Electromagnetic radiation

1468:). Both wave and particle characteristics have been confirmed in many experiments. Wave characteristics are more apparent when EM radiation is measured over relatively large timescales and over large distances while particle characteristics are more evident when measuring small timescales and distances. For example, when electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by matter, particle-like properties will be more obvious when the average number of photons in the cube of the relevant wavelength is much smaller than 1. It is not so difficult to experimentally observe non-uniform deposition of energy when light is absorbed, however this alone is not evidence of "particulate" behavior. Rather, it reflects the quantum nature of 2027:, of the light. Furthermore, below a certain minimum frequency, which depended on the particular metal, no current would flow regardless of the intensity. These observations appeared to contradict the wave theory, and for years physicists tried in vain to find an explanation. In 1905, Einstein explained this puzzle by resurrecting the particle theory of light to explain the observed effect. Because of the preponderance of evidence in favor of the wave theory, however, Einstein's ideas were met initially with great skepticism among established physicists. Eventually Einstein's explanation was accepted as new particle-like behavior of light was observed, such as the 2864: 1518: 1253: 2272: 9553: 68: 6385:; p319: "For historical reasons, different portions of the EM spectrum are given different names, although they are all the same kind of thing. Visible light constitutes a narrow range of the spectrum, from wavelengths of about 400-800 nm.... ;p 320 "An electromagnetic wave carries forward momentum... If the radiation is absorbed by a surface, the momentum drops to zero and a force is exerted on the surface... Thus the radiation pressure of an electromagnetic wave is (formula)." 33: 1181: 2387: 1733:. Two main classes of solutions are known, namely plane waves and spherical waves. The plane waves may be viewed as the limiting case of spherical waves at a very large (ideally infinite) distance from the source. Both types of waves can have a waveform which is an arbitrary time function (so long as it is sufficiently differentiable to conform to the wave equation). As with any time function, this can be decomposed by means of 2398: 3030:

effects are those due to radiation power alone, acting through heating when radiation is absorbed. For these thermal effects, frequency is important as it affects the intensity of the radiation and penetration into the organism (for example, microwaves penetrate better than infrared). It is widely accepted that low frequency fields that are too weak to cause significant heating could not possibly have any biological effect.

5017: 8722: 9885: 2050:(one that is on average farther from the nucleus). When an electron in an excited molecule or atom descends to a lower energy level, it emits a photon of light at a frequency corresponding to the energy difference. Since the energy levels of electrons in atoms are discrete, each element and each molecule emits and absorbs its own characteristic frequencies. Immediate photon emission is called 4334: 4774: 2106:, which is seen when an emitting gas glows due to excitation of the atoms from any mechanism, including heat. As electrons descend to lower energy levels, a spectrum is emitted that represents the jumps between the energy levels of the electrons, but lines are seen because again emission happens only at particular energies after excitation. An example is the 5625: 2798:(eV) corresponding with wavelengths smaller than 124 nm (some sources suggest a more realistic cutoff of 33 eV, which is the energy required to ionize water). This high end of the ultraviolet spectrum with energies in the approximate ionization range, is sometimes called "extreme UV." Ionizing UV is strongly filtered by the Earth's atmosphere. 5976: 4177: 2634:) results in absorption of the EMR, or else separations of charges that cause generation of new EMR (effective reflection of the EMR). An example is absorption or emission of radio waves by antennas, or absorption of microwaves by water or other molecules with an electric dipole moment, as for example inside a 1383: 4135: 6184:

From the viewpoint of an electromagnetic wave traveling forward, the electric field might be oscillating up and down, while the magnetic field oscillates right and left. This picture can be rotated with the electric field oscillating right and left and the magnetic field oscillating down and up. This

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The inverse or time-reversed process of absorption is thermal radiation. Much of the thermal energy in matter consists of random motion of charged particles, and this energy can be radiated away from the matter. The resulting radiation may subsequently be absorbed by another piece of matter, with the

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vector describes the energy flow...;" p 440: ... the electromagnetic wave must have the following properties: 1) The field pattern travels with speed c (speed of light); 2) At every point within the wave... the electric field strength E equals "c" times the magnetic field strength B; 3) The electric

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is the study of the interactions and effects of EM radiation on living organisms. The effects of electromagnetic radiation upon living cells, including those in humans, depends upon the radiation's power and frequency. For low-frequency radiation (radio waves to near ultraviolet) the best-understood

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Ionizing radiation creates high-speed electrons in a material and breaks chemical bonds, but after these electrons collide many times with other atoms eventually most of the energy becomes thermal energy all in a tiny fraction of a second. This process makes ionizing radiation far more dangerous per

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Like radio and microwave, infrared (IR) also is reflected by metals (and also most EMR, well into the ultraviolet range). However, unlike lower-frequency radio and microwave radiation, Infrared EMR commonly interacts with dipoles present in single molecules, which change as atoms vibrate at the ends

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Together, wave and particle effects fully explain the emission and absorption spectra of EM radiation. The matter-composition of the medium through which the light travels determines the nature of the absorption and emission spectrum. These bands correspond to the allowed energy levels in the atoms.

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with which they interact. Electromagnetic radiation is associated with those EM waves that are free to propagate themselves ("radiate") without the continuing influence of the moving charges that produced them, because they have achieved sufficient distance from those charges. Thus, EMR is sometimes

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More general forms of the second-order wave equations given above are available, allowing for both non-vacuum propagation media and sources. Many competing derivations exist, all with varying levels of approximation and intended applications. One very general example is a form of the electric field

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involves charged particles bound together. When electromagnetic radiation impinges on matter, it causes the charged particles to oscillate and gain energy. The ultimate fate of this energy depends on the context. It could be immediately re-radiated and appear as scattered, reflected, or transmitted

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measured their wavelengths, finding that they were similar to X-rays but with shorter wavelengths and higher frequency, although a 'cross-over' between X and gamma rays makes it possible to have X-rays with a higher energy (and hence shorter wavelength) than gamma rays and vice versa. The origin of

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formulation of the electric and magnetic fields due to motion of a single particle (according to Maxwell's equations), the terms associated with acceleration of the particle are those that are responsible for the part of the field that is regarded as electromagnetic radiation. By contrast, the term

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electromagnetic radiation. The far fields propagate (radiate) without allowing the transmitter to affect them. This causes them to be independent in the sense that their existence and their energy, after they have left the transmitter, is completely independent of both transmitter and receiver. Due

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can be characterized by either its frequency of oscillation or its wavelength. Electromagnetic waves of different frequency are called by different names since they have different sources and effects on matter. In order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength, the electromagnetic spectrum

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qualify. These are capable of the most severe types of molecular damage, which can happen in biology to any type of biomolecule, including mutation and cancer, and often at great depths below the skin, since the higher end of the X-ray spectrum, and all of the gamma ray spectrum, penetrate matter.

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is usually considered a form of heat, since it has an equivalent temperature and is associated with an entropy change per unit of thermal energy. However, "heat" is a technical term in physics and thermodynamics and is often confused with thermal energy. Any type of electromagnetic energy can be

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for ionizing radiations at far ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma radiation), absorbed electromagnetic radiation simply deposits its energy by heating the material. This happens for infrared, microwave and radio wave radiation. Intense radio waves can thermally burn living tissue and can cook food. In

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Interference is the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern. If the fields have components in the same direction, they constructively interfere, while opposite directions cause destructive interference. Additionally, multiple polarization signals can be combined (i.e.

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Electromagnetic waves can be imagined as a self-propagating transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields. This 3D animation shows a plane linearly polarized wave propagating from left to right. The electric and magnetic fields in such a wave are in-phase with each other, reaching

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Infrared radiation is divided into spectral subregions. While different subdivision schemes exist, the spectrum is commonly divided as near-infrared (0.75–1.4 μm), short-wavelength infrared (1.4–3 μm), mid-wavelength infrared (3–8 μm), long-wavelength infrared (8–15 μm) and

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developed equations for the electromagnetic field which suggested that waves in the field would travel with a speed that was very close to the known speed of light. Maxwell therefore suggested that visible light (as well as invisible infrared and ultraviolet rays by inference) all consisted of

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At higher frequencies (some of visible and beyond), the effects of individual photons begin to become important, as these now have enough energy individually to directly or indirectly damage biological molecules. All UV frequencies have been classed as Group 1 carcinogens by the World Health

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The behavior of EM radiation and its interaction with matter depends on its frequency, and changes qualitatively as the frequency changes. Lower frequencies have longer wavelengths, and higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and are associated with photons of higher energy. There is no

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in 1887, using electrical circuits calculated to produce oscillations at a much lower frequency than that of visible light, following recipes for producing oscillating charges and currents suggested by Maxwell's equations. Hertz also developed ways to detect these waves, and produced and

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that is free of the transmitter, in the sense that the transmitter requires the same power to send changes in the field out regardless of whether anything absorbs the signal, e.g. a radio station does not need to increase its power when more receivers use the signal. This far part of the

3989: 5012:{\displaystyle \Box =\nabla ^{2}-{\frac {1}{{c_{0}}^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial t^{2}}}={\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial x^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial y^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial z^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{{c_{0}}^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial t^{2}}}\ } 3888: 5835: 2741:

Visible light is able to affect only a tiny percentage of all molecules. Usually not in a permanent or damaging way, rather the photon excites an electron which then emits another photon when returning to its original position. This is the source of color produced by most dyes.

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in materials (including living tissue). Since such radiation can severely damage life at energy levels that produce little heating, it is considered far more dangerous (in terms of damage-produced per unit of energy, or power) than the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum.

2783:, this causes lasting damage. DNA is also indirectly damaged by reactive oxygen species produced by ultraviolet A (UVA), which has energy too low to damage DNA directly. This is why ultraviolet at all wavelengths can damage DNA, and is capable of causing cancer, and (for 2093:

are due to the atoms in an intervening medium between source and observer. The atoms absorb certain frequencies of the light between emitter and detector/eye, then emit them in all directions. A dark band appears to the detector, due to the radiation scattered out of the

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preparations more quickly than did the nearby violet light. Ritter's experiments were an early precursor to what would become photography. Ritter noted that the ultraviolet rays (which at first were called "chemical rays") were capable of causing chemical reactions.

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of a single chemical bond. It is consequently absorbed by a wide range of substances, causing them to increase in temperature as the vibrations dissipate as heat. The same process, run in reverse, causes bulk substances to radiate in the infrared spontaneously (see

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Absorption bands in the infrared are due to modes of vibrational excitation in water vapor. However, at energies too low to excite water vapor, the atmosphere becomes transparent again, allowing free transmission of most microwave and radio waves.

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Thus, at UV frequencies and higher, electromagnetic radiation does more damage to biological systems than simple heating predicts. This is most obvious in the "far" (or "extreme") ultraviolet. UV, with X-ray and gamma radiation, are referred to as

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unit of energy than non-ionizing radiation. This caveat also applies to UV, even though almost all of it is not ionizing, because UV can damage molecules due to electronic excitation, which is far greater per unit energy than heating effects.

5664: 4716: 4329:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \left(-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}\right)=-{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\left(\nabla \times \mathbf {B} \right)=-\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\mathbf {E} }{\partial t^{2}}}} 1659:

unit of frequency, where one hertz is equal to one oscillation per second. Light usually has multiple frequencies that sum to form the resultant wave. Different frequencies undergo different angles of refraction, a phenomenon known as

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electromagnetic fields (including weak ELF magnetic fields, although the latter does not strictly qualify as EM radiation) and modulated RF and microwave fields can have biological effects, though the significance of this is unclear.

1671:. Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves longer than a continent to very short gamma rays smaller than atom nuclei. Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, according to the equation: 6176:

on one side of these equations results in first-order spatial derivatives of the wave solution, while the time-derivative on the other side of the equations, which gives the other field, is first-order in time, resulting in the same

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of electromagnetic spectrum are produced. In homogeneous, isotropic media, the oscillations of the two fields are on average perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation, forming a

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far-fields in free space, which as wave solutions depend primarily on these two Maxwell equations, are in-phase with each other. This is guaranteed since the generic wave solution is first order in both space and time, and the

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associated with the changing static electric field of the particle and the magnetic term that results from the particle's uniform velocity are both associated with the near field, and do not comprise electromagnetic radiation.

1149:. The effect of non-ionizing radiation on chemical systems and living tissue is primarily simply heating, through the combined energy transfer of many photons. In contrast, high frequency ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays are 3801: 1365:

transport a conserved amount of energy over distances but instead fades with distance, with its energy (as noted) rapidly returning to the transmitter or absorbed by a nearby receiver (such as a transformer secondary coil).

2820:. (Many other kinds of ionizing radiation are made of non-EM particles). Electromagnetic-type ionizing radiation extends from the extreme ultraviolet to all higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths, which means that all 5431: 7448: 1326:) on the source. The near field does not propagate freely into space, carrying energy away without a distance limit, but rather oscillates, returning its energy to the transmitter if it is not absorbed by a receiver. 5620:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}f{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}={\frac {1}{{c_{0}}^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial t^{2}}}f{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)},} 1795:

that explained the observed spectrum. Planck's theory was based on the idea that black bodies emit light (and other electromagnetic radiation) only as discrete bundles or packets of energy. These packets were called

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discovered a third neutrally charged and especially penetrating type of radiation from radium, and after he described it, Rutherford realized it must be yet a third type of radiation, which in 1903 Rutherford named

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Browne, p 376: "Radiation is emitted or absorbed only when the electron jumps from one orbit to the other, and the frequency of radiation depends only upon on the energies of the electron in the initial and final

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Electromagnetic radiation phenomena with wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one millimeter are called microwaves; with frequencies between 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz.

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equation, which was factorized into a pair of explicitly directional wave equations, and then efficiently reduced into a single uni-directional wave equation by means of a simple slow-evolution approximation.

