: 6636: 6634: 6632: 6628: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6593: 6591: 6589: 6585: 6581: 6575: 6570: 6564: 6554: 6551: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6538: 6537: 6534: 6533: 6531: 6527: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6441: 6440: 6437: 6436: 6434: 6432: 6431:Generation IV 6428: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6381:Breeder (FBR) 6379: 6378: 6375: 6372: 6367: 6358: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6315: 6313: 6311: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6298: 6286: 6283: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6260: 6259: 6256: 6255: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6242: 6239: 6238: 6237: 6234: 6233: 6231: 6229: 6225: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6207: 6203: 6202: 6200: 6198: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6182: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6153: 6151: 6149: 6141: 6138: 6134: 6131: 6126: 6119: 6114: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6083: 6082: 6079: 6078: 6076: 6074: 6067: 6061: 6058: 6057: 6055: 6053: 6049: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6022: 6021: 6018: 6017: 6015: 6013: 6005: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5961: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5948: 5945: 5942: 5939: 5936: 5933: 5932: 5931: 5928: 5927: 5926: 5923: 5922: 5920: 5918: 5910: 5907: 5903: 5896: 5892: 5886: 5883: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5855: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5810: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5778: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5768: 5766: 5764: 5760: 5755: 5754: 5747: 5742: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5723: 5719: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5683:Nuclear power 5681: 5680: 5678: 5674: 5664: 5663:Transmutation 5661: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5648: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5613: 5611: 5607: 5601: 5598: 5594: 5591: 5590: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5563: 5562: 5559: 5558: 5556: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5543: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5507: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5497: 5495: 5491: 5483: 5480: 5479: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5460:high-altitude 5458: 5457: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5450:Proliferation 5448: 5446: 5443: 5439: 5436: 5435: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5405: 5403: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5390: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5365: 5363: 5361: 5357: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5336:Brachytherapy 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5308: 5306: 5304: 5300: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5270: 5268: 5266: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5253: 5245: 5242: 5241: 5240: 5237: 5233: 5230: 5229: 5228: 5225: 5221: 5218: 5217: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5182: 5180: 5178: 5174: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5132:Cross section 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5114: 5112: 5110: 5106: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5077: 5076: 5073: 