X-ray - Knowledge

920:. A spark gap was typically connected to the high voltage side in parallel to the tube and used for diagnostic purposes. The spark gap allowed detecting the polarity of the sparks, measuring voltage by the length of the sparks thus determining the "hardness" of the vacuum of the tube, and it provided a load in the event the X-ray tube was disconnected. To detect the hardness of the tube, the spark gap was initially opened to the widest setting. While the coil was operating, the operator reduced the gap until sparks began to appear. A tube in which the spark gap began to spark at around 6.4 centimeters (2.5 in) was considered soft (low vacuum) and suitable for thin body parts such as hands and arms. A 13-centimeter (5 in) spark indicated the tube was suitable for shoulders and knees. An 18-to-23-centimeter (7 to 9 in) spark would indicate a higher vacuum suitable for imaging the abdomen of larger individuals. Since the spark gap was connected in parallel to the tube, the spark gap had to be opened until the sparking ceased to operate the tube for imaging. Exposure time for photographic plates was around half a minute for a hand to a couple of minutes for a thorax. The plates may have a small addition of fluorescent salt to reduce exposure times. 655: 632: 2961:

originate within the eye itself. Upon hearing this, Röntgen reviewed his record books and found he too had seen the effect. When placing an X-ray tube on the opposite side of a wooden door Röntgen had noted the same blue glow, seeming to emanate from the eye itself, but thought his observations to be spurious because he only saw the effect when he used one type of tube. Later he realized that the tube which had created the effect was the only one powerful enough to make the glow plainly visible and the experiment was thereafter readily repeatable. The knowledge that X-rays are actually faintly visible to the dark-adapted naked eye has largely been forgotten today; this is probably due to the desire not to repeat what would now be seen as a recklessly dangerous and potentially harmful experiment with

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be the equivalent to 2–3 years of background radiation to the whole body, or 4–5 years to the abdomen or chest, increasing the lifetime cancer risk between 1 per 1,000 to 1 per 10,000. This is compared to the roughly 40% chance of a US citizen developing cancer during their lifetime. For instance, the effective dose to the torso from a CT scan of the chest is about 5 mSv, and the absorbed dose is about 14 mGy. A head CT scan (1.5 mSv, 64 mGy) that is performed once with and once without contrast agent, would be equivalent to 40 years of background radiation to the head. Accurate estimation of effective doses due to CT is difficult with the estimation uncertainty range of about ±19% to ±32% for adult head scans depending upon the method used.

2709: 3580: 221: 2318: 728: 1150: 886: 565: 2742: 62: 608: 8557: 2588: 50: 11280: 1214: 2882: 1898: 2213: 2351: 1506:. The strength of these interactions depends on the energy of the X-rays and the elemental composition of the material, but not much on chemical properties, since the X-ray photon energy is much higher than chemical binding energies. Photoabsorption or photoelectric absorption is the dominant interaction mechanism in the soft X-ray regime and for the lower hard X-ray energies. At higher energies, Compton scattering dominates. 11268: 2484: 1475: 1334: 408: 2689:

diagnostic imaging because this does not use radiation. If there is too much radiation exposure there could be harmful effects on the fetus or the reproductive organs of the mother. In the US, there are an estimated 62 million CT scans performed annually, including more than 4 million on children. Avoiding unnecessary X-rays (especially CT scans) reduces radiation dose and any associated cancer risk.

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Kβ. The frequencies of these lines depend on the material of the target and are therefore called characteristic lines. The Kα line usually has greater intensity than the Kβ one and is more desirable in diffraction experiments. Thus the Kβ line is filtered out by a filter. The filter is usually made of a metal having one proton less than the anode material (e.g. Ni filter for Cu anode or Nb filter for Mo anode).

2701:) accounted for 14% of total radiation exposure. By 2006, however, medical procedures in the United States were contributing much more ionizing radiation than was the case in the early 1980s. In 2006, medical exposure constituted nearly half of the total radiation exposure of the U.S. population from all sources. The increase is traceable to the growth in the use of medical imaging procedures, in particular 11292: 561:. He noticed a faint green glow from the screen, about 1 meter (3.3 ft) away. Röntgen realized some invisible rays coming from the tube were passing through the cardboard to make the screen glow. He found they could also pass through books and papers on his desk. Röntgen threw himself into investigating these unknown rays systematically. Two months after his initial discovery, he published his paper. 1038: 3568: 2428:, such as a knee, hip or shoulder replacement, is situated in the body with respect to the surrounding bone. This can be assessed in two dimensions from plain radiographs, or it can be assessed in three dimensions if a technique called '2D to 3D registration' is used. This technique purportedly negates projection errors associated with evaluating implant position from plain radiographs. 2642: 2125:; however, microscopic simulations have shown that the duration of electric field enhancement between two streamers is too short to produce a significant number of run-away electrons. Recently, it has been proposed that air perturbations in the vicinity of streamers can facilitate the production of run-away electrons and hence of X-rays from discharges. 67: 66: 63: 68: 1034:. It made possible the continuous emissions of X-rays. Modern X-ray tubes are based on this design, often employing the use of rotating targets which allow for significantly higher heat dissipation than static targets, further allowing higher quantity X-ray output for use in high-powered applications such as rotational CT scanners. 2369:, absorbs X-rays efficiently. This reduces the amount of X-rays reaching the detector in the shadow of the bones, making them clearly visible on the radiograph. The lungs and trapped gas also show up clearly because of lower absorption compared to tissue, while differences between tissue types are harder to see. 65: 1306:), defined as gamma radiation. This criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. (Some measurement techniques do not distinguish between detected wavelengths.) However, these two definitions often coincide since the electromagnetic radiation emitted by 2960:

While generally considered invisible to the human eye, in special circumstances X-rays can be visible. Brandes, in an experiment a short time after Röntgen's landmark 1895 paper, reported after dark adaptation and placing his eye close to an X-ray tube, seeing a faint "blue-gray" glow which seemed to

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interferometry, refraction-enhanced imaging, and X-ray interferometry. These methods provide higher contrast compared to normal absorption-based X-ray imaging, making it possible to distinguish from each other details that have almost similar density. A disadvantage is that these methods require more

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refers to a variety of techniques that use phase information of an X-ray beam to form the image. Due to its good sensitivity to density differences, it is especially useful for imaging soft tissues. It has become an important method for visualizing cellular and histological structures in a wide range

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Crookes tubes were unreliable. They had to contain a small quantity of gas (invariably air) as a current will not flow in such a tube if they are fully evacuated. However, as time passed, the X-rays caused the glass to absorb the gas, causing the tube to generate "harder" X-rays until it soon stopped

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Hall-Edwards developed a cancer (then called X-ray dermatitis) sufficiently advanced by 1904 to cause him to write papers and give public addresses on the dangers of X-rays. His left arm had to be amputated at the elbow in 1908, and four fingers on his right arm soon thereafter, leaving only a thumb.

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A photoabsorbed photon transfers all its energy to the electron with which it interacts, thus ionizing the atom to which the electron was bound and producing a photoelectron that is likely to ionize more atoms in its path. An outer electron will fill the vacant electron position and produce either a

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Medical science also used the motion picture to study human physiology. In 1913, a motion picture was made in Detroit showing a hard-boiled egg inside a human stomach. This early X-ray movie was recorded at a rate of one still image every four seconds. Dr Lewis Gregory Cole of New York was a pioneer

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reported hair loss after Dudley was X-rayed. A child who had been shot in the head was brought to the Vanderbilt laboratory in 1896. Before trying to find the bullet, an experiment was attempted, for which Dudley "with his characteristic devotion to science" volunteered. Daniel reported that 21 days

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material, within the tube. On 3 February 1896, Gilman Frost, professor of medicine at the college, and his brother Edwin Frost, professor of physics, exposed the wrist of Eddie McCarthy, whom Gilman had treated some weeks earlier for a fracture, to the X-rays and collected the resulting image of the

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California, San Francisco Area Funeral Home Records, 1835–1979. Database with images. FamilySearch. Jacob Fleischman in the entry for Elizabeth Aschheim. 3 August 1905. Citing funeral home J.S. Godeau, San Francisco, San Francisco, California. Record book Vol. 06, p. 1–400, 1904–1906. San Francisco

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Dosage due to dental X-rays varies significantly depending on the procedure and the technology (film or digital). Depending on the procedure and the technology, a single dental X-ray of a human results in an exposure of 5 to 40 μSv. A full mouth series of X-rays may result in an exposure of up

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Medical X-rays are a significant source of human-made radiation exposure. In 1987, they accounted for 58% of exposure from human-made sources in the United States. Since human-made sources accounted for only 18% of the total radiation exposure, most of which came from natural sources (82%), medical

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that people are exposed to (depending upon location) every day over 10 days, while exposure from a dental X-ray is approximately equivalent to 1 day of environmental background radiation. Each such X-ray would add less than 1 per 1,000,000 to the lifetime cancer risk. An abdominal or chest CT would

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of X-rays at a few discrete frequencies, sometimes referred to as spectral lines. Usually, these are transitions from the upper shells to the K shell (called K lines), to the L shell (called L lines) and so on. If the transition is from 2p to 1s, it is called Kα, while if it is from 3p to 1s it is

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of the X-ray photon by an outer shell electron. Part of the energy of the photon is transferred to the scattering electron, thereby ionizing the atom and increasing the wavelength of the X-ray. The scattered photon can go in any direction, but a direction similar to the original direction is more

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also reported burns. Elihu Thomson deliberately exposed a finger to an X-ray tube over a period of time and suffered pain, swelling, and blistering. Other effects were sometimes blamed for the damage including ultraviolet rays and (according to Tesla) ozone. Many physicians claimed there were no

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Starting in 1888, Philipp Lenard conducted experiments to see whether cathode rays could pass out of the Crookes tube into the air. He built a Crookes tube with a "window" at the end made of thin aluminium, facing the cathode so the cathode rays would strike it (later called a "Lenard tube"). He

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From the early 1920s through to the 1950s, X-ray machines were developed to assist in the fitting of shoes and were sold to commercial shoe stores. Concerns regarding the impact of frequent or poorly controlled use were expressed in the 1950s, leading to the practice's eventual end that decade.

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The risk of radiation is greater to a fetus, so in pregnant patients, the benefits of the investigation (X-ray) should be balanced with the potential hazards to the fetus. If there is 1 scan in 9 months, it can be harmful to the fetus. Therefore, women who are pregnant get ultrasounds as their

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below which there is no increased risk of cancer. However, this is under increasing doubt. Cancer risk can start at the exposure of 1100 mGy. It is estimated that the additional radiation from diagnostic X-rays will increase the average person's cumulative risk of getting cancer by age 75 by

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is limited by the energy of the incident electron, which is equal to the voltage on the tube times the electron charge, so an 80 kV tube cannot create X-rays with an energy greater than 80 keV. When the electrons hit the target, X-rays are created by two different atomic processes:

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Röntgen immediately noticed X-rays could have medical applications. Along with his 28 December Physical-Medical Society submission, he sent a letter to physicians he knew around Europe (1 January 1896). News (and the creation of "shadowgrams") spread rapidly with Scottish electrical engineer

2336:. The first medical use was less than a month after his paper on the subject. Up to 2010, five billion medical imaging examinations had been conducted worldwide. Radiation exposure from medical imaging in 2006 made up about 50% of total ionizing radiation exposure in the United States. 8215:

Monico L, Van der Snickt G, Janssens K, De Nolf W, Miliani C, Verbeeck J, et al. (February 2011). "Degradation process of lead chromate in paintings by Vincent van Gogh studied by means of synchrotron X-ray spectromicroscopy and related methods. 1. Artificially aged model samples".

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spectrum falling off to zero at the tube voltage, plus several spikes at the characteristic lines. The voltages used in diagnostic X-ray tubes range from roughly 20 kV to 150 kV and thus the highest energies of the X-ray photons range from roughly 20 keV to 150 keV.

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to obtain real-time moving images of the internal structures of a patient through the use of a fluoroscope. In its simplest form, a fluoroscope consists of an X-ray source and a fluorescent screen, between which a patient is placed. However, modern fluoroscopes couple the screen to an

1317:. Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to historical precedent, based on measurement (detection) technique, or based on their intended use rather than their wavelength or source. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for example 1188:

of biological and medical studies. There are several technologies being used for X-ray phase-contrast imaging, all using different principles to convert phase variations in the X-rays emerging from an object into intensity variations. These include propagation-based phase contrast,

2574:) of cancer; it requires higher radiation doses than those received for imaging alone. X-rays beams are used for treating skin cancers using lower energy X-ray beams while higher energy beams are used for treating cancers within the body such as brain, lung, prostate, and breast. 8243:

Monico L, Van der Snickt G, Janssens K, De Nolf W, Miliani C, Dik J, et al. (February 2011). "Degradation process of lead chromate in paintings by Vincent van Gogh studied by means of synchrotron X-ray spectromicroscopy and related methods. 2. Original paint layer samples".

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Röntgen discovered their medical use when he made a picture of his wife's hand on a photographic plate formed due to X-rays. The photograph of his wife's hand was the first photograph of a human body part using X-rays. When she saw the picture, she said "I have seen my death."

1302:, or sometimes the method of generation is not known. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength (or, equivalently, frequency or photon energy), with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10 m (0.1 2857:(computed tomography), a process that uses X-ray equipment to produce three-dimensional representations of components both externally and internally. This is accomplished through computer processing of projection images of the scanned object in many directions. 433:'s Physical-Medical Society journal. This was the first paper written on X-rays. Röntgen referred to the radiation as "X", to indicate that it was an unknown type of radiation. Some early texts refer to them as Chi-rays, having interpreted "X" as the uppercase 1612:

for low photon energies and high atomic numbers is very strong. For soft tissue, photoabsorption dominates up to about 26 keV photon energy where Compton scattering takes over. For higher atomic number substances, this limit is higher. The high amount of

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Short nanosecond bursts of X-rays peaking at 15 keV in energy may be reliably produced by peeling pressure-sensitive adhesive tape from its backing in a moderate vacuum. This is likely to be the result of recombination of electrical charges produced by

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found that something came through, that would expose photographic plates and cause fluorescence. He measured the penetrating power of these rays through various materials. It has been suggested that at least some of these "Lenard rays" were actually X-rays.

345:. While developing the plates, Jennings noticed disks of unknown origin on some of the plates, but nobody could explain them, and they moved on. Only in 1896 they realized that they accidentally made an X-ray photograph (they didn't claim a discovery). 591:

alone, as many as 49 essays and 1044 articles about the new rays were published. This was probably a conservative estimate, if one considers that nearly every paper around the world extensively reported about the new discovery, with a magazine such as

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and several tens of MeV. In laboratory discharges with a gap size of approximately 1 meter length and a peak voltage of 1 MV, X-rays with a characteristic energy of 160 keV are observed. A possible explanation is the encounter of two

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and the U.S. government. Diagnostic X-rays (primarily from CT scans due to the large dose used) increase the risk of developmental problems and cancer in those exposed. It is estimated that 0.4% of current cancers in the United States are due to

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placed between the skull and the head. The tube was fastened at the other side at a distance of one-half-inch from the hair." Beyond burns, hair loss, and cancer, X-rays can be linked to infertility in males based on the amount of radiation used.

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burned after his death, but this is a likely reconstruction by his biographers: Röntgen was investigating cathode rays from a Crookes tube which he had wrapped in black cardboard so that the visible light from the tube would not interfere, using a

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In medical diagnostic applications, the low energy (soft) X-rays are unwanted, since they are totally absorbed by the body, increasing the radiation dose without contributing to the image. Hence, a thin metal sheet, often of aluminium, called an

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irradiated frogs and insects with X-rays, concluding that the rays "not only photograph, but also affect the living function". At around the same time, the zoological illustrator James Green began to use X-rays to examine fragile specimens.

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Arthur W. Goodspeed were making photographs of coins with electric sparks. On 22nd February after the end of their experiments two coins were left on a stack of photographic plates before Goodspeed demonstrated to Jennings the operation of

840:(with an exposure time of one hour), he noticed a bald spot 5 centimeters (2 in) in diameter on the part of his head nearest the X-ray tube: "A plate holder with the plates towards the side of the skull was fastened and a 64: 363:

conducted his "electric photography" experiments in 1891-1893 by photographing coins in the light of electric sparks, like Jennings and Goodspeed, he may have unknowingly generated and detected X-rays. His letter of

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dedicating as many as 23 articles to it in that year alone. Sensationalist reactions to the new discovery included publications linking the new kind of rays to occult and paranormal theories, such as telepathy.

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Each dot, called a reflection, in this diffraction pattern forms from the constructive interference of scattered X-rays passing through a crystal. The data can be used to determine the crystalline structure.

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Many experimenters, including Röntgen himself in his original experiments, came up with methods to view X-ray images "live" using some form of luminescent screen. Röntgen used a screen coated with barium

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operating. Larger and more frequently used tubes were provided with devices for restoring the air, known as "softeners". These often took the form of a small side tube that contained a small piece of

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in Birmingham, England on 11 January 1896, when he radiographed a needle stuck in the hand of an associate. On 14 February 1896, Hall-Edwards was also the first to use X-rays in a surgical operation.

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and swallowing disorders). As of recent, modern fluoroscopy utilizes short bursts of x-rays, rather than a continuous beam, to effectively lower radiation exposure for both the patient and operator.

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image produced using this method, in addition to the method itself. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms, they are also useful for determining crystal structures by

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in a futile attempt to save his life; in 1904, he became the first known death attributed to X-ray exposure. During the time the fluoroscope was being developed, Serbian American physicist

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or slices of specific areas of the body are obtained from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken in different directions. These cross-sectional images can be combined into a

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has been injected into the blood vessels within this area. These two images are then digitally subtracted, leaving an image of only the iodinated contrast outlining the blood vessels. The

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image of the inside of the body. CT scans are a quicker and more cost effective imaging modality that can be used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in various medical disciplines.

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The many applications of X-rays immediately generated enormous interest. Workshops began making specialized versions of Crookes tubes for generating X-rays and these first-generation

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0.6–3.0%. The amount of absorbed radiation depends upon the type of X-ray test and the body part involved. CT and fluoroscopy entail higher doses of radiation than do plain X-rays.

959:. This idea was quickly applied to X-ray tubes, and hence heated-cathode X-ray tubes, called "Coolidge tubes", completely replaced the troublesome cold cathode tubes by about 1920. 1600:

is the energy of the incident photon. This rule is not valid close to inner shell electron binding energies where there are abrupt changes in interaction probability, so called

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tested all of the discharge tubes in the physics laboratory and found that only the Puluj tube produced X-rays. This was a result of Puluj's inclusion of an oblique "target" of

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Upton AC (July 2003). "The state of the art in the 1990's: NCRP Report No. 136 on the scientific bases for linearity in the dose-response relationship for ionizing radiation".

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to capture the human skeleton in motion. In 1920, it was used to record the movements of tongue and teeth in the study of languages by the Institute of Phonetics in England.

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The first medical X-ray made in the United States was obtained using a discharge tube of Puluj's design. In January 1896, on reading of Röntgen's discovery, Frank Austin of

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Both of these X-ray production processes are inefficient, with only about one percent of the electrical energy used by the tube converted into X-rays, and thus most of the

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by scientists, physicians, and inventors came many stories of burns, hair loss, and worse in technical journals of the time. In February 1896, Professor John Daniel and

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Biomedical Applications of Synchrotron Radiation: Proceedings of the 128th Course at the International School of Physics -Enrico Fermi- 12–22 July 1994, Varenna, Italy

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being the first after Röntgen to create an X-ray photograph (of a hand). Through February, there were 46 experimenters taking up the technique in North America alone.

1373:. In medical imaging, this increased cancer risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be used in 10823: 5894: 2727: 264:) undoubtedly radiated X-rays, because early researchers noticed effects that were attributable to them, as detailed below. Crookes tubes created free electrons by 3039:

However, the effect of ionizing radiation on matter (especially living tissue) is more closely related to the amount of energy deposited into them rather than the

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Helmholtz formulated mathematical equations for X-rays. He postulated a dispersion theory before Röntgen made his discovery and announcement. He based it on the

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Financial incentives have been shown to have a significant impact on X-ray use with doctors who are paid a separate fee for each X-ray providing more X-rays.