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of the random process. Random electromagnetic radiation requiring this kind of analysis is, for example, encountered in the interior of stars, and in certain other very wideband forms of radiation such as the

2114:. Rapidly moving electrons are most sharply accelerated when they encounter a region of force, so they are responsible for producing much of the highest frequency electromagnetic radiation observed in nature. 1745:. A monochromatic electromagnetic wave can be characterized by its frequency or wavelength, its peak amplitude, its phase relative to some reference phase, its direction of propagation, and its polarization. 2368:

the ray differentiates them, gamma rays tend to be natural phenomena originating from the unstable nucleus of an atom and X-rays are electrically generated (and hence man-made) unless they are as a result of

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These phenomena can aid various chemical determinations for the composition of gases lit from behind (absorption spectra) and for glowing gases (emission spectra). Spectroscopy (for example) determines what

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As frequency increases into the visible range, photons have enough energy to change the bond structure of some individual molecules. It is not a coincidence that this happens in the visible range, as the

2311:. After experimenting with high voltages applied to an evacuated tube on 8 November 1895, he noticed a fluorescence on a nearby plate of coated glass. In one month, he discovered X-rays' main properties. 6487: 1778:

An anomaly arose in the late 19th century involving a contradiction between the wave theory of light and measurements of the electromagnetic spectra that were being emitted by thermal radiators known as

3645: 3606: 5830: 3770: 1536: 3316: 1349:, the amount of power passing through any spherical surface drawn around the source is the same. Because such a surface has an area proportional to the square of its distance from the source, the 5971:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} ={\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\times \mathbf {E} _{0}f'{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}=-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}} 1750: 1541: 1268:

of power, such that the total energy that crosses through an imaginary sphere surrounding the source is the same regardless of the size of the sphere. Electromagnetic radiation thus reaches the

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The heat ray is an application of EMR that makes use of microwave frequencies to create an unpleasant heating effect in the upper layer of the skin. A publicly known heat ray weapon called the

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fields are also in phase, with both reaching maxima and minima at the same points in space (see illustrations). In the far-field EM radiation which is described by the two source-free Maxwell

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These are only two equations versus the original four, so more information pertains to these waves hidden within Maxwell's equations. A generic vector wave for the electric field has the form

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At the higher end of the ultraviolet range, the energy of photons becomes large enough to impart enough energy to electrons to cause them to be liberated from the atom, in a process called

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in an experiment similar to Herschel's, using sunlight and a glass prism. Ritter noted that invisible rays near the violet edge of a solar spectrum dispersed by a triangular prism darkened

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and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially nearby infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light.

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The electromagnetic fields of light are not affected by traveling through static electric or magnetic fields in a linear medium such as a vacuum. However, in nonlinear media, such as some

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The source of Einstein's proposal that light was composed of particles (or could act as particles in some circumstances) was an experimental anomaly not explained by the wave theory: the

4477: 3293: 3167: 1304:–type that dies out with distance from the current. In a similar manner, moving charges pushed apart in a conductor by a changing electrical potential (such as in an antenna) produce an 4374: 3537: 6074: 3505: 1703: 1395:. Thus, a field due to any particular particle or time-varying electric or magnetic field contributes to the fields present in the same space due to other causes. Further, as they are 8537: 5656: 5337: 4628: 7311: 2905:

Finally, at radio wavelengths longer than 10 m or so (about 30 MHz), the air in the lower atmosphere remains transparent to radio, but plasma in certain layers of the

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Electromagnetic radiation composed of photons that carry minimum-ionization energy, or more, (which includes the entire spectrum with shorter wavelengths), is therefore termed

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field. Neither of these behaviours is responsible for EM radiation. Instead, they only efficiently transfer energy to a receiver very close to the source, such as inside a

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Cleary, S. F.; Liu, L. M.; Merchant, R. E. (1990). "In vitro lymphocyte proliferation induced by radio-frequency electromagnetic radiation under isothermal conditions".

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prior to the development of Maxwell's electrodynamics, however Maxwell was the first to produce a field theory consistent with waves traveling at the speed of light.

4603: 4130:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \left(\nabla \times \mathbf {E} \right)=\nabla \left(\nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} \right)-\nabla ^{2}\mathbf {E} =-\nabla ^{2}\mathbf {E} .} 1667:

A monochromatic wave (a wave of a single frequency) consists of successive troughs and crests, and the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called the

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Infrared, microwaves and radio waves are known to damage molecules and biological tissue only by bulk heating, not excitation from single photons of the radiation.

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At radio and microwave frequencies, EMR interacts with matter largely as a bulk collection of charges which are spread out over large numbers of affected atoms. In

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is a theoretical weapon that delivers heat ray based on electromagnetic energy at levels that are capable of injuring human tissue. An inventor of a death ray,

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which implies that the electric field is orthogonal to the direction the wave propagates. The second of Maxwell's equations yields the magnetic field, namely,

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The electric and magnetic field waves in the far-field travel at the speed of light. They have a special restricted orientation and proportional magnitudes,

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X-radiation caused by the interaction of fast moving particles (such as beta particles) colliding with certain materials, usually of higher atomic numbers.

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is a different solution that is traveling in the same direction. This arbitrariness in the orientation with respect to propagation direction is known as

598: 8766: 6396: 1361:. This is in contrast to dipole parts of the EM field, the near field, which varies in intensity according to an inverse cube power law, and thus does 5778:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} ={\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {E} _{0}f'{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}=0} 2215: 610: 8031: 6708:

Chen, Szu-yuan; Maksimchuk, Anatoly; Umstadter, Donald (17 December 1998). "Experimental observation of relativistic nonlinear Thomson scattering".

6423: 5366: 7333: 6939: 6510: 6570: 5790: 9296: 7971: 6133:. The electric field, magnetic field, and direction of wave propagation are all orthogonal, and the wave propagates in the same direction as 3984:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \left(\nabla \times \mathbf {E} \right)=\nabla \times \left(-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}\right)} 3734: 2350:

through simple experimentation in 1899, but these proved to be charged particulate types of radiation. However, in 1900 the French scientist

6457: 3883:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \left(\nabla \times \mathbf {A} \right)=\nabla \left(\nabla \cdot \mathbf {A} \right)-\nabla ^{2}\mathbf {A} .} 2248:

and detected invisible rays that caused heating beyond the red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded with a

1517: 9709: 9526: 1741:, or individual sinusoidal components, each of which contains a single frequency, amplitude and phase. Such a component wave is said to be 9281: 8269: 6884: 1437:

upon entering the new medium. The ratio of the refractive indices of the media determines the degree of refraction, and is summarized by

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begin to block incoming radiowaves from space, when their frequency is less than about 10 MHz (wavelength longer than about 30 m).

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Electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths other than those of visible light were discovered in the early 19th century. The discovery of

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Purcell, p442: "Any number of electromagnetic waves can propagate through the same region without affecting one another. The field

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an electric current on the conductor surface by moving the electrons of the conducting material in correlated bunches of charge.

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is the theory of how EMR interacts with matter on an atomic level. Quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR, such as the

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The electromagnetic radiation in an opaque cavity at thermal equilibrium is effectively a form of thermal energy, having maximum

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fundamental limit known to these wavelengths or energies, at either end of the spectrum, although photons with energies near the

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is the wavelength. As waves cross boundaries between different media, their speeds change but their frequencies remain constant.

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p 430: "These waves... require no medium to support their propagation. Traveling electromagnetic waves carry energy, and... the

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at the mid-range of UV. Only 30% of the Sun's ultraviolet light reaches the ground, and almost all of this is well transmitted.

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are considered, depending on frequency and application. Both of these are ratios of the speed in a medium to speed in a vacuum.

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Some experiments display both the wave and particle natures of electromagnetic waves, such as the self-interference of a single

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The electric and magnetic parts of the field in an electromagnetic wave stand in a fixed ratio of strengths to satisfy the two

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equations, a time-change in one type of field is proportional to the curl of the other. These derivatives require that the

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make use of small packets of water that change temperature, in an essentially thermal process that involves many photons.

8909: 6267: 1000:, and these waves can subsequently interact with other charged particles, exerting force on them. EM waves carry energy, 8443: 9909: 9389: 9225: 6969: 2288:

propagating disturbances (or radiation) in the electromagnetic field. Radio waves were first produced deliberately by

8752: 7425: 6136: 3046: 2211: 2062:). Many other fluorescent emissions are known in spectral bands other than visible light. Delayed emission is called 1830: 1472:. Demonstrating that the light itself is quantized, not merely its interaction with matter, is a more subtle affair. 92: 4561:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {B} =\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\mathbf {B} }{\partial t^{2}}}.} 2787:) skin burns (sunburn) that are far worse than would be produced by simple heating (temperature increase) effects. 2326:

salts caused fogging of an unexposed photographic plate through a covering paper in a manner similar to X-rays, and

1529:, meaning that its oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer and travel. It comes from the 1370: 1247: 360: 9291: 8001: 6901: 4455:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {E} =\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial ^{2}\mathbf {E} }{\partial t^{2}}}} 3079: 6480:"Electromagnetic Spectrum facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Electromagnetic Spectrum" 3122:. There are nontrivial solutions of the homogeneous Maxwell's equations (without charges or currents), describing 8691: 3681: 2568:, and then spectral analysis must be done by slightly different mathematical techniques appropriate to random or 2393:

with visible light highlighted. The bottom graph (visible spectrum) shows wavelength in units of nanometres (nm).

2015:. Experimental measurements demonstrated that the energy of individual ejected electrons was proportional to the 1404: 275: 3514: 2122:

comprise a particular star. Spectroscopy is also used in the determination of the distance of a star, using the

1597:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} &=0\\\nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} &=0\end{aligned}}} 1494:

of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter such as electrons is described by the theory of

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yield a resultant irradiance deviating from the sum of the component irradiances of the individual light waves.

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discovered that only certain elements gave off these rays of energy, soon discovering the intense radiation of

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at a space time point is the vector sum of the electric fields of the individual waves, and the same goes for

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field and the magnetic field are perpendicular to one another and to the direction of travel, or propagation."

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is a function of time and location, which gives the amplitude of the wave at some time at a certain location:

3379:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {B} =\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}} 1414:, interactions can occur between light and static electric and magnetic fields—these interactions include the 9357: 4471:) results in a similar differential equation for a magnetic field solving the homogeneous Maxwell equations: 3113: 2757:

are created by visible light in skin, and that these may have some role in photoaging, in the same manner as

2750:, and requires a protein to convert it back, i.e. reset it to be able to function as a light detector again. 1730: 1530: 1211: 635: 340: 9630: 8286: 5630: 5311: 5250:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} =\mathbf {E} _{0}f{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}} 1916: 1081: 500: 240: 107: 5021:

Comparing the terms for the speed of propagation, yields in the case of the electric and magnetic fields:

2913:). This property allows some longer wavelengths (100 m or 3 MHz) to be reflected and results in 2593:

or exceeding it (far too high to have ever been observed) will require new physical theories to describe.

1403:. For example, in optics two or more coherent light waves may interact and by constructive or destructive 1318:. The near field has strong effects its source, with any energy withdrawn by a receiver causing increased 230: 9504: 9113: 8184: 8042: 7949: 7667: 7476:"Experiments on the Refrangibility of the Invisible Rays of the Sun. By William Herschel, LL. D. F. R. S" 6592: 2726: 1804:

proposed that light quanta be regarded as real particles. Later the particle of light was given the name

1783:. Physicists struggled with this problem unsuccessfully for many years, and it later became known as the 1647:

fields in EMR are in-phase (see mathematics section below). An important aspect of light's nature is its

793: 668: 565: 540: 460: 6931: 3096:, claimed to have lost sight in his left eye while working on his death ray weapon based on a microwave 9847: 9552: 9345: 9200: 9173: 7228: 3773: 2732: 1521:

Representation of the electric field vector of a wave of circularly polarized electromagnetic radiation

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demonstrated that gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, not particles, and in 1914 Rutherford and

9509: 9230: 8307:"Irradiation of skin with visible light induces reactive oxygen species and matrix-degrading enzymes" 7776:"Irradiation of Skin with Visible Light Induces Reactive Oxygen Species and Matrix-Degrading Enzymes" 3042: 2616: 2237: 2075: 1127:

The effects of EMR upon chemical compounds and biological organisms depend both upon the radiation's

1026: 847: 808: 325: 265: 260: 200: 7881: 6562: 5342: 9168: 9078: 8942: 7194: 7020: 6237: 3546: 3049:– possibly carcinogenic. This group contains possible carcinogens such as lead, DDT, and styrene. 2444: 2390: 2381: 1442: 957: 345: 8605:

Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics

8079: 7979: 7711: 6449: 3779: 3430: 3408: 3088:

was developed by the US military as an experimental weapon to deny the enemy access to an area. A

2080:

The modern theory that explains the nature of light includes the notion of wave–particle duality.

778: 280: 9914: 9842: 9622: 9413: 9398: 9108: 8902: 8810: 8775: 8338: 6257: 3118:

Electromagnetic waves are predicted by the classical laws of electricity and magnetism, known as

3093: 2953: 2754: 2558: 2510: 2233: 2195: 2090: 1784: 1495: 1392: 1121: 1061: 1030: 658: 185: 175: 170: 8705: 8341:

generated in skin. This happens also with UVA. With UVB, the damage to DNA becomes direct, with

2729:, to prevent reactions that would otherwise interfere with photosynthesis at high light levels. 1930:

of a photon is also proportional to its frequency and inversely proportional to its wavelength:

783: 753: 9834: 9382: 9349: 9260: 8934: 8848: 6618: 6512:

Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 1: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics

4768: 3119: 2965: 2725:

act to quench electronically excited chlorophyll produced by visible light in a process called

2577: 1769: 1624: 1346: 1300:

near them that do not radiate. Currents directly produce magnetic fields, but such fields of a

1193: 1137: 1077: 605: 375: 150: 8266: 7742: 7143: 6853: 5125: 3656: 1890: 9494: 9441: 9426: 9353: 9088: 8871: 8408:

Saladi, RN; Persaud, AN (January 2005). "The causes of skin cancer: a comprehensive review".