5072: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5037: 5035: 5033: 5029: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5012: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4981: 4978: 4977: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4956: 4951: 4949: 4944: 4942: 4937: 4936: 4933: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4893: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4866: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4855: 4854:Tobacco smoke 4852: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4825:1,3-Butadiene 4823: 4821: 4818: 4814: 4813: 4809: 4808: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4788: 4786: 4782: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4767: 4764: 4759: 4751: 4746: 4744: 4739: 4737: 4732: 4731: 4728: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4708:Radioactivity 4705: 4698: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4668: 4666: 4662: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4632: 4630: 4626: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4524: 4522: 4521: 4519: 4513: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4485: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4458: 4455: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4435: 4434: 4431: 4425: 4422: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4400: 4397: 4395: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4374:Beta particle 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4359:Cluster decay 4357: 4355: 4352: 4351: 4349: 4347: 4343: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4298: 4296: 4294: 4290: 4287: 4285:Main articles 4283: 4278: 4271: 4266: 4264: 4259: 4257: 4252: 4251: 4248: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4227: 4224: 4221: 4216: 4213:Mike Hanley. 4211: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4185: 4182: 4181: 4163: 4159: 4153: 4149: 4148: 4144:ICRP (2007). 4142: 4141: 4129: 4125: 4119: 4117: 4101: 4097: 4095:9780781774666 4091: 4087: 4086: 4078: 4076: 4074: 4072: 4070: 4068: 4066: 4064: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4041: 4033: 4029: 4023: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3988: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3945: 3938: 3934: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3920: 3914: 3900:on 2008-10-20 3899: 3895: 3891: 3885: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3858: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3840:9780080441375 3836: 3832: 3828: 3825:: 1141–1147. 3824: 3820: 3813: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3779: 3771: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3754:(1): 26–30 . 3753: 3749: 3745: 3738: 3730: 3726: 3721: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3697: 3690: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3654: 3649: 3643: 3641: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3610: 3608: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3589:9780323354097 3585: 3581: 3574: 3567: 3562: 3548:on 2011-09-10 3544: 3540: 3536: 3529: 3522: 3511: 3507: 3500: 3493: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3467: 3453:on 2015-02-12 3452: 3448: 3444: 3438: 3423: 3419: 3412: 3394: 3387: 3380: 3372: 3365: 3357: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3325: 3321: 3315: 3311: 3310: 3302: 3294: 3288: 3284: 3279: 3278: 3269: 3250: 3246: 3239: 3232: 3225: 