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allowing the images to be recorded and played on a monitor. This method may use a contrast material. Examples include cardiac catheterization (to examine for

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of X-rays through the closely spaced lattice of atoms in a crystal is recorded and then analysed to reveal the nature of that lattice. A related technique,

399:. After Röntgen identified the X-ray, Tesla began making X-ray images of his own using high voltages and tubes of his own design, as well as Crookes tubes. 2834:

X-ray spectromicroscopy has been used to analyse the reactions of pigments in paintings. For example, in analysing colour degradation in the paintings of

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Tesla's technical publications indicate that he invented and developed a single-electrode X-ray tube. Morton, William James and Hammer, Edwin W. (1896)

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Baganha, M. F.; Marques, M. A.; Botelho, M. F.; Teixeira, M. L.; Carvalheira, V.; Calisto, J.; Silva, A.; Fernandes, A.; Torres, M.; Brito, J. (1993).

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Chandra's image of the galaxy cluster Abell 2125 reveals a complex of several massive multimillion-degree-Celsius gas clouds in the process of merging.

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is the (obsolete) corresponding traditional unit, equal to 10 millijoules of energy deposited per kilogram. 100 rad = 1 gray.

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consumed by the tube is released as waste heat. When producing a usable flux of X-rays, the X-ray tube must be designed to dissipate the excess heat.

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for more specialized applications, such as when softer X-rays are needed as in mammography. In crystallography, a copper target is most common, with

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Using X-ray for inspection and quality control: the differences in the structures of the die and bond wires reveal the left chip to be counterfeit.

772:, one of his glassblowers. Dally had a habit of testing X-ray tubes on his own hands, developing a cancer in them so tenacious that both arms were 8279:

Ahi K, Anwar M (May 2016). "Advanced terahertz techniques for quality control and counterfeit detection". In Anwar MF, Crowe TW, Manzur T (eds.).

2108:. The underlying mechanism is the acceleration of electrons in lightning related electric fields and the subsequent production of photons through 1446:

X-rays have much shorter wavelengths than visible light, which makes it possible to probe structures much smaller than can be seen using a normal

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In August 1896, H. D. Hawks, a graduate of Columbia College, suffered severe hand and chest burns from an X-ray demonstration. It was reported in

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and began studying them. He wrote an initial report "On a new kind of ray: A preliminary communication" and on 28 December 1895, submitted it to

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of the target atom. After that, electrons from higher energy levels fill the vacancies, and X-ray photons are emitted. This process produces an

2598: 704:(sciagraph is an obsolete name for an X-ray photograph), by Green and James H. Gardiner, with a foreword by Boulenger, was published in 1897. 11717: 9738: 2469:

or surgeon then compares the image obtained to normal anatomical images to determine whether there is any damage or blockage of the vessel.

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mechanism in the X-ray regime. Inelastic forward scattering gives rise to the refractive index, which for X-rays is only slightly below 1.

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was the most effective substance. In May 1896, he developed the first mass-produced live imaging device, his "Vitascope", later called the

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Berrington de González A, Darby S (January 2004). "Risk of cancer from diagnostic X-rays: estimates for the UK and 14 other countries".

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Davis TJ, Gao D, Gureyev TE, Stevenson AW, Wilkins SW (1995). "Phase-contrast imaging of weakly absorbing materials using hard X-rays".

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which are often (but not always) visible. Traditional plain X-rays are less useful in the imaging of soft tissues such as the brain or

1994:: This is radiation given off by the electrons as they are scattered by the strong electric field near the nuclei. These X-rays have a 6441:"Angular distribution of Bremsstrahlung photons and of positrons for calculations of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes and positron beams" 4291: 1084:. The cars would allow for rapid X-ray imaging of wounded soldiers so battlefield surgeons could quickly and more accurately operate. 760:

started research soon after Röntgen's discovery and investigated materials' ability to fluoresce when exposed to X-rays, finding that

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Momose A, Takeda T, Itai Y, Hirano K (April 1996). "Phase-contrast X-ray computed tomography for observing biological soft tissues".

2461:) an initial image is taken of the anatomical region of interest. A second image is then taken of the same region after an iodinated 10568: 7668:

Caon M, Bibbo G, Pattison J (2000). "Monte Carlo calculated effective dose to teenage girls from computed tomography examinations".

2965:. It is not known what exact mechanism in the eye produces the visibility: it could be due to conventional detection (excitation of 571:(Hand with Rings): print of Wilhelm Röntgen's first "medical" X-ray, of his wife's hand, taken on 22 December 1895 and presented to 9396: 9343: 4349: 4047:"System of Electric Lighting". These differed from other X-ray tubes in having no target electrode and worked with the output of a 2730:

or EPT (as of 2015) along with other techniques are being researched as potential alternatives to X-rays for imaging applications.

1490:. The attenuation length is about four orders of magnitude longer for hard X-rays (right half) compared to soft X-rays (left half). 395:

noticed damaged film in his lab that seemed to be associated with Crookes tube experiments and began investigating this invisible,

6992:"Accuracy of total knee implant position assessment based on postoperative X-rays, registered to pre-operative CT-based 3D models" 4063:"Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen On a New Kind of Rays: translation of a paper read before the Würzburg Physical and Medical Society, 1895" 2029:. Its unique features are X-ray outputs many orders of magnitude greater than those of X-ray tubes, wide X-ray spectra, excellent 10779: 10619: 10558: 9015: 7461: 6288: 2985: 2969:

molecules in the retina), direct excitation of retinal nerve cells, or secondary detection via, for instance, X-ray induction of

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exposure, and it is the amount of radiation required to create one coulomb of charge of each polarity in one kilogram of matter.

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and led to many other reports of problems associated with X-rays being sent in to the publication. Many experimenters including

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Oakley, P. A., Navid Ehsani, N., & Harrison, D. E. (2020). 5 Reasons Why Scoliosis X-Rays Are Not Harmful. Dose-Response.

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Compton scattering is the predominant interaction between X-rays and soft tissue in medical imaging. Compton scattering is an

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Giles D, Hewitt D, Stewart A, Webb J (September 1956). "Malignant disease in childhood and diagnostic irradiation in utero".

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Donnelly LF (February 2005). "Reducing radiation dose associated with pediatric CT by decreasing unnecessary examinations".

748:. On 5 February 1896, live imaging devices were developed by both Italian scientist Enrico Salvioni (his "cryptoscope") and 11697: 11666: 11611: 10575: 9353: 9348: 8322: 7714:

Gregory KJ, Bibbo G, Pattison JE (August 2008). "On the Uncertainties in Effective Dose Estimates of Adult CT Head Scans".

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Hill R, Healy B, Holloway L, Kuncic Z, Thwaites D, Baldock C (March 2014). "Advances in kilovoltage x-ray beam dosimetry".

1916: 768:, which became the standard for medical X-ray examinations. Edison dropped X-ray research around 1903, before the death of 8045: 7330:

De Santis M, Cesari E, Nobili E, Straface G, Cavaliere AF, Caruso A (September 2007). "Radiation effects on development".

7222: 6261: 6234:. Center for X-ray Optics and Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 1 October 2009. Archived from 11330: 11296: 10492: 10038: 10003: 9426: 9411: 9280: 7171:

Thwaites DI, Tuohy JB (July 2006). "Back to the future: the history and development of the clinical linear accelerator".

3635: 2645: 2454: 6588:

Cooray V, Arevalo L, Rahman M, Dwyer J, Rassoul H (2009). "On the possible origin of X-rays in long laboratory sparks".

5726:

Wilkins SW, Gureyev TE, Gao D, Pogany A, Stevenson AW (1996). "Phase-contrast imaging using polychromatic hard X-rays".

1290:. One common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source: X-rays are emitted by 11646: 11190: 10774: 8305: 6228: 4983: 4925: 4332: 3759:"The History, Development and Impact of Computed Imaging in Neurological Diagnosis and Neurosurgery: CT, MRI, and DTI" 2917:

were popularized in the 1920s, banned in the US in the 1960s, in the UK in the 1970s, and later in continental Europe.

2708: 352:

noticed a flash of light from a fluorescent screen immediately before the covered tube he was switching on punctured.

11818: 11813: 9854: 9733: 8488: 6327: 4697: 3729: 2628: 2446:, is usually placed over the window of the X-ray tube, absorbing the low energy part in the spectrum. This is called 2296: 784: 3113:(Gy). 1 Sv = 1 Gy. For the "effective dose" of X-rays, it is usually not equal to the Gray (Gy). 2277: 11712: 11084: 10949: 9484: 9328: 9307: 4845:"Visible Proofs: Forensic Views of the Body: Galleries: Cases: Could X-rays Have Saved President William McKinley?" 2926: 2863:

luggage scanners use X-rays for inspecting the interior of luggage for security threats before loading on aircraft.

2823:

alterations in the course of painting or by later restorers, and sometimes previous paintings on the support. Many

2551: 1435:

over the X-ray spectrum. This allows the photon energy to be adjusted for the application so as to give sufficient

5399: 3579: 3023:(R) is an obsolete traditional unit of exposure, which represented the amount of radiation required to create one 2249: 1977:(X-ray electroluminescence): If the electron has enough energy, it can knock an orbital electron out of the inner 441:. The name X-rays stuck, although (over Röntgen's great objections) many of his colleagues suggested calling them 11027: 10861: 10463: 10341: 9998: 9859: 6166: 5856: 4844: 2812: 2361:

is the practice of producing two-dimensional images using X-ray radiation. Bones contain a high concentration of

2058: 807:

to Buffalo to find the stray bullet. It arrived but was not used. While the shooting itself had not been lethal,

641: 326: 2139:

X-ray detectors vary in shape and function depending on their purpose. Imaging detectors such as those used for

310:

through a partially evacuated glass tube, producing a glow created by X-rays. This work was further explored by

11017: 10866: 10324: 5972: 5295: 5227: 5112: 4832: 4663: 3094:, or, in other words, 10 millijoules of energy deposited per kilogram. 100 rem = 1 Sv. 2234: 1672:

likely, especially for high-energy X-rays. The probability for different scattering angles is described by the

5269: 5243: 4173:"Tomodensitometry and radioisotopic methods in the study of unilateral lung hyperlucencies of vascular origin" 2669:(CT scans) performed in the past and that this may increase to as high as 1.5–2% with 2007 rates of CT usage. 124:. There is no universally accepted, strict definition of the bounds of the X-ray band. Roughly, X-rays have a 11778: 10791: 10624: 10048: 9976: 9358: 9323: 5373: 3653: 3163: 2920: 2680:

To place the increased risk in perspective, a plain chest X-ray will expose a person to the same amount from

2256: 587:

The discovery of X-rays generated significant interest. Röntgen's biographer Otto Glasser estimated that, in

5321: 1643:) in bones, together with their high density, is what makes them show up so clearly on medical radiographs. 11134: 10871: 10580: 10334: 9831: 9421: 9391: 9250: 9223: 3641: 3594: 1184: 1174: 1166: 697: 658:

Images by James Green, from "Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles" (1897), featuring (from left)

8456: 4159:

Rats have been trained to respond to signals consisting of very low doses of chi-ray directed to the head.

615:

apparatus, late 1800s. The Crookes tube is visible in center. The standing man is viewing his hand with a

11823: 11534: 11284: 11197: 11169: 11126: 11091: 10929: 10756: 10694: 10519: 10423: 10309: 9777: 9477: 9401: 9368: 9338: 9302: 9008: 8603: 2105: 2057:

X-rays can also be produced by fast protons or other positive ions. The proton-induced X-ray emission or

1704:

Whenever charged particles (electrons or ions) of sufficient energy hit a material, X-rays are produced.

1656: 1162: 11838: 6498:"Calculation of beams of positrons, neutrons, and protons associated with terrestrial gamma ray flashes" 6088: 6063: 3788:"Electrical Experiments Made in Order to Ascertain the Non-Conducting Power of a Perfect Vacuum, &c" 3528: 3490: 3451: 3422: 1250:. Due to their penetrating ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects (e.g. in 1027: 917: 20:

This article is about the nature, production, and uses of the radiation. For the method of imaging, see

11766: 11621: 11594: 11118: 10977: 10656: 10174: 10131: 9983: 9447: 9287: 9175: 8598: 8140: 3471: 3106: 2713: 2263: 2096:

refers to that of the target atom. An overview of these cross sections is given in the same reference.

337: 333: 7081: 1959:

often being used when fluorescence from iron content in the sample might otherwise present a problem.

1065:

of the technique, which he called "serial radiography". In 1918, X-rays were used in association with

220: 175:

X-rays can penetrate many solid substances such as construction materials and living tissue, so X-ray

11651: 11504: 11272: 10954: 10563: 10346: 6400:

Paul H, Muhr J (1986). "Review of experimental cross sections for K-shell ionization by light ions".

4268: 3604: 2790: 2673: 2488: 1673: 1099: 688: 90: 3881:"The first radiation accident in America: a centennial account of the x-ray photograph made in 1890" 3078:

is the measure of the biological effect of radiation on human tissue. For X-rays it is equal to the

2317: 1114:, which gives a relatively stable view of the universe, the X-ray universe is unstable. It features 11828: 11808: 11803: 11589: 11499: 11363: 11202: 11044: 10944: 10856: 10065: 9951: 9911: 9723: 9114: 8898: 8511: 4574:

Grove AW (1 January 1997). "Röntgen's ghosts: photography, X-rays, and the Victorian imagination".

4382: 3820: 2914: 2358: 2345: 1681: 1370: 1218: 1178: 291: 8163: 2424:. One area where projectional radiographs are used extensively is in evaluating how an orthopedic 2245: 1424: 727: 11529: 11323: 11107: 11074: 11049: 10663: 10440: 10246: 10169: 10126: 10109: 10070: 9993: 8948: 6926: 6206: 5174: 4710: 4299: 3917: 3519: 3442: 3087: 2536: 2510: 2223: 2062: 788: 693: 303: 11032: 6837: 11770: 11681: 11355: 10939: 10226: 9770: 9416: 9265: 9001: 4628:

Feldman A (November 1989). "A sketch of the technical history of radiology from 1896 to 1920".

2802: 2672:

Experimental and epidemiological data currently do not support the proposition that there is a

2230: 1677: 1605: 1420: 1416: 1019:

performed crystallography experiments with X-rays emanating from various metals and formulated

1001: 974: 966:

discovered that X-rays could be scattered by gases, and that each element had a characteristic

828: 803:

and could not be found. A worried McKinley aide sent word to inventor Thomas Edison to rush an

769: 576: 542: 380: 29: 8295: 8189: 7695: 6315: 5347: 4973: 4942: 3851: 2980:

of the air molecules if the intensity of the X-ray beam is high enough. The beamline from the

2973:

in the eyeball with conventional retinal detection of the secondarily produced visible light.

2450:

the beam since it shifts the center of the spectrum towards higher energy (or harder) X-rays.

2332:

Since Röntgen's discovery that X-rays can identify bone structures, X-rays have been used for

627:. No precautions against radiation exposure are taken; its hazards were not known at the time. 11774: 11509: 11233: 10969: 10924: 10386: 10314: 10241: 10236: 10201: 9988: 9956: 9743: 9670: 9376: 9245: 9053: 6991: 5920: 4322: 3932: 3009: 2981: 2750: 2540: 2196: 2192: 2022: 1517: 1514:

The probability of a photoelectric absorption per unit mass is approximately proportional to

1455: 1271: 1198: 1005: 874: 832: 749: 299: 8469: 7916: 1298:. This definition has several problems: other processes can also generate these high-energy 11833: 11631: 11519: 11476: 11426: 11144: 10919: 10904: 10221: 10179: 10015: 9921: 9849: 9213: 9145: 9078: 8908: 8903: 8400: 7723: 7476: 7180: 7129: 6927:"Medical Radiation Exposure Of The U.S. Population Greatly Increased Since The Early 1980s" 6791: 6734: 6693: 6636: 6597: 6554: 6509: 6458: 6409: 6359: 6127: 5778: 5735: 5698: 5646: 4882: 4744: 4210:

Takahashi, K.; Case, B. W.; Dufresne, A.; Fraser, R.; Higashi, T.; Siemiatycki, J. (1994).

4118: 4076: 3630: 3027:

of charge of each polarity in one cubic centimeter of dry air. 1 roentgen =

2930: 2898: 2681: 2547: 2164: 2160: 2042: 2026: 1972: 1668: 1495: 1483: 1058: 936: 866: 753: 869:, an American X-ray pioneer, died from complications as a result of her work with X-rays. 8: 11748: 11626: 11539: 11243: 11054: 10839: 10433: 10301: 10279: 10104: 9961: 9728: 9690: 9523: 9165: 9140: 9119: 8943: 8938: 8913: 8893: 8644: 6874: 6872: 4411: 4386: 4376: 2940: 2702: 2666: 2555: 2531: 2502: 2496: 2462: 2034: 1995: 1503: 1432: 1251: 1054: 1031: 997: 664: 635:

Surgical removal of a bullet whose location was diagnosed with X-rays (see inset) in 1897

510: 482: 356: 180: 75: 11707: 8404: 8281:

Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems X: Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense

7727: 7480: 7184: 7133: 6795: 6738: 6697: 6640: 6601: 6566: 6558: 6513: 6462: 6413: 6363: 6131: 5782: 5739: 5702: 5650: 4886: 4748: 4711:"Green, James (Zoological Artist), Sciagraphs of British batrachians and reptiles, 1897" 4122: 4080: 2716:, England. The maker's sticker states that it is equivalent to 2.24mm of lead at 150Kv. 1310:

generally has a longer wavelength and lower photon energy than the radiation emitted by

1057:, England. Then in 1908, he had to have his left arm amputated because of the spread of 11743: 11564: 11544: 11524: 11408: 11316: 11223: 10959: 10796: 10723: 10534: 10184: 10154: 10138: 10121: 9765: 9655: 9603: 9553: 9500: 9406: 9185: 9150: 9083: 8933: 8781: 8754: 8664: 8649: 7857: 7832: 7681: 7599: 7551: 7526: 7500: 7442: 7399: 7312: 7204: 7153: 6812: 6779: 6755: 6722: 6657: 6624: 6570: 6474: 6448: 6375: 6089:

Bushberg, Jerrold T.; Seibert, J. Anthony; Leidholdt, Edwin M.; Boone, John M. (2002).

6064:

Bushberg, Jerrold T.; Seibert, J. Anthony; Leidholdt, Edwin M.; Boone, John M. (2002).

6038:

Government of Canada, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (9 May 2019).

5837: 5794: 5751: 5664: 5168: 5025: 5000: 4952: 4762: 4599: 4533:"A Cosmology of Invisible Fluids: Wireless, X-Rays, and Psychical Research Around 1900" 4513: 4244: 4212:"Relation between lung asbestos fibre burden and exposure indices based on job history" 4211: 4150: 3668: 3599: 3257: 3024: 3013: 2962: 2796: 2653: 2431: 2425: 2168: 2144: 2118: 1693: 1652: 1499: 1487: 1407:

the inside of visually opaque objects. The most often seen applications are in medical

1389: 1366: 1354: 1275: 1149: 1123: 898: 721: 624: 538: 534: 494: 470: 454: 450: 204: 196: 7770: 7627:. Radiological Society of North America (RSNA) and American College of Radiology (ACR) 7587: 7508: 7192: 7141: 6869: 6784:

Philosophical Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences

6345:"Correlation between nanosecond X-ray flashes and stick–slip friction in peeling tape" 6139: 5427:"Marie Curie and her X-ray vehicles' contribution to World War I battlefield medicine" 4641: 1620: 724:

obtained from Howard Langill, a local photographer also interested in Röntgen's work.

422: 411: 98: 11636: 11514: 11451: 11416: 10291: 10084: 9971: 9946: 9884: 9841: 9685: 9680: 9675: 9518: 9454: 9386: 9381: 9208: 9180: 9073: 8789: 8785: 8766: 8762: 8758: 8364: 8301: 8261: 8233: 8195: 8122: 7969: 7922: 7897: 7862: 7774: 7739: 7591: 7556: 7492: 7434: 7430: 7391: 7347: 7304: 7269: 7196: 7145: 7101: 7053: 7021: 6972: 6902: 6858: 6817: 6760: 6662: 6421: 6323: 6294: 6267: 6174: 6094: 6069: 6003: 5978: 5951: 5926: 5862: 5829: 5668: 5374:"X-ray movies perfected. Will show motions of bones and joints of human body. (1918)" 5030: 4979: 4921: 4898: 4828: 4806: 4693: 4645: 4591: 4517: 4390: 4328: 4249: 4231: 4192: 4184: 4142: 4134: 4012: 3989: 3900: 3880: 3725: 3615: 3589: 3229: 3171: 2762: 2758: 2567: 2401: 2188: 2148: 2122: 2046: 1982: 1676:. The transferred energy can be directly obtained from the scattering angle from the 1609: 1440: 1428: 1385: 1246:. The intermediate range with photon energies of several keV is often referred to as 1050: 1046: 857: 792: 761: 735:, a medical journal. In the left a hand deformity, in the right same hand seen using 708: 648: 594: 526: 518: 514: 486: 192: 8283:. Vol. 9856. Society of Photographic Instrumentation Engineers. pp. 31–44. 8006: 7620: 7446: 7371: 7316: 7157: 6574: 6478: 6143: 5841: 4603: 4154: 3896: 885: 865:

effects from X-ray exposure at all. On 3 August 1905, in San Francisco, California,

57:

of a wine scene. Note the edges of hollow cylinders as compared to the solid candle.