7868: 7348: 7232: 7222: 7169: 6761: 6227: 4711:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}f={\frac {1}{{c_{0}}^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}f}{\partial t^{2}}}} 4365: 2944:

radiation. It may get dissipated into other microscopic motions within the matter, coming to

2779:

or more) to excite certain doubly bonded molecules into permanent chemical rearrangement. In

2256: 2141: 1627:

that specify how one is produced from the other. In dissipation-less (lossless) media, these

1465: 1357:

source decreases with the inverse square of the distance from the source; this is called the

1297: 1280: 1261: 1057: 891: 703: 390: 380: 330: 320: 8468: 8078:. Repiev, A & Edelev, M (translators from Russian). San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 8071: 7734: 7186: 6827: 6765: 4578: 1923:) the energy of the photons is thus directly proportional to the frequency of the EMR wave. 9499: 9210: 9098: 9055: 9005: 8512: 7746: 7487: 7068: 6868: 6852:

Thorn, J. J.; Neel, M. S.; Donato, V. W.; Bergreen, G. S.; Davies, R. E.; Beck, M. (2004).

6727: 6334: 6186: 5157: 4750: 3085: 3053:

Organization. Ultraviolet radiation from sun exposure is the primary cause of skin cancer.

2703:, which absorbs a single photon. The change in retinal causes a change in the shape of the 2627: 2612: 2450: 2058:. An example is visible light emitted from fluorescent paints, in response to ultraviolet ( 2004: 1502: 1483:, it passes through both paths, interfering with itself, as waves do, yet is detected by a 1323: 1230:, Maxwell concluded that light itself is an EM wave. Maxwell's equations were confirmed by 1226:. Because the speed of EM waves predicted by the wave equation coincided with the measured 1073: 828: 728: 693: 445: 310: 210: 195: 130: 8469:"Effects on the human body: Extremely low frequency RF | Radio Frequency | Radio Spectrum" 7685: 7112: 2775:

As frequency increases into the ultraviolet, photons now carry enough energy (about three

67: 8: 9816: 9657: 9431: 9327: 9205: 9118: 8861: 8072: 7187: 6212: 6207: 6190: 5120: 5090: 3648: 3026: 2969: 2961: 2945: 2576:

content, and the phase information is not preserved. Such a representation is called the

2504: 2498: 2463: 2457: 2360: 2284: 2275: 2145: 2023: 2007:, in which light striking a metal surface ejected electrons from the surface, causing an 1661: 1454: 1207: 1167:

and damage living cells beyond simply heating, and can be a health hazard and dangerous.

1045: 788: 768: 763: 570: 555: 440: 410: 305: 235: 37: 9286: 8516: 8267:

IARC classifies Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields as possibly carcinogenic to humans

7750: 7491: 7072: 6872: 6731: 6338: 9919: 9889: 9829: 9768: 9652: 9574: 9322: 9143: 9123: 9103: 8987: 8895: 8795: 8502: 8390: 8129: 8113:"Embryological changes induced by weak, extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields" 8112: 7920: 7641: 7557: 7524: 7505: 7089: 7058: 7046: 6743: 6717: 6350: 6325:

Maxwell, J. Clerk (1 January 1865). "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field".

6262: 6247: 6193:. The direction of the polarization is defined as the direction of the electric field. 6173: 6037:{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} ={\frac {1}{c_{0}}}{\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\times \mathbf {E} } 5291: 4608: 3540: 3236:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} =-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}} 3058: 2854: 2817: 2572:. In such cases, the individual frequency components are represented in terms of their 2569: 2518: 2487: 1920: 1738: 1636: 1461: 1457:); that is, each component wave within the composite light is bent a different amount. 1396: 1358: 1331: 1310: 1308:–type electrical field, but this also declines with distance. These fields make up the 1270: 1265: 1256:

In electromagnetic radiation (such as microwaves from an antenna, shown here) the term

1243: 1223: 1197: 1151: 1018: 1014: 663: 403: 205: 165: 8744: 8732: 2863: 2304: 485: 9856: 9755: 9704: 9679: 9635: 9617: 9561: 9489: 9375: 9215: 9093: 9030: 8995: 8671: 8649: 8627: 8608: 8589: 8583: 8568: 8425: 8382: 8377: 8360: 8346: 8328: 8249: 8214: 8173: 8134: 8093: 8083: 7924: 7912: 7828: 7797: 7754: 7735: 7645: 7633: 7580: 7562: 7544: 7454: 7397: 7354: 7327: 7286: 7261: 7236: 7198: 7149: 7094: 7000: 6516: 6429: 6402: 6374: 6354: 6299: 6252: 5161: 2930: 2654: 2347: 2055: 1491: 1164: 1037: 723: 8394: 8191:

Aalto, S.; Haarala, C.; Brück, A.; Sipilä, H.; Hämäläinen, H.; Rinne, J. O. (2006).

6747: 2517:

EM radiation (the designation 'radiation' excludes static electric and magnetic and

1184:

The relative wavelengths of the electromagnetic waves of three different colours of

9795: 9746: 9599: 9479: 9446: 9220: 8866: 8820: 8815: 8520: 8417: 8372: 8318: 8241: 8204: 8165: 8124: 7904: 7820: 7787: 7623: 7552: 7536: 7495: 7389: 7084: 7076: 6876: 6735: 6342: 2868: 2631: 2582: 2550: 2534: 2475: 2229: 2199: 2119: 2008: 1808:, to correspond with other particles being described around this time, such as the 1734: 1446: 1132: 1022: 1005: 993: 823: 738: 698: 688: 575: 530: 513: 430: 365: 135: 59: 9642: 8538:"Light: Electromagnetic waves, the electromagnetic spectrum and photons (article)" 2977:, sufficiently intense visible and ultraviolet lasers can easily set paper afire. 2717:

becomes possible in this range as well, for the same reason. A single molecule of

9861: 9821: 9811: 9783: 9726: 9662: 9531: 9332: 9317: 9133: 9045: 9035: 8887: 8421: 8273: 7819:. Advances in Optics and Optoelectronics. Springer, Singapore. pp. 111–188. 7218: 6789: 6130: 3651:(rate of change in time, with location fixed) of the magnetic and electric field; 3104:

creates a tissue damaging cooking effect inside the oven at around 2 kV/m).

2956:, in the material. With a few exceptions related to high-energy photons (such as 2934: 2914: 2842: 2791: 2707:

protein it is contained in, which starts the biochemical process that causes the

2493: 2319: 2264: 2184: 2063: 1884: 1801: 1605: 1526: 1484: 1400: 1305: 1301: 1219: 1128: 1106: 950: 758: 683: 678: 545: 420: 385: 245: 145: 8715: 7895:

Dabas, R S (July 2000). "Ionosphere and its influence on radio communications".

7824: 3126:

of changing electric and magnetic fields. Beginning with Maxwell's equations in

2561:), which in turn can each be classified into these regions of the EMR spectrum. 2148:, electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the same frequency as the current. 798: 9736: 9699: 9463: 9436: 9180: 9138: 9128: 9050: 9040: 9010: 8668:

Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method, 3rd ed

8524: 8342: 7815:

Tao, Jiasheng (2023). "Radiation Source and Optical Atmospheric Transmission".

5086: 3466: 3450: 3101: 2994: 2949: 2918: 2895: 2883:, and then (for wavelengths in the upper UV) from the electronic excitation of 2858: 2714: 2635: 2469: 2369: 2364: 2339: 2289: 2219: 2152: 2135: 2102:

are due to the atoms in the star's atmosphere. A similar phenomenon occurs for

2028: 1912: 1773: 1757: 1713: 1480: 1450: 1438: 1415: 1231: 1227: 1215: 1131:

and its frequency. EMR of lower energy ultraviolet or lower frequencies (i.e.,

933: 925: 921: 903: 718: 713: 535: 425: 350: 300: 250: 223: 180: 155: 125: 118: 45: 41: 7628: 7611: 7393: 5426:{\displaystyle f{\left({\hat {\mathbf {k} }}\cdot \mathbf {x} -c_{0}t\right)}} 2747: 2679:

Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum. EM radiation with a

2271: 1252: 9903: 9773: 9731: 9721: 9594: 9589: 9569: 9255: 9015: 9000: 8803: 8663: 8493:

Kinsler, P. (2010). "Optical pulse propagation with minimal approximations".

8209: 8192: 7916: 7637: 7548: 4572: 2795: 2776: 2758: 2721:

is excited by a single photon. In plant tissues that conduct photosynthesis,

2696: 2590: 2481: 2427: 2343: 2315: 2039: 1441:. Light of composite wavelengths (natural sunlight) disperses into a visible 1350: 1185: 1160: 1146: 974: 833: 818: 803: 743: 455: 370: 355: 270: 255: 160: 8097: 6961: 1188:(blue, green, and red) with a distance scale in micrometers along the x-axis 9866: 9790: 9716: 9674: 9647: 9579: 9521: 9458: 9235: 9195: 9060: 8429: 8386: 8332: 8245: 8218: 7801: 7566: 7500: 7475: 7281:

Ling, Samuel J.; Sanny, Jeff; Moebs, William (2016). "The Compton Effect".

7098: 6346: 3720: 3689: 3474: 3470: 3066: 2957: 2662: 2351: 2051: 2047: 1069: 997: 813: 708: 673: 615: 550: 470: 435: 315: 190: 9484: 8253: 8177: 8138: 7417: 6619:"Electromagnetic radiation | Spectrum, Examples, & Types | Britannica" 2924: 2564:

For certain classes of EM waves, the waveform is most usefully treated as

1399:

fields, all magnetic and electric field vectors add together according to

9694: 9667: 9584: 9536: 8977: 8843: 8323: 8306: 7792: 7775: 7663: 7384:

Hunter, Tim B.; Dobek, Gerald O. (19 July 2023). "Nebulae: An Overview".

6688:"PV Performance Modeling Collaborative | Plane of Array (POA) Irradiance" 6178: 2838: 2770: 2722: 2718: 2538: 2420: 2335: 2327: 2314:

The last portion of the EM spectrum to be discovered was associated with

2260: 2249: 2083: 1506: 1419: 1315: 978: 962: 945: 917: 733: 585: 415: 77: 32: 8716:

The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 28: Electromagnetic Radiation

8305:

Liebel, F; Kaur, S; Ruvolo, E; Kollias, N; Southall, M. D. (July 2012).

7540: 6854:"Observing the quantum behavior of light in an undergraduate laboratory" 6722: 2638:. These interactions produce either electric currents or heat, or both. 1651:. The frequency of a wave is its rate of oscillation and is measured in 1382: 1180: 9778: 9684: 9025: 8972: 7908: 7774:

Liebel, F.; Kaur, S.; Ruvolo, E.; Kollias, N.; Southall, M. D. (2012).

3508: 2985: 2906: 2872: 2850: 2825: 2811: 2680: 2602: 2554: 2546: 2522: 2294: 2168: 2156: 2095: 2059: 1788: 1780: 1668: 1426: 1156: 1142: 986: 966: 450: 8621: 8170:

10.1002/(SICI)1521-186X(1997)18:8<555::AID-BEM4>3.0.CO;2-1

7509: 7080: 6880: 6293: 2386: 1274:

part of the electromagnetic field around a transmitter. A part of the

9689: 9312: 9185: 9020: 8967: 8957: 8918: 6826:. Quantum Optics Theory Group, University of Auckland. Archived from 6217: 4159:) by exchanging the sequence of derivatives and inserting the fourth 3097: 3089: 2704: 2688: 2684: 2606: 2526: 2406: 2356: 2298: 2160: 2123: 2017: 1648: 1049: 941: 773: 748: 560: 82: 8153: 6273:

Sinusoidal plane-wave solutions of the electromagnetic wave equation

5076:{\displaystyle c_{0}={\frac {1}{\sqrt {\mu _{0}\varepsilon _{0}}}}.} 8962: 8947: 8876: 8444:"DVIDS – News – New Marine Corps non-lethal weapon heats things up" 8111:

Delgado, J. M.; Leal, J.; Monteagudo, J. L.; Gracia, M. G. (1982).

7063: 6222: 5156:, via the above equation. This relationship had been discovered by 4368:

for the electric field, solving the homogeneous Maxwell equations:

2993:

electromagnetic radiation can "heat" (in the sense of increase the

2884: 2880: 2647: 2530: 2434: 2225: 2167:. Each has an energy related to the frequency of the wave given by 2043: 1809: 1729:

Electromagnetic waves in free space must be solutions of Maxwell's

1434: 1354: 1008:

away from their source particle and can impart those quantities to

1001: 970: 899: 525: 520: 140: 8662: 8507: 6739: 2989:

transformed into thermal energy in interaction with matter. Thus,

2879:

Most UV and X-rays are blocked by absorption first from molecular

1749:

interfered) to form new states of polarization, which is known as

1604:

These equations predicate that any electromagnetic wave must be a

1155:– individual photons of such high frequency have enough energy to 1109:. Thus, higher frequency photons have more energy. For example, a 9240: 8827: 8779: 8002:"Thermodynamics Part 1: Work, Heat, Internal Energy and Enthalpy" 7612:"Pioneers in Optics: Johann Wilhelm Ritter and Ernest Rutherford" 6537: 3462: 3458: 3005: 2910: 2894:

Visible light is well transmitted in air, a property known as an

2846: 2743: 2700: 2397: 2323: 2241: 2012: 1797: 1430: 1411: 1264:

that radiate into infinite space and decrease in intensity by an

1053: 875: 495: 6398:

An Introduction to Electromagnetic Wave Propagation and Antennas

2867:

Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric absorption and scattering (or

1525:

In homogeneous, isotropic media, electromagnetic radiation is a

1292:

Maxwell's equations established that some charges and currents (

9514: 9367: 8721: 3127: 2940: 2821: 2807: 2708: 2331: 2308: 2164: 2111: 1813: 1805: 1476: 1041: 1009: 982: 929: 580: 87: 7941: 2794:. The energy required for this is always larger than about 10 1993:{\displaystyle p={E \over c}={hf \over c}={h \over \lambda }.} 1141:

because its photons do not individually have enough energy to

40:

electromagnetic wave going in the z-axis, with E denoting the

9065: 8952: 8787: 6450:"The Dual Nature of Light as Reflected in the Nobel Archives" 3724: 2974: 2888: 2674: 2542: 2412: 2098:. For instance, dark bands in the light emitted by a distant 1652: 1620:

are both perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

1445:

passing through a prism, because of the wavelength-dependent

895: 6046:

The remaining equations will be satisfied by this choice of

5433:

is a generic solution to the wave equation. In other words,

3045:

has classified radio frequency electromagnetic radiation as

8110: 6770:. Society for promoting Christian knowledge. pp. 54–57 3640:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}} 3601:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}} 3454: 3061:

due to the ability of photons of this radiation to produce

2099: 2035: 1135:, visible light, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves) is 887: 8738: 8358: 1429:, a wave crossing from one medium to another of different 8622:

Reitz, John; Milford, Frederick; Christy, Robert (1992).