3220: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3190: 3184: 3180: 3177: 3172: 3166: 3159: 3151: 3147: 3142: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3110: 3096: 3092: 3086: 3078: 3074: 3068: 3064: 3063: 3055: 3047: 3043: 3037: 3033: 3032: 3024: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2994: 2990: 2980: 2977: 2975: 2972: 2970: 2967: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2957: 2955: 2952: 2950: 2947: 2945: 2942: 2940: 2937: 2935: 2932: 2930: 2927: 2924: 2921: 2919: 2916: 2914: 2911: 2908: 2905: 2903: 2900: 2899: 2894: 2883: 2880: 2879:Energy portal 2874: 2869: 2858: 2854: 2853:radioactivity 2847: 2842: 2839: 2838:hazard symbol 2832: 2827: 2826: 2825: 2822: 2817: 2808: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2776: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2751: 2749: 2745: 2740: 2736: 2734: 2729: 2725: 2720: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2657:radionuclides 2654: 2650: 2646: 2636: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2614: 2611: 2607: 2604: 2601: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2589: 2586: 2583: 2582: 2581: 2578: 2576: 2572: 2567: 2565: 2554: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2535:civil defense 2531: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2511: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2476: 2473: 2469: 2466: 2463: 2460: 2459: 2458: 2454: 2445: 2437: 2429: 2420: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2404: 2398: 2388: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2371: 2361: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2342:radionuclides 2339: 2329: 2326: 2323: 2318: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2265: 2261: 2258: 2251: 2241: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2204: 2202: 2198: 2193: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2177: 2173: 2163: 2161: 2150: 2144: 2140: 2137: 2136: 2132: 2131: 2127: 2126: 2123: 2120: 2119: 2115: 2108: 2104: 2102: 2101: 2097: 2095: 2094: 2090: 2088: 2087: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2074: 2070: 2067: 2063: 2058: 2053: 2050: 2046: 2045: 2042: 2041:Nuclear tests 2039: 2035: 2031: 2030: 2026: 2025: 2021: 2020:Nuclear power 2018: 2011: 2007: 2006: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1983: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1971: 1970: 1966: 1963: 1962: 1958: 1955: 1954: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1943: 1939: 1936: 1932: 1929: 1926: 1925: 1922: 1919: 1912: 1909: 1905: 1899: 1897: 1892: 1890: 1879: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1828: 1826: 1819: 1815: 1801: 1798: 1796: 1793: 1791: 1788: 1785: 1783: 1779: 1776: 1773: 1770: 1768: 1764: 1759: 1755: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1726: 1723: 1721: 1717: 1714: 1711: 1709: 1705: 1684: 1681: 1679: 1676: 1673: 1671: 1667: 1664: 1661: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1643:Absorbed dose 1640: 1637: 1634: 1615: 1612: 1600: 1593: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1570: 1552: 1540: 1533: 1516: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1504: 1502: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1492: 1489: 1485: 1482: 1465: 1448: 1446: 1442: 1439: 1437: 1432: 1428: 1425: 1408: 1391: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1378: 1376: 1371: 1368: 1366: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1329: 1319: 1315: 1307: 