11641: 11139: 10194: 10159: 9916: 9906: 9794: 9782: 9623: 9618: 9608: 9598: 9593: 9170: 9048: 8923: 8694: 8669: 8537: 8408: 8253: 8225: 8112: 8107: 8102: 8090: 8025: 7889: 7852: 7844: 7766: 7731: 7677: 7603: 7583: 7546: 7538: 7504: 7484: 7426: 7403: 7383: 7339: 7296: 7287:

Brenner DJ (2010). "Should we be concerned about the rapid increase in CT usage?".

7261: 7208: 7188: 7137: 7093: 6964: 6892: 6850: 6807: 6799: 6750: 6742: 6701: 6652: 6644: 6605: 6562: 6517: 6470: 6466: 6417: 6379: 6367: 6135: 5821: 5798: 5786: 5755: 5743: 5706: 5654: 5197: 5020: 5012: 4890: 4796: 4766: 4752: 4637: 4583: 4554: 4544: 4503: 4495: 4239: 4223: 4126: 4084: 4067: 3979: 3892: 3832: 3799: 3766: 2860: 2835: 2786: 2741: 2698: 2492: 2385: 2322: 2270: 1601: 1583: 1559: 1451: 1412: 1358: 1255: 1135: 1092: 1020: 993: 952: 940: 674: 506: 502: 498: 478: 474: 360: 307: 188: 7647:"National Cancer Institute: Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) data" 6344: 4130: 2902: 11798: 11753: 11738: 11554: 11466: 11456: 11308: 11037: 10997: 10451: 10265: 10189: 10164: 10010: 9803: 9705: 9695: 9660: 9538: 9528: 9442: 9297: 9160: 9124: 9043: 8972: 8885: 8727: 8659: 8077: 8032: 8013: 7947: 7702: 5231: 4499: 3663: 3403: 3290: 3102: 3075: 3040: 3020: 2970: 2934: 2874: 2776: 2397: 2393: 2333: 2180: 1939:

to a high velocity. The high velocity electrons collide with a metal target, the

1479: 1404: 1073: 1012: 981: 971: 932: 894: 824: 804: 588: 530: 490: 462: 458: 446: 388: 370: 315: 295: 261: 237: 207:. Their generation and use is strictly controlled by public health authorities. 199:, and exposure to high intensities can be hazardous to health, causing damage to 102: 10529: 6854: 6609: 4549: 4532: 3787: 3090:(rem) is the traditional unit of equivalent dose. For X-rays it is equal to the 11601: 11559: 11549: 11471: 11461: 11431: 10992: 10987: 10982: 10732: 10639: 10608: 10590: 10114: 10020: 9966: 9931: 9864: 9811: 9665: 9558: 9543: 9533: 8918: 8702: 8049: 7893: 7527:"The Scoliosis Quandary: Are Radiation Exposures From Repeated X-Rays Harmful?" 7300: 7097: 7045: 6897: 6880: 6706: 6681: 6543:"Analyzing x-ray emissions from meter-scale negative discharges in ambient air" 4105:

Garcia, J.; Buchwald, N. A.; Feder, B. H.; Koelling, R. A.; Tedrow, L. (1964).

3584: 3572: 2868: 2721:

to 60 (digital) to 180 (film) μSv, for a yearly average of up to 400 μSv.

2606: 2176: 2134: 2015: 1990: 1978: 1911: 1648: 1381: 1362: 1350: 1314: 1295: 967: 963: 913: 745: 680: 607: 572: 558: 522: 466: 396: 349: 269: 245: 229: 11012: 7018:

Fundamentals of Computerized Tomography: Image Reconstruction from Projections

5581: 5555: 5529: 5477: 5451: 5202: 4801: 4784: 3934:

Illustrated Electrical Review: A Journal of Scientific and Electrical Progress

3836: 897:, which displayed continuous moving images. This image was used to argue that 11792: 11676: 11436: 11421: 11177: 10468: 9874: 9715: 9218: 8928: 8865: 8846: 8750: 8684: 8679: 8674: 7542: 7105: 6976: 6952: 5607: 5503: 4894: 4235: 4188: 4138: 4043: 4037: 3904: 3771: 3758: 3678: 3326: 3079: 3056: 3044: 2890: 2854: 2435: 2366: 2326: 2086: 2061:

is widely used as an analytical procedure. For high energies, the production

1577: 1436: 1235: 1189: 1023:

which relates the frequency of the X-rays to the atomic number of the metal.

1016: 853: 777: 757: 184: 8556: 7933:, data credited to NCRP (US National Committee on Radiation Protection) 1987 6881:"Radiation-reduction strategies in cardiac computed tomographic angiography" 6235: 5016: 2021:

A specialized source of X-rays which is becoming widely used in research is

1278:

of 600 eV (~2 nm) X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer.

1169:

in the 1980s, but the only test of the device (a sort of laser "blaster" or

418: 290:

The earliest experimenter thought to have (unknowingly) produced X-rays was

11656: 11616: 11481: 10743: 9879: 9821: 9748: 9700: 9570: 9260: 9155: 9068: 9058: 8804: 8799: 8777: 8772: 8480: 8463: 8434: 8265: 8237: 8126: 7901: 7866: 7778: 7743: 7595: 7560: 7496: 7438: 7395: 7351: 7308: 7273: 7265: 7200: 7149: 7057: 7013: 6906: 6862: 6821: 6803: 6764: 6666: 5687:"Differential x-ray phase contrast imaging using a shearing interferometer" 5034: 4902: 4146: 4106: 3993: 3804: 3673: 3658: 3625: 3200: 2908: 2816: 2766: 2543: 2443: 2417: 2413: 2184: 2152: 2113: 1318: 1267: 1202: 1131: 1066: 985: 906: 861: 812: 612: 434: 426: 392: 342: 311: 257: 225: 165: 7252:

Hall EJ, Brenner DJ (May 2008). "Cancer risks from diagnostic radiology".

7082:"Fluoroscopy: basic science, optimal use, and patient/operator protection" 5833: 4810: 4649: 4595: 4253: 4196: 4172: 1045:

The use of X-rays for medical purposes (which developed into the field of

376:

Without Lens or Light, Photographs Taken With Plate and Object in Darkness

195:

and detecting weak points in construction materials). However X-rays are

11398: 11154: 10801: 10391: 9898: 9869: 9109: 8977: 8654: 8636: 8532: 7387: 6746: 6723:"High-Energy Emissions Induced by Air Density Fluctuations of Discharges" 6648: 6522: 5138: 4587: 4227: 3984: 3967: 3336: 3298: 3110: 3052: 2754: 2527: 2522: 2458: 2381: 2156: 2140: 2030: 1936: 1928: 1408: 1311: 1286:

There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and

1222: 1194: 1158: 1143: 1106:, has been allowing the exploration of the very violent processes in the 1081: 1077: 989: 948: 944: 890: 837: 823:

With the widespread experimentation with X‑rays after their discovery in

765: 736: 716: 616: 554: 365: 249: 176: 117: 21: 8091:"First do no harm – The impact of financial incentives on dental X-rays" 7848: 7696:

Doses from Computed Tomography (CT) examinations in the UK – 2003 Review

6371: 4559: 4483: 3699: 2943:

is the use of high energy X-rays generated from a fission explosion (an

548:

There are conflicting accounts of his discovery because Röntgen had his

430: 283:

to a high enough velocity that they created X-rays when they struck the

279:

and 100 kV. This voltage accelerated the electrons coming from the

49: 11446: 11393: 10507: 9233: 9099: 8958: 8626: 8621: 8575: 8552: 8117: 7343: 5825: 4048: 3948:

Wyman T (Spring 2005). "Fernando Sanford and the Discovery of X-rays".

3647: 3384: 3091: 3067: 2997: 2977: 2923:

is used to track movement of bones based on the implantation of markers

2886: 2828: 2820: 2657: 2610: 2571: 2506: 2237: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2172: 1952: 1924: 1786: 1447: 1400: 1346: 1307: 1119: 773: 756:(his "Skiascope"), both using barium platinocyanide. American inventor 620: 265: 125: 113: 8257: 8229: 7826: 7824: 7822: 7735: 6968: 6184: 5872: 5711: 5686: 5659: 5634: 4508: 2881: 2783:, which deals with the study of X-ray emission from celestial objects. 2697:

American radiation exposure; medical procedures as a whole (including

1415:

scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry (e.g.

407: 11733: 11606: 11441: 11388: 11378: 11339: 11149: 10512: 10502: 9630: 9583: 9548: 9469: 8967: 8814: 8590: 8568: 8547: 8522: 8413: 8388: 6538: 6493: 6436: 6040:"Radiation – Quantities and Units of Ionizing Radiation: OSH Answers" 5790: 5747: 4757: 4732: 4089: 4062: 3961: 3959: 3181: 2966: 2780: 2466: 2409: 2389: 2373: 2183:

can be measured either by energy dispersive or wavelength dispersive

1713:

Characteristic X-ray emission lines for some common anode materials.

1395:

Hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much

1378: 1287: 1213: 1170: 1139: 241: 137: 133: 129: 121: 54: 25: 11007: 8422: 7488: 6780:"Transforming X-ray detection with hybrid photon counting detectors" 5244:"X-ray movies show hard boiled egg fighting digestive organs (1913)" 5224: 5116: 4870: 4667: 2212: 2099: 1943:, creating the X-rays. In medical X-ray tubes the target is usually 992:

of X-rays by crystals. This discovery, along with the early work of

11383: 11368: 11238: 10881: 10876: 10816: 10485: 10413: 10396: 10381: 10356: 10099: 9588: 9104: 8982: 8742: 8542: 8242: 8214: 7819: 7800: 7230: 3950:"Imprint", from the Associates of the Stanford University Libraries 3271: 2434:

is commonly used in the diagnoses of common oral problems, such as

2350: 1944: 1932: 1906: 1764: 1374: 1303: 1291: 1263: 1242:, while those with lower energy (and longer wavelength) are called 1225:. Different applications use different parts of the X-ray spectrum. 1107: 808: 549: 276: 253: 8035:. Dentalgentlecare.com (6 February 2008). Retrieved on 2011-05-05. 7944:"ANS / Public Information / Resources / Radiation Dose Calculator" 7918:

Health Risks from Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation, BEIR 7 phase 2

6453: 3966:

Hrabak M, Padovan RS, Kralik M, Ozretic D, Potocki K (July 2008).

3956: 1897: 1238:

above 5–10 keV (below 0.2–0.1 nm wavelength) are called

445:. They are still referred to as such in many languages, including 11661: 11207: 11159: 11022: 11002: 10401: 10376: 9816: 9647: 9635: 9613: 9578: 9228: 8851: 8837: 6777: 5098:

Editor. (5 August 1905). Obituary Notice. Elizabeth Fleischmann.

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Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the Early History of the Roentgen Rays

4324:

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the early history of the roentgen rays

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Though X-rays are otherwise invisible, it is possible to see the

2824: 2806: 2478: 2405: 2362: 1948: 1902: 1852: 1736: 1614: 1463: 912:

A typical early 20th-century medical X-ray system consisted of a

811:

had developed along the path of the bullet, and McKinley died of

800: 796: 280: 272: 8993: 7372:"Computed tomography—an increasing source of radiation exposure" 3968:"Scenes from the past: Nikola Tesla and the discovery of X-rays" 2483: 1103: 10811: 10806: 10786: 10766: 10751: 10634: 10371: 10351: 10319: 9063: 8875: 8870: 8860: 8832: 8827: 8822: 8793: 8722: 6990:

Van Haver A, Kolk S, DeBoodt S, Valkering K, Verdonk P (2018).

3746:. Vol. 1. United States: The Greystone Press. p. 394. 3620: 2948: 2947:) to compress nuclear fuel to the point of fusion ignition (an 2944: 2793:

in the soft X-ray band to produce images of very small objects.

2421: 2049:

is sufficient for it to be used as a source for X-ray imaging.

1963: 1956: 1874: 1830: 1808: 1342: 1299: 956: 40: 36: 8358: 6911:

Of the 5 billion imaging investigations performed worldwide...

6878: 6542: 6497: 6440: 3918:

http://www.smj.org.sg/sites/default/files/3605/3605hdxray1.pdf

3055:(Gy), which has units of (joules/kilogram), is the SI unit of 1474: 1333: 11373: 11228: 11185: 10848: 10704: 10497: 10361: 8717: 7329: 6989: 6286: 4170: 3610: 3344: 3109:. For X-rays the "equivalent dose" is numerically equal to a 3060: 2805:

uses X-rays for inspection of industrial parts, particularly

2597:

deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a

2313:

Patient undergoing an X-ray exam in a hospital radiology room

1940: 1486:, as well as a leveling off at higher photon energies due to 1111: 1037: 696:

first mentioned this work in a paper he delivered before the

425:

stumbled on X-rays while experimenting with Lenard tubes and

284: 145: 141: 7914: 6682:"Streamer properties and associated x-rays in perturbed air" 5400:"Talk is cheap? X-ray used by Institute of Phonetics (1920)" 4442:"'I Have Seen My Death': How the World Discovered the X-Ray" 3059:, and it is the amount of radiation required to deposit one 2404:, free air (from visceral perforations), and free fluid (in 2006:

So, the resulting output of a tube consists of a continuous

1651:. These effects can be used for elemental detection through 10709: 10598: 10408: 10366: 8712: 8707: 8474:

A web for learning how X-rays can "see" inside the crystals

7573: 6879:

Roobottom CA, Mitchell G, Morgan-Hughes G (November 2010).

6536: 5296:"Homeopaths to show movies of body's organs at work (1915)" 5001:"Early victims of X-rays: a tribute and current perception" 4419: 4209: 4104: 3707: 2641: 2377: 1459: 1274:. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air; the 1127: 1115: 1080:

developed radiological cars to support soldiers injured in

925: 841: 712: 8164:"Scientists achieve X-ray vision with safe, visible light" 8016:. Doctorspiller.com (9 May 2007). Retrieved on 2011-05-05. 6342: 4378:

Naked to the Bone Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century

3965: 2911:, a method popular in the 1920s but now banned by the FDA. 256:

beams that were first observed in 1869. Many of the early

10682: 10546: 8732: 7088:. Imaging for Interventional Management of Chronic Pain. 6778:

Förster A, Brandstetter S, Schulze-Briese C (June 2019).

6679: 6625:"Electron acceleration during streamer collisions in air" 5684: 5076:

Public Library. San Francisco History and Archive Center.

3358: 3043:

generated. This measure of energy absorbed is called the

2770: 1478:

Attenuation length of X-rays in water showing the oxygen

1322: 988:, Paul Knipping, and Walter Friedrich first observed the 647:

The first use of X-rays under clinical conditions was by

200: 169: 8297:

Milady's Hair Removal Techniques: A Comprehensive Manual

6587: 5997: 5768: 2705:(CT), and to the growth in the use of nuclear medicine. 2372:

Projectional radiographs are useful in the detection of

1494:

X-rays interact with matter in three main ways, through

687:

In early 1896, several weeks after Röntgen's discovery,

215: 7119: 6209:. NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory. 9 December 2011 6039: 5725: 4825:

Eminent Lives in Twentieth-Century Science and Religion

2530:

is an imaging technique commonly used by physicians or

2408:). X-rays may also be used to detect pathology such as 1901:

Spectrum of the X-rays emitted by an X-ray tube with a

7756: 6293:. US: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 116. 5970: 5811: 4998: 4918:

The South in the Building of the Nation: Biography A-J

2388:, which can be used to identify lung diseases such as 1623: 1586: 1562: 1520: 1388:. It is also used for material characterization using 739:. The authors named the technique Röntgen photography. 8208: 7830: 7086:

Techniques in Regional Anesthesia and Pain Management

6953:"Air and Gas in the Soft Tissues: A Radiologic Study" 6343:

Camara CG, Escobar JV, Hird JR, Putterman SJ (2008).

5190:"Structural biology: How proteins got their close-up" 2851:

Authentication and quality control of packaged items.

1439:

through the object and at the same time provide good

1325:, can in this context also be referred to as X-rays. 7713: 7524: 6838:"The first 50 years of military radiology 1895–1945" 6590:

Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics

6287:

Bushburg J, Seibert A, Leidholdt E, Boone J (2002).

6037: 5945: 4785:"The first clinical X-ray made in America—100 years" 2550:), embolization procedures (to stop bleeding during 873:

He died of cancer in 1926. His left hand is kept at

6720: 6622: 2901:, artistic use of X-rays, for example the works by 2380:as well as for detecting some disease processes in 2104:X-rays are also produced in lightning accompanying 2052: 909:or Crookes X-ray tubes were used until about 1920. 11338: 10232:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 7921:. National Academies Press. pp. 5, fig.PS–2. 7694:Shrimpton, P.C; Miller, H.C; Lewis, M.A; Dunn, M. 7525:Oakley PA, Ehsani NN, Harrison DE (1 April 2019). 6836: 5046: 5044: 4999:Sansare K, Khanna V, Karjodkar F (February 2011). 4298:. Medcyclopedia.com, GE Healthcare. Archived from 2570:and is largely used for the management (including 2505:(CT scanning) is a medical imaging modality where 2112:. This produces photons with energies of some few 1635: 1592: 1568: 1548: 1369:, while lower doses can give an increased risk of 16:Form of short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation 7833:""Doctor, will that x-ray harm my unborn child?"" 7831:Ratnapalan S, Bentur Y, Koren G (December 2008). 7667: 6680:Köhn C, Chanrion O, Babich LP, Neubert T (2018). 6093:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 38. 6068:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 42. 5950:. Vol. 1. US: Addison-Wesley. pp. 2–8. 5105: 4733:"Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles1" 3742:Caldwell, Wallace E.; Merrill, Edward H. (1964). 2877:use X-rays for inspecting the interior of trucks. 2100:Production in lightning and laboratory discharges 11790: 7459: 7365: 7363: 7361: 7118:Advances in kilovoltage x-ray beam dosimetry in 6022: 5998:Grupen C, Cowan G, Eidelman SD, Stroh T (2005). 5170:Electro-medical Instruments and their Management 3856:. US: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 182–186. 3063:of energy in one kilogram of any kind of matter. 2991: 2929:is a chemical analysis technique relying on the 2167:direct exposure hazard is often evaluated using 787:in an assassination attempt while attending the 248:. They were noticed by scientists investigating 8293: 7052:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 5085:Editor. (5 August 1905). Aschheim. Obituaries. 5041: 4944:Understanding Ionizing Radiation and Protection 3792:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 3741: 2002:is limited by the energy of incident electrons. 1454:to acquire high-resolution images, and also in 901:during the X-ray procedure would be negligible. 799:, another had lodged somewhere deep inside his 329:. However, he did not work with actual X-rays. 164:) and photon energies in the range of 100 6313: 6263:Essentials of Dental Radiography and Radiology 6164: 6025:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th Ed 5854: 5685:David C, Nöhammer B, Solak H, Ziegler (2002). 4623: 4621: 4619: 4617: 4615: 4613: 4350:"Google doodle celebrates 115 years of X-rays" 785:U.S. President William McKinley was shot twice 702:Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles 11324: 10935:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 9485: 9009: 8496: 8363:. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 40–41. 8088: 7358: 7170: 6921: 6919: 6259: 6171:Soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet radiation 5858:Soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet radiation 5173:. Bemrose & Sons Ltd. Printers. pp. 3937:. Electrical Review Publishing Company. 1894. 3843: 3130: 2595:The examples and perspective in this section 2566:The use of X-rays as a treatment is known as 1403:. For this reason, X-rays are widely used to 1365:over a short period of time causes burns and 8510: 8348:European Synchrotron Radiation Facility ID11 8187: 7332:Birth Defects Research. Part C, Embryo Today 7043: 6623:Köhn C, Chanrion O, Neubert T (March 2017). 6502:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 6266:. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 15–20. 5052:"ISU Health Physics Radinf – First 50 Years" 4292:"W. C. Roentgen and the discovery of x-rays" 2384:. Some notable examples are the very common 252:produced by such tubes, which are energetic 7369: 7251: 6828: 5918: 5482:Telegraph (Brisbane, Qld. : 1872–1947) 5162: 5160: 4957:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 4610: 4095:see also pp. 268 and 276 of the same issue. 3853:The Discharge of Electricity through Gasses 2815:, most often X-rays of paintings to reveal 2662:International Agency for Research on Cancer 2339: 1931:that uses a high voltage to accelerate the 1509: 815:due to bacterial infection six days later. 374:was duly published and an article entitled 11331: 11317: 9492: 9478: 9016: 9002: 8572: 8503: 8489: 7797:eMedicine Live online medical consultation 7460:Calabrese EJ, Baldwin LA (February 2003). 6916: 6721:Köhn C, Chanrion O, Neubert T (May 2018). 6336: 5632: 5560:Brisbane Telegraph (Qld. : 1948–1954) 3137: 3123: 2613:, or create a new section, as appropriate. 1707: 1469: 880: 268:of the residual air in the tube by a high 240:, X-rays were just a type of unidentified 93:. In many languages, it is referred to as 8412: 8359:Als-Nielsen, Jens; Mcmorrow, Des (2001). 8323:"Wilhelm Röntgen and the Invisible Light" 8116: 8106: 7856: 7688: 7550: 6950: 6896: 6811: 6754: 6705: 6656: 6521: 6491: 6452: 6434: 5710: 5658: 5508:Sunday Times (Perth, WA : 1902–1954) 5424: 5201: 5115:. Birmingham City Council. Archived from 5024: 4800: 4756: 4666:. Birmingham City Council. Archived from 4558: 4548: 4507: 4243: 4088: 3983: 3803: 3770: 3724:. Harvard University Press. 5th edition. 2629:Learn how and when to remove this message 2297:Learn how and when to remove this message 2151:, but are now mostly replaced by various 1962:The maximum energy of the produced X-ray 1909:. The smooth, continuous curve is due to 1482:at 540 eV, the energy dependence of 889:A patient being examined with a thoracic 733:"Nouvelle Iconographie de la Salpetrière" 203:, cancer, and at high dosages, burns and 109:to signify an unknown type of radiation. 10847: 8464:https://doi.org/10.1177/1559325820957797 8448:"La découverte des rayons X par Röntgen" 8435:"Index of Early Bremsstrahlung Articles" 8278: 8048:. Idaho State University. Archived from 7879: 7462:"Toxicology rethinks its central belief" 6399: 6290:The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging 6116:"RTAB: the Rayleigh scattering database" 6091:The essential physics of medical imaging 6066:The essential physics of medical imaging 5914: 5912: 5680: 5678: 5187: 5181: 5157: 4266: 3825:Transactions of the Faculty of Actuaries 3818: 2880: 2841: 2740: 2707: 2660:by both the World Health Organization's 2640: 2482: 2349: 2316: 2308: 1896: 1473: 1332: 1212: 1148: 1036: 884: 726: 653: 630: 606: 602: 563: 406: 219: 60: 48: 8287: 7793:"Pregnant Women and Radiation Exposure" 7615: 7613: 7286: 7044:Hermena, Shady; Young, Michael (2024), 6027:. US: Chemical Rubber Co. p. 2850. 5946:Feynman R, Leighton R, Sands M (1963). 5848: 4971: 4915: 4782: 4627: 4466: 4320: 4314: 4269:"The Nobel Prizes in Physics 1901–2000" 4216:Occupational and Environmental Medicine 4060: 3849: 3779: 3650:– 1897 British short silent comedy film 2988:is one example of such high intensity. 2986:European Synchrotron Radiation Facility 1951:(5%) and tungsten (95%), but sometimes 1229: 1205:, and high resolution X-ray detectors. 402: 11791: 11672:Wireless electronic devices and health 10862:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 9499: 8445: 7882:AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology 7621:"Radiation Dose in X-Ray and CT Exams" 7079: 7075: 7073: 7039: 7037: 7012: 6834: 6113: 5582:"X-ray shoe sets in S.A. 'controlled'" 5166: 4868: 4789:AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology 4778: 4776: 4530: 4481: 4439: 4409: 4374: 4347: 4289: 4006: 3878: 3785: 3756: 3714: 3118:Ionizing radiation related quantities 2779:, which is an observational branch of 2738:Other notable uses of X-rays include: 2554:), and barium swallow (to examine for 2472: 2179:the person has been exposed to. X-ray 1687: 1294:, while gamma rays are emitted by the 1153:Phase-contrast X-ray image of a spider 11312: 11104: 10867:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 10276: 10263: 9473: 8997: 8484: 7915:US National Research Council (2006). 7416: 7370:Brenner DJ, Hall EJ (November 2007). 7046:"CT-scan Image Production Procedures" 7006: 6686:Plasma Sources Science and Technology 6547:Plasma Sources Science and Technology 5909: 5675: 5612:Canberra Times (ACT : 1926–1995) 5608:"Ban On Shoe X-ray Machines Resented" 5534:Biz (Fairfield, NSW : 1928–1972) 5270:"X-ray moving pictures latest (1913)" 4940: 4573: 4327:. Norman Publishing. pp. 10–15. 3947: 3927: 3925: 2753:in which the pattern produced by the 2325:of a female patient, demonstrating a 1662: 1604:. However, the general trend of high 818: 216:Pre-Röntgen observations and research 11698:List of civilian radiation accidents 11667:Wireless device radiation and health 11662:Biological dose units and quantities 11612:Electromagnetic radiation and health 11291: 10264: 8161: 7610: 6207:"X-ray Transition Energies Database" 5586:News (Adelaide, SA : 1923–1954) 5456:Warwick Daily News (Qld.: 1919–1954) 4703: 4009:Hydroenergy and Its Energy Potential 3798:. Royal Society of London: 272–278. 2581: 2457:, including the arteries and veins ( 2365:, which, due to its relatively high 2235:adding citations to reliable sources 2206: 1692:Rayleigh scattering is the dominant 78:explains medical imaging and X-rays. 10872:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 8329:. Oak Ridge Associated Universities 8194:. Tokyo: Kodansha. pp. 291–2. 8191:X-ray diffraction by macromolecules 8143:. Open University. 24 February 2011 7376:The New England Journal of Medicine 7080:Davros, William J. (1 April 2007). 7070: 7034: 6835:Thomas, Adrian M.K. (August 2007). 5861:. Cambridge University. p. 2. 5478:"T. C. BEIRNE'S X-RAY SHOE FITTING" 5322:"How X-Ray Movies Are Taken (1918)" 4920:. Pelican Publishing. p. 300. 4773: 4433: 4011:. Pinnacle Technology. p. 88. 3636:Resonant inelastic X-ray scattering 3607:– 1896 documentary radiography film 1947:or a more crack-resistant alloy of 1161:device was proposed as part of the 836:after taking a picture of Dudley's 795:. While one bullet only grazed his 619:screen. The seated man is taking a 348:Also in 1890, Roentgen's assistant 13: 11647:Radioactivity in the life sciences 10681: 9832:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 8555: 8089:Chalkley M, Listl S (March 2018). 7997:, Princeton University Press, 2010 7803:. 28 December 2008. Archived from 7682:10.1093/oxfordjournals.rpd.a033172 6951:Rhinehart, D. A. (December 1931). 5974:Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis 4978:. Norman Publishing. p. 294. 4107:"Sensitivity of the head to X-ray" 3922: 3722:Squire's Fundamentals of Radiology 2577: 2495:) slice – a modern application of 2354:Plain radiograph of the right knee 2121:and the production of high-energy 1357:, and therefore harmful to living 306:describing the effects of passing 14: 11850: 9855:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 9754:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 9023: 8381: 8320: 5971:L'Annunziata M, Abrade M (2003). 4642:10.1148/radiographics.9.6.2685937 4537:Canadian Journal of Communication 4271:. Stockholm: The Nobel Foundation 4041:, "Incandescent Electric Light". 2693:X-rays only accounted for 10% of 2402:bowel (or intestinal) obstruction 1193:sophisticated equipment, such as 611:Taking an X-ray image with early 24:. For the medical specialty, see 11290: 11279: 11278: 11266: 10955:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 8361:Elements of Modern X-Ray Physics 8352: 8341: 8314: 8272: 8181: 8155: 8141:"Using lasers instead of x-rays" 8133: 8082: 8064: 8038: 8019: 8000: 7987: 7962: 7936: 7908: 7873: 7785: 7750: 7707: 7661: 7639: 7567: 7518: 7453: 7431:10.1097/00004032-200307000-00005 7410: 7323: 7280: 7254:The British Journal of Radiology 7245: 7215: 7164: 7112: 6983: 6944: 5922:Physics for Diagnostic Radiology 5425:Jorgensen TJ (10 October 2017). 5300:The Central New Jersey Home News 3578: 3566: 3513: 3436: 3352: 3284: 3194: 3000:ability is called the exposure: 2927:X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 2586: 2552:hemorrhoidal artery embolization 2211: 2197:hybrid photon counting detectors 2053:Production by fast positive ions 1337:Ionizing radiation hazard symbol 1221:, with wavelengths shorter than 1208: 1095:was developed during the 1950s. 10044:Historical stockpiles and tests 8399:(1369): 274–276. January 1896. 7649:. Seer.cancer.gov. 30 June 2010 7289:Reviews on Environmental Health 7173:Physics in Medicine and Biology 7122:Physics in Medicine and Biology 6771: 6714: 6673: 6616: 6581: 6530: 6485: 6428: 6393: 6307: 6280: 6253: 6221: 6199: 6158: 6120:Radiation Physics and Chemistry 6107: 6082: 6057: 6031: 6016: 5991: 5964: 5948:The Feynman Lectures on Physics 5939: 5887: 5805: 5762: 5719: 5635:"Phase-sensitive x-ray imaging" 5626: 5600: 5574: 5548: 5522: 5496: 5470: 5444: 5418: 5392: 5366: 5340: 5314: 5288: 5262: 5236: 5217: 5131: 5092: 5079: 5069: 4992: 4965: 4934: 4909: 4862: 4837: 4817: 4743:(1432): 539–540. 1 April 1897. 4725: 4682: 4656: 4567: 4524: 4475: 4460: 4403: 4368: 4341: 4283: 4267:Karlsson EB (9 February 2000). 4260: 4203: 4164: 4098: 4054: 4025: 4000: 3941: 3911: 3897:10.1148/radiology.181.3.1947073 2813:Radiography of cultural objects 2561: 2222:needs additional citations for 2202: 2059:particle-induced X-ray emission 1181:using different technologies). 918:cold cathode Crookes X-ray tube 642:Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton 623:of his hand by placing it on a 336:and associate professor of the 327:electromagnetic theory of light 287:or the glass wall of the tube. 10945:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 9827:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 8108:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2017.12.005 7670:Radiation Protection Dosimetry 6471:10.1016/j.atmosres.2013.03.012 6229:"X-Ray Data Booklet Table 1-3" 6173:. Cambridge University Press. 6023:Hodgman, Charles, ed. (1961). 5977:. Academic Press. p. 58. 5143:Engole the Elven for Knowledge 5005:Dento Maxillo Facial Radiology 3872: 3860: 3812: 3750: 3735: 3692: 2885:X-ray fine art photography of 2712:An X-ray protective window at 2516: 1923:X-rays can be generated by an 1711: 1458:to determine the positions of 1030:was invented the same year by 715:, used for holding samples of 191:(e.g., identification of some 120:rays and longer than those of 1: 11273:Nuclear technology portal 8457:Röntgen's discovery of X-rays 8446:Samuel JJ (20 October 2013). 7995:Physics for Future Presidents 7970:"HOW DANGEROUS IS RADIATION?" 7771:10.1016/S0140-6736(56)91923-7 7588:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15433-0 6843:European Journal of Radiology 6567:10.1088/0963-0252/25/4/044002 6314:Emilio B, Ballerna A (1994). 6140:10.1016/S0969-806X(00)00290-5 6114:Kissel L (2 September 2000). 5925:. US: CRC Press. p. 12. 5562:. 28 February 1951. p. 7 5354:. 12 January 1919. p. 16 4827:, page 300, Peter Lang, 2009 4713:. Yale Centre for British Art 4440:Markel H (20 December 2012). 4131:10.1126/science.144.3625.1470 4061:Stanton A (23 January 1896). 3879:Walden, T L (December 1991). 3786:Morgan W (24 February 1785). 3685: 3654:X-ray absorption spectroscopy 2992:Units of measure and exposure 2955: 2921:Roentgen stereophotogrammetry 2733: 2106:terrestrial gamma-ray flashes 1699: 1328: 1321:, in the ranges of 6–20 1281: 1004:, gave birth to the field of 962:In about 1906, the physicist 541:. Röntgen received the first 97:, after the German scientist 11135:Field-reversed configuration 10745:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 7223:"11th Report on Carcinogens" 6727:Geophysical Research Letters 6629:Geophysical Research Letters 6541:, Van Deursen L (May 2016). 6422:10.1016/0370-1573(86)90149-3 6260:Whaites E, Cawson R (2002). 5406:. 2 January 1920. p. 13 5089:. San Francisco, California. 4500:10.1080/13688804.2011.602856 4484:"The Invisible Made Visible" 4482:Natale S (1 November 2011). 4416:The Electromagnetic Spectrum 4348:Arthur C (8 November 2010). 3819:Anderson JG (January 1945). 3642:Small-angle X-ray scattering 3595:Detective quantum efficiency 2453:To generate an image of the 2128: 1905:target, operated at 60 1185:Phase-contrast X-ray imaging 1167:Strategic Defense Initiative 1110:that produce X-rays. Unlike 698:Zoological Society of London 332:In early 1890, photographer 244:emanating from experimental 89:) are a form of high-energy 7: 11535:Cosmic background radiation 11092:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 10277: 10039:States with nuclear weapons 8604:Ultra-high-energy gamma ray 8300:. Thomson Delmar Learning. 8188:Kasai N, Kakudo, M (2005). 8162:Dent S (12 February 2015). 8095:Journal of Health Economics 7193:10.1088/0031-9155/51/13/R20 7142:10.1088/0031-9155/59/6/r183 6855:10.1016/j.ejrad.2007.05.024 6610:10.1016/j.jastp.2009.07.010 6126:(2). Lynn Kissel: 185–200. 5919:Denny PP, Heaton B (1999). 5588:. 27 April 1951. p. 12 5458:. 25 August 1921. p. 4 5380:. 7 January 1918. p. 7 5188:Stoddart C (1 March 2022). 4783:Spiegel PK (January 1995). 