596:
1252:
1238:
252:, three main forces were driving the direction of the English language: (1) to reduce the language to rule and effect a standard of correct usage; (2) to refine the language by removing supposed defects and introducing certain improvements; and (3) to fix English permanently in the desired form. This desire for system and regularity in the language contrasted with the individualism and spirit of independence characterized by the previous age.
259:, as well as global trade, had led to the spread of English around the world. The rising importance of some of England's larger colonies and former colonies, such as the rapidly developing United States, enhanced the value of the English varieties spoken in these regions, encouraging the belief, among the local populations, that their distinct varieties of English should be granted equal standing with the standard of
623:. In this transplantation of English, speakers from England carried the language to Australia, New Zealand, and North America. The Inner Circle thus represents the traditional historical and sociolinguistic bases of English in regions where it is now used as a primary language: the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and anglophone Canada. English is the
979:'s "wheel model" has an idealized central variety called "World Standard English," which is best represented by "written international English." The next circle is made of regional standards or standards that are emerging. Finally, the outer layer consists of localized varieties which may have similarities with the regional standards or emerging standards.
814:
involved (indigenous population and settlers). These determine sociolinguistic conditions of language contact (such as the acquisition of the other party's language), linguistic usage (such as the amount and kind of mutual interaction), and language attitudes. Linguistic developments, and structural changes in the varieties concerned, follow.
1143:. It is also said that dialects, in contrast with languages, are mutually intelligible, though this is not always the case. Dialects are characteristically spoken, do not have a codified form and are used only in certain domains. In order to avoid the difficult dialect-language distinction, linguists tend to prefer a more neutral term,
810:. His model suggests that, despite all differences in geography and history, there is a fundamentally uniform process underlying all instances of the emergence of new World Englishes, motivated by the changing social relationship between a region's indigenous population and settlers who came to that region.
423:, where English became a crucial language of the government, education and the law. From the early 1960s, the six countries achieved independence in succession; but English remained the official language and had large numbers of second language speakers in Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi (along with
813:
The relationship between historical and social conditions and linguistic developments is viewed as a unilateral implicational relationship among four components. The political history of a country, typically from colony to independent nationhood, is reflected in the identity rewritings of the groups
1183:
When we talk about the spread of
English, then, it is not that the conventionally coded forms and meanings are transmitted into different environments and different surroundings, and taken up and used by different groups of people. It is not a matter of the actual language being distributed but of
1221:
When the internet started it was of course 100 percent
English because of where it came from, but since the 1980s that status has started to fall away. By 1995, it was down to about 80 per cent present of English on the internet, and the current figures for 2001 are that it is hovering somewhere
967:
The oldest map of the spread of
English is Strevens's world map of English. His world map, even predating that of Kachru's three circles, showed that since American English became a separate variety from British English, all subsequent Englishes have had affinities with either one or the other.
1188:
In this new paradigm, English spreads and adapts according to the linguistic and cultural preferences of its users in the Outer and
Expanding circles (refer to Kachru's Three Circles of English). However, if English is genuinely to become the language of 'others', then the 'others' have to be
1201:
altogether or come to share it with a number of equals. Although this would not happen mainly as a result of native-speaker resistance to the spread of non-native speaker
Englishes and the consequent abandoning of English by large numbers of non-native speakers, the latter could play a part.
753:
encompasses countries where
English plays no historical or governmental role, but where is nevertheless widely used as a medium of international communication. This includes much of the rest of the world's population not categorized above, including territories such as China, Russia, Japan,
43:. The study of World Englishes consists of identifying varieties of English used in diverse sociolinguistic contexts globally and analyzing how sociolinguistic histories, multicultural backgrounds and contexts of function influence the use of English in different regions of the world.
46:
The issue of World
Englishes was first raised in 1978 to examine concepts of regional Englishes globally. Pragmatic factors such as appropriateness, comprehensibility and interpretability justified the use of English as an international and intra-national language. In 1988, at a
508:
progressed in their less than half a century colonization of the islands. English has been taught since the
American period and is one of the official languages of the Philippines. Ever since English became the official language, a localized variety gradually emerged -
770:), and Middle East. The total in this expanding circle is the most difficult to estimate, especially because English may be employed for specific, limited purposes, usually in a business context. The estimates of these users range from 100 million to one billion.
513:. Lately, linguist Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales argued that this variety has in itself more varieties, suggesting that we move towards Philippine Englishes paradigm to progress further in Schneider's dynamic model after gathering evidences of such happening.