1304: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1270: 1268: 1267:heart disease 1264: 1260: 1259:teratogenesis 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1239: 1237: 1233: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1214: 1210: 1209: 1208: 1204: 1194: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1179: 1177: 1176: 1170: 1169:semiconductor 1160: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1145: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1122: 1119: 1115: 1114:free radicals 1111: 1105: 1095: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1045: 1043: 1037: 1035: 1029: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1014: 1012: 1007: 1005: 1001: 995: 994: 989: 982: 978: 976: 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 951: 949: 945: 941: 937: 932: 930: 926: 922: 912: 909: 901: 891: 887: 881: 880: 875:This section 873: 869: 864: 863: 859: 855: 841: 837: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 798:photon energy 795: 789: 779: 776: 772: 768: 763: 761: 757: 753: 747: 745: 741: 737: 733: 729: 724: 722: 718: 714: 710: 700: 694: 689: 684: 680: 670: 662: 660: 655: 653: 649: 638: 637:(PET) scans. 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 615: 613: 609: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 584: 580: 570: 568: 564: 560: 555: 552: 548: 544: 540: 537: 533: 529: 523: 513: 469: 465: 461: 456: 453: 449: 444: 442: 438: 435: 431: 427: 421: 411: 409: 405: 401: 397: 392: 390: 386: 381: 379: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 358:atomic nuclei 355: 354:Coulomb force 351: 347: 342: 336: 332: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 265: 261: 256: 251: 241: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 214:nuclear power 211: 206: 204: 200: 196: 192: 187: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 160:radioisotopes 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 116: 114: 113:electronvolts 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 64: 60: 56: 53:by detaching 52: 48: 45: 41: 37: 33: 29: 25: 21: 7344:Radiobiology 7300:Radiobiology 7131:Survey meter 7051:Monitor unit 6997:Measurement 6988:Radiobiology 6967: 6756: 6744: 6725: 6705:Pyroelectric 6659:Laser-driven 6439:Sodium (SFR) 6366:fast-neutron 6205: 5751: 5641:Reprocessing 5522:WMD treaties 5341:Radiosurgery 5311:Fast-neutron 5283:Scintigraphy 5014: 4869:Epstein–Barr 4839: 4835:Formaldehyde 4810: 4791:Acetaldehyde 4775:Cancer cells 4712:Radiobiology 4594:Radiobiology 4554:Laser safety 4345: 4197:2000 Report 4166:. Retrieved 4162:the original 4146: 4104:. Retrieved 4084: 4049: 4040: 4022: 4000:(5): 530–5. 3997: 3993: 3987: 3954: 3950: 3944: 3913: 3902:. Retrieved 3898:the original 3893: 3884: 3867: 3863: 3857: 3822: 3818: 3812: 3800:. Retrieved 3796:the original 3791: 3778: 3751: 3747: 3737: 3710: 3706: 3696: 3669:22 September 3667:. Retrieved 3653:Medline Plus 3651: 3629:22 September 3627:. Retrieved 3579: 3573: 3561: 3550:. Retrieved 3543:the original 3538: 3534: 3521: 3510:the original 3505: 3492: 3479: 3475: 3466: 3455:. Retrieved 3451:the original 3446: 3437: 3426:. Retrieved 3411: 3400:. Retrieved 3379: 3370: 3364: 3345: 3339: 3328:. Retrieved 3308: 3301: 3276: 3268: 3256:. Retrieved 3249:the original 3244: 3231: 3219: 3207:. Retrieved 3203:the original 3198: 3195:"Beta Decay" 3189: 3171: 3158: 3123: 3119: 3109: 3098:. Retrieved 3095:www.osha.gov 3094: 3085: 3061: 3054: 3030: 3023: 3011:. Retrieved 