4692:. Nova Publishers. p. xxi. 4550:10.22230/cjc.2011v36n2a2368 4033:American Technical Book Co. 3821:"William Morgan and X-rays" 3704:Science Mission Directorate 3558: 3008:per kilogram (C/kg) is the 2875:domestic police departments 2674:threshold dose of radiation 2609:, discuss the issue on the 1657:Auger electron spectroscopy 1647:characteristic X-ray or an 1450:. This property is used in 722:gelatin photographic plates 557:screen painted with barium 421:, German physics professor 10: 11855: 11764: 11622:Lasers and aviation safety 11105: 10930:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 10054:Tests in the United States 9288:X-Ray Fluorescence Imaging 9176:Anomalous X-ray scattering 8599:Very-high-energy gamma ray 8459:(PDF; English translation) 7894:10.2214/ajr.184.2.01840655 7301:10.1515/REVEH.2010.25.1.63 7098:10.1053/j.trap.2007.02.005 7020:(2nd ed.). Springer. 6898:10.1016/j.crad.2010.04.021 5536:. 27 July 1955. p. 10 5452:"X-Rays for Fitting Boots" 5328:. 15 March 1918. p. 2 5276:. 22 June 1913. p. 32 4688:Kudriashov, Y. B. (2008). 4531:Natale S (4 August 2011). 4410:Sample S (27 March 2007). 3720:Novelline, Robert (1997). 2714:Birmingham Dental Hospital 2656:, and are classified as a 2520: 2476: 2343: 2132: 1353:. This makes it a type of 338:University of Pennsylvania 275:of anywhere between a few 236:Before their discovery in 210: 116:are shorter than those of 18: 11762: 11726: 11690: 11652:Radioactive contamination 11577: 11505:Electromagnetic radiation 11495: 11407: 11354: 11347: 11260: 11216: 11168: 11125: 11115: 11067: 11055:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 10968: 10950:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 10915: 10898: 10838: 10765: 10757:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 10731: 10722: 10674: 10654: 10607: 10589: 10545: 10450: 10432: 10300: 10287: 10272: 10259: 10214: 10147: 10092: 10083: 10031: 9939: 9930: 9897: 9840: 9802: 9793: 9714: 9646: 9569: 9511: 9507: 9435: 9367: 9316: 9201: 9194: 9133: 9092: 9031: 8957: 8884: 8813: 8741: 8693: 8635: 8612: 8589: 8518: 8427:The Cathode Ray Tube site 8327:Tales from the Atomic Age 7701:22 September 2011 at the 6322:. IOS Press. p. xv. 6002:. Springer. p. 109. 5614:. 26 June 1957. p. 4 5510:. 15 July 1928. p. 5 5484:. 17 July 1925. p. 8 5250:. 4 April 1913. p. 2 5230:28 September 2012 at the 5223:Birmingham City Council: 5203:10.1146/knowable-022822-1 5113:"Major John Hall-Edwards" 4802:10.2214/ajr.164.1.7998549 4664:"Major John Hall-Edwards" 3837:10.1017/s0071368600003001 3470: 3402: 3325: 3256: 3170: 2915:Shoe-fitting fluoroscopes 2831:show well in radiographs. 2791:electromagnetic radiation 2548:coronary artery blockages 2143:were originally based on 2045:. The intensity of X-ray 1730: 1727: 1722: 1717: 1100:Chandra X-ray Observatory 1049:) was pioneered by Major 731:1896 plaque published in 689:Ivan Romanovich Tarkhanov 91:electromagnetic radiation 11819:IARC Group 1 carcinogens 11814:Electromagnetic spectrum 11765:See also the categories 11703:1996 Costa Rica accident 11364:Acoustic radiation force 10960:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 10576:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 9912:Electron-beam processing 9115:Synchrotron light source 8512:Electromagnetic spectrum 8294:Bickmore, Helen (2003). 8071:D.O.E. – About Radiation 7543:10.1177/1559325819852810 6707:10.1088/1361-6595/aaa5d8 5302:. 10 May 1915. p. 6 4895:10.1126/science.3.67.562 4383:Rutgers University Press 3772:10.1038/npre.2009.3267.4 2359:Projectional radiography 2346:Projectional radiography 2340:Projectional radiographs 2175:are used to measure the 2025:, which is generated by 1549:{\textstyle Z^{3}/E^{3}} 1510:Photoelectric absorption 1371:radiation-induced cancer 1219:electromagnetic spectrum 1179:National Missile Defense 1134:that build up layers of 575:of the Physik Institut, 140:in the range of 30 35:Not to be confused with 11677:Radiation heat-transfer 11530:Gravitational radiation 11075:Organic nuclear reactor 10247:Nuclear power phase-out 10170:Nuclear decommissioning 10110:Reactor-grade plutonium 9860:Targeted alpha-particle 9739:Accidents and incidents 9134:Interaction with matter 9093:Sources and instruments 8470:"X-ray Crystallography" 8389:"On a New Kind of Rays" 7537:(2): 1559325819852810. 6996:Orthopaedic Proceedings 6165:Attwood, David (1999). 5855:Attwood, David (1999). 5691:Applied Physics Letters 5225:Major John Hall-Edwards 5100:San Francisco Chronicle 4869:Daniel J (April 1896). 4576:Literature and Medicine 3101:(Sv) is the SI unit of 3088:Roentgen equivalent man 2728:Early photon tomography 2537:X-ray image intensifier 2155:detector types such as 1708:Production by electrons 1606:absorption coefficients 1470:Interaction with matter 1345:carry enough energy to 1217:X-rays are part of the 881:20th century and beyond 789:Pan American Exposition 694:George Albert Boulenger 304:Royal Society of London 101:, who discovered it in 11718:1990 Zaragoza accident 11713:1984 Moroccan accident 11682:Linear energy transfer 11356:Non-ionizing radiation 9266:Diffraction tomography 8560: 6804:10.1098/rsta.2018.0241 5087:San Francisco Examiner 4471:. Springfield: Thomas. 4381:. Camden, New Jersey: 4177:Acta Médica Portuguesa 3805:10.1098/rstl.1785.0014 3605:Macintyre's X-Ray Film 3520:röntgen equivalent man 3443:röntgen equivalent man 2996:The measure of X-rays 2933:, usually employed in 2893: 2847: 2803:Industrial radiography 2746: 2717: 2649: 2499: 2355: 2329: 2314: 2191:applications, such as 2043:triboelectric charging 1920: 1917:characteristic K lines 1678:conservation of energy 1637: 1594: 1570: 1550: 1491: 1421:industrial CT scanning 1417:industrial radiography 1338: 1226: 1154: 1067:motion picture cameras 1042: 1002:William Lawrence Bragg 975:Nobel Prize in Physics 902: 829:William Lofland Dudley 770:Clarence Madison Dally 740: 700:in May 1896. The book 684: 636: 628: 580: 577:University of Freiburg 543:Nobel Prize in Physics 414: 381:San Francisco Examiner 233: 99:Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen 79: 58: 30:X-ray (disambiguation) 28:. For other uses, see 11708:1987 Goiânia accident 11510:Synchrotron radiation 11500:Earth's energy budget 11482:Radioactive materials 11477:Particle accelerators 10237:Anti-nuclear movement 9377:X-ray crystallography 9246:Soft x-ray microscopy 9214:Panoramic radiography 9054:Synchrotron radiation 8559: 8076:27 April 2012 at the 8012:15 March 2007 at the 7514:on 12 September 2011. 6000:Astroparticle Physics 5633:Fitzgerald R (2000). 5530:"X-RAY SHOE FITTINGS" 5348:"X-ray movies (1919)" 5017:10.1259/dmfr/73488299 4296:Textbook of Radiology 2884: 2845: 2789:analysis, which uses 2751:X-ray crystallography 2744: 2711: 2652:X-rays are a form of 2644: 2486: 2455:cardiovascular system 2353: 2320: 2312: 2193:X-ray crystallography 2027:particle accelerators 2023:synchrotron radiation 1915:, and the spikes are 1900: 1674:Klein–Nishina formula 1638: 1595: 1571: 1551: 1477: 1456:X-ray crystallography 1423:) and research (e.g. 1336: 1272:X-ray crystallography 1216: 1163:Reagan Administration 1152: 1040: 1006:X-ray crystallography 888: 875:Birmingham University 833:Vanderbilt University 750:William Francis Magie 730: 657: 634: 610: 603:Advances in radiology 567: 410: 223: 128:ranging from 10 74: 52: 11779:Radiation protection 11632:Radiation protection 11520:Black-body radiation 11427:Background radiation 11342:(physics and health) 11145:Reversed field pinch 10940:Traveling-wave (TWR) 10424:Supercritical (SCWR) 9922:Gemstone irradiation 9146:Photoelectric effect 9079:Characteristic X-ray 8246:Analytical Chemistry 8218:Analytical Chemistry 8031:4 April 2007 at the 7388:10.1056/NEJMra072149 7266:10.1259/bjr/01948454 6747:10.1029/2018GL077788 6649:10.1002/2016GL072216 6596:(17–18): 1890–1898. 6523:10.1002/2014JD022229 6447:. 135–136: 432–465. 6445:Atmospheric Research 5556:"SHOE X-RAY DANGERS" 5326:Davis County Clipper 5119:on 28 September 2012 4941:Ce4Rt (March 2014). 4690:Radiation Biophysics 4670:on 28 September 2012 4588:10.1353/lm.1997.0016 4228:10.1136/oem.51.7.461 3985:10.1148/rg.284075206 3744:History of the World 3631:Reflection (physics) 2931:photoelectric effect 2899:fine art photography 2682:background radiation 2646:Abdominal radiograph 2607:improve this section 2556:esophageal disorders 2532:radiation therapists 2231:improve this article 2165:radiation protection 2161:flat panel detectors 1973:Characteristic X-ray 1669:inelastic scattering 1621: 1584: 1560: 1518: 1431:varies with several 1230:Soft and hard X-rays 1118:being torn apart by 977:for this discovery. 943:, the first kind of 937:John Ambrose Fleming 867:Elizabeth Fleischman 754:Princeton University 403:Discovery by Röntgen 183:(e.g., checking for 53:Natural color X-ray 11749:Radiation hardening 11691:Radiation incidents 11627:Medical radiography 11586:Radiation syndrome 11540:Cherenkov radiation 10310:Aqueous homogeneous 10105:Reprocessed uranium 9778:Safety and security 9166:Photodisintegration 9141:Rayleigh scattering 9120:Free-electron laser 8645:Extreme ultraviolet 8405:1896Natur..53R.274. 8101:(March 2018): 1–9. 7849:10.1503/cmaj.080247 7728:2008MedPh..35.3501G 7481:2003Natur.421..691C 7185:2006PMB....51R.343T 7134:2014PMB....59R.183H 6796:2019RSPTA.37780241F 6739:2018GeoRL..45.5194K 6698:2018PSST...27a5017K 6641:2017GeoRL..44.2604K 6602:2009JASTP..71.1890C 6559:2016PSST...25d4002K 6537:Kochkin P, Köhn C, 6514:2015JGRD..120.1620K 6463:2014AtmRe.135..432K 6414:1986PhR...135...47P 6372:10.1038/nature07378 6364:2008Natur.455.1089C 6358:(7216): 1089–1092. 6187:on 11 November 2012 6146:on 12 December 2011 6132:2000RaPC...59..185K 5875:on 11 November 2012 5783:1995Natur.373..595D 5740:1996Natur.384..335W 5703:2002ApPhL..81.3287D 5651:2000PhT....53g..23F 5139:"JOHN HALL-EDWARDS" 4916:Fleming WL (1909). 4887:1896Sci.....3..562D 4823:Nicolaas A. Rupke, 4749:1897Natur..55..539. 4469:Dr. W. C. Ro ̈ntgen 4123:1964Sci...144.1470G 4117:(3625): 1470–1472. 4081:1896Natur..53R.274. 4044:U.S. patent 454,622 4038:U.S. patent 514,170 3850:Thomson JJ (1903). 3144: 2941:Radiation implosion 2873:truck scanners and 2703:computed tomography 2667:computed tomography 2648:of a pregnant woman 2503:Computed tomography 2497:medical radiography 2473:Computed tomography 2400:, which can detect 2169:ionization chambers 2145:photographic plates 2065:is proportional to 2035:linear polarization 1998:. The frequency of 1996:continuous spectrum 1714: 1688:Rayleigh scattering 1504:Rayleigh scattering 1433:orders of magnitude 1266:used to refer to a 1252:medical radiography 1175:Bush Administration 1124:galactic collisions 1032:William D. Coolidge 1028:Coolidge X-ray tube 998:William Henry Bragg 665:Pelophylax lessonae 579:, on 1 January 1896 545:for his discovery. 357:Stanford University 308:electrical currents 232:that emitted X-rays 181:medical diagnostics 136:, corresponding to 11824:Ionizing radiation 11744:Radioactive source 11565:Radiation exposure 11545:Askaryan radiation 11525:Particle radiation 11409:Ionizing radiation 11224:Dense plasma focus 10139:Actinide chemistry 9604:Isotope separation 9501:Nuclear technology 9407:X-ray reflectivity 9186:X-ray fluorescence 9151:Compton scattering 9084:High-energy X-rays 8650:Vacuum ultraviolet 8561: 8439:Shade Tree Physics 8052:on 7 November 2012 7807:on 23 January 2009 7344:10.1002/bdrc.20099 7233:on 9 December 2010 6885:Clinical Radiology 6790:(2147): 20180241. 5897:. Physics.nist.gov 5895:"Physics.nist.gov" 5826:10.1038/nm0496-473 5248:The News-Palladium 4972:Glasser O (1934). 4467:Glasser O (1958). 4375:Kevles BH (1996). 4321:Glasser O (1993). 4007:Chadda PK (2009). 3867:Wiedmann's Annalen 3669:X-ray reflectivity 3600:High-energy X-rays 3585:Physics portal 3573:Medical portal 3117: 3025:electrostatic unit 3014:ionizing radiation 2963:ionizing radiation 2894: 2848: 2797:X-ray fluorescence 2747: 2718: 2654:ionizing radiation 2650: 2507:tomographic images 2500: 2432:Dental radiography 2412:(which are rarely 2392:, lung cancer, or 2356: 2330: 2315: 2123:run-away electrons 1921: 1919:for rhodium atoms. 1712: 1694:elastic scattering 1663:Compton scattering 1653:X-ray spectroscopy 1633: 1610:penetration depths 1590: 1566: 1546: 1500:Compton scattering 1492: 1488:Compton scattering 1390:X-ray spectroscopy 1367:radiation sickness 1355:ionizing radiation 1349:atoms and disrupt 1339: 1276:attenuation length 1227: 1155: 1043: 903: 899:radiation exposure 819:Hazards discovered 741: 685: 637: 629: 625:photographic plate 581: 415: 359:physics professor 314:and his assistant 234: 205:radiation sickness 197:ionizing radiation 179:is widely used in 80: 59: 11786: 11785: 11767:Radiation effects 11637:Radiation therapy 11573: 11572: 11515:Thermal radiation 11452:Neutron radiation 11417:Radioactive decay 11306: 11305: 11256: 11255: 11252: 11251: 11203:Magnetized-target 11100: 11099: 11063: 11062: 10894: 10893: 10890: 10889: 10834: 10833: 10718: 10717: 10650: 10649: 10255: 10254: 10210: 10209: 10079: 10078: 10066:Weapon-free zones 9893: 9892: 9885:Radiopharmacology 9467: 9466: 9463: 9462: 9455:X-ray lithography 9387:Backscatter X-ray 9382:X-ray diffraction 9209:X-ray radiography 9181:X-ray diffraction 9074:Siegbahn notation 8991: 8990: 8695:Visible (optical) 8423:"Ion X-Ray tubes" 8370:978-0-471-49858-2 8258:10.1021/ac1025122 8230:10.1021/ac102424h 8201:978-3-540-25317-4 7993:Muller, Richard. 7928:978-0-309-09156-5 7843:(12): 1293–1296. 7736:10.1118/1.2952359 7625:RadiologyInfo.org 7582:(9406): 345–351. 7475:(6924): 691–692. 7382:(22): 2277–2284. 7227:Ntp.niehs.nih.gov 7179:(13): R343–R362. 7027:978-1-85233-617-2 6969:10.1148/17.6.1158 6733:(10): 5194–5203. 6300:978-0-683-30118-2 6273:978-0-443-07027-3 6180:978-0-521-65214-8 6100:978-0-683-30118-2 6075:978-0-683-30118-2 6009:978-3-540-25312-9 5984:978-0-12-436603-9 5957:978-0-201-02116-5 5932:978-0-7503-0591-4 5868:978-0-521-65214-8 5777:(6515): 595–598. 5734:(6607): 335–338. 5712:10.1063/1.1516611 5697:(17): 3287–3289. 5660:10.1063/1.1292471 5404:New Castle Herald 5194:Knowable Magazine 5167:Schall K (1905). 4396:978-0-8135-2358-3 4290:Peters P (1995). 4018:978-1-61820-149-2 3763:Nature Precedings 3757:Filler A (2009). 3616:Neutron radiation 3590:Backscatter X-ray 3556: 3555: 3527:100 erg⋅g × 3450:100 erg⋅g × 2787:X-ray microscopic 2763:Rosalind Franklin 2759:fiber diffraction 2639: 2638: 2631: 2568:radiation therapy 2511:three-dimensional 2307: 2306: 2299: 2281: 2199:are widely used. 2189:X-ray diffraction 2149:photographic film 2047:triboluminescence 1983:emission spectrum 1895: 1894: 1636:{\textstyle Z=20} 1429:penetration depth 1386:radiation therapy 1234:X-rays with high 1051:John Hall-Edwards 1047:radiation therapy 858:William J. Morton 856:at Edison's lab, 850:Electrical Review 793:Buffalo, New York 762:calcium tungstate 709:Dartmouth College 649:John Hall-Edwards 298:, he presented a 260:(invented around 193:chemical elements 95:Röntgen radiation 72: 11846: 11727:Related articles 11642:Radiation damage 11467:Nuclear reactors 11352: 11351: 11333: 11326: 11319: 11310: 11309: 11294: 11293: 11282: 11281: 11271: 11270: 11269: 11181: 11140:Levitated dipole 11110: 11102: 11101: 11050:Helium gas (GFR) 10913: 10912: 10908: 10845: 10844: 10729: 10728: 10679: 10678: 10672: 10671: 10667: 10666: 10448: 10447: 10444: 10443: 10282: 10274: 10273: 10266:Nuclear reactors 10261: 10260: 10160:High-level (HLW) 10090: 10089: 9937: 9936: 9917:Food irradiation 9907:Atomic gardening 9800: 9799: 9783:Nuclear meltdown 9609:Nuclear material 9599:Fissile material 9594:Fertile material 9509: 9508: 9494: 9487: 9480: 9471: 9470: 9293:X-ray holography 9199: 9198: 9171:Radiation damage 9018: 9011: 9004: 8995: 8994: 8582: 8580: 8573: 8566: 8505: 8498: 8491: 8482: 8481: 8477: 8455: 8452:Bibnum Education 8442: 8441:. 12 April 2010. 8430: 8418: 8416: 8414:10.1038/053274b0 8375: 8374: 8356: 8350: 8345: 8339: 8338: 8336: 8334: 8318: 8312: 8311: 8291: 8285: 8284: 8276: 8270: 8269: 8252:(4): 1224–1231. 8241: 8224:(4): 1214–1223. 8212: 8206: 8205: 8185: 8179: 8178: 8176: 8174: 8159: 8153: 8152: 8150: 8148: 8137: 8131: 8130: 8120: 8110: 8086: 8080: 8068: 8062: 8061: 8059: 8057: 8042: 8036: 8023: 8017: 8004: 7998: 7991: 7985: 7984: 7982: 7980: 7966: 7960: 7959: 7957: 7955: 7946:. Archived from 7940: 7934: 7932: 7912: 7906: 7905: 7877: 7871: 7870: 7860: 7828: 7817: 7816: 7814: 7812: 7789: 7783: 7782: 7754: 7748: 7747: 7722:(8): 3501–3510. 7711: 7705: 7692: 7686: 7685: 7665: 7659: 7658: 7656: 7654: 7643: 7637: 7636: 7634: 7632: 7617: 7608: 7607: 7571: 7565: 7564: 7554: 7522: 7516: 7515: 7513: 7507:. Archived from 7466: 7457: 7451: 7450: 7414: 7408: 7407: 7367: 7356: 7355: 7327: 7321: 7320: 7284: 7278: 7277: 7260:(965): 362–378. 7249: 7243: 7242: 7240: 7238: 7229:. Archived from 7219: 7213: 7212: 7168: 7162: 7161: 7128:(6): R183–R231. 7116: 7110: 7109: 7077: 7068: 7067: 7066: 7064: 7041: 7032: 7031: 7010: 7004: 7003: 6987: 6981: 6980: 6963:(6): 1158–1170. 6948: 6942: 6941: 6939: 6937: 6923: 6914: 6913: 6900: 6876: 6867: 6866: 6840: 6832: 6826: 6825: 6815: 6775: 6769: 6768: 6758: 6718: 6712: 6711: 6709: 6677: 6671: 6670: 6660: 6635:(5): 2604–2613. 6620: 6614: 6613: 6585: 6579: 6578: 6534: 6528: 6527: 6525: 6508:(4): 1620–1635. 6489: 6483: 6482: 6456: 6432: 6426: 6425: 6397: 6391: 6390: 6388: 6386: 6349: 6340: 6334: 6333: 6311: 6305: 6304: 6284: 6278: 6277: 6257: 6251: 6250: 6248: 6246: 6241:on 23 April 2009 6240: 6233: 6225: 6219: 6218: 6216: 6214: 6203: 6197: 6196: 6194: 6192: 6183:. Archived from 6162: 6156: 6155: 6153: 6151: 6142:. 