7684:. Instituts für Umform- und Hochleistungs. Archived from 7480:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

6327:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

5825:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} \cdot {\hat {\mathbf {k} }}=0} 4571:

Both differential equations have the form of the general

3107: 3062: 2784: 2780: 2245: 1040:, an alternate way of viewing EMR is that it consists of 7308:"7 Differences between Fluorescence and Phosphorescence" 1756:

The energy in electromagnetic waves is sometimes called

8774: 8304: 8190: 7773: 6851: 6707: 6425:

A Course in Classical Physics, Vol. 4 – Waves and Light

6401:. Springer Science and Business Media. pp. 28–33. 3765:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} =\mathbf {B} =\mathbf {0} ,} 2925:

Thermal and electromagnetic radiation as a form of heat

2748:

retinal permanently changes structure from cis to trans

1656: 1278:

field (close to the transmitter) includes the changing

8337:

for evidence of quantum damage from visible light via

6298:(3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press, New York. 5339:

is a unit vector in the direction of propagation, and

2549:. Arbitrary electromagnetic waves can be expressed by 2084:

Wave and particle effects of electromagnetic radiation

8581: 8359:

Narayanan, DL; Saladi, RN; Fox, JL (September 2010).

6993:"Chapter V Plane waves in unbounded, isotropic media" 6139: 6085: 6052: 5986: 5838: 5793: 5667: 5633: 5439: 5369: 5345: 5314: 5294: 5265: 5173: 5128: 5098: 5027: 4777: 4753: 4724: 4631: 4611: 4581: 4480: 4377: 4180: 4030: 3909: 3804: 3782: 3737: 3698: 3659: 3614: 3575: 3549: 3517: 3485: 3433: 3411: 3319: 3267: 3193: 3141: 2984:

Infrared radiation in the spectral distribution of a

2699:

involves the change in bonding of a single molecule,

2252:. These "calorific rays" were later termed infrared. 2151:

As a wave, light is characterized by a velocity (the

2140:

When any wire (or other conducting object such as an

1939: 1893: 1833: 1681: 1680: 1539: 8193:"Mobile phone affects cerebral blood flow in humans" 2615:, they couple to the conductor, travel along it and 1763: 1391:

Electric and magnetic fields obey the properties of

1060:, responsible for all electromagnetic interactions. 3772:useful solutions can be derived with the following 956:The position of an electromagnetic wave within the 8917: 7347:Meredith, W. J.; Massey, J. B. (22 October 2013). 6155: 6121: 6068: 6036: 5970: 5824: 5777: 5650: 5619: 5425: 5355: 5331: 5300: 5280: 5249: 5141: 5111: 5075: 5011: 4759: 4739: 4710: 4617: 4597: 4560: 4454: 4328: 4129: 3983: 3882: 3790: 3764: 3711: 3672: 3639: 3600: 3560: 3531: 3499: 3441: 3419: 3378: 3287: 3235: 3161: 1992: 1899: 1868: 1697: 1596: 992:Electromagnetic waves are emitted by electrically 8407: 8231: 7525:"The Other End of the Rainbow: Infrared and Skin" 7145:The Earth Around Us: Maintaining A Livable Planet 4013:) with the above identity and simplifying using ( 2997:temperature of) a material, when it is absorbed. 2216:Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics 1865: 9901: 7258:Quantum Mechanics; An Experimentalist's Approach 6181:for both fields in each mathematical operation. 5089:in vacuum. Thus Maxwell's equations connect the 4465:Taking the curl of the fourth Maxwell equation ( 3892:Taking the curl of the second Maxwell equation ( 3080:Directed energy weapons § Microwave weapons 2746:is an exception. When a photon is absorbed, the 1212:wave form of the electric and magnetic equations 8197:Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism 7184: 6593:"Maxwell's equations and the secrets of nature" 6368: 6294:Purcell and Morin, Harvard University. (2013). 6156:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} \times \mathbf {B} } 2832: 2232:, who published his results in 1800 before the 1869:{\displaystyle E=hf={\frac {hc}{\lambda }}\,\!} 1460:EM radiation exhibits both wave properties and 8734:Electromagnetic Waves from Maxwell's Equations 8151: 7346: 7280: 6962:"Wave Behaviors | Science Mission Directorate" 6373:(2nd ed.). McGraw Hill/Schaum, New York. 5661:From the first of Maxwell's equations, we get 4771:, which in Cartesian coordinates is given as: 9383: 8903: 8760: 6754: 855: 8582:Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). 8287:"Trouble with cell phone radiation standard" 8074:Magnetobiology: Underlying Physical Problems 7737:Unexploded Ordnance Detection and Mitigation 7522: 7467: 7332:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 7141: 7045:She, Alan; Capasso, Federico (17 May 2016). 2687:and 700 nm is directly detected by the 8492: 8486: 7383: 6767:The life and discoveries of Michael Faraday 3288:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} =0} 3162:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} =0} 2375: 1080:and proportional to frequency according to 9390: 9376: 8910: 8896: 8767: 8753: 7523:Holzer, Aton M.; Elmets, Craig A. (2010). 7450:RFID in Logistics A Practical Introduction 7249: 7044: 6999:. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY. 6563:"The Impact of James Clerk Maxwell's Work" 3532:{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {X} } 1479:. When a single photon is sent through an 1214:, thus uncovering the wave-like nature of 1025:that directly produced them, specifically 862: 848: 66: 8506: 8376: 8322: 8208: 8128: 7791: 7627: 7556: 7499: 7088: 7062: 6721: 6371:Physics for Engineering and Science, p427 6189:. On a quantum level, it is described as 6129:, which can be seen immediately from the 6069:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} ,\mathbf {B} } 3500:{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {X} } 2909:begins to interact with radio waves (see 2630:, such induced bulk movement of charges ( 1864: 1698:{\displaystyle \displaystyle v=f\lambda } 1021:refers to EM fields near the charges and 8401: 8276:. World Health Organization. 31 May 2011 7659: 7657: 7655: 7609: 7529:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 7473: 7217: 7047:"Parallel Polarization State Generation" 6990: 6760: 2917:beyond line-of-sight. However, certain 2862: 2801: 2396: 2385: 2270: 2069: 1516: 1381: 1251: 1179: 1076:. The energy of an individual photon is 912:, electromagnetic radiation consists of 31: 8648:(3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. 8640: 8361:"Ultraviolet radiation and skin cancer" 8152:Harland, J. D.; Liburdy, R. P. (1997). 8065: 8063: 7847: 7255: 6821:"Einstein and the Photoelectric Effect" 6421: 6324: 5308:is any second differentiable function, 3001:deposited energy heating the material. 2205: 1487:or other sensitive detector only once. 611:Electromagnetism and special relativity 14: 9902: 9452:Psychological and sociological effects 9251:Wireless electronic devices and health 8602: 7732: 7726: 6818: 6573:from the original on 17 September 2017 6508: 6415: 6394: 3723:of a vacuum (8.85 × 10 3108:Derivation from electromagnetic theory 2596: 1751:parallel polarization state generation 1237: 1234:through experiments with radio waves. 1202: 932:, electromagnetic waves travel at the 9371: 8891: 8748: 8624:Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory 8562: 8069: 7936: 7934: 7894: 7679: 7652: 7446: 7314:from the original on 4 September 2017 7123:from the original on 4 September 2017 6942:from the original on 4 September 2017 6890:from the original on 1 February 2016. 6502: 6388: 5651:{\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {k} }}} 5332:{\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {k} }}} 3011: 2711:of the human eye to sense the light. 2293:characterized what were later termed 2163:. As particles, light is a stream of 1718:in a vacuum or less in other media), 1509:, and can interfere with each other. 631:Maxwell equations in curved spacetime 9277:List of civilian radiation accidents 9246:Wireless device radiation and health 9241:Biological dose units and quantities 9191:Electromagnetic radiation and health 8585:Physics for Scientists and Engineers 8365:International Journal of Dermatology 8060: 7780:Journal of Investigative Dermatology 7474:Herschel, William (1 January 1800). 7428:from the original on 1 February 2017 7142:Schneiderman, Jill (27 March 2000). 7113:"What Is Electromagnetic Radiation?" 7021:"Electromagnetic Radiation | COSMOS" 6243:Finite-difference time-domain method 6233:Electromagnetic radiation and health 5627:for a generic wave traveling in the 4171: 4021: 3900: 3310: 3258: 3184: 3132: 3022:Wireless device radiation and health 3018:Electromagnetic radiation and health 2753:Limited evidence indicate that some 2338:was differentiated into alpha rays ( 2228:radiation is ascribed to astronomer 2129: 1101:is the frequency of the photon, and 27:Physical model of propagating energy 8567:(4th ed.). Pearson Education. 7814: 7610:Davidson, Michael W. (March 2014). 6645:"10.1: Liénard-Wiechert Potentials" 6268:Health effects of sunlight exposure 4153:Evaluating the right hand side of ( 3033:Some research suggests that weaker 2521:) is classified by wavelength into 24: 9226:Radioactivity in the life sciences 8556: 8012:from the original on 24 March 2017 7952:from the original on 20 April 2017 7931: 7767: 7306:Haneef, Deena T. Kochunni, Jazir. 7305: 5959: 5949: 5839: 5668: 5545: 5535: 5441: 4990: 4980: 4932: 4922: 4900: 4890: 4868: 4858: 4836: 4826: 4785: 4692: 4678: 4633: 4539: 4523: 4482: 4436: 4420: 4379: 4310: 4294: 4248: 4234: 4230: 4208: 4198: 4181: 4110: 4089: 4069: 4061: 4042: 4031: 4007:Evaluating the left hand side of ( 3967: 3957: 3940: 3921: 3910: 3863: 3843: 3835: 3816: 3805: 3628: 3618: 3589: 3579: 3518: 3486: 3367: 3357: 3320: 3268: 3224: 3214: 3194: 3142: 3073: 1569: 1544: 1284:, but that is not electromagnetic 25: 9931: 8685: 7591:from the original on 1 March 2021 7386:The Barnard Objects: Then and Now 6535: 6490:from the original on 13 June 2017 6460:from the original on 15 July 2017 4575:for waves propagating with speed 2212:History of electromagnetic theory 2194:In a medium (other than vacuum), 1915:. This is sometimes known as the 1820:, proportional to its frequency, 1764:Particle model and quantum theory 1464:properties at the same time (see 1260:applies only to the parts of the 9883: 9551: 9397: 8720: 8626:(4th ed.). Addison Wesley. 8378:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2010.04474.x 8293:from the original on 9 May 2013. 7350:Fundamental Physics of Radiology 6972:from the original on 14 May 2017 6912:from the original on 12 May 2015 6149: 6141: 6122:{\displaystyle E_{0}=c_{0}B_{0}} 6062: 6054: 6030: 6016: 5988: 5953: 5914: 5900: 5872: 5857: 5846: 5806: 5795: 5743: 5729: 5701: 5686: 5675: 5638: 5588: 5574: 5477: 5463: 5397: 5383: 5348: 5319: 5281:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} _{0}} 5268: 5221: 5207: 5184: 5175: 5112:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}} 4533: 4492: 4430: 4389: 4304: 4255: 4202: 4120: 4099: 4076: 4049: 3961: 3928: 3873: 3850: 3823: 3784: 3755: 3747: 3739: 3712:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}} 3622: 3583: 3551: 3525: 3493: 3435: 3413: 3361: 3327: 3275: 3218: 3201: 3149: 2668: 2611:When radio waves impinge upon a 1576: 1551: 8607:(5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. 8461: 8436: 8352: 8297: 8279: 8260: 8225: 8145: 8104: 8024: 7994: 7964: 7888: 7848:Chaplin, Martin (15 May 2013). 7841: 7808: 7700: 7673: 7603: 7573: 7516: 7440: 7410: 7377: 7367: 7340: 7299: 7274: 7211: 7193:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 7178: 7162: 7135: 7105: 7038: 7013: 6991:Stratton, Julius Adams (1941). 6984: 6954: 6924: 6894: 6845: 6812: 6782: 6701: 6680: 6663: 6637: 6611: 6585: 6555: 6296:Electricity and Magnetism, 820p 4364:) again, gives a vector-valued 2585:of the electromagnetic vacuum. 1163:. Ionizing radiation can cause 1145:atoms or molecules or to break 7668:The Growth of Physical Science 7260:. Cambridge University Press. 6529: 6472: 6442: 6428:. Springer. pp. 95, 103. 6361: 6318: 6286: 6020: 5904: 5861: 5810: 5733: 5690: 5642: 5578: 5467: 5387: 5356:{\displaystyle {\mathbf {x} }} 5323: 5211: 2764: 2191:is the frequency of the wave. 2034:As a photon is absorbed by an 13: 1: 8666:and Susan C. Hagness (2005). 8588:(6th ed.). Brooks Cole. 6279: 3731:Besides the trivial solution 3561:{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} ;} 3114:Electromagnetic wave equation 2179:is the energy of the photon, 1731:electromagnetic wave equation 1512: 1501:Electromagnetic waves can be 1377: 636:Relativistic electromagnetism 44:and perpendicular B denoting 8422:10.1358/dot.2005.41.1.875777 7817:Space Optical Remote Sensing 7708:"Near, Mid and Far-Infrared" 7670:. Cambridge University Press 7283:University physics. Volume 3 7224:The Quantum Theory of Fields 6422:Bettini, Alessandro (2016). 3791:{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } 3442:{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} } 3420:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} } 2875:of electromagnetic radiation 2833:Atmosphere and magnetosphere 2733:Animals that detect infrared 2359:. In 1910 British physicist 7: 9114:Cosmic background radiation 8670:. Artech House Publishers. 7825:10.1007/978-981-99-3318-1_4 7710:. NASA IPAC. Archived from 7682:"Wavelength considerations" 6861:American Journal of Physics 6796:. Spectroscopy-09-01-2008. 6200: 4467: 4360: 4354: 4342: 4163: 4155: 4143: 4015: 4009: 3997: 3894: 3392: 3301: 3249: 3175: 2727:non-photochemical quenching 2641: 1608:, where the electric field 1505:, reflected, refracted, or 1387:minima and maxima together. 10: 9936: 9343: 9201:Lasers and aviation safety 8525:10.1103/PhysRevA.81.013819 8070:Binhi, Vladimir N (2002). 7453:. CRC Press. p. 437. 7229:Cambridge University Press 7148:. Henry Holt and Company. 6567:clerkmaxwellfoundation.org 6515:. MacMillan. p. 454. 5149:, and the speed of light, 3111: 3077: 3015: 2948:and manifesting itself as 2928: 2836: 2805: 2768: 2683:between approximately 400 2672: 2645: 2600: 2379: 2255:In 1801, German physicist 2220:Radiation § Discovery 2209: 2133: 2073: 2011:to flow across an applied 1816:. A photon has an energy, 1791:developed a new theory of 1767: 1712:is the speed of the wave ( 1371:Liénard–Wiechert potential 1248:Liénard–Wiechert potential 1241: 1191: 1170: 1097:is the energy per photon, 944:of oscillation, different 940:. There, depending on the 894:, which propagate through 892:electromagnetic (EM) field 361:Liénard–Wiechert potential 9910:Electromagnetic radiation 9879: 9804: 9754: 9745: 9610: 9560: 9549: 9472: 9412: 9405: 9341: 9305: 9269: 9231:Radioactive contamination 9156: 9084:Electromagnetic radiation 9074: 8986: 8933: 8926: 8857: 8836: 8786: 8727:Electromagnetic radiation 8706:Resources in your library 8697:Electromagnetic radiation 8646:Classical Electrodynamics 7629:10.1017/S1551929514000029 7422:National Redshift Project 7394:10.1007/978-3-031-31485-8 7353:. Butterworth-Heinemann. 6906:galileo.phys.virginia.edu 6542:The Physics Hypertextbook 4718:This is also written as: 3100:from the 1920s (a normal 3043:World Health Organization 1919:. In quantum theory (see 1175: 1027:electromagnetic induction 916:, which are synchronized 880:electromagnetic radiation 626:Mathematical descriptions 336:Electromagnetic radiation 326:Electromagnetic induction 266:Magnetic vector potential 261:Magnetic scalar potential 9344:See also the categories 9282:1996 Costa Rica accident 8943:Acoustic radiation force 8776:Fundamental interactions 8210:10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600279 7256:Commins, Eugene (2014). 7185:Paul M. S. Monk (2004). 6936:www-jcsu.jesus.cam.ac.uk 6509:Tipler, Paul A. (1999). 6369:Browne, Michael (2013). 6238:Evanescent wave coupling 5142:{\displaystyle \mu _{0}} 4740:{\displaystyle \Box f=0} 3776:, valid for all vectors 3673:{\displaystyle \mu _{0}} 2445:Extremely high frequency 2391:Electromagnetic spectrum 2382:Electromagnetic spectrum 2376:Electromagnetic spectrum 2236:. Herschel used a glass 1917:Planck–Einstein equation 1900:{\displaystyle \lambda } 1353:of EM radiation from an 958:electromagnetic spectrum 9256:Radiation heat-transfer 9109:Gravitational radiation 8811:Electroweak interaction 8339:reactive oxygen species 6538:"Electromagnetic Waves" 6258:Impedance of free space 3094:Harry Grindell Matthews 2966:photochemical reactions 2939:The basic structure of 2755:reactive oxygen species 2559:monochromatic radiation 2511:Extremely low frequency 2234:Royal Society of London 2042:the atom, elevating an 1926:Likewise, the momentum 1785:ultraviolet catastrophe 1614:and the magnetic field 1496:quantum electrodynamics 1122:extremely low frequency 1066:transition of electrons 1062:Quantum electrodynamics 1031:electrostatic induction 176:Electrostatic induction 171:Electrostatic discharge 9890:Outer space portal 9297:1990 Zaragoza accident 9292:1984 Moroccan accident 9261:Linear energy transfer 8935:Non-ionizing radiation 8563:Hecht, Eugene (2001). 