3002: 2993: 2818: 2814: 2804: 2782: 2757: 2741: 2737: 2724:nuclear fuel 2721: 2642: 2618: 2579: 2568: 2560: 2532: 2509: 2507: 2477: 2467: 2461: 2456: 2407: 2400: 2381:potassium-40 2373: 2345: 2335: 2327: 2319: 2253: 2205: 2194: 2178: 2175: 2157: 2065: 1938:Metal mining 1907: 1893: 1885: 1829: 1821: 1818:Radiobiology 1766: 1762: 1757: 1753: 1707: 1703: 1496:electronvolt 1487:Beam energy 1388:scintillator 1349:Other units 1313: 1296:and (in the 1271: 1240: 1229: 1206: 1203:Radiobiology 1180: 1174: 1166: 1146: 1123: 1107: 1073: 1038: 1030: 1028:of fission. 1015: 1008: 997: 990: 983: 980: 952: 933: 924: 919: 904: 895: 884:Please help 879:verification 876: 817: 791: 764: 759: 758:" are known 748: 725: 706: 668: 656: 644: 616: 601:annihilation 589:antiparticle 586: 556: 551:Greek letter 543:potassium-40 525: 457: 445: 423: 393: 382: 352:through the 348:directly by 343: 340: 307: 299: 291: 259: 222:organ damage 207: 188: 117: 67: 23: 19: 18: 7329:Carcinogens 7172:Respirators 7104:Ion chamber 6830:Experiments 6616:Stellarator 6580:confinement 6474:Superphénix 6301:Molten-salt 6253:VHTR (HTGR) 6030:HW BLWR 250 5996:R4 Marviken 5925:Pressurized 5895:Heavy water 5879:many others 5808:Pressurized 5763:Light water 5465:underground 5423:Disarmament 5331:Tomotherapy 5326:Proton-beam 5190:Power plant 5152:Temperature 4985:Engineering 4879:Hepatitis C 4874:Hepatitis B 4820:Benzopyrene 4758:carcinogens 4336:Ultraviolet 4331:Radio waves 3870:: 169–174. 3802:11 November 3482:(1). 2011. 2789:solar flare 2785:cosmic rays 2754:Spaceflight 2744:nuclear war 2703:), airport 2699:and dials ( 2695:, luminous 2693:televisions 2510:Containment 2295:antiprotons 2219:of 10 2022:production 1991:industries 1979:industries 1957:Coal mining 1889:x-ray tubes 1648:calorimeter 1402:cm · second 1191:ion chamber 975:nitrogen-16 967:radioactive 802:ultraviolet 788:Ultraviolet 536:radioactive 441:alpha decay 396:cosmic rays 176:X-ray tubes 156:Cosmic rays 140:cosmic rays 101:radio waves 81:ultraviolet 77:ultraviolet 7318:Categories 7232:Regulation 6875:Treatments 6844:Conditions 6641:(acoustic) 6258:PBR (PBMR) 5646:Spent fuel 5636:Repository 5616:Fuel cycle 5583:Activation 5360:Processing 5227:Propulsion 5185:by country 5117:Activation 4517:and health 4515:Radiation 4384:Cosmic ray 4138:Literature 4106:2015-06-27 3904:2012-03-05 3552:2012-08-16 3535:J. Phys. G 3497:Hao Peng. 3457:2015-01-09 3428:2011-12-07 3402:2011-12-07 3330:2020-10-26 3258:5 November 3100:2022-06-23 3013:22 January 2986:References 2779:Air travel 2766:(SPE) and 2571:dosimeters 2395:See also: 2368:See also: 2250:Cosmic ray 2248:See also: 2083:space crew 1973:Rare earth 1866:, and the 1155:, such as 1110:radiolysis 1034:beta decay 1013:are used. 988:= 7.13 s) 830:excitation 806:nanometers 786:See also: 738:decay, or 728:gamma rays 679:Gamma rays 677:See also: 593:antimatter 583:Antimatter 547:beta decay 541:, such as 368:, charged 97:microwaves 83:, visible 69:Gamma rays 7244:NRC (USA) 7193:HPS (USA) 7094:Dosimeter 7011:Becquerel 6958:Dosimetry 6825:Accidents 6611:Spheromak 6310:Fluorides 5974:IPHWR-700 5969:IPHWR-540 5964:IPHWR-220 5753:Moderator 5433:Explosion 5408:Arms race 5195:Economics 5147:Reflector 5142:Radiation 5137:Generator 5092:Plutonium 5045:Deuterium 5010:Radiation 4980:Chemistry 4844:plutonium 4671:Half-life 4544:Dosimetry 4379:Gamma ray 4326:Microwave 4316:Starlight 4277:Radiation 3849:1569-4860 3788:"Annex B" 3689:ICRP 2007 3598:740632205 3566:ICRP 2007 2913:Ionometer 2851:2007 ISO 2787:and from 2713:americium 2707:systems, 2691:, etc.), 2659:used are 2629:irradiate 2594:radiology 2519:glove box 2478:Shielding 2409:Radon-222 2350:potassium 2311:positrons 2307:electrons 1985:Zirconium 1951:industry 1949:Phosphate 1872:carbon-14 1373:Particle 1365:becquerel 1340:CGS units 1331:Quantity 1272:Although 1132:, around 1064:cyclotron 971:oxygen-16 703:dominate. 