1184:
the virtual language being spread and in the process being variously actualized. The distribution of the actual language implies adoption and conformity. The spread of virtual language implies adaptation and nonconformity. The two processes are quite different.
308:, the varieties spoken in modern North America and Caribbean, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand have been modified in response to the changed and changing sociolinguistic contexts of the migrants, for example being in contact with indigenous
849:
is marginal. A few members of the local populace may play an important role as interpreters, translators, and guides. Borrowings are limited to lexical items; with local place names and terms for local fauna and flora being adopted by the
English.
454:) during the second half of the eighteenth century. In India, English was given status through the implementation of Macaulay 'Minute' of 1835, which proposed the introduction of an English educational system in India. Over time, the process of '
59:, the International Committee of the Study of World Englishes (ICWE) was formed. In 1992, the ICWE formally launched the International Association for World Englishes (IAWE) at a conference of "World Englishes Today", at the
1054:, other major varieties, local varieties, and foreign varieties) each with features particular to their own speech community and which are unlikely to be understood by most members of the other four groups.
1226:
On the other hand, there are at least 1500 languages present on the internet now and that figure is likely to increase. Nevertheless, Crystal predicts that
English will retain its dominant presence.
233:, patriotic feelings regarding English brought about the recognition of English as the national language of England. The language was advocated as acceptable for learned and literary use. With the
610:'s model of World Englishes. In this model the diffusion of English is captured in terms of three concentric circles of the language: the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle.
1042:
In Modiano's model of English, the center consists of users of English as an International Language, with a core set of features that are comprehensible to the majority of native and competent
1120:
and multiple possibilities for scholarship. The notion of varieties in this context is similarly dynamic, as new contexts, new realities, new discourses, and new varieties continue to emerge.
910:, supported by a new locally rooted linguistic self-confidence. By this time political events have made it clear that the settler and indigenous strands are inextricably bound in a sense of
1787:
1068:
The World Englishes paradigm is not static, and neither are rapidly changing realities of language use worldwide. The use of English in the Outer and Expanding Circle societies (refer to
1788:"Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales | Master of Arts, English Language and Linguistics | National University of Singapore, Singapore | NUS | Department of English Language & Literature"
1175:
If English is, numerically speaking, the language of 'others', then the center of gravity of the language is almost certain to shift in the direction of the 'others'. In the words of
1813:
226:. By the beginning of the 14th century, English had regained universal use and become the principal tongue of all England, but not without having undergone significant change.
1683:"Barbara Seidlhofer: Understanding English as a Lingua Franca: A Complete Introduction to the Theoretical Nature and Practical Implications of English used as a Lingua Franca"
631:
of most people in these countries. The total number of English speakers in the inner circle is as high as 380 million, of whom some 120 million are outside the United States.
825:: This is the initial stage of the introduction of English to a new territory over an extended period of time. Two linguistic processes are operative at this stage: (a)
1046:
of English. The second circle consists of features that may become internationally common or may fall into obscurity. Finally, the outer area consists of five groups (
3232:
781:) is 'norm-developing'. The expanding circle (which includes much of the rest of the world) is 'norm-dependent' because it relies on the standards set by
3172:
990:, are conflated in the second circle. Secondly, the multitude of Englishes in Europe is also missing in this layer. Finally, the outside layer includes
886:
based on present and local realities, rather than sole allegiance to their 'mother country'. By this time, the indigenous strand has also stabilized an
1189:
accorded – or perhaps more likely, accord themselves – at least the same English language rights as those claimed by mother-tongue speakers.
94:. It is difficult to establish the total number of Englishes in the world, as new varieties of English are constantly being developed and discovered.
222:
period, France and England experienced a process of separation. This period of conflicting interests and feelings of resentment was later termed the
1271:
708:(colonized by the US) and others. The total number of English speakers in the outer circle is estimated to range from 150 million to 300 million.
1844:
1076:
and variety differentiation emerge. The different varieties range from English in the Inner circle societies such as the United States, Canada,
1571:
1522:
1475:
532:
The spread of English around the world is often discussed in terms of three distinct groups of users, where English is used respectively as:
300:
and New Zealand. Over time, their own English dialects developed into modern American, Canadian, West Indian, South African, Australian, and
858:: At this stage, the settler communities tend to stabilize politically under British rule. English increases in prominence and though the
942:
and more as a composite of subgroups defined on regional, social and ethnic lines. Coupled with the simple effects of time in effecting
3267:
2240:
1725:
Stockwell, R. (2002). "How much shifting actually occurred in the historical English vowel shift?", Minkova, Donka; Stockwell, Robert.