8246:10.1002/bem.2250110107 7876:Cite journal requires 7850:"Infared Spectroscopy" 7733:Byrnes, James (2009). 7581:"Ultraviolet | COSMOS" 7501:10.1098/rstl.1800.0015 6997:Electromagnetic Theory 6762:Crowther, James Arnold 6395:Cloude, Shane (1995). 6347:10.1098/rstl.1865.0008 6157: 6123: 6070: 6038: 5972: 5826: 5779: 5652: 5621: 5427: 5363:is a position vector. 5357: 5333: 5302: 5288:is a constant vector, 5282: 5251: 5143: 5113: 5077: 5013: 4767:denotes the so-called 4761: 4741: 4712: 4619: 4599: 4598:{\displaystyle c_{0},} 4562: 4456: 4330: 4131: 3985: 3884: 3798:in some vector field: 3792: 3766: 3713: 3674: 3641: 3602: 3562: 3533: 3501: 3443: 3421: 3380: 3289: 3237: 3163: 2876: 2578:power spectral density 2514: 2424:NUV = Near-ultraviolet 2394: 2280: 2187:, 6.626 × 10 J·s, and 1994: 1907:is the wavelength and 1901: 1870: 1770:Quantization (physics) 1699: 1598: 1522: 1388: 1347:conservation of energy 1340:electromagnetic field 1298:electromagnetic fields 1289: 1189: 1117:times the energy of a 606:Electromagnetic tensor 48: 9522:Extraterrestrial life 9287:1987 Goiânia accident 9089:Synchrotron radiation 9079:Earth's energy budget 9061:Radioactive materials 9056:Particle accelerators 8872:Philosophy of physics 8603:Tipler, Paul (2004). 8006:www2.southeastern.edu 7972:"Blackbody Radiation" 7741:. Springer. pp. 7585:astronomy.swin.edu.au 7447:Jones, Erick (2007). 7174:. UM Libraries. 1960. 7025:astronomy.swin.edu.au 6228:Electromagnetic pulse 6158: 6124: 6071: 6039: 5973: 5827: 5780: 5653: 5622: 5428: 5358: 5334: 5303: 5283: 5252: 5144: 5114: 5078: 5014: 4762: 4760:{\displaystyle \Box } 4742: 4713: 4620: 4600: 4563: 4457: 4366:differential equation 4331: 4132: 3986: 3885: 3793: 3767: 3714: 3688: × 10 3675: 3642: 3603: 3563: 3534: 3502: 3444: 3422: 3381: 3290: 3238: 3164: 2973:addition to infrared 2866: 2802:X-rays and gamma rays 2628:electrical conductors 2583:Zero point wave field 2400: 2389: 2334:. The radiation from 2307:discovered and named 2274: 2257:Johann Wilhelm Ritter 2076:Wave–particle duality 2070:Wave–particle duality 1995: 1902: 1871: 1722:is the frequency and 1700: 1599: 1520: 1466:wave-particle duality 1385: 1335:field is composed of 1281:electromagnetic field 1262:electromagnetic field 1255: 1183: 1113:gamma ray photon has 1058:electromagnetic field 914:electromagnetic waves 599:Covariant formulation 391:Synchrotron radiation 331:Electromagnetic pulse 321:Electromagnetic field 35: 9358:Radiation protection 9211:Radiation protection 9099:Black-body radiation 9006:Background radiation 8921:(physics and health) 8729:at Wikimedia Commons 8324:10.1038/jid.2011.476 7793:10.1038/jid.2011.476 7171:The Michigan Technic 6137: 6083: 6050: 5984: 5836: 5791: 5665: 5631: 5437: 5367: 5343: 5312: 5292: 5263: 5171: 5158:Wilhelm Eduard Weber 5126: 5096: 5025: 4775: 4751: 4722: 4629: 4609: 4579: 4478: 4375: 4178: 4028: 3907: 3802: 3780: 3735: 3696: 3657: 3612: 3573: 3547: 3515: 3483: 3431: 3409: 3317: 3265: 3191: 3139: 3086:Active Denial System 2570:stochastic processes 2451:Super-high frequency 2206:History of discovery 2005:photoelectric effect 1937: 1891: 1831: 1793:black-body radiation 1678: 1537: 1324:electrical reactance 1074:black-body radiation 1046:elementary particles 902:and electromagnetic 641:Stress–energy tensor 566:Reluctance (complex) 311:Displacement current 18:Electromagnetic wave 9328:Radiation hardening 9270:Radiation incidents 9206:Medical radiography 9165:Radiation syndrome 9119:Cherenkov radiation 8862:Glossary of physics 8837:Hypothetical forces 8642:Jackson, John David 8517:2010PhRvA..81a3819K 8311:J. Invest. Dermatol 8272:1 June 2011 at the 8234:Bioelectromagnetics 8158:Bioelectromagnetics 8048:on 30 November 2016 7751:2009uodm.book.....B 7541:10.1038/jid.2010.79 7492:1800RSPT...90..284H 7073:2016NatSR...626019S 6873:2004AmJPh..72.1210T 6800:(9). September 2008 6732:1998Natur.396..653C 6625:. 15 September 2023 6339:1865RSPT..155..459M 6213:Bioelectromagnetics 6208:Antenna measurement 6191:photon polarization 5121:vacuum permeability 5091:vacuum permittivity 4769:d'Alembert operator 3649:partial derivatives 3120:Maxwell's equations 3027:Bioelectromagnetics 2970:photovoltaic effect 2962:harmonic generation 2946:thermal equilibrium 2919:ionospheric effects 2697:mechanism of vision 2665:(15–1000 μm). 2597:Radio and microwave 2505:Super-low frequency 2499:Ultra-low frequency 2464:Very high frequency 2458:Ultrahigh frequency 2361:William Henry Bragg 2285:James Clerk Maxwell 2276:James Clerk Maxwell 2146:alternating current 2091:absorption spectrum 1531:following equations 1435:speed and direction 1238:Near and far fields 1208:James Clerk Maxwell 1203:Maxwell's equations 1194:Maxwell's equations 1159:molecules or break 1124:radio wave photon. 1013:referred to as the 936:, commonly denoted 556:Magnetomotive force 441:Electromotive force 411:Alternating current 346:Jefimenko equations 306:Cyclotron radiation 9805:Other technologies 9323:Radioactive source 9144:Radiation exposure 9124:Askaryan radiation 9104:Particle radiation 8988:Ionizing radiation 8796:Strong interaction 8117:Journal of Anatomy 7909:10.1007/bf02867245 7855:: water.lsbu.ac.uk 7688:on 28 October 2007 7189:Physical Chemistry 7051:Scientific Reports 6819:Carmichael, H. J. 6649:Physics LibreTexts 6623:www.britannica.com 6599:. 18 December 2015 6263:Radiation reaction 6248:Gravitational wave 6153: 6119: 6066: 6034: 5968: 5822: 5775: 5648: 5617: 5423: 5353: 5329: 5298: 5278: 5247: 5139: 5109: 5073: 5009: 4757: 4737: 4708: 4615: 4595: 4558: 4452: 4326: 4161:Maxwell equation ( 4127: 3981: 3880: 3788: 3762: 3709: 3670: 3637: 3598: 3558: 3543:of a vector field 3529: 3497: 3477:/m), respectively; 3439: 3417: 3376: 3285: 3233: 3159: 3059:ionizing radiation 3012:Biological effects 2896:atmospheric window 2877: 2855:atmospheric window 2818:ionizing radiation 2515: 2488:Very low frequency 2440:FIR = Far-infrared 2438:MIR = Mid-infrared 2395: 2281: 2089:Dark bands in the 2021:, rather than the 1990: 1921:first quantization 1897: 1866: 1739:frequency spectrum 1695: 1694: 1594: 1592: 1523: 1389: 1359:inverse-square law 1290: 1266:inverse-square law 1244:Near and far field 1198:Near and far field 1190: 1165:chemical reactions 404:Electrical network 241:Gauss magnetic law 206:Static electricity 166:Electric potential 49: 38:linearly polarized 9897: 9896: 9875: 9874: 9784:Carbonated drinks 9756:Human spaceflight 9636:of items in space 9547: 9546: 9365: 9364: 9346:Radiation effects 9216:Radiation therapy 9152: 9151: 9094:Thermal radiation 9031:Neutron radiation 8996:Radioactive decay 8885: 8884: 8725:Media related to 8692:Library resources 8677:978-1-58053-832-9 8655:978-0-471-30932-1 8633:978-0-201-52624-0 8614:978-0-7167-0810-0 8595:978-0-534-40842-8 8574:978-0-8053-8566-3 8347:pyrimidine dimers 8123:(Pt 3): 533–551. 8089:978-0-12-100071-4 7834:978-981-99-3318-1 7760:978-1-4020-9252-7 7460:978-0-367-38811-9 7403:978-3-031-31485-8 7388:. Springer Cham. 7360:978-1-4832-8435-4 7292:978-1-947172-22-7 7267:978-1-107-06399-0 7242:978-0-521-55001-7 7204:978-0-471-49180-4 7155:978-1-4668-1443-1 7081:10.1038/srep26019 7006:978-0-470-13153-4 6932:"Physics – Waves" 6881:10.1119/1.1737397 6716:(6712): 653–655. 6651:. 9 December 2021 6522:978-1-57259-491-3 6435:978-3-319-48329-0 6408:978-0-387-91501-2 6380:978-0-07-161399-6 6305:978-1-107-01402-2 6023: 6010: 5966: 5907: 5864: 5813: 5736: 5693: 5645: 5581: 5559: 5530: 5470: 5390: 5326: 5301:{\displaystyle f} 5214: 5162:Rudolf Kohlrausch 5068: 5067: 5008: 5004: 4975: 4946: 4914: 4882: 4850: 4821: 4706: 4672: 4618:{\displaystyle f} 4553: 4450: 4350: 4349: 4324: 4241: 4215: 4151: 4150: 4005: 4004: 3974: 3635: 3596: 3400: 3399: 3374: 3309: 3308: 3257: 3256: 3231: 3183: 3182: 3006:radiation entropy 2931:Thermal radiation 2655:thermal radiation 2632:electric currents 2348:Ernest Rutherford 2342:) and beta rays ( 2130:Propagation speed 2120:chemical elements 2056:photoluminescence 1985: 1972: 1954: 1862: 1625:Maxwell equations 1329:By contrast, the 1082:Planck's equation 1038:quantum mechanics 994:charged particles 872: 871: 571:Reluctance (real) 541:Gyrator–capacitor 486:Resonant cavities 376:Maxwell equations 16:(Redirected from 9927: 9888: 9887: 9886: 9752: 9751: 9555: 9410: 9409: 9392: 9385: 9378: 9369: 9368: 9306:Related articles 9221:Radiation damage 9046:Nuclear reactors 8931: 8930: 8912: 8905: 8898: 8889: 8888: 8867:Particle physics 8821:electromagnetism 8816:weak interaction 8769: 8762: 8755: 8746: 8745: 8724: 8681: 8659: 8637: 8618: 8599: 8578: 8552: 8550: 8548: 8529: 8528: 8510: 8490: 8484: 8483: 8481: 8479: 8465: 8459: 8458: 8456: 8454: 8440: 8434: 8433: 8405: 8399: 8398: 8380: 8356: 8350: 8336: 8326: 8301: 8295: 8294: 8283: 8277: 8264: 8258: 8257: 8229: 8223: 8222: 8212: 8188: 8182: 8181: 8149: 8143: 8142: 8132: 8108: 8102: 8101: 8077: 8067: 8058: 8057: 8055: 8053: 8047: 8041:. Archived from 8036: 8028: 8022: 8021: 8019: 8017: 7998: 7992: 7991: 7989: 7987: 7982:on 8 August 2017 7978:. Archived from 7968: 7962: 7961: 7959: 7957: 7942:"CANDU textbook" 7938: 7929: 7928: 7892: 7886: 7885: 7879: 7874: 7872: 7864: 7862: 7860: 7854: 7845: 7839: 7838: 7812: 7806: 7805: 7795: 7786:(7): 1901–1907. 7771: 7765: 7764: 7740: 7730: 7724: 7723: 7721: 7719: 7704: 7698: 7697: 7695: 7693: 7680:Henderson, Roy. 7677: 7671: 7661: 7650: 7649: 7631: 7616:Microscopy Today 7607: 7601: 7600: 7598: 7596: 7577: 7571: 7570: 7560: 7535:(6): 1496–1499. 7520: 7514: 7513: 7503: 7471: 7465: 7464: 7444: 7438: 7437: 7435: 7433: 7414: 7408: 7407: 7381: 7375: 7371: 7365: 7364: 7344: 7338: 7337: 7331: 7323: 7321: 7319: 7303: 7297: 7296: 7278: 7272: 7271: 7253: 7247: 7246: 7215: 7209: 7208: 7192: 7182: 7176: 7175: 7166: 7160: 7159: 7139: 7133: 7132: 7130: 7128: 7109: 7103: 7102: 7092: 7066: 7042: 7036: 7035: 7033: 7031: 7017: 7011: 7010: 6988: 6982: 6981: 6979: 6977: 6966:science.nasa.gov 6958: 6952: 6951: 6949: 6947: 6928: 6922: 6921: 6919: 6917: 6898: 6892: 6891: 6889: 6858: 6849: 6843: 6842: 6840: 6838: 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3976: 3975: 3973: 3965: 3964: 3955: 3936: 3932: 3931: 3901: 3889: 3887: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3870: 3858: 3854: 3853: 3831: 3827: 3826: 3797: 3795: 3794: 3789: 3787: 3771: 3769: 3768: 3763: 3758: 3750: 3742: 3718: 3716: 3715: 3710: 3708: 3707: 3687: 3679: 3677: 3676: 3671: 3669: 3668: 3646: 3644: 3643: 3638: 3636: 3634: 3626: 3625: 3616: 3607: 3605: 3604: 3599: 3597: 3595: 3587: 3586: 3577: 3567: 3565: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3538: 3536: 3535: 3530: 3528: 3506: 3504: 3503: 3498: 3496: 3448: 3446: 3445: 3440: 3438: 3426: 3424: 3423: 3418: 3416: 3394: 3385: 3383: 3382: 3377: 3375: 3373: 3365: 3364: 3355: 3353: 3352: 3343: 3342: 3330: 3311: 3303: 3294: 3292: 3291: 3286: 3278: 3259: 3251: 3242: 3240: 3239: 3234: 3232: 3230: 3222: 3221: 3212: 3204: 3185: 3177: 3168: 3166: 3165: 3160: 3152: 3133: 2657:section below). 2551:Fourier analysis 2476:Medium frequency 2416:SX = Soft X-Rays 2230:William Herschel 2200:refractive index 2009:electric current 1999: 1997: 1996: 1991: 1986: 1978: 1973: 1968: 1960: 1955: 1947: 1906: 1904: 1903: 1898: 1875: 1873: 1872: 1867: 1863: 1858: 1850: 1735:Fourier analysis 1704: 1702: 1701: 1696: 1619: 1613: 1603: 1601: 1600: 1595: 1593: 1579: 1554: 1447:refractive index 1296:) produce local 1133:near ultraviolet 1120: 1116: 1112: 1092: 1006:angular momentum 864: 857: 850: 531:Electric machine 514:Magnetic circuit 476:Parallel circuit 466:Network analysis 431:Electric current 366:London equations 211:Triboelectricity 201:Potential energy 70: 60:Electromagnetism 51: 50: 21: 9935: 9934: 9930: 9929: 9928: 9926: 9925: 9924: 9900: 9899: 9898: 9893: 9884: 9882: 9871: 9800: 9741: 9606: 9556: 9543: 9468: 9401: 9396: 9366: 9361: 9360: 9337: 9333:Havana syndrome 9318:Nuclear physics 9301: 9265: 9158: 9148: 9134:Unruh radiation 9070: 9051:Nuclear weapons 9036:Nuclear fission 8982: 8922: 8916: 8886: 8881: 8853: 8832: 8788:Physical forces 8782: 8773: 8739:Project PHYSNET 8712: 8711: 8710: 8700: 8699: 8695: 8688: 8678: 8656: 8634: 8615: 8596: 8575: 8559: 8557:Further reading 8546: 8544: 8536: 8533: 8532: 8491: 8487: 8477: 8475: 8467: 8466: 8462: 8452: 8450: 8442: 8441: 8437: 8406: 8402: 8357: 8353: 8302: 8298: 8285: 8284: 8280: 8274:Wayback Machine 8265: 8261: 8230: 8226: 8189: 8185: 8150: 8146: 8109: 8105: 8090: 8068: 8061: 8051: 8049: 8045: 8034: 8030: 8029: 8025: 8015: 8013: 8000: 7999: 7995: 7985: 7983: 7970: 7969: 7965: 7955: 7953: 7940: 7939: 7932: 7893: 7889: 7877: 7875: 7866: 7865: 7858: 7856: 7852: 7846: 7842: 7835: 7813: 7809: 7772: 7768: 7761: 7731: 7727: 7717: 7715: 7706: 7705: 7701: 7691: 7689: 7678: 7674: 7662: 7653: 7608: 7604: 7594: 7592: 7579: 7578: 7574: 7521: 7517: 7472: 7468: 7461: 7445: 7441: 7431: 7429: 7416: 7415: 7411: 7404: 7382: 7378: 7372: 7368: 7361: 7345: 7341: 7325: 7324: 7317: 7315: 7304: 7300: 7293: 7279: 7275: 7268: 7254: 7250: 7243: 7227:. Vol. 1. 