625:), or by 605:gamma ray 567:delta ray 532:positrons 528:electrons 402:ions and 362:electrons 296:electrons 164:carbon-14 152:positrons 55:electrons 51:molecules 7334:Mutagens 7249:ONR (UK) 7239:IRR (UK) 7218:SRP (UK) 7157:Glovebox 7061:Roentgen 6746:Category 6700:Polywell 6631:Inertial 6588:Magnetic 6343:TMSR-LF1 6338:TMSR-500 6318:Fuji MSR 6278:THTR-300 6118:Graphite 5981:PHWR KWU 5947:ACR-1000 5875:IPWR-900 5858:ACPR1000 5853:HPR-1000 5843:CPR-1000 5818:APR-1400 5609:Disposal 5561:Actinide 5554:Products 5413:Delivery 5256:Medicine 5085:depleted 5080:enriched 5050:Helium-3 5015:ionizing 4806:Bacteria 4801:Asbestos 4321:Sunlight 4306:Infrared 4226:Archived 4128:Archived 4100:Archived 4054:Archived 4032:Archived 4014:10524506 3979:71757795 3933:Archived 3922:Archived 3786:(2000). 3770:15408494 3729:22318388 3663:Archived 3623:Archived 3484:Archived 3422:Archived 3393:Archived 3324:Archived 3209:10 April 3179:Archived 3150:22217743 3077:Archived 3046:Archived 3007:Archived 2865:See also 2801:pregnant 2685:polonium 2592:Medical 2515:hot cell 2490:neutrons 2486:concrete 2468:Distance 2315:neutrons 2271:HZE ions 2209:monazite 2195:Natural 2186:CT scans 1989:ceramics 1942:smelting 1636:roentgen 1345:SI units 1335:Detector 1294:collagen 1280:to form 1224:mutation 1011:hydrogen 925:directly 921:Neutrons 898:May 2024 848:Neutrons 715:and the 597:electron 579:Positron 448:absorbed 430:neutrons 428:and two 404:HZE ions 394:Natural 324:HZE ions 264:helium-4 210:medicine 168:isotopes 128:neutrons 93:infrared 7223:UNSCEAR 7188:Euratom 7071:Sievert 6820:Chronic 6808:General 6758:Commons 6669:Z-pinch 6639:Bubble 6621:Tokamak 6484:FBR-600 6464:CFR-600 6459:BN-1200 6125:coolant 6052:Organic 5937:CANDU 9 5934:CANDU 6 5902:coolant 5863:ACP1000 5838:CAP1400 5776:Boiling 5741:Fission 5588:Fission 5532:Weapons 5472:Warfare 5455:Testing 5445:History 5438:effects 5393:Weapons 5303:Therapy 5278:RadBall 5265:Imaging 5157:Thermal 5122:Capture 5109:Neutron 5097:Thorium 5075:Uranium 5040:Tritium 5020:braking 5000:Fission 4990:Physics 4973:Science 4864:Viruses 4796:Arsenic 4532:chronic 3959:Bibcode 3761:1520288 3199:Lbl.gov 3141:3779131 2974:Sievert 2748:fallout 2735:(LNT). 2728:uranium 2717:thorium 2701:tritium 2697:watches 2681:tobacco 2612:workers 2553:gland. 2551:thyroid 2498:plastic 2417:uranium 2358:thorium 2354:uranium 2291:protons 2260:protons 2147:Source 2079:aircrew 2002:thorium 1795:sievert 1749:⁠ 1737:⁠ 1733:sievert 1699:⁠ 1687:⁠ 1683:sievert 1630:⁠ 1618:⁠ 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The 234:cancer 218:tissue 182:, and 150:, and 148:mesons 126:, and 99:, and 73:X-rays 44:ionize 40:energy 6815:Acute 6690:Migma 6678:Other 6647:Fusor 6546:Piqua 6541:Arbus 6499:PRISM 6241:MHR-T 6236:GTMHR 6166:EGP-6 6161:AMB-X 6136:Water 6081:HWGCR 6020:HWLWR 5959:IPHWR 5930:CANDU 5791:ESBWR 5546:Waste 5510:Tests 5493:Lists 5477:Yield 5220:MMRTG 5177:Power 4898:lists 4527:acute 4424:X-ray 4311:Light 3975:S2CID 3894:Radon 3546:(PDF) 3531:(PDF) 3513:(PDF) 3502:(PDF) 3396:(PDF) 3389:(PDF) 