1765:
1018:
Manfred Görlach's and McArthur's models are reasonably similar. Both exclude English varieties in Europe. As Görlach does not include
866:, the speakers look to England for their formal norms. Local vocabulary continues to be adopted. Bilingualism increases amongst the
211:
became the language of everyday life among the upper classes in England. Although the language of the masses remained English, the
882:: According to Schneider, this is the stage at which a transition occurs as the English settler population starts to accept a new
3373:
1019:
987:
60:
1167:), or that the current different varieties may converge so that differences across groups of speakers are largely eliminated.
1147:, which covers both concepts and is not butted by popular usage. This term is generally used when discussing World Englishes.
712:, while in the Outer Circle, may be drifting into the Inner Circle as English becomes more often used as a home language (see
579:. Most of these Englishes developed as a result of imperial expansion that brought the language to various parts of the world.
195:
of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the
3383:
3317:
3102:
1869:
1631:
1596:
1547:
1498:
1451:
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through education and increased contacts with English settlers. Knowledge of English becomes an asset, and a new indigenous
3337:
2410:
2295:
1104:, has been partly motivated by a consideration of the local linguistic factors and partly by a consideration of the wider
2818:
2923:
1426:
1401:
1276:
309:
2159:
2118:
2104:
2722:
1329:
181:
982:
Although the model is neat, it raises several problems. Firstly, the three different types of English — ENL,
890:
system that is a synthesis of substrate effects, interlanguage processes, and features adopted from the settlers'
2970:
2766:
21:
This article is about the classification of Englishes around the world. For Global English or World English, see
3287:
2727:
2233:
2145:
2132:
119:
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tries to avoid a purely geographical and historical approach evident in the 'circles' models and incorporates
3327:
3020:
2982:
2061:
Paradowski, M.B. 2008, Apr. Winds of change in the English language – Air of peril for native speakers?
1281:
455:
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2795:
2612:
2433:
794:
2698:
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at all, his model is more consistent, though less comprehensive. Outside the circle are mixed varieties (
106:
and World Englishes are far from similar, although the terms are often mistakenly used interchangeably.
544:
of the majority population of a country, such as in the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia.
3282:
2997:
2855:
2266:
196:
131:
2218:
1179:, there is likely to be a paradigm shift from one of language distribution to one of language spread:
3368:
3262:
2788:
2746:
2717:
2649:
2617:
2226:
935:
915:
883:
807:
458:' led to the development of a distinctive national character of English in the Indian sub-continent.
2009:
Modiano, M. (1999). "Standard English(es) and educational practices for the world's lingua franca".
716:), much as Ireland did earlier. The Outer Circle also includes countries where most people speak an
672:, national commerce and so on may all be carried out predominantly in English. This circle includes
2987:
2941:
2840:
2813:
2778:
2673:
2544:
1222:
between 60 percent and 70 percent, with a significant drop likely over the next four or five years.
1205:
As evidence that English may eventually give way to another language (or languages) as the world's
1116:
and use. This, in turn, has involved the creative rewriting of discourses towards a recognition of
192:
3378:
3199:
3032:
2850:
2825:
1623:
World Englishes : implications for international communication and English language teaching
1160:
976:
154:
2206:
2192:
2178:
35:
varieties of English, especially varieties that have developed in territories influenced by the
3114:
3092:
2896:
2593:
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2440:
947:
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3010:
2197:
3312:
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2705:
2639:
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1198:
1197:
The other potential shift in the linguistic center of gravity is that English could lose its
1140:
867:
321:
223:
204:
126:
has been used by scholars in the field to emphasise the more recent spread of English due to
103:
22:
3305:
2734:
2627:
2567:
2445:
2418:
2335:
1113:
717:
619:
refers to English as it originally took shape and was spread across the world in the first
516:
Nowadays, English is also learnt in other countries in neighbouring areas, most notably in
486:
242:
8:
3332:
3162:
3154:
3052:
3015:
2901:
2886:
2761:
2751:
2678:
2517:
1136:
1043:
919:
834:
830:
725:
301:
32:
340:
was the result of the colonization of Asia and Africa, which led to the development of '
237:, the language in this period matured to a standard and differed significantly from the
3222:
3189:
3124:
3107:
2962:
2783:
2330:
2320:
1565:
1516:
1469:
1117:
799:
510:
469:
began in the late eighteenth century, involving primarily the territories now known as
353:
148:
898:
stabilize as English is made to adapt to local sociopolitical and cultural practices.