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Archived from 5852: 5846: 5845: 5809: 5803: 5802: 5791:10.1038/373595a0 5766: 5760: 5759: 5748:10.1038/384335a0 5723: 5717: 5716: 5714: 5682: 5673: 5672: 5662: 5630: 5624: 5623: 5621: 5619: 5604: 5598: 5597: 5595: 5593: 5578: 5572: 5571: 5569: 5567: 5552: 5546: 5545: 5543: 5541: 5526: 5520: 5519: 5517: 5515: 5500: 5494: 5493: 5491: 5489: 5474: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5463: 5448: 5442: 5441: 5439: 5437: 5431:The Conversation 5422: 5416: 5415: 5413: 5411: 5396: 5390: 5389: 5387: 5385: 5370: 5364: 5363: 5361: 5359: 5344: 5338: 5337: 5335: 5333: 5318: 5312: 5311: 5309: 5307: 5292: 5286: 5285: 5283: 5281: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5257: 5255: 5240: 5234: 5221: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5210: 5205: 5185: 5179: 5178: 5164: 5155: 5154: 5152: 5150: 5135: 5129: 5128: 5126: 5124: 5109: 5103: 5096: 5090: 5083: 5077: 5073: 5067: 5066: 5064: 5062: 5056:Sites.Google.com 5048: 5039: 5038: 5028: 4996: 4990: 4989: 4969: 4963: 4962: 4956: 4948: 4938: 4932: 4931: 4913: 4907: 4906: 4866: 4860: 4859: 4857: 4855: 4841: 4835: 4821: 4815: 4814: 4804: 4780: 4771: 4770: 4760: 4758:10.1038/055539a0 4729: 4723: 4722: 4720: 4718: 4707: 4701: 4686: 4680: 4679: 4677: 4675: 4660: 4654: 4653: 4636:(6): 1113–1128. 4625: 4608: 4607: 4571: 4565: 4564: 4562: 4552: 4528: 4522: 4521: 4511: 4479: 4473: 4472: 4464: 4458: 4457: 4455: 4453: 4437: 4431: 4430: 4428: 4426: 4407: 4401: 4400: 4372: 4366: 4365: 4363: 4361: 4345: 4339: 4338: 4318: 4312: 4311: 4309: 4307: 4287: 4281: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4264: 4258: 4257: 4247: 4207: 4201: 4200: 4168: 4162: 4161: 4102: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4090:10.1038/053274b0 4058: 4052: 4046: 4040: 4029: 4023: 4022: 4004: 3998: 3997: 3987: 3978:(4): 1189–1192. 3963: 3954: 3953: 3945: 3939: 3938: 3929: 3920: 3915: 3909: 3908: 3876: 3870: 3864: 3858: 3857: 3847: 3841: 3840: 3816: 3810: 3809: 3807: 3783: 3777: 3776: 3774: 3754: 3748: 3747: 3739: 3733: 3718: 3712: 3711: 3696: 3583: 3582: 3571: 3570: 3569: 3379: 3377: 3321: 3319: 3308: 3306: 3251: 3250: 3247: 3223: 3214: 3212: 3145: 3139: 3132: 3125: 3116: 3034: 3032: 2872: 2871: 2861:Airport security 2765:to discover the 2699:nuclear medicine 2634: 2627: 2623: 2620: 2614: 2590: 2589: 2582: 2493:transverse plane 2323:chest radiograph 2302: 2295: 2291: 2288: 2282: 2280: 2239: 2215: 2207: 1715: 1642: 1640: 1639: 1634: 1602:absorption edges 1599: 1597: 1596: 1591: 1575: 1573: 1572: 1567: 1555: 1553: 1552: 1547: 1545: 1544: 1535: 1530: 1529: 1452:X-ray microscopy 1413:airport security 1375:cancer treatment 1256:airport security 1093:X-ray microscope 1059:X-ray dermatitis 994:Paul Peter Ewald 953:electric current 941:thermionic diode 675:Zootoca vivipara 670:Lacerta vivipara 435:Greek letter Chi 378:appeared in the 361:Fernando Sanford 334:William Jennings 189:material science 172:, respectively. 163: 161: 155: 153: 76:William Coolidge 73: 44: 33: 11854: 11853: 11849: 11848: 11847: 11845: 11844: 11843: 11839:Wilhelm Röntgen 11829:Medical physics 11809:1895 in science 11804:1895 in Germany 11789: 11788: 11787: 11782: 11781: 11758: 11754:Havana syndrome 11739:Nuclear physics 11722: 11686: 11579: 11569: 11555:Unruh radiation 11491: 11472:Nuclear weapons 11457:Nuclear fission 11403: 11343: 11337: 11307: 11302: 11267: 11265: 11248: 11212: 11179: 11164: 11121: 11111: 11106: 11096: 11059: 10964: 10909: 10902: 10901: 10886: 10830: 10761: 10736: 10714: 10686: 10668: 10661: 10660: 10659: 10646: 10612: 10603: 10585: 10550: 10541: 10455: 10438: 10437: 10436: 10428: 10342:Natural fission 10296: 10295: 10283: 10278: 10268: 10251: 10227:Nuclear weapons 10206: 10165:Low-level (LLW) 10143: 10075: 10027: 9926: 9889: 9836: 9789: 9710: 9642: 9565: 9503: 9498: 9468: 9459: 9443:X-ray astronomy 9431: 9363: 9312: 9298:X-ray telescope 9190: 9161:Photoionization 9129: 9125:X-ray nanoprobe 9088: 9044:Absorption edge 9032:Characteristics 9027: 9022: 8992: 8987: 8953: 8880: 8855: 8841: 8809: 8737: 8689: 8631: 8608: 8585: 8578: 8571: 8564: 8562: 8514: 8509: 8468: 8433: 8421: 8387: 8384: 8379: 8378: 8371: 8357: 8353: 8346: 8342: 8332: 8330: 8319: 8315: 8308: 8292: 8288: 8277: 8273: 8213: 8209: 8202: 8186: 8182: 8172: 8170: 8160: 8156: 8146: 8144: 8139: 8138: 8134: 8087: 8083: 8078:Wayback Machine 8069: 8065: 8055: 8053: 8046:"Dental X-Rays" 8044: 8043: 8039: 8033:Wayback Machine 8024: 8020: 8014:Wayback Machine 8005: 8001: 7992: 7988: 7978: 7976: 7974:PhyAst.Pitt.edu 7968: 7967: 7963: 7953: 7951: 7942: 7941: 7937: 7929: 7913: 7909: 7878: 7874: 7829: 7820: 7810: 7808: 7791: 7790: 7786: 7755: 7751: 7716:Medical Physics 7712: 7708: 7703:Wayback Machine 7693: 7689: 7666: 7662: 7652: 7650: 7645: 7644: 7640: 7630: 7628: 7619: 7618: 7611: 7572: 7568: 7523: 7519: 7511: 7489:10.1038/421691a 7464: 7458: 7454: 7415: 7411: 7368: 7359: 7328: 7324: 7285: 7281: 7250: 7246: 7236: 7234: 7221: 7220: 7216: 7169: 7165: 7117: 7113: 7078: 7071: 7062: 7060: 7042: 7035: 7028: 7011: 7007: 6988: 6984: 6949: 6945: 6935: 6933: 6925: 6924: 6917: 6891:(11): 859–867. 6877: 6870: 6833: 6829: 6776: 6772: 6719: 6715: 6678: 6674: 6621: 6617: 6586: 6582: 6535: 6531: 6490: 6486: 6433: 6429: 6402:Physics Reports 6398: 6394: 6384: 6382: 6347: 6341: 6337: 6330: 6312: 6308: 6301: 6285: 6281: 6274: 6258: 6254: 6244: 6242: 6238: 6231: 6227: 6226: 6222: 6212: 6210: 6205: 6204: 6200: 6190: 6188: 6181: 6163: 6159: 6149: 6147: 6112: 6108: 6101: 6087: 6083: 6076: 6062: 6058: 6048: 6046: 6036: 6032: 6021: 6017: 6010: 5996: 5992: 5985: 5969: 5965: 5958: 5944: 5940: 5933: 5917: 5910: 5900: 5898: 5893: 5892: 5888: 5878: 5876: 5869: 5853: 5849: 5814:Nature Medicine 5810: 5806: 5767: 5763: 5724: 5720: 5683: 5676: 5631: 5627: 5617: 5615: 5606: 5605: 5601: 5591: 5589: 5580: 5579: 5575: 5565: 5563: 5554: 5553: 5549: 5539: 5537: 5528: 5527: 5523: 5513: 5511: 5504:"THE PEDOSCOPE" 5502: 5501: 5497: 5487: 5485: 5476: 5475: 5471: 5461: 5459: 5450: 5449: 5445: 5435: 5433: 5423: 5419: 5409: 5407: 5398: 5397: 5393: 5383: 5381: 5372: 5371: 5367: 5357: 5355: 5352:Tampa Bay Times 5346: 5345: 5341: 5331: 5329: 5320: 5319: 5315: 5305: 5303: 5294: 5293: 5289: 5279: 5277: 5274:Chicago Tribune 5268: 5267: 5263: 5253: 5251: 5242: 5241: 5237: 5232:Wayback Machine 5222: 5218: 5208: 5206: 5186: 5182: 5165: 5158: 5148: 5146: 5137: 5136: 5132: 5122: 5120: 5111: 5110: 5106: 5097: 5093: 5084: 5080: 5074: 5070: 5060: 5058: 5050: 5049: 5042: 4997: 4993: 4986: 4970: 4966: 4950: 4949: 4939: 4935: 4928: 4914: 4910: 4881:(67): 562–563. 4867: 4863: 4853: 4851: 4843: 4842: 4838: 4822: 4818: 4781: 4774: 4731: 4730: 4726: 4716: 4714: 4709: 4708: 4704: 4687: 4683: 4673: 4671: 4662: 4661: 4657: 4626: 4611: 4572: 4568: 4529: 4525: 4480: 4476: 4465: 4461: 4451: 4449: 4438: 4434: 4424: 4422: 4408: 4404: 4397: 4373: 4369: 4359: 4357: 4346: 4342: 4335: 4319: 4315: 4305: 4303: 4288: 4284: 4274: 4272: 4265: 4261: 4208: 4204: 4169: 4165: 4103: 4099: 4075:(1369): 274–6. 4059: 4055: 4042: 4036: 4030: 4026: 4019: 4005: 4001: 3964: 3957: 3946: 3942: 3931: 3930: 3923: 3916: 3912: 3877: 3873: 3865: 3861: 3848: 3844: 3817: 3813: 3784: 3780: 3755: 3751: 3740: 3736: 3719: 3715: 3698: 3697: 3693: 3688: 3683: 3664:X-ray nanoprobe 3577: 3567: 3565: 3561: 3545: 3536: 3507: 3498: 3459: 3430: 3404:Equivalent dose 3392:100 erg⋅g 3375: 3373: 3317: 3315: 3304: 3302: 3248: 3245: 3243: 3221: 3210: 3208: 3143: 3103:equivalent dose 3076:equivalent dose 3030: 3028: 2994: 2971:phosphorescence 2958: 2935:surface science 2867: 2866: 2777:X-ray astronomy 2736: 2635: 2624: 2618: 2615: 2604: 2591: 2587: 2580: 2578:Adverse effects 2564: 2525: 2519: 2481: 2475: 2398:abdominal x-ray 2394:pulmonary edema 2378:skeletal system 2348: 2342: 2334:medical imaging 2303: 2292: 2286: 2283: 2240: 2238: 2228: 2216: 2205: 2137: 2131: 2102: 2095: 2084: 2077: 2071: 2055: 1759: 1753: 1747: 1740: 1724: 1719: 1710: 1702: 1690: 1665: 1622: 1619: 1618: 1608:and thus short 1585: 1582: 1581: 1561: 1558: 1557: 1540: 1536: 1531: 1525: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1515: 1512: 1496:photoabsorption 1484:photoabsorption 1480:absorption edge 1472: 1425:small animal CT 1351:molecular bonds 1331: 1284: 1236:photon energies 1232: 1211: 1201:X-ray sources, 951:that caused an 916:connected to a 883: 821: 720:broken bone on 605: 569:Hand mit Ringen 423:Wilhelm Röntgen 419:8 November 1895 412:Wilhelm Röntgen 405: 371:Physical Review 316:Michael Faraday 246:discharge tubes 218: 213: 159: 157: 151: 149: 61: 45: 34: 19: 17: 12: 11: 5: 11852: 11842: 11841: 11836: 11831: 11826: 11821: 11816: 11811: 11806: 11801: 11784: 11783: 11763: 11760: 11759: 11757: 11756: 11751: 11746: 11741: 11736: 11730: 11728: 11724: 11723: 11721: 11720: 11715: 11710: 11705: 11700: 11694: 11692: 11688: 11687: 11685: 11684: 11679: 11674: 11669: 11664: 11659: 11654: 11649: 11644: 11639: 11634: 11629: 11624: 11619: 11614: 11609: 11604: 11602:Health physics 11599: 11598: 11597: 11592: 11583: 11581: 11575: 11574: 11571: 11570: 11568: 11567: 11562: 11560:Dark radiation 11557: 11552: 11550:Bremsstrahlung 11547: 11542: 11537: 11532: 11527: 11522: 11517: 11512: 11507: 11502: 11496: 11493: 11492: 11490: 11489: 11484: 11479: 11474: 11469: 11464: 11462:Nuclear fusion 11459: 11454: 11449: 11444: 11439: 11434: 11432:Alpha particle 11429: 11424: 11419: 11413: 11411: 11405: 11404: 11402: 11401: 11396: 11391: 11386: 11381: 11376: 11371: 11366: 11360: 11358: 11349: 11345: 11344: 11336: 11335: 11328: 11321: 11313: 11304: 11303: 11301: 11300: 11288: 11276: 11261: 11258: 11257: 11254: 11253: 11250: 11249: 11247: 11246: 11241: 11236: 11234:Muon-catalyzed 11231: 11226: 11220: 11218: 11214: 11213: 11211: 11210: 11205: 11200: 11195: 11194: 11193: 11183: 11174: 11172: 11166: 11165: 11163: 11162: 11157: 11152: 11147: 11142: 11137: 11131: 11129: 11123: 11122: 11116: 11113: 11112: 11098: 11097: 11095: 11094: 11089: 11088: 11087: 11082: 11071: 11069: 11065: 11064: 11061: 11060: 11058: 11057: 11052: 11047: 11042: 11041: 11040: 11035: 11030: 11025: 11020: 11015: 11010: 11005: 11000: 10995: 10990: 10985: 10974: 10972: 10966: 10965: 10963: 10962: 10957: 10952: 10947: 10942: 10937: 10932: 10927: 10925:Integral (IFR) 10922: 10916: 10910: 10899: 10896: 10895: 10892: 10891: 10888: 10887: 10885: 10884: 10879: 10874: 10869: 10864: 10859: 10853: 10851: 10842: 10836: 10835: 10832: 10831: 10829: 10828: 10827: 10826: 10821: 10820: 10819: 10814: 10809: 10804: 10789: 10784: 10783: 10782: 10771: 10769: 10763: 10762: 10760: 10759: 10754: 10749: 10740: 10738: 10734: 10726: 10720: 10719: 10716: 10715: 10713: 10712: 10707: 10702: 10697: 10691: 10689: 10684: 10676: 10669: 10655: 10652: 10651: 10648: 10647: 10645: 10644: 10643: 10642: 10637: 10632: 10627: 10616: 10614: 10610: 10605: 10604: 10602: 10601: 10595: 10593: 10587: 10586: 10584: 10583: 10578: 10573: 10572: 10571: 10566: 10555: 10553: 10548: 10543: 10542: 10540: 10539: 10538: 10537: 10532: 10527: 10522: 10517: 10516: 10515: 10510: 10505: 10495: 10490: 10489: 10488: 10483: 10480: 10477: 10474: 10460: 10458: 10453: 10445: 10430: 10429: 10427: 10426: 10421: 10420: 10419: 10416: 10411: 10406: 10405: 10404: 10399: 10389: 10384: 10379: 10374: 10369: 10364: 10359: 10354: 10344: 10339: 10338: 10337: 10332: 10327: 10322: 10312: 10306: 10304: 10298: 10297: 10289: 10288: 10285: 10284: 10270: 10269: 10257: 10256: 10253: 10252: 10250: 10249: 10244: 10242:Uranium mining 10239: 10234: 10229: 10224: 10218: 10216: 10212: 10211: 10208: 10207: 10205: 10204: 10199: 10198: 10197: 10192: 10182: 10177: 10172: 10167: 10162: 10157: 10151: 10149: 10145: 10144: 10142: 10141: 10136: 10135: 10134: 10124: 10119: 10118: 10117: 10115:Minor actinide 10112: 10107: 10096: 10094: 10087: 10081: 10080: 10077: 10076: 10074: 10073: 10068: 10063: 10058: 10057: 10056: 10051: 10041: 10035: 10033: 10029: 10028: 10026: 10025: 10024: 10023: 10013: 10008: 10007: 10006: 10001: 9991: 9986: 9981: 9980: 9979: 9969: 9964: 9959: 9954: 9949: 9943: 9941: 9934: 9928: 9927: 9925: 9924: 9919: 9914: 9909: 9903: 9901: 9895: 9894: 9891: 9890: 9888: 9887: 9882: 9877: 9872: 9867: 9862: 9857: 9852: 9846: 9844: 9838: 9837: 9835: 9834: 9829: 9824: 9819: 9814: 9812:Autoradiograph 9808: 9806: 9797: 9791: 9790: 9788: 9787: 9786: 9785: 9775: 9774: 9773: 9763: 9762: 9761: 9751: 9746: 9741: 9736: 9731: 9726: 9720: 9718: 9712: 9711: 9709: 9708: 9703: 9698: 9693: 9688: 9683: 9678: 9673: 9668: 9663: 9658: 9652: 9650: 9644: 9643: 9641: 9640: 9639: 9638: 9633: 9628: 9627: 9626: 9621: 9606: 9601: 9596: 9591: 9586: 9581: 9575: 9573: 9567: 9566: 9564: 9563: 9562: 9561: 9556: 9546: 9541: 9536: 9534:Atomic nucleus 9531: 9526: 9521: 9515: 9513: 9505: 9504: 9497: 9496: 9489: 9482: 9474: 9465: 9464: 9461: 9460: 9458: 9457: 9452: 9451: 9450: 9439: 9437: 9433: 9432: 9430: 9429: 9424: 9419: 9414: 9409: 9404: 9399: 9394: 9389: 9384: 9379: 9373: 9371: 9365: 9364: 9362: 9361: 9356: 9351: 9346: 9341: 9336: 9331: 9326: 9320: 9318: 9314: 9313: 9311: 9310: 9305: 9300: 9295: 9290: 9285: 9284: 9283: 9278: 9273: 9263: 9258: 9253: 9248: 9243: 9242: 9241: 9236: 9226: 9221: 9216: 9211: 9205: 9203: 9196: 9192: 9191: 9189: 9188: 9183: 9178: 9173: 9168: 9163: 9158: 9153: 9148: 9143: 9137: 9135: 9131: 9130: 9128: 9127: 9122: 9117: 9112: 9107: 9102: 9096: 9094: 9090: 9089: 9087: 9086: 9081: 9076: 9071: 9066: 9061: 9056: 9051: 9046: 9041: 9035: 9033: 9029: 9028: 9021: 9020: 9013: 9006: 8998: 8989: 8988: 8986: 8985: 8980: 8975: 8970: 8964: 8962: 8955: 8954: 8952: 8951: 8946: 8941: 8936: 8931: 8926: 8921: 8916: 8911: 8906: 8901: 8896: 8890: 8888: 8882: 8881: 8879: 8878: 8873: 8868: 8863: 8858: 8853: 8849: 8844: 8839: 8835: 8830: 8825: 8819: 8817: 8811: 8810: 8808: 8807: 8802: 8797: 8775: 8770: 8747: 8745: 8739: 8738: 8736: 8735: 8730: 8725: 8720: 8715: 8710: 8705: 8699: 8697: 8691: 8690: 8688: 8687: 8682: 8677: 8672: 8667: 8662: 8657: 8652: 8647: 8641: 8639: 8633: 8632: 8630: 8629: 8624: 8618: 8616: 8610: 8609: 8607: 8606: 8601: 8595: 8593: 8587: 8586: 8584: 8583: 8550: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8530: 8525: 8519: 8516: 8515: 8508: 8507: 8500: 8493: 8485: 8479: 8478: 8466: 8460: 8443: 8431: 8419: 8383: 8382:External links 8380: 8377: 8376: 8369: 8351: 8340: 8313: 8307:978-1401815554 8306: 8286: 8271: 8207: 8200: 8180: 8154: 8132: 8081: 8063: 8037: 8018: 7999: 7986: 7961: 7950:on 16 May 2012 7935: 7927: 7907: 7888:(2): 655–657. 7872: 7818: 7784: 7749: 7706: 7687: 7676:(4): 445–448. 7660: 7638: 7609: 7566: 7517: 7452: 7419:Health Physics 7409: 7357: 7338:(3): 177–182. 7322: 7279: 7244: 7214: 7163: 7111: 7069: 7033: 7026: 7005: 6982: 6943: 6915: 6868: 6849:(2): 214–219. 6827: 6770: 6713: 6672: 6615: 6580: 6529: 6484: 6427: 6392: 6335: 6328: 6306: 6299: 6279: 6272: 6252: 6220: 6198: 6179: 6157: 6106: 6099: 6081: 6074: 6056: 6030: 6015: 6008: 5990: 5983: 5963: 5956: 5938: 5931: 5908: 5886: 5867: 5847: 5820:(4): 473–475. 5804: 5761: 5718: 5674: 5625: 5599: 5573: 5547: 5521: 5495: 5469: 5443: 5417: 5391: 5365: 5339: 5313: 5287: 5261: 5235: 5216: 5180: 5156: 5145:. 15 June 2018 5130: 5104: 5091: 5078: 5068: 5040: 5011:(2): 123–125. 4991: 4985:978-0930405229 4984: 4964: 4947:. p. 174. 4933: 4927:978-1589809468 4926: 4908: 4861: 4836: 4816: 4795:(1): 241–243. 4772: 4724: 4702: 4681: 4655: 4609: 4582:(2): 141–173. 4566: 4543:(2): 263–276. 4523: 4494:(4): 345–358. 4474: 4459: 4432: 4402: 4395: 4367: 4340: 4334:978-0930405229 4333: 4313: 4302:on 11 May 2008 4282: 4259: 4222:(7): 461–469. 4202: 4163: 4097: 4053: 4024: 4017: 3999: 3955: 3940: 3921: 3910: 3891:(3): 635–639. 3871: 3869:, Vol. XLVIII. 3859: 3842: 3811: 3778: 3749: 3734: 3713: 3690: 3689: 3687: 3684: 3682: 3681: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3645: 3639: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3575: 3562: 3560: 3557: 3554: 3553: 3552:0.010 Sv 3550: 3547: 3541: 3532: 3525: 3522: 3516: 3515: 3512: 3509: 3503: 3494: 3487: 3484: 3479: 3472:Effective dose 3468: 3467: 3466:0.010 Sv 3464: 3461: 3455: 3448: 3445: 3439: 3438: 3435: 3432: 3426: 3419: 3416: 3411: 3400: 3399: 3398:0.010 Gy 3396: 3393: 3390: 3387: 3381: 3380: 3371: 3368: 3365: 3362: 3355: 3354: 3351: 3348: 3342: 3339: 3334: 3323: 3322: 3313: 3310: 3296: 3293: 3287: 3286: 3283: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3265: 3254: 3253: 3241: 3238: 3235: 3232: 3226: 3225: 3218: 3215: 3206: 3203: 3197: 3196: 3193: 3190: 3187: 3184: 3179: 3168: 3167: 3161: 3158: 3155: 3152: 3149: 3142: 3141: 3134: 3127: 3119: 3115: 3114: 3107:effective dose 3105:, and also of 3095: 3072: 3071: 3064: 3037: 3036: 3017: 2993: 2990: 2957: 2954: 2953: 2952: 2938: 2924: 2918: 2912: 2905: 2897:X-ray art and 2879: 2878: 2869:Border control 2864: 2858: 2852: 2840: 2839: 2832: 2810: 2800: 2794: 2784: 2774: 2767:double helical 2761:, was used by 2735: 2732: 2637: 2636: 2619:September 2024 2601:of the subject 2599:worldwide view 2594: 2592: 2585: 2579: 2576: 2563: 2560: 2521:Main article: 2518: 2515: 2477:Main article: 2474: 2471: 2463:contrast agent 2344:Main article: 2341: 2338: 2305: 2304: 2219: 2217: 2210: 2204: 2201: 2177:radiation dose 2135:X-ray detector 2133:Main article: 2130: 2127: 2110:Bremsstrahlung 2101: 2098: 2093: 2085:refers to the 2082: 2075: 2069: 2054: 2051: 2016:electric power 2008:Bremsstrahlung 2004: 2003: 2000:Bremsstrahlung 1991:Bremsstrahlung 1987: 1979:electron shell 1935:released by a 1912:bremsstrahlung 1893: 1892: 1889: 1886: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1871: 1870: 1867: 1864: 1861: 1858: 1855: 1849: 1848: 1845: 1842: 1839: 1836: 1833: 1827: 1826: 1823: 1820: 1817: 1814: 1811: 1805: 1804: 1801: 1798: 1795: 1792: 1789: 1783: 1782: 1779: 1776: 1773: 1770: 1767: 1761: 1760: 1757: 1754: 1751: 1748: 1745: 1742: 1738: 1733: 1732: 1729: 1728:Photon energy 1726: 1721: 1709: 1706: 1701: 1698: 1689: 1686: 1664: 1661: 1649:Auger electron 1632: 1629: 1626: 1593:{\textstyle E} 1589: 1569:{\textstyle Z} 1565: 1543: 1539: 1534: 1528: 1524: 1511: 1508: 1471: 1468: 1443:in the image. 