3252:(PDF) 3241:(PDF) 2742:In a 2705:X-ray 2669:Co-60 2661:I-131 2403:radon 2391:Radon 2338:atoms 2303:pions 2287:muons 2277:(see 2237:radon 2235:from 2201:radon 1740:joule 1690:joule 1621:joule 1573:Kerma 1546:metre 1539:Joule 1501:joule 1476:metre 1470:joule 1360:curie 709:atoms 610:(see 370:pions 366:muons 346:atoms 144:muons 89:laser 85:light 47:atoms 22:(US, 7213:IRPA 7208:ICRP 7203:ICRU 7198:IAEA 7041:Gray 6506:Lead 6489:CEFR 6479:PFBR 6361:None 6171:RBMK 6156:AM-1 6086:EL-4 6060:WR-1 6042:AHWR 5986:MZFR 5954:CVTR 5943:AFCR 5870:VVER 5828:APWR 5823:APR+ 5786:ABWR 5656:cask 5651:pool 5593:LLFP 5482:TNTe 5162:Fast 5032:Fuel 4896:IARC 4846:and 4170:2012 4152:ISBN 4090:ISBN 4010:PMID 3868:1276 3845:ISSN 3835:ISBN 3804:2012 3766:PMID 3725:PMID 3671:2019 3631:2019 3594:OCLC 3584:ISBN 3350:ISBN 3314:ISBN 3287:ISBN 3260:2012 3211:2014 3146:PMID 3067:ISBN 3036:ISBN 3015:2020 2857:IAEA 2821:IAEA 2689:coal 2627:and 2608:and 2596:and 2482:lead 2462:Time 2322:dose 2320:The 2264:iron 2188:and 2158:The 2081:and 2000:and 1987:and 1975:and 1940:and 1894:The 1876:date 1858:and 1834:and 1816:and 1775:BRET 1658:gray 1614:gray 1375:flux 1298:UV-B 1078:and 940:fast 856:and 822:ICRU 681:and 581:and 228:and 220:and 103:are 7066:Rem 7056:Rad 6578:by 6494:PFR 6285:PMR 6263:AVR 6185:Gas 6123:by 6091:KKN 6025:ATR 5940:EC6 5900:by 5848:EPR 5781:BWR 4884:HPV 4002:doi 3967:doi 3872:doi 3827:doi 3756:PMC 3715:doi 3711:132 3283:2–5 3136:PMC 3128:doi 3124:132 2719:). 2257:amu 2225:rad 2221:mGy 1965:Oil 1790:rem 1728:rem 1678:rem 1663:rep 1653:rad 1599:esu 1557:keV 1521:MeV 1453:MeV 1292:in 1274:DNA 1016:In 986:1/2 942:or 888:by 824:'s 760:not 530:or 481:or 205:). 49:or 42:to 34:or 7320:: 7298:, 7294:, 7290:, 6228:He 6194:CO 6070:CO 5991:R3 4710:, 4706:, 4201:, 4115:^ 4098:. 4062:^ 4052:. 4048:. 4008:. 3998:77 3996:. 3973:. 3965:. 3955:16 3953:. 3892:. 3866:. 3843:. 3833:. 3821:. 3790:. 3764:. 3752:72 3750:. 3746:. 3723:. 3709:. 3705:. 3679:^ 3661:. 3657:. 3650:. 3639:^ 3617:. 3606:^ 3592:. 3539:33 3537:. 3533:. 3504:. 3480:11 3478:. 3474:. 3445:. 3420:. 3322:. 3285:. 3243:. 3197:. 3144:. 3134:. 3122:. 3118:. 3093:. 3075:. 3044:. 3001:. 2671:, 2667:, 2663:, 2647:, 2635:. 2484:, 2387:. 2352:, 2317:. 2309:, 2305:, 2301:, 2297:, 2293:, 2289:, 2285:, 2203:. 2192:. 1891:. 1842:, 1761:× 1751:× 1746:kg 1701:× 1696:kg 1627:kg 1606:cm 1588:, 1584:, 1580:, 1563:μm 1527:cm 1459:cm 1443:, 1386:, 1382:, 1269:. 1261:, 1193:. 1144:. 1086:, 1036:: 950:. 734:, 654:. 512:. 510:He 491:He 472:He 466:, 443:. 410:. 391:. 372:, 364:, 360:, 318:, 276:He 212:, 186:. 178:, 154:. 146:, 122:, 95:, 71:, 65:. 6931:e 6924:t 6917:v 6793:e 6786:t 6779:v 6368:) 6364:( 6196:2 6148:O 6146:2 6144:H 6072:2 6012:O 6010:2 6008:H 5917:O 5915:2 5913:D 4954:e 4947:t 4940:v 4850:) 4760:) 4749:e 4742:t 4735:v 4269:e 4262:t 4255:v 4217:. 4172:. 4016:. 4004:: 3981:. 3969:: 3961:: 3907:. 3878:. 3874:: 3851:. 3829:: 3823:7 3806:. 3772:. 3731:. 3717:: 3691:. 3673:. 3633:. 3600:. 3555:. 3460:. 3431:. 3405:. 3358:. 3333:. 3295:. 3262:. 3213:. 3152:. 3130:: 3103:. 3017:. 2711:( 2683:( 1771:) 1767:T 1763:W 1758:R 1754:W 1743:/ 1735:( 1712:) 1708:R 1704:W 1693:/ 1685:( 1632:) 1624:/ 1616:( 1603:/ 1560:/ 1543:/ 1524:/ 1473:/ 1456:/ 1416:/ 1399:/ 1215:. 911:) 905:( 900:) 896:( 882:. 565:( 506:2 487:2 468:α 326:. 308:n 300:γ 292:β 266:( 260:α

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Ionizing radiation

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