7216: 7212: 7205: 7183: 7179: 7168: 7167: 7163: 7156: 7140: 7136: 7126: 7124: 7111: 7110: 7106: 7043: 7039: 7029: 7027: 7019: 7018: 7014: 7007: 6989: 6985: 6975: 6973: 6960: 6959: 6955: 6945: 6943: 6930: 6929: 6925: 6915: 6913: 6900: 6899: 6895: 6887: 6856: 6850: 6846: 6836: 6834: 6833:on 27 June 2007 6830: 6823: 6817: 6813: 6803: 6801: 6788: 6787: 6783: 6773: 6771: 6759: 6755: 6723:physics/9810036 6706: 6702: 6692: 6690: 6686: 6685: 6681: 6668: 6664: 6654: 6652: 6643: 6642: 6638: 6628: 6626: 6617: 6616: 6612: 6602: 6600: 6591: 6590: 6586: 6576: 6574: 6561: 6560: 6556: 6546: 6544: 6534: 6530: 6523: 6507: 6503: 6493: 6491: 6478: 6477: 6473: 6463: 6461: 6448: 6447: 6443: 6436: 6420: 6416: 6409: 6393: 6389: 6381: 6366: 6362: 6323: 6319: 6306: 6291: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6203: 6148: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6134: 6131:Poynting vector 6113: 6109: 6103: 6099: 6090: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6080: 6061: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6047: 6029: 6015: 6013: 6012: 6004: 6000: 5995: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5981: 5958: 5952: 5948: 5946: 5925: 5921: 5913: 5899: 5897: 5896: 5895: 5891: 5890: 5882: 5876: 5871: 5870: 5856: 5854: 5853: 5845: 5837: 5834: 5833: 5805: 5803: 5802: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5788: 5754: 5750: 5742: 5728: 5726: 5725: 5724: 5720: 5719: 5711: 5705: 5700: 5699: 5685: 5683: 5682: 5674: 5666: 5663: 5662: 5637: 5635: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5628: 5599: 5595: 5587: 5573: 5571: 5570: 5569: 5565: 5564: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5538: 5534: 5532: 5524: 5517: 5513: 5512: 5511: 5506: 5488: 5484: 5476: 5462: 5460: 5459: 5458: 5454: 5453: 5444: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5434: 5408: 5404: 5396: 5382: 5380: 5379: 5378: 5374: 5373: 5368: 5365: 5364: 5347: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5340: 5318: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5309: 5293: 5290: 5289: 5272: 5267: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5260: 5232: 5228: 5220: 5206: 5204: 5203: 5202: 5198: 5197: 5188: 5183: 5182: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5168: 5155: 5133: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5123: 5103: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5093: 5061: 5057: 5051: 5047: 5041: 5032: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5022: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4983: 4979: 4977: 4969: 4962: 4958: 4957: 4956: 4951: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4925: 4921: 4919: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4893: 4889: 4887: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4861: 4857: 4855: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4829: 4825: 4823: 4815: 4808: 4804: 4803: 4802: 4797: 4788: 4784: 4776: 4773: 4772: 4752: 4749: 4748: 4723: 4720: 4719: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4681: 4677: 4676: 4674: 4666: 4659: 4655: 4654: 4653: 4648: 4636: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4626: 4610: 4607: 4606: 4586: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4576: 4569: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4532: 4526: 4522: 4521: 4519: 4513: 4509: 4503: 4499: 4491: 4485: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4475: 4463: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4429: 4423: 4419: 4418: 4416: 4410: 4406: 4400: 4396: 4388: 4382: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4372: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4303: 4297: 4293: 4292: 4290: 4284: 4280: 4274: 4270: 4254: 4247: 4243: 4233: 4228: 4207: 4201: 4197: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4179: 4176: 4175: 4160: 4119: 4113: 4109: 4098: 4092: 4088: 4075: 4068: 4064: 4048: 4041: 4037: 4029: 4026: 4025: 3966: 3960: 3956: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3927: 3920: 3916: 3908: 3905: 3904: 3872: 3866: 3862: 3849: 3842: 3838: 3822: 3815: 3811: 3803: 3800: 3799: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3777: 3774:vector identity 3754: 3746: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3732: 3703: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3693: 3685: 3664: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3654: 3627: 3621: 3617: 3615: 3613: 3610: 3609: 3588: 3582: 3578: 3576: 3574: 3571: 3570: 3550: 3548: 3545: 3544: 3524: 3516: 3513: 3512: 3492: 3484: 3481: 3480: 3434: 3432: 3429: 3428: 3412: 3410: 3407: 3406: 3366: 3360: 3356: 3354: 3348: 3344: 3338: 3334: 3326: 3318: 3315: 3314: 3274: 3266: 3263: 3262: 3223: 3217: 3213: 3211: 3200: 3192: 3189: 3188: 3148: 3140: 3137: 3136: 3116: 3110: 3082: 3076: 3074:Use as a weapon 3024: 3016:Main articles: 3014: 2937: 2929:Main articles: 2927: 2915:shortwave radio 2861: 2843:shortwave radio 2837:Main articles: 2835: 2814: 2806:Main articles: 2804: 2792:photoionisation 2773: 2767: 2677: 2671: 2650: 2644: 2609: 2601:Main articles: 2599: 2508: 2502: 2496: 2494:Voice frequency 2491: 2485: 2479: 2473: 2467: 2461: 2455: 2454: 2448: 2442: 2441: 2439: 2437: 2432: 2431: 2430:(colored bands) 2426: 2425: 2423: 2418: 2417: 2415: 2410: 2409: 2404: 2384: 2378: 2340:alpha particles 2320:Henri Becquerel 2305:Wilhelm Röntgen 2278: 2265:silver chloride 2244:light from the 2222: 2208: 2196:velocity factor 2185:Planck constant 2138: 2132: 2086: 2078: 2072: 2064:phosphorescence 1977: 1961: 1959: 1946: 1938: 1935: 1934: 1892: 1889: 1888: 1885:Planck constant 1851: 1849: 1832: 1829: 1828: 1802:Albert Einstein 1776: 1766: 1679: 1676: 1675: 1615: 1609: 1606:transverse wave 1591: 1590: 1580: 1575: 1566: 1565: 1555: 1550: 1540: 1538: 1535: 1534: 1527:transverse wave 1515: 1485:photomultiplier 1401:vector addition 1380: 1306:electric-dipole 1302:magnetic-dipole 1250: 1242:Main articles: 1240: 1220:magnetic fields 1205: 1200: 1192:Main articles: 1178: 1173: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1107:Planck constant 1084: 1072:in an atom and 951:transverse wave 926:magnetic fields 868: 839: 838: 654: 646: 645: 601: 591: 590: 546:Induction motor 516: 506: 505: 421:Current density 406: 396: 395: 386:Poynting vector 296: 294:Electrodynamics 286: 285: 281:Right-hand rule 246:Magnetic dipole 236:Biot–Savart law 226: 216: 215: 151:Electric dipole 146:Electric charge 121: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9933: 9923: 9922: 9917: 9915:Heinrich Hertz 9912: 9895: 9894: 9880: 9877: 9876: 9873: 9872: 9870: 9869: 9864: 9859: 9854: 9853: 9852: 9851: 9850: 9848:for spacecraft 9845: 9837: 9832: 9824: 9819: 9814: 9808: 9806: 9802: 9801: 9799: 9798: 9793: 9788: 9787: 9786: 9776: 9771: 9766: 9760: 9758: 9749: 9743: 9742: 9740: 9739: 9734: 9729: 9724: 9719: 9714: 9713: 9712: 9702: 9697: 9692: 9687: 9682: 9677: 9672: 9671: 9670: 9665: 9655: 9650: 9645: 9640: 9639: 9638: 9633: 9625: 9620: 9614: 9612: 9608: 9607: 9605: 9604: 9603: 9602: 9592: 9587: 9582: 9577: 9572: 9566: 9564: 9558: 9557: 9550: 9548: 9545: 9544: 9542: 9541: 9540: 9539: 9529: 9527:Microorganisms 9524: 9519: 9518: 9517: 9512: 9507: 9502: 9497: 9492: 9487: 9476: 9474: 9470: 9469: 9467: 9466: 9461: 9456: 9455: 9454: 9444: 9439: 9434: 9429: 9424: 9422:The human body 9418: 9416: 9407: 9403: 9402: 9395: 9394: 9387: 9380: 9372: 9363: 9362: 9342: 9339: 9338: 9336: 9335: 9330: 9325: 9320: 9315: 9309: 9307: 9303: 9302: 9300: 9299: 9294: 9289: 9284: 9279: 9273: 9271: 9267: 9266: 9264: 9263: 9258: 9253: 9248: 9243: 9238: 9233: 9228: 9223: 9218: 9213: 9208: 9203: 9198: 9193: 9188: 9183: 9181:Health physics 9178: 9177: 9176: 9171: 9162: 9160: 9154: 9153: 9150: 9149: 9147: 9146: 9141: 9139:Dark radiation 9136: 9131: 9129:Bremsstrahlung 9126: 9121: 9116: 9111: 9106: 9101: 9096: 9091: 9086: 9081: 9075: 9072: 9071: 9069: 9068: 9063: 9058: 9053: 9048: 9043: 9041:Nuclear fusion 9038: 9033: 9028: 9023: 9018: 9013: 9011:Alpha particle 9008: 9003: 8998: 8992: 8990: 8984: 8983: 8981: 8980: 8975: 8970: 8965: 8960: 8955: 8950: 8945: 8939: 8937: 8928: 8924: 8923: 8915: 8914: 8907: 8900: 8892: 8883: 8882: 8880: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8864: 8858: 8855: 8854: 8852: 8851: 8846: 8840: 8838: 8834: 8833: 8831: 8830: 8825: 8824: 8823: 8818: 8808: 8807: 8806: 8801: 8792: 8790: 8784: 8783: 8772: 8771: 8764: 8757: 8749: 8743: 8742: 8730: 8718: 8709: 8708: 8702: 8701: 8690: 8689: 8687: 8686:External links 8684: 8683: 8682: 8676: 8660: 8654: 8638: 8632: 8619: 8613: 8600: 8594: 8579: 8573: 8558: 8555: 8554: 8553: 8531: 8530: 8485: 8460: 8435: 8410:Drugs of Today 8400: 8351: 8296: 8278: 8259: 8224: 8203:(7): 885–890. 8183: 8164:(8): 555–562. 8144: 8103: 8088: 8059: 8032:"Planck's law" 8023: 7993: 7963: 7930: 7887: 7878:|journal= 7840: 7833: 7807: 7766: 7759: 7725: 7714:on 29 May 2012 7699: 7672: 7651: 7602: 7572: 7515: 7466: 7459: 7439: 7418:"Spectroscopy" 7409: 7402: 7376: 7366: 7359: 7339: 7298: 7291: 7273: 7266: 7248: 7241: 7210: 7203: 7177: 7161: 7154: 7134: 7104: 7037: 7012: 7005: 6983: 6953: 6923: 6893: 6844: 6811: 6781: 6753: 6700: 6679: 6662: 6636: 6610: 6597:plus.maths.org 6584: 6554: 6536:Elert, Glenn. 6528: 6521: 6501: 6471: 6454:nobelprize.org 6441: 6434: 6414: 6407: 6387: 6379: 6360: 6317: 6304: 6284: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6116: 6112: 6106: 6102: 6098: 6093: 6089: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6032: 6028: 6022: 6018: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5994: 5990: 5964: 5961: 5955: 5951: 5945: 5942: 5937: 5933: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5906: 5902: 5894: 5888: 5885: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5863: 5859: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5841: 5821: 5818: 5812: 5808: 5801: 5797: 5774: 5771: 5766: 5762: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5735: 5731: 5723: 5717: 5714: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5692: 5688: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5670: 5644: 5640: 5616: 5611: 5607: 5602: 5598: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5580: 5576: 5568: 5563: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5541: 5537: 5527: 5520: 5516: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5496: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5469: 5465: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5443: 5420: 5416: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5389: 5385: 5377: 5372: 5350: 5325: 5321: 5297: 5275: 5270: 5244: 5240: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5213: 5209: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5186: 5181: 5177: 5153: 5136: 5132: 5106: 5102: 5087:speed of light 5072: 5064: 5060: 5054: 5050: 5045: 5040: 5035: 5031: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4986: 4982: 4972: 4965: 4961: 4955: 4950: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4928: 4924: 4918: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4896: 4892: 4886: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4864: 4860: 4854: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4832: 4828: 4818: 4811: 4807: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4780: 4756: 4736: 4733: 4730: 4727: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4680: 4669: 4662: 4658: 4652: 4647: 4644: 4639: 4635: 4614: 4594: 4589: 4585: 4557: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4535: 4529: 4525: 4516: 4512: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4488: 4484: 4473: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4432: 4426: 4422: 4413: 4409: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4385: 4381: 4370: 4348: 4347: 4338: 4336: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4306: 4300: 4296: 4287: 4283: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4266: 4262: 4257: 4253: 4250: 4246: 4239: 4236: 4232: 4227: 4224: 4220: 4213: 4210: 4204: 4200: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4183: 4149: 4148: 4139: 4137: 4126: 4122: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4105: 4101: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4078: 4074: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4060: 4056: 4051: 4047: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4033: 4003: 4002: 3993: 3991: 3979: 3972: 3969: 3963: 3959: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3942: 3939: 3935: 3930: 3926: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3912: 3879: 3875: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3852: 3848: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3834: 3830: 3825: 3821: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3807: 3786: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3729: 3728: 3706: 3702: 3684:of a vacuum (4 3667: 3663: 3652: 3633: 3630: 3624: 3620: 3594: 3591: 3585: 3581: 3568: 3557: 3553: 3527: 3523: 3520: 3495: 3491: 3488: 3478: 3467:magnetic field 3451:electric field 3437: 3415: 3398: 3397: 3388: 3386: 3372: 3369: 3363: 3359: 3351: 3347: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3322: 3307: 3306: 3297: 3295: 3284: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3270: 3255: 3254: 3245: 3243: 3229: 3226: 3220: 3216: 3210: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3196: 3181: 3180: 3171: 3169: 3158: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3144: 3112:Main article: 3109: 3106: 3102:microwave oven 3075: 3072: 3013: 3010: 2995:thermal energy 2954:kinetic energy 2950:thermal energy 2926: 2923: 2859:optical window 2834: 2831: 2803: 2800: 2777:electron volts 2769:Main article: 2766: 2763: 2715:Photosynthesis 2673:Main article: 2670: 2667: 2646:Main article: 2643: 2640: 2636:microwave oven 2598: 2595: 2470:High frequency 2419:EUV = Extreme- 2380:Main article: 2377: 2374: 2370:bremsstrahlung 2365:Edward Andrade 2344:beta particles 2290:Heinrich Hertz 2207: 2204: 2153:speed of light 2136:Speed of light 2134:Main article: 2131: 2128: 2085: 2082: 2074:Main article: 2071: 2068: 2029:Compton effect 2001: 2000: 1989: 1984: 1981: 1976: 1971: 1967: 1964: 1958: 1953: 1950: 1945: 1942: 1913:speed of light 1896: 1877: 1876: 1861: 1857: 1854: 1848: 1845: 1842: 1839: 1836: 1774:Quantum optics 1765: 1762: 1758:radiant energy 1706: 1705: 1693: 1690: 1687: 1684: 1589: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1574: 1571: 1568: 1567: 1564: 1561: 1558: 1556: 1553: 1549: 1546: 1543: 1542: 1514: 1511: 1492:quantum theory 1481:interferometer 1416:Faraday effect 1379: 1376: 1239: 1236: 1232:Heinrich Hertz 1228:speed of light 1204: 1201: 1177: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1161:chemical bonds 1147:chemical bonds 1052:which are the 934:speed of light 904:radiant energy 886:) consists of 870: 869: 867: 866: 859: 852: 844: 841: 840: 837: 836: 831: 826: 821: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 766: 761: 756: 751: 746: 741: 736: 731: 726: 721: 716: 711: 706: 701: 696: 691: 686: 681: 676: 671: 666: 661: 655: 652: 651: 648: 647: 644: 643: 638: 633: 628: 623: 621:Four-potential 618: 613: 608: 602: 597: 596: 593: 592: 589: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 553: 548: 543: 538: 536:Electric motor 533: 528: 523: 517: 512: 511: 508: 507: 504: 503: 498: 493: 491:Series circuit 488: 483: 478: 473: 468: 463: 461:Kirchhoff laws 458: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 426:Direct current 423: 418: 413: 407: 402: 401: 398: 397: 394: 393: 388: 383: 381:Maxwell tensor 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 351:Larmor formula 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 301:Bremsstrahlung 297: 292: 291: 288: 287: 284: 283: 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 251:Magnetic field 248: 243: 238: 233: 227: 224:Magnetostatics 222: 221: 218: 217: 214: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 158: 156:Electric field 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 128: 126:Charge density 122: 119:Electrostatics 117: 116: 113: 112: 111: 110: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 72: 71: 63: 62: 56: 55: 54:Articles about 46:magnetic field 42:electric field 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9932: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9913: 9911: 9908: 9907: 9905: 9892: 9891: 9878: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9860: 9858: 9855: 9849: 9846: 9844: 9841: 9840: 9838: 9836: 9833: 9831: 9828: 9827: 9825: 9823: 9820: 9818: 9817:Manufacturing 9815: 9813: 9810: 9809: 9807: 9803: 9797: 9794: 9792: 9789: 9785: 9782: 9781: 9780: 9777: 9775: 9772: 9770: 9767: 9765: 9762: 9761: 9759: 9757: 9753: 9750: 9748: 9744: 9738: 9735: 9733: 9730: 9728: 9725: 9723: 9720: 9718: 9715: 9711: 9708: 9707: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9691: 9688: 9686: 9683: 9681: 9678: 9676: 9673: 9669: 9666: 9664: 9661: 9660: 9659: 