1363:radiation dose 1361:. A very high 1330: 1327: 1296:atomic nucleus 1283: 1280: 1231: 1228: 1210: 1207: 1102:, launched on 968:X-ray spectrum 964:Charles Barkla 947:. This used a 914:Ruhmkorff coil 882: 879: 820: 817: 746:platinocyanide 681:Lacerta agilis 660:Rana esculenta 604: 601: 573:Ludwig Zehnder 559:platinocyanide 404: 401: 397:radiant energy 366:6 January 1893 350:Ludwig Zehnder 292:William Morgan 230:discharge tube 217: 214: 212: 209: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11851: 11840: 11837: 11835: 11832: 11830: 11827: 11825: 11822: 11820: 11817: 11815: 11812: 11810: 11807: 11805: 11802: 11800: 11797: 11796: 11794: 11780: 11776: 11772: 11771:Radioactivity 11768: 11761: 11755: 11752: 11750: 11747: 11745: 11742: 11740: 11737: 11735: 11732: 11731: 11729: 11725: 11719: 11716: 11714: 11711: 11709: 11706: 11704: 11701: 11699: 11696: 11695: 11693: 11689: 11683: 11680: 11678: 11675: 11673: 11670: 11668: 11665: 11663: 11660: 11658: 11655: 11653: 11650: 11648: 11645: 11643: 11640: 11638: 11635: 11633: 11630: 11628: 11625: 11623: 11620: 11618: 11615: 11613: 11610: 11608: 11605: 11603: 11600: 11596: 11593: 11591: 11588: 11587: 11585: 11584: 11582: 11576: 11566: 11563: 11561: 11558: 11556: 11553: 11551: 11548: 11546: 11543: 11541: 11538: 11536: 11533: 11531: 11528: 11526: 11523: 11521: 11518: 11516: 11513: 11511: 11508: 11506: 11503: 11501: 11498: 11497: 11494: 11488: 11485: 11483: 11480: 11478: 11475: 11473: 11470: 11468: 11465: 11463: 11460: 11458: 11455: 11453: 11450: 11448: 11445: 11443: 11440: 11438: 11437:Beta particle 11435: 11433: 11430: 11428: 11425: 11423: 11422:Cluster decay 11420: 11418: 11415: 11414: 11412: 11410: 11406: 11400: 11397: 11395: 11392: 11390: 11387: 11385: 11382: 11380: 11377: 11375: 11372: 11370: 11367: 11365: 11362: 11361: 11359: 11357: 11353: 11350: 11348:Main articles 11346: 11341: 11334: 11329: 11327: 11322: 11320: 11315: 11314: 11311: 11299: 11298: 11289: 11287: 11286: 11277: 11275: 11274: 11263: 11262: 11259: 11245: 11242: 11240: 11237: 11235: 11232: 11230: 11227: 11225: 11222: 11221: 11219: 11215: 11209: 11206: 11204: 11201: 11199: 11196: 11192: 11191:electrostatic 11189: 11188: 11187: 11184: 11182: 11176: 11175: 11173: 11171: 11167: 11161: 11158: 11156: 11153: 11151: 11148: 11146: 11143: 11141: 11138: 11136: 11133: 11132: 11130: 11128: 11124: 11120: 11114: 11109: 11103: 11093: 11090: 11086: 11083: 11081: 11078: 11077: 11076: 11073: 11072: 11070: 11066: 11056: 11053: 11051: 11048: 11046: 11043: 11039: 11036: 11034: 11031: 11029: 11026: 11024: 11021: 11019: 11016: 11014: 11011: 11009: 11006: 11004: 11001: 10999: 10996: 10994: 10991: 10989: 10986: 10984: 10981: 10980: 10979: 10976: 10975: 10973: 10971: 10970:Generation IV 10967: 10961: 10958: 10956: 10953: 10951: 10948: 10946: 10943: 10941: 10938: 10936: 10933: 10931: 10928: 10926: 10923: 10921: 10920:Breeder (FBR) 10918: 10917: 10914: 10911: 10906: 10897: 10883: 10880: 10878: 10875: 10873: 10870: 10868: 10865: 10863: 10860: 10858: 10855: 10854: 10852: 10850: 10846: 10843: 10841: 10837: 10825: 10822: 10818: 10815: 10813: 10810: 10808: 10805: 10803: 10800: 10799: 10798: 10795: 10794: 10793: 10790: 10788: 10785: 10781: 10778: 10777: 10776: 10773: 10772: 10770: 10768: 10764: 10758: 10755: 10753: 10750: 10748: 10746: 10742: 10741: 10739: 10737: 10730: 10727: 10725: 10721: 10711: 10708: 10706: 10703: 10701: 10698: 10696: 10693: 10692: 10690: 10688: 10680: 10677: 10673: 10670: 10665: 10658: 10653: 10641: 10638: 10636: 10633: 10631: 10628: 10626: 10623: 10622: 10621: 10618: 10617: 10615: 10613: 10606: 10600: 10597: 10596: 10594: 10592: 10588: 10582: 10579: 10577: 10574: 10570: 10567: 10565: 10562: 10561: 10560: 10557: 10556: 10554: 10552: 10544: 10536: 10533: 10531: 10528: 10526: 10523: 10521: 10518: 10514: 10511: 10509: 10506: 10504: 10501: 10500: 10499: 10496: 10494: 10491: 10487: 10484: 10481: 10478: 10475: 10472: 10471: 10470: 10467: 10466: 10465: 10462: 10461: 10459: 10457: 10449: 10446: 10442: 10435: 10431: 10425: 10422: 10417: 10415: 10412: 10410: 10407: 10403: 10400: 10398: 10395: 10394: 10393: 10390: 10388: 10385: 10383: 10380: 10378: 10375: 10373: 10370: 10368: 10365: 10363: 10360: 10358: 10355: 10353: 10350: 10349: 10348: 10345: 10343: 10340: 10336: 10333: 10331: 10328: 10326: 10323: 10321: 10318: 10317: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10308: 10307: 10305: 10303: 10299: 10294: 10293: 10286: 10281: 10275: 10271: 10267: 10262: 10258: 10248: 10245: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10230: 10228: 10225: 10223: 10222:Nuclear power 10220: 10219: 10217: 10213: 10203: 10202:Transmutation 10200: 10196: 10193: 10191: 10188: 10187: 10186: 10183: 10181: 10178: 10176: 10173: 10171: 10168: 10166: 10163: 10161: 10158: 10156: 10153: 10152: 10150: 10146: 10140: 10137: 10133: 10130: 10129: 10128: 10125: 10123: 10120: 10116: 10113: 10111: 10108: 10106: 10103: 10102: 10101: 10098: 10097: 10095: 10091: 10088: 10086: 10082: 10072: 10069: 10067: 10064: 10062: 10059: 10055: 10052: 10050: 10047: 10046: 10045: 10042: 10040: 10037: 10036: 10034: 10030: 10022: 10019: 10018: 10017: 10014: 10012: 10009: 10005: 10002: 10000: 9999:high-altitude 9997: 9996: 9995: 9992: 9990: 9989:Proliferation 9987: 9985: 9982: 9978: 9975: 9974: 9973: 9970: 9968: 9965: 9963: 9960: 9958: 9955: 9953: 9950: 9948: 9945: 9944: 9942: 9938: 9935: 9933: 9929: 9923: 9920: 9918: 9915: 9913: 9910: 9908: 9905: 9904: 9902: 9900: 9896: 9886: 9883: 9881: 9878: 9876: 9875:Brachytherapy 9873: 9871: 9868: 9866: 9863: 9861: 9858: 9856: 9853: 9851: 9848: 9847: 9845: 9843: 9839: 9833: 9830: 9828: 9825: 9823: 9820: 9818: 9815: 9813: 9810: 9809: 9807: 9805: 9801: 9798: 9796: 9792: 9784: 9781: 9780: 9779: 9776: 9772: 9769: 9768: 9767: 9764: 9760: 9757: 9756: 9755: 9752: 9750: 9747: 9745: 9742: 9740: 9737: 9735: 9732: 9730: 9727: 9725: 9722: 9721: 9719: 9717: 9713: 9707: 9704: 9702: 9699: 9697: 9694: 9692: 9689: 9687: 9684: 9682: 9679: 9677: 9674: 9672: 9671:Cross section 9669: 9667: 9664: 9662: 9659: 9657: 9654: 9653: 9651: 9649: 9645: 9637: 9634: 9632: 9629: 9625: 9622: 9620: 9617: 9616: 9615: 9612: 9611: 9610: 9607: 9605: 9602: 9600: 9597: 9595: 9592: 9590: 9587: 9585: 9582: 9580: 9577: 9576: 9574: 9572: 9568: 9560: 9557: 9555: 9552: 9551: 9550: 9547: 9545: 9542: 9540: 9537: 9535: 9532: 9530: 9527: 9525: 9522: 9520: 9517: 9516: 9514: 9510: 9506: 9502: 9495: 9490: 9488: 9483: 9481: 9476: 9475: 9472: 9456: 9453: 9449: 9446: 9445: 9444: 9441: 9440: 9438: 9434: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9393: 9390: 9388: 9385: 9383: 9380: 9378: 9375: 9374: 9372: 9370: 9366: 9360: 9357: 9355: 9352: 9350: 9347: 9345: 9342: 9340: 9337: 9335: 9332: 9330: 9327: 9325: 9322: 9321: 9319: 9315: 9309: 9306: 9304: 9301: 9299: 9296: 9294: 9291: 9289: 9286: 9282: 9279: 9277: 9274: 9272: 9269: 9268: 9267: 9264: 9262: 9259: 9257: 9254: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9244: 9240: 9237: 9235: 9232: 9231: 9230: 9227: 9225: 9222: 9220: 9219:Tomosynthesis 9217: 9215: 9212: 9210: 9207: 9206: 9204: 9200: 9197: 9193: 9187: 9184: 9182: 9179: 9177: 9174: 9172: 9169: 9167: 9164: 9162: 9159: 9157: 9154: 9152: 9149: 9147: 9144: 9142: 9139: 9138: 9136: 9132: 9126: 9123: 9121: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9111: 9108: 9106: 9103: 9101: 9098: 9097: 9095: 9091: 9085: 9082: 9080: 9077: 9075: 9072: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9062: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9049:Moseley's law 9047: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9036: 9034: 9030: 9026: 9025:X-ray science 9019: 9014: 9012: 9007: 9005: 9000: 8999: 8996: 8984: 8981: 8979: 8976: 8974: 8971: 8969: 8966: 8965: 8963: 8960: 8956: 8950: 8947: 8945: 8942: 8940: 8937: 8935: 8932: 8930: 8927: 8925: 8922: 8920: 8917: 8915: 8912: 8910: 8907: 8905: 8902: 8900: 8897: 8895: 8892: 8891: 8889: 8887: 8883: 8877: 8874: 8872: 8869: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8850: 8848: 8845: 8843: 8836: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8824: 8821: 8820: 8818: 8816: 8812: 8806: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8795: 8791: 8787: 8783: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8768: 8764: 8760: 8756: 8752: 8749: 8748: 8746: 8744: 8740: 8734: 8731: 8729: 8726: 8724: 8721: 8719: 8716: 8714: 8711: 8709: 8706: 8704: 8701: 8700: 8698: 8696: 8692: 8686: 8683: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8651: 8648: 8646: 8643: 8642: 8640: 8638: 8634: 8628: 8625: 8623: 8620: 8619: 8617: 8615: 8611: 8605: 8602: 8600: 8597: 8596: 8594: 8592: 8588: 8581: 8577: 8570: 8558: 8554: 8551: 8549: 8546: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8526: 8524: 8521: 8520: 8517: 8513: 8506: 8501: 8499: 8494: 8492: 8487: 8486: 8483: 8475: 8471: 8467: 8465: 8461: 8458: 8453: 8449: 8444: 8440: 8436: 8432: 8428: 8424: 8420: 8415: 8410: 8406: 8402: 8398: 8394: 8390: 8386: 8385: 8372: 8366: 8362: 8355: 8349: 8344: 8328: 8324: 8317: 8309: 8303: 8299: 8298: 8290: 8282: 8275: 8267: 8263: 8259: 8255: 8251: 8247: 8239: 8235: 8231: 8227: 8223: 8219: 8211: 8203: 8197: 8193: 8192: 8184: 8169: 8165: 8158: 8142: 8136: 8128: 8124: 8119: 8114: 8109: 8104: 8100: 8096: 8092: 8085: 8079: 8075: 8072: 8067: 8051: 8047: 8041: 8034: 8030: 8027: 8022: 8015: 8011: 8008: 8003: 7996: 7990: 7975: 7971: 7965: 7949: 7945: 7939: 7930: 7924: 7920: 7919: 7911: 7903: 7899: 7895: 7891: 7887: 7883: 7876: 7868: 7864: 7859: 7854: 7850: 7846: 7842: 7838: 7834: 7827: 7825: 7823: 7806: 7802: 7798: 7794: 7788: 7780: 7776: 7772: 7768: 7765:(6940): 447. 7764: 7760: 7753: 7745: 7741: 7737: 7733: 7729: 7725: 7721: 7717: 7710: 7704: 7700: 7697: 7691: 7683: 7679: 7675: 7671: 7664: 7648: 7642: 7626: 7622: 7616: 7614: 7605: 7601: 7597: 7593: 7589: 7585: 7581: 7577: 7570: 7562: 7558: 7553: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7531:Dose-Response 7528: 7521: 7510: 7506: 7502: 7498: 7494: 7490: 7486: 7482: 7478: 7474: 7470: 7463: 7456: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7432: 7428: 7424: 7420: 7413: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7373: 7366: 7364: 7362: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7337: 7333: 7326: 7318: 7314: 7310: 7306: 7302: 7298: 7294: 7290: 7283: 7275: 7271: 7267: 7263: 7259: 7255: 7248: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7218: 7210: 7206: 7202: 7198: 7194: 7190: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7174: 7167: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7115: 7107: 7103: 7099: 7095: 7091: 7087: 7083: 7076: 7074: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7040: 7038: 7029: 7023: 7019: 7015: 7009: 7001: 6997: 6993: 6986: 6978: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6958: 6954: 6947: 6932: 6928: 6922: 6920: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6890: 6886: 6882: 6875: 6873: 6864: 6860: 6856: 6852: 6848: 6844: 6839: 6831: 6823: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6797: 6793: 6789: 6785: 6781: 6774: 6766: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6748: 6744: 6740: 6736: 6732: 6728: 6724: 6717: 6708: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6692:(1): 015017. 6691: 6687: 6683: 6676: 6668: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6650: 6646: 6642: 6638: 6634: 6630: 6626: 6619: 6611: 6607: 6603: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6584: 6576: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6553:(4): 044002. 6552: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6533: 6524: 6519: 6515: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6488: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6455: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6431: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6396: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6346: 6339: 6331: 6329:90-5199-248-3 6325: 6321: 6317: 6310: 6302: 6296: 6292: 6291: 6283: 6275: 6269: 6265: 6264: 6256: 6237: 6230: 6224: 6208: 6202: 6186: 6182: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6161: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6121: 6117: 6110: 6102: 6096: 6092: 6085: 6077: 6071: 6067: 6060: 6045: 6041: 6034: 6026: 6019: 6011: 6005: 6001: 5994: 5986: 5980: 5976: 5975: 5967: 5959: 5953: 5949: 5942: 5934: 5928: 5924: 5923: 5915: 5913: 5896: 5890: 5874: 5870: 5864: 5860: 5859: 5851: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5808: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5765: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5722: 5713: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5681: 5679: 5670: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5639:Physics Today 5636: 5629: 5613: 5609: 5603: 5587: 5583: 5577: 5561: 5557: 5551: 5535: 5531: 5525: 5509: 5505: 5499: 5483: 5479: 5473: 5457: 5453: 5447: 5432: 5428: 5421: 5405: 5401: 5395: 5379: 5375: 5369: 5353: 5349: 5343: 5327: 5323: 5317: 5301: 5297: 5291: 5275: 5271: 5265: 5249: 5245: 5239: 5233: 5229: 5226: 5220: 5204: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5184: 5176: 5172: 5171: 5163: 5161: 5144: 5140: 5134: 5118: 5114: 5108: 5101: 5095: 5088: 5082: 5072: 5057: 5053: 5047: 5045: 5036: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4995: 4987: 4981: 4977: 4976: 4968: 4960: 4954: 4946: 4945: 4937: 4929: 4923: 4919: 4912: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4865: 4850: 4846: 4840: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4820: 4812: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4779: 4777: 4768: 4764: 4759: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4728: 4712: 4706: 4699: 4698:9781600212802 4695: 4691: 4685: 4669: 4665: 4659: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4630:Radiographics 4624: 4622: 4620: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4570: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4527: 4519: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4488:Media History 4485: 4478: 4470: 4463: 4447: 4443: 4436: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4406: 4398: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4379: 4371: 4356:. Guardian US 4355: 4351: 4344: 4336: 4330: 4326: 4325: 4317: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4286: 4270: 4263: 4255: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4206: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4167: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4101: 4091: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4069: 4064: 4057: 4050: 4045: 4039: 4034: 4028: 4020: 4014: 4010: 4003: 3995: 3991: 3986: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3972:Radiographics 3969: 3962: 3960: 3951: 3944: 3936: 3935: 3928: 3926: 3919: 3914: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3875: 3868: 3863: 3855: 3854: 3846: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3815: 3806: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3782: 3773: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3753: 3745: 3738: 3731: 3730:0-674-83339-2 3727: 3723: 3717: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3695: 3691: 3680: 3679:X-ray welding 3677: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3660: 3657: 3655: 3652: 3649: 3646: 3643: 3640: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3606: 3603: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3581: 3576: 3574: 3564: 3563: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3544: 3540: 3535: 3531: 3526: 3523: 3521: 3518: 3517: 3510: 3508: 3506: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3488: 3485: 3483: 3480: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3458: 3454: 3449: 3446: 3444: 3441: 3440: 3433: 3431: 3429: 3425: 3420: 3417: 3415: 3412: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3394: 3391: 3388: 3386: 3383: 3382: 3372: 3369: 3366: 3363: 3360: 3357: 3356: 3349: 3346: 3343: 3340: 3338: 3335: 3332: 3328: 3327:Absorbed dose 3324: 3314: 3311: 3300: 3297: 3294: 3292: 3289: 3288: 3281: 3278: 3275: 3273: 3269: 3266: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3242: 3239: 3236: 3233: 3231: 3228: 3227: 3219: 3216: 3207: 3204: 3202: 3199: 3198: 3191: 3188: 3185: 3183: 3180: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3162: 3159: 3156: 3153: 3150: 3147: 3146: 3140: 3135: 3133: 3128: 3126: 3121: 3120: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3084: 3083: 3081: 3080:absorbed dose 3077: 3069: 3065: 3062: 3058: 3057:absorbed dose 3054: 3050: 3049: 3048: 3046: 3045:absorbed dose 3042: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 3002: 3001: 2999: 2989: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2974: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2939: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2925: 2922: 2919: 2916: 2913: 2910: 2906: 2904: 2903:Stane Jagodič 2900: 2896: 2895: 2892: 2891:Peter Dazeley 2888: 2883: 2876: 2870: 2865: 2862: 2859: 2856: 2855:Industrial CT 2853: 2850: 2849: 2844: 2837: 2833: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2811: 2808: 2804: 2801: 2798: 2795: 2792: 2788: 2785: 2782: 2778: 2775: 2772: 2769:structure of 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2749: 2748: 2743: 2739: 2731: 2729: 2725: 2722: 2715: 2710: 2706: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2690: 2686: 2683: 2678: 2675: 2670: 2668: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2647: 2643: 2633: 2630: 2622: 2612: 2608: 2602: 2600: 2593: 2584: 2583: 2575: 2573: 2569: 2559: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2542: 2538: 2533: 2529: 2524: 2514: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2485: 2480: 2470: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2451: 2449: 2445: 2439: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2418:kidney stones 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2370: 2368: 2367:atomic number 2364: 2360: 2352: 2347: 2337: 2335: 2328: 2327:hiatal hernia 2324: 2319: 2311: 2301: 2298: 2290: 2287:November 2017 2279: 2276: 2272: 2269: 2265: 2262: 2258: 2255: 2251: 2248: – 2247: 2243: 2242:Find sources: 2236: 2232: 2226: 2225: 2220:This section 2218: 2214: 2209: 2208: 2200: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2185:spectrometers 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2136: 2126: 2124: 2120: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2097: 2092: 2088: 2087:atomic number 2081: 2074: 2068: 2064: 2063:cross section 2060: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2038: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2019: 2017: 2012: 2009: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1974: 1970: 1969: 1968: 1965: 1960: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1918: 1914: 1913: 1908: 1904: 1899: 1890: 1887: 1884: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1873: 1872: 1868: 1865: 1862: 1859: 1856: 1854: 1851: 1850: 1846: 1843: 1840: 1837: 1834: 1832: 1829: 1828: 1824: 1821: 1818: 1815: 1812: 1810: 1807: 1806: 1802: 1799: 1796: 1793: 1790: 1788: 1785: 1784: 1780: 1777: 1774: 1771: 1768: 1766: 1763: 1762: 1755: 1749: 1743: 1741: 1735: 1734: 1716: 1705: 1697: 1695: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1670: 1660: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1644: 1630: 1627: 1624: 1616: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1587: 1579: 1578:atomic number 1563: 1541: 1537: 1532: 1526: 1522: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1476: 1467: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1393: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1335: 1326: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1279: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1264:metonymically 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1248:tender X-rays 1245: 1241: 1237: 1224: 1220: 1215: 1209:Energy ranges 1206: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1191: 1186: 1182: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1151: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1132:neutron stars 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1112:visible light 1109: 1105: 1101: 1096: 1094: 1089: 1085: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1068: 1062: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1039: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1024: 1022: 1021:Moseley's law 1018: 1017:Henry Moseley 1014: 1009: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 978: 976: 973: 970:. He won the 969: 965: 960: 958: 955:to flow in a 954: 950: 946: 942: 939:invented the 938: 934: 929: 927: 921: 919: 915: 910: 908: 900: 896: 892: 887: 878: 876: 870: 868: 863: 859: 855: 854:Elihu Thomson 851: 846: 843: 839: 834: 830: 826: 816: 814: 810: 806: 805:X-ray machine 802: 798: 794: 790: 786: 781: 779: 778:Mihajlo Pupin 775: 771: 767: 763: 759: 758:Thomas Edison 755: 751: 747: 738: 734: 729: 725: 723: 718: 714: 710: 705: 703: 699: 695: 690: 683: 682: 677: 676: 671: 667: 666: 661: 656: 652: 650: 645: 643: 633: 626: 622: 618: 614: 609: 600: 597: 596: 590: 585: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 560: 556: 551: 546: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 427:Crookes tubes 424: 420: 413: 409: 400: 398: 394: 390: 385: 383: 382: 377: 373: 372: 367: 362: 358: 353: 351: 346: 344: 343:Crookes tubes 339: 335: 330: 328: 323: 319: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 288: 286: 282: 278: 274: 271: 267: 263: 259: 258:Crookes tubes 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 231: 227: 224:Example of a 222: 208: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 173: 171: 167: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 110: 108: 105:and named it 104: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 77: 56: 51: 47: 42: 38: 31: 27: 23: 11775:Radiobiology 11657:Radiobiology 11617:Laser safety 11486: 11295: 11283: 11264: 11244:Pyroelectric 11198:Laser-driven 10978:Sodium (SFR) 10905:fast-neutron 10744: 10290: 10180:Reprocessing 10061:WMD treaties 9880:Radiosurgery 9850:Fast-neutron 9822:Scintigraphy 9317:Spectroscopy 9261:Ptychography 9195:Applications 9156:Auger effect 9059:Water window 9038: 9024: 8613: 8563: 8527: 8473: 8454:(in French). 8451: 8438: 8426: 8396: 8392: 8360: 8354: 8343: 8331:. Retrieved 8326: 8316: 8296: 8289: 8280: 8274: 8249: 8245: 8221: 8217: 8210: 8190: 8183: 8171:. Retrieved 8167: 8157: 8145:. Retrieved 8135: 8098: 8094: 8084: 8066: 8054:. Retrieved 8050:the original 8040: 8026:X-Ray Safety 8021: 8002: 7994: 7989: 7977:. Retrieved 7973: 7964: 7952:. Retrieved 7948:the original 7938: 7917: 7910: 7885: 7881: 7875: 7840: 7836: 7809:. Retrieved 7805:the original 7796: 7787: 7762: 7758: 7752: 7719: 7715: 7709: 7690: 7673: 7669: 7663: 7651:. Retrieved 7641: 7629:. Retrieved 7624: 7579: 7575: 7569: 7534: 7530: 7520: 7509:the original 7472: 7468: 7455: 7425:(1): 15–22. 7422: 7418: 7412: 7379: 7375: 7335: 7331: 7325: 7295:(1): 63–68. 7292: 7288: 7282: 7257: 7253: 7247: 7235:. Retrieved 7231:the original 7226: 7217: 7176: 7172: 7166: 7125: 7121: 7114: 7092:(2): 44–54. 7089: 7085: 7061:, retrieved 7049: 7017: 7008: 6999: 6995: 6985: 6960: 6956: 6946: 6934:. Retrieved 6931:ScienceDaily 6930: 6910: 6888: 6884: 6846: 6842: 6830: 6787: 6783: 6773: 6730: 6726: 6716: 6689: 6685: 6675: 6632: 6628: 6618: 6593: 6589: 6583: 6550: 6546: 6532: 6505: 6501: 6487: 6444: 6430: 6408:(2): 47–97. 6405: 6401: 6395: 6383:. Retrieved 6355: 6351: 6338: 6319: 6309: 6289: 6282: 6262: 6255: 6243:. Retrieved 6236:the original 6223: 6211:. Retrieved 6201: 6189:. Retrieved 6185:the original 6170: 6160: 6148:. Retrieved 6144:the original 6123: 6119: 6109: 6090: 6084: 6065: 6059: 6047:. Retrieved 6043: 6033: 6024: 6018: 5999: 5993: 5973: 5966: 5947: 5941: 5921: 5899:. Retrieved 5889: 5877:. Retrieved 5873:the original 5857: 5850: 5817: 5813: 5807: 5774: 5770: 5764: 5731: 5727: 5721: 5694: 5690: 5645:(7): 23–26. 5642: 5638: 5628: 5616:. Retrieved 5611: 5602: 5590:. Retrieved 5585: 5576: 5564:. Retrieved 5559: 5550: 5538:. Retrieved 5533: 5524: 5512:. Retrieved 5507: 5498: 5486:. Retrieved 5481: 5472: 5460:. Retrieved 5455: 5446: 5434:. Retrieved 5430: 5420: 5408:. Retrieved 5403: 5394: 5382:. Retrieved 5377: 5368: 5356:. Retrieved 5351: 5342: 5330:. Retrieved 5325: 5316: 5304:. Retrieved 5299: 5290: 5278:. Retrieved 5273: 5264: 5252:. Retrieved 5247: 5238: 5219: 5207:. Retrieved 5193: 5183: 5169: 5147:. Retrieved 5142: 5133: 5121:. Retrieved 5117:the original 5107: 5099: 5094: 5086: 5081: 5071: 5059:. Retrieved 5055: 5008: 5004: 4994: 4974: 4967: 4943: 4936: 4917: 4911: 4878: 4874: 4871:"THE X-RAYS" 4864: 4852:. Retrieved 4848: 4839: 4824: 4819: 4792: 4788: 4740: 4736: 4727: 4715:. Retrieved 4705: 4689: 4684: 4672:. Retrieved 4668:the original 4658: 4633: 4629: 4579: 4575: 4569: 4560:2318/1770480 4540: 4536: 4526: 4491: 4487: 4477: 4468: 4462: 4450:. Retrieved 4446:PBS NewsHour 4445: 4435: 4423:. Retrieved 4415: 4405: 4377: 4370: 4358:. Retrieved 4354:The Guardian 4353: 4343: 4323: 4316: 4304:. Retrieved 4300:the original 4295: 4285: 4273:. Retrieved 4262: 4219: 4215: 4205: 4183:(1): 19–24. 4180: 4176: 4166: 4158: 4114: 4110: 4100: 4072: 4066: 4056: 4032: 4027: 4008: 4002: 3975: 3971: 3949: 3943: 3933: 3913: 3888: 3884: 3874: 3866: 3862: 3852: 3845: 3828: 3824: 3814: 3795: 3791: 3781: 3762: 3752: 3743: 3737: 3721: 3716: 3703: 3694: 3674:X-ray vision 3659:X-ray marker 3626:Radiographer 3542: 3538: 3533: 3529: 3504: 3500: 3495: 3491: 3475: 3456: 3452: 3427: 3423: 3407: 3330: 3320:10 C/kg 3279:C⋅kg of air 3261: 3175: 3073: 3038: 3033:10 C/kg 2995: 2975: 2959: 2909:hair removal 2817:underdrawing 2737: 2726: 2723: 2719: 2694: 2691: 2687: 2679: 2671: 2651: 2625: 2616: 2596: 2565: 2562:Radiotherapy 2544:video camera 2526: 2501: 2452: 2447: 2444:X-ray filter 2440: 2430: 2371: 2357: 2331: 2293: 2284: 2274: 2267: 2260: 2253: 2241: 2229:Please help 2224:verification 2221: 2203:Medical uses 2157:image plates 2138: 2109: 2103: 2090: 2089:of the ion, 2079: 2072: 2066: 2056: 2039: 2020: 2013: 2007: 2005: 1999: 1989: 1971: 1961: 1922: 1910: 1731:Wavelength 1703: 1691: 1666: 1645: 1513: 1493: 1445: 1437:transmission 1394: 1340: 1319:radiotherapy 1285: 1268:radiographic 1259: 1258:). The term 1247: 1243: 1239: 1233: 1203:X-ray optics 1183: 1156: 1104:23 July 1999 1097: 1090: 1086: 1071: 1063: 1061:on his arm. 1044: 1025: 1010: 986:Max von Laue 979: 961: 930: 922: 911: 907:cold cathode 904: 871: 862:Nikola Tesla 849: 847: 822: 813:septic shock 782: 742: 732: 706: 701: 686: 679: 673: 669: 663: 659: 646: 638: 613:Crookes tube 593: 586: 582: 568: 547: 443:Röntgen rays 442: 438: 416: 393:Nikola Tesla 386: 379: 375: 369: 354: 347: 331: 324: 320: 312:Humphry Davy 289: 250:cathode rays 235: 228:, a type of 226:Crookes tube 185:broken bones 174: 168:to 100 111: 106: 94: 86: 82: 81: 46: 11834:Radiography 11399:Ultraviolet 11394:Radio waves 11155:Stellarator 11119:confinement 11013:Superphénix 10840:Molten-salt 10792:VHTR (HTGR) 10569:HW BLWR 250 10535:R4 Marviken 10464:Pressurized 10434:Heavy water 10418:many others 10347:Pressurized 10302:Light water 10004:underground 9962:Disarmament 9870:Tomotherapy 9865:Proton-beam 9729:Power plant 9691:Temperature 9524:Engineering 9110:Synchrotron 8978:Medium wave 8655:Lyman-alpha 8637:Ultraviolet 8576:wavelengths 8569:frequencies 8533:Ultraviolet 8118:2066/190628 6245:19 February 6213:19 February 5462:27 November 5436:23 February 5410:26 November 5384:26 November 5358:26 November 5332:26 November 5306:26 November 5280:26 November 5254:26 November 4849:NLM.NIH.gov 4717:24 November 4385:. pp. 4275:24 November 3831:: 219–221. 3224:10 Bq 3166:equivalent 3157:Derivation 2755:diffraction 2528:Fluoroscopy 2523:Fluoroscopy 2517:Fluoroscopy 2467:radiologist 2459:angiography 2386:chest X-ray 2382:soft tissue 2141:radiography 2031:collimation 1937:hot cathode 1929:vacuum tube 1409:radiography 1312:radioactive 1308:X-ray tubes 1244:soft X-rays 1240:hard X-rays 1195:synchrotron 1159:X-ray laser 1120:black holes 1082:World War I 1078:Marie Curie 990:diffraction 949:hot cathode 945:vacuum tube 891:fluoroscope 766:fluoroscope 737:radiography 717:fluorescent 617:fluoroscope 555:fluorescent 177:radiography 144:to 30 138:frequencies 132:to 10 118:ultraviolet 114:wavelengths 107:X-radiation 87:X-radiation 22:Radiography 11793:Categories 11580:and health 11578:Radiation 11447:Cosmic ray 11180:(acoustic) 10797:PBR (PBMR) 10185:Spent fuel 10175:Repository 10155:Fuel cycle 10122:Activation 9899:Processing 9766:Propulsion 9724:by country 9656:Activation 9369:Scattering 9234:Helical CT 9100:X-ray tube 8959:Wavelength 8815:Microwaves 8627:Hard X-ray 8622:Soft X-ray 8591:Gamma rays 8523:Gamma rays 8333:11 October 8056:7 November 7979:24 January 7811:16 January 7653:8 November 7631:24 January 7237:8 November 7050:StatPearls 6936:24 January 6385:2 February 6191:4 November 6150:8 November 5901:8 November 5879:4 November 5618:5 November 5592:5 November 5566:5 November 5540:5 November 5514:5 November 5488:5 November 5149:27 October 5102:. Page 10. 5061:24 January 4854:24 January 4833:3631581203 4509:2134/19408 4425:3 December 4360:5 February 4049:Tesla coil 3686:References 3648:The X-Rays 3378:10 Gy 3237:10 s 3230:rutherford 2978:ionization 2956:Visibility 2887:needlefish 2829:lead white 2821:pentimenti 2734:Other uses 2658:carcinogen 2572:palliation 2414:radiopaque 2410:gallstones 2396:, and the 2257:newspapers 2173:dosimeters 2147:and later 1953:molybdenum 1925:X-ray tube 1700:Production 1448:microscope 1329:Properties 1288:gamma rays 1282:Gamma rays 1199:microfocus 1138:that then 1055:Birmingham 621:radiograph 511:Lithuanian 483:Portuguese 266:ionization 162:10 Hz 154:10 Hz 134:picometers 130:nanometers 126:wavelength 122:gamma rays 11734:Half-life 11607:Dosimetry 11442:Gamma ray 11389:Microwave 11379:Starlight 11340:Radiation 11150:Spheromak 10849:Fluorides 10513:IPHWR-700 10508:IPHWR-540 10503:IPHWR-220 10292:Moderator 9972:Explosion 9947:Arms race 9734:Economics 9686:Reflector 9681:Radiation 9676:Generator 9631:Plutonium 9584:Deuterium 9549:Radiation 9519:Chemistry 8973:Shortwave 8968:Microwave 8548:Microwave 8321:Frame P. 7106:1084-208X 7014:Herman GT 7002:(Supp 4). 6977:0033-8419 6957:Radiology 6454:1202.4879 6316:"Preface" 5669:121322301 4953:cite book 4518:142518799 4236:1351-0711 4189:0870-399X 4139:0036-8075 4035:, p. 68. 3905:0033-8419 3885:Radiology 3361:per gram 3252: Bq 3213:10 s 3182:becquerel 3148:Quantity 2967:rhodopsin 2781:astronomy 2611:talk page 2448:hardening 2390:pneumonia 2374:pathology 2129:Detectors 2119:streamers 1933:electrons 1401:scattered 1379:malignant 1292:electrons 1171:death ray 783:In 1901, 774:amputated 550:lab notes 539:Norwegian 535:Icelandic 495:Slovenian 471:Bulgarian 455:Ukrainian 451:Hungarian 277:kilovolts 242:radiation 142:petahertz 55:photogram 26:Radiology 11384:Sunlight 11369:Infrared 11285:Category 11239:Polywell 11170:Inertial 11127:Magnetic 10882:TMSR-LF1 10877:TMSR-500 10857:Fuji MSR 10817:THTR-300 10657:Graphite 10520:PHWR KWU 10486:ACR-1000 10414:IPWR-900 10397:ACPR1000 10392:HPR-1000 10382:CPR-1000 10357:APR-1400 10148:Disposal 10100:Actinide 10093:Products 9952:Delivery 9795:Medicine 9624:depleted 9619:enriched 9589:Helium-3 9554:ionizing 9105:Betatron 8983:Longwave 8743:Infrared 8543:Infrared 8266:21314202 8238:21314201 8168:Engadget 8127:29408150 8074:Archived 8029:Archived 8010:Archived 7902:15671393 7867:19047611 7801:Medscape 7779:13358242 7744:18777910 7699:Archived 7596:15070562 7561:31217755 7497:12610596 7447:13301920 7439:12852466 7396:18046031 7352:17963274 7317:17264651 7309:20429161 7274:18440940 7201:16790912 7158:18082594 7150:24584183 7063:20 April 7058:34662062 7016:(2009). 6907:20933639 6863:17629432 6822:31030653 6765:30034044 6667:28503005 6575:43609721 6496:(2015). 6492:Köhn C, 6479:10679475 6439:(2014). 6435:Köhn C, 6044:CCOHS.ca 5842:23523144 5228:Archived 5209:25 March 5123:23 April 5035:21239576 4903:17779817 4604:35604474 4452:23 March 4412:"X-Rays" 4155:44719943 4147:14171545 3994:18635636 3700:"X-Rays" 3559:See also 3514:SI unit 3437:SI unit 3353:SI unit 3285:SI unit 3272:kilogram 3258:Exposure 3195:SI unit 3172:Activity 3021:roentgen 3012:unit of 2998:ionizing 2984:at the 2836:van Gogh 2827:such as 2825:pigments 2605:You may 2436:cavities 2171:, while 2078:, where 1975:emission 1945:tungsten 1720:material 1682:momentum 1556:, where 1464:crystals 1441:contrast 1397:absorbed 1377:to kill 1223:UV light 1108:universe 809:gangrene 527:Georgian 519:Japanese 515:Albanian 487:Estonian 431:Würzburg 254:electron 146:exahertz 11595:chronic 11297:Commons 11208:Z-pinch 11178:Bubble 11160:Tokamak 11023:FBR-600 11003:CFR-600 10998:BN-1200 10664:coolant 10591:Organic 10476:CANDU 9 10473:CANDU 6 10441:coolant 10402:ACP1000 10377:CAP1400 10315:Boiling 10280:Fission 10127:Fission 10071:Weapons 10011:Warfare 9994:Testing 9984:History 9977:effects 9932:Weapons 9842:Therapy 9817:RadBall 9804:Imaging 9696:Thermal 9661:Capture 9648:Neutron 9636:Thorium 9614:Uranium 9579:Tritium 9559:braking 9539:Fission 9529:Physics 9512:Science 9448:History 9202:Imaging 8574:longer 8567:higher 8538:Visible 8401:Bibcode 8173:28 July 8147:28 July 7858:2585137 7724:Bibcode 7604:8516754 7552:6560808 7505:4419048 7477:Bibcode 7404:2760372 7209:7672187 7181:Bibcode 7130:Bibcode 6813:6501887 6792:Bibcode 6756:6049893 6735:Bibcode 6694:Bibcode 6658:5405581 6637:Bibcode 6598:Bibcode 6555:Bibcode 6539:Ebert U 6510:Bibcode 6494:Ebert U 6459:Bibcode 6437:Ebert U 6410:Bibcode 6380:4372536 6360:Bibcode 6128:Bibcode 5834:8597962 5799:4287341 5779:Bibcode 5756:4273199 5736:Bibcode 5699:Bibcode 5647:Bibcode 5378:The Sun 5026:3520298 4883:Bibcode 4875:Science 4811:7998549 4767:4054184 4745:Bibcode 4650:2685937 4596:9368224 4254:8044245 4245:1128015 4197:8475784 4119:Bibcode 4111:Science 4077:Bibcode 3952:: 5–15. 3489:J⋅kg × 3482:sievert 3421:J⋅kg × 3414:sievert 3309:of air 3307: g 3291:röntgen 3268:coulomb 3154:Symbol 3099:sievert 3006:coulomb 2982:wiggler 2489:CT scan 2479:CT scan 2426:implant 2406:ascites 2376:of the 2363:calcium 2271:scholar 2246:"X-ray" 2181:spectra 2153:digital 1949:rhenium 1903:rhodium 1891:0.0455 1847:0.0497 1803:0.0632 1781:0.0184 1615:calcium 1576:is the 1427:). 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