9656: 9654: 9651: 9649: 9646: 9644: 9641: 9637: 9634: 9632: 9629: 9628: 9626: 9624: 9621: 9619: 9616: 9615: 9613: 9609: 9601: 9598: 9597: 9596: 9593: 9591: 9590:Magnetosphere 9588: 9586: 9583: 9581: 9578: 9576: 9573: 9571: 9568: 9567: 9565: 9563: 9559: 9554: 9538: 9535: 9534: 9533: 9530: 9528: 9525: 9523: 9520: 9516: 9513: 9511: 9508: 9506: 9503: 9501: 9498: 9496: 9493: 9491: 9488: 9486: 9483: 9482: 9481: 9478: 9477: 9475: 9471: 9465: 9462: 9460: 9457: 9453: 9450: 9449: 9448: 9445: 9443: 9440: 9438: 9435: 9433: 9430: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9419: 9417: 9415: 9411: 9408: 9404: 9400: 9393: 9388: 9386: 9381: 9379: 9374: 9373: 9370: 9359: 9355: 9351: 9350:Radioactivity 9347: 9340: 9334: 9331: 9329: 9326: 9324: 9321: 9319: 9316: 9314: 9311: 9310: 9308: 9304: 9298: 9295: 9293: 9290: 9288: 9285: 9283: 9280: 9278: 9275: 9274: 9272: 9268: 9262: 9259: 9257: 9254: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9244: 9242: 9239: 9237: 9234: 9232: 9229: 9227: 9224: 9222: 9219: 9217: 9214: 9212: 9209: 9207: 9204: 9202: 9199: 9197: 9194: 9192: 9189: 9187: 9184: 9182: 9179: 9175: 9172: 9170: 9167: 9166: 9164: 9163: 9161: 9155: 9145: 9142: 9140: 9137: 9135: 9132: 9130: 9127: 9125: 9122: 9120: 9117: 9115: 9112: 9110: 9107: 9105: 9102: 9100: 9097: 9095: 9092: 9090: 9087: 9085: 9082: 9080: 9077: 9076: 9073: 9067: 9064: 9062: 9059: 9057: 9054: 9052: 9049: 9047: 9044: 9042: 9039: 9037: 9034: 9032: 9029: 9027: 9024: 9022: 9019: 9017: 9016:Beta particle 9014: 9012: 9009: 9007: 9004: 9002: 9001:Cluster decay 8999: 8997: 8994: 8993: 8991: 8989: 8985: 8979: 8976: 8974: 8971: 8969: 8966: 8964: 8961: 8959: 8956: 8954: 8951: 8949: 8946: 8944: 8941: 8940: 8938: 8936: 8932: 8929: 8927:Main articles 8925: 8920: 8913: 8908: 8906: 8901: 8899: 8894: 8893: 8890: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8865: 8863: 8860: 8859: 8856: 8850: 8847: 8845: 8842: 8841: 8839: 8835: 8829: 8826: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8814: 8813: 8812: 8809: 8805: 8802: 8799: 8798: 8797: 8794: 8793: 8791: 8789: 8785: 8781: 8777: 8770: 8765: 8763: 8758: 8756: 8751: 8750: 8747: 8740: 8736: 8735: 8731: 8728: 8723: 8719: 8717: 8714: 8713: 8707: 8704: 8703: 8698: 8693: 8679: 8673: 8669: 8665: 8664:Allen Taflove 8661: 8657: 8651: 8647: 8643: 8639: 8635: 8629: 8625: 8620: 8616: 8610: 8606: 8601: 8597: 8591: 8587: 8586: 8580: 8576: 8570: 8566: 8561: 8560: 8543: 8539: 8535: 8534: 8526: 8522: 8518: 8514: 8509: 8504: 8501:(1): 013819. 8500: 8496: 8489: 8474: 8470: 8464: 8449: 8445: 8439: 8431: 8427: 8423: 8419: 8415: 8411: 8404: 8396: 8392: 8388: 8384: 8379: 8374: 8371:(9): 978–86. 8370: 8366: 8362: 8355: 8348: 8345:formation of 8344: 8343:photochemical 8340: 8334: 8330: 8325: 8320: 8317:(7): 1901–7. 8316: 8312: 8308: 8300: 8292: 8288: 8282: 8275: 8271: 8268: 8263: 8255: 8251: 8247: 8243: 8239: 8235: 8228: 8220: 8216: 8211: 8206: 8202: 8198: 8194: 8187: 8179: 8175: 8171: 8167: 8163: 8159: 8155: 8148: 8140: 8136: 8131: 8126: 8122: 8118: 8114: 8107: 8099: 8095: 8091: 8085: 8081: 8076: 8075: 8066: 8064: 8044: 8040: 8033: 8027: 8011: 8007: 8003: 7997: 7981: 7977: 7973: 7967: 7951: 7947: 7943: 7937: 7935: 7926: 7922: 7918: 7914: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7898: 7891: 7883: 7870: 7851: 7844: 7836: 7830: 7826: 7822: 7818: 7811: 7803: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7785: 7781: 7777: 7770: 7762: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7739: 7738: 7729: 7713: 7709: 7703: 7687: 7683: 7676: 7669: 7665: 7660: 7658: 7656: 7647: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7630: 7625: 7621: 7617: 7613: 7606: 7590: 7586: 7582: 7576: 7568: 7564: 7559: 7554: 7550: 7546: 7542: 7538: 7534: 7530: 7526: 7519: 7511: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7493: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7477: 7470: 7462: 7456: 7452: 7451: 7443: 7427: 7423: 7419: 7413: 7405: 7399: 7395: 7391: 7387: 7380: 7370: 7362: 7356: 7352: 7351: 7343: 7335: 7329: 7313: 7309: 7302: 7294: 7288: 7284: 7277: 7269: 7263: 7259: 7252: 7244: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7226: 7225: 7220: 7214: 7206: 7200: 7196: 7191: 7190: 7181: 7173: 7172: 7165: 7157: 7151: 7147: 7146: 7138: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7108: 7100: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7056: 7052: 7048: 7041: 7026: 7022: 7016: 7008: 7002: 6998: 6994: 6987: 6971: 6967: 6963: 6957: 6941: 6937: 6933: 6927: 6911: 6907: 6903: 6897: 6886: 6882: 6878: 6874: 6870: 6866: 6862: 6855: 6848: 6829: 6822: 6815: 6799: 6795: 6791: 6785: 6769: 6768: 6763: 6757: 6749: 6745: 6741: 6740:10.1038/25303 6737: 6733: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6715: 6711: 6704: 6689: 6683: 6676: 6672: 6666: 6650: 6646: 6640: 6624: 6620: 6614: 6598: 6594: 6588: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6558: 6543: 6539: 6532: 6524: 6518: 6514: 6513: 6505: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6475: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6445: 6437: 6431: 6427: 6426: 6418: 6410: 6404: 6400: 6399: 6391: 6382: 6376: 6372: 6364: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6321: 6313: 6307: 6301: 6297: 6289: 6285: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6205: 6198: 6194: 6192: 6188: 6182: 6180: 6175: 6174:curl operator 6170: 6166: 6145: 6132: 6114: 6110: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6091: 6087: 6077: 6058: 6044: 6026: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5992: 5978: 5962: 5943: 5940: 5935: 5931: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5910: 5892: 5886: 5883: 5877: 5867: 5850: 5842: 5819: 5816: 5799: 5785: 5772: 5769: 5764: 5760: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5739: 5721: 5715: 5712: 5706: 5696: 5679: 5671: 5659: 5614: 5609: 5605: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5584: 5566: 5561: 5553: 5549: 5539: 5525: 5518: 5514: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5494: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5473: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5418: 5414: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5393: 5375: 5370: 5295: 5273: 5257: 5242: 5238: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5217: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5179: 5165: 5163: 5159: 5152: 5134: 5130: 5122: 5104: 5100: 5092: 5088: 5083: 5070: 5062: 5058: 5052: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5029: 5019: 4998: 4994: 4984: 4970: 4963: 4959: 4953: 4948: 4940: 4936: 4926: 4916: 4908: 4904: 4894: 4884: 4876: 4872: 4862: 4852: 4844: 4840: 4830: 4816: 4809: 4805: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4781: 4778: 4770: 4754: 4734: 4731: 4728: 4725: 4700: 4696: 4687: 4682: 4667: 4660: 4656: 4650: 4645: 4642: 4637: 4612: 4592: 4587: 4583: 4574: 4573:wave equation 4568: 4555: 4547: 4543: 4527: 4514: 4510: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4486: 4472: 4470: 4469: 4462: 4444: 4440: 4424: 4411: 4407: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4383: 4369: 4367: 4363: 4362: 4357: 4356: 4346: 4339: 4337: 4318: 4314: 4298: 4285: 4281: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4264: 4260: 4251: 4244: 4237: 4225: 4222: 4218: 4211: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4174: 4173: 4170: 4166: 4165: 4158: 4157: 4147: 4140: 4138: 4124: 4114: 4106: 4103: 4093: 4085: 4081: 4072: 4065: 4058: 4054: 4045: 4038: 4034: 4024: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4017: 4012: 4011: 4001: 3994: 3992: 3977: 3970: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3937: 3933: 3924: 3917: 3913: 3903: 3902: 3899: 3897: 3896: 3890: 3877: 3867: 3859: 3855: 3846: 3839: 3832: 3828: 3819: 3812: 3808: 3775: 3759: 3751: 3743: 3726: 3722: 3704: 3700: 3691: 3683: 3665: 3661: 3653: 3650: 3631: 3592: 3569: 3555: 3542: 3521: 3510: 3489: 3479: 3476: 3472: 3469:(measured in 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3453:(measured in 3452: 3405: 3404: 3403: 3396: 3389: 3387: 3370: 3349: 3345: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3323: 3313: 3312: 3305: 3298: 3296: 3282: 3279: 3271: 3261: 3260: 3253: 3246: 3244: 3227: 3208: 3205: 3197: 3187: 3186: 3179: 3172: 3170: 3156: 3153: 3145: 3135: 3134: 3131: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3115: 3105: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3081: 3071: 3068: 3067:free radicals 3064: 3060: 3054: 3050: 3048: 3044: 3039: 3036: 3031: 3028: 3023: 3019: 3009: 3007: 3002: 2998: 2996: 2992: 2987: 2982: 2978: 2976: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2936: 2932: 2922: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2903: 2899: 2897: 2892: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2874: 2871:) of various 2870: 2865: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2830: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2813: 2809: 2799: 2797: 2796:electron volt 2793: 2788: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2772: 2762: 2760: 2759:ultraviolet A 2756: 2751: 2749: 2745: 2739: 2736: 2734: 2730: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2692: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2676: 2669:Visible light 2666: 2664: 2658: 2656: 2649: 2639: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2624: 2620: 2618: 2614: 2608: 2604: 2594: 2592: 2591:Planck energy 2586: 2584: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2562: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2512: 2506: 2500: 2495: 2489: 2483: 2482:Low frequency 2477: 2471: 2465: 2460:(radio waves) 2459: 2452: 2446: 2436: 2429: 2428:Visible light 2422: 2414: 2408: 2403: 2399: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2373: 2371: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2316:radioactivity 2312: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2300: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2253: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2203: 2201: 2197: 2192: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2149: 2147: 2143: 2137: 2127: 2125: 2121: 2115: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2092: 2081: 2077: 2067: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2032: 2030: 2026: 2025: 2020: 2019: 2014: 2010: 2006: 1987: 1982: 1979: 1974: 1969: 1965: 1962: 1956: 1951: 1948: 1943: 1940: 1933: 1932: 1931: 1929: 1924: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1894: 1886: 1882: 1859: 1855: 1852: 1846: 1843: 1840: 1837: 1834: 1827: 1826: 1825: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1775: 1771: 1761: 1759: 1754: 1752: 1746: 1744: 1743:monochromatic 1740: 1736: 1732: 1727: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1716: 1711: 1691: 1688: 1685: 1682: 1674: 1673: 1672: 1670: 1665: 1663: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1637:curl operator 1634: 1630: 1626: 1621: 1618: 1612: 1607: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1572: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1547: 1532: 1528: 1519: 1510: 1508: 1504: 1499: 1497: 1493: 1488: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1458: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1423: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1393:superposition 1384: 1375: 1372: 1367: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1351:power density 1348: 1343: 1338: 1334: 1333: 1327: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1312: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1287: 1283: 1282: 1277: 1273: 1272: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1254: 1249: 1245: 1235: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1199: 1195: 1187: 1182: 1168: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1153: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1139: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1123: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1070:energy levels 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1034: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 990: 988: 984: 980: 976: 975:visible light 972: 968: 964: 959: 954: 952: 947: 943: 939: 935: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 865: 860: 858: 853: 851: 846: 845: 843: 842: 835: 832: 830: 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 757: 755: 752: 750: 747: 745: 742: 740: 737: 735: 732: 730: 727: 725: 722: 720: 717: 715: 712: 710: 707: 705: 702: 700: 697: 695: 692: 690: 687: 685: 682: 680: 677: 675: 672: 670: 667: 665: 662: 660: 657: 656: 650: 649: 642: 639: 637: 634: 632: 629: 627: 624: 622: 619: 617: 614: 612: 609: 607: 604: 603: 600: 595: 594: 587: 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 547: 544: 542: 539: 537: 534: 532: 529: 527: 524: 522: 519: 518: 515: 510: 509: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 462: 459: 457: 456:Joule heating 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 417: 414: 412: 409: 408: 405: 400: 399: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 371:Lorentz force 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 298: 295: 290: 289: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 271:Magnetization 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 256:Magnetic flux 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 237: 234: 232: 229: 228: 225: 220: 219: 212: 209: 207: 204: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 161:Electric flux 159: 157: 154: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 123: 120: 115: 114: 109: 106: 104: 101: 99: 98:Computational 96: 94: 91: 89: 86: 84: 81: 79: 76: 75: 74: 73: 69: 65: 64: 61: 58: 57: 53: 52: 47: 43: 39: 34: 30: 19: 9881: 9769:Architecture 9653:Colonization 9627:Archaeology 9442:Neuroscience 9399:... in space 9354:Radiobiology 9236:Radiobiology 9196:Laser safety 9083: 8849:Quintessence 8733: 8696: 8667: 8645: 8623: 8604: 8584: 8564: 8545:. Retrieved 8542:Khan Academy 8541: 8498: 8495:Phys. Rev. A 8494: 8488: 8476:. Retrieved 8472: 8463: 8451:. Retrieved 8447: 8438: 8416:(1): 37–53. 8413: 8409: 8403: 8368: 8364: 8354: 8314: 8310: 8299: 8289:. CBS News. 8281: 8262: 8240:(1): 47–56. 8237: 8233: 8227: 8200: 8196: 8186: 8161: 8157: 8147: 8120: 8116: 8106: 8073: 8050:. Retrieved 8043:the original 8038: 8026: 8014:. Retrieved 8005: 7996: 7984:. Retrieved 7980:the original 7976:docs.kde.org 7975: 7966: 7954:. Retrieved 7945: 7903:(7): 28–43. 7900: 7896: 7890: 7869:cite journal 7857:. Retrieved 7843: 7816: 7810: 7783: 7779: 7769: 7736: 7728: 7716:. Retrieved 7712:the original 7702: 7690:. Retrieved 7686:the original 7675: 7664:Jeans, James 7622:(2): 48–51. 7619: 7615: 7605: 7595:29 September 7593:. Retrieved 7584: 7575: 7532: 7528: 7518: 7483: 7479: 7469: 7449: 7442: 7430:. Retrieved 7421: 7412: 7385: 7379: 7369: 7349: 7342: 7316:. Retrieved 7301: 7285:. 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