595:
74:
Currently, there are approximately 75 territories where English is spoken either as a
71:(since 1982). There are a number of published handbooks and textbooks on the subject.
3227:
3212:
3184:
3144:
2936:
2873:
2622:
2398:
2362:
2202:
2188:
2174:
2155:
2141:
2128:
2114:
2100:
1865:
1821:
1747:
1637:
1627:
1602:
1592:
1553:
1543:
1504:
1494:
1457:
1447:
1422:
1397:
1093:
907:
234:
2918:
951:
891:
863:
842:
3347:
3300:
3252:
3179:
3087:
3077:
3072:
3062:
2908:
2881:
2739:
2659:
2604:
2502:
2484:
2471:
2308:
2303:
2183:
2169:
1367:
1286:
1073:
1047:
826:
774:
767:
741:
583:
541:
482:
191:
was then influenced by two further waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the
63:, USA. There are two academic journals devoted to the study of this topic, titled
3217:
3119:
3057:
3027:
2835:
2710:
2531:
2507:
2479:
2450:
2423:
2388:
2275:
1333:
1243:
1176:
1097:
1051:
1027:
1007:
999:
995:
943:
887:
803:
782:
624:
586:(EFL); used almost exclusively for international communication, such as in Japan.
548:
537:
501:
462:
389:
381:
345:
317:
305:
281:
208:
165:
79:
1251:
1010:
do not belong to one family: rather they have overlapping multiple memberships.
325:
3292:
3207:
3167:
3067:
2891:
2644:
2549:
2539:
2455:
2257:
2070:
1306:
1266:
1156:
1034:
involving English), which are better categorized as having partial membership.
1031:
1003:
939:
923:
763:
424:
256:
249:
238:
219:
114:
used in business, trade, diplomacy and other spheres of global activity, while
75:
36:
1557:
1508:
348:, the history of English is distinct between West and East Africa. English in
331:
3362:
3342:
3257:
2913:
2830:
2771:
2683:
2634:
2512:
2494:
2066:
2062:
2048:
Widdowson, H. G. (1997). "EIL, ESL, EFL: Global Issues and Local Interests".
1641:
1606:
1461:
1210:
1206:
1155:
Two hypotheses have been advanced about English's future status as the major
657:
645:
628:
385:
341:
289:
260:
169:
158:
127:
111:
40:
1080:, Australia and New Zealand, to the Outer circle post-colonial societies of
938:
as the young nation sees itself as less defined by its differences from the
656:. In these regions, English is not the native tongue but serves as a useful
2845:
2693:
2572:
1537:
1441:
1301:
1291:
1257:
1077:
914:
independent of Britain. Acceptance of local English(es) expresses this new
846:
773:
The inner circle is 'norm-providing'; that means that the English language
701:
560:
361:
297:
271:
177:
1621:
1586:
1135:
are not easily defined concepts. It is often suggested that languages are
918:. National dictionaries are enthusiastically supported, at least for new
755:
705:
665:
607:
505:
396:
349:
230:
188:
173:
97:
1727:
Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective
817:
The model outlines five characteristic stages in the spread of English:
504:
but their influence spread quickly as their reforms on education in the
2756:
2248:
1910:
Kachru, B. (1992). World Englishes: approaches, issues, and resources.
1327:
895:
859:
681:
435:
431:
200:
83:
48:
1864:(1. edition, 3. reprint ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 14–15.
788:
176:
was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the
2313:
1417:
Schreier, Daniel; Hundt, Marianne; Schneider, Edgar W., eds. (2020).
1164:
1109:
1072:) continues its rapid spread, while at the same time new patterns of
709:
669:
576:
494:
478:
470:
443:
293:
212:
122:
developed in different regions of the world. Alternatively, the term
91:
1346:
644:
of English, which spread the language through imperial expansion by
2340:
1925:
Acts of identity: Creole-based approaches to language and ethnicity
1682:
1296:
1237:
1214:
1125:
1105:
1092:
Initiative, in recognizing and describing the New Englishes of the
729:
693:
689:
685:
641:
620:
568:
474:
439:
420:
408:
373:
337:
277:
52:
3277:
3272:
3082:
2428:
2355:
2350:
1591:. Rakesh Mohan Bhatt. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1392:
Nelson, Cecil L.; Proshina, Zoya; Davis, Daniel R., eds. (2020).
1131:
1023:
991:
906:: This stage is characterized by the gradual acceptance of local
838:
721:
677:
572:
466:
399:, extensive British settlements were established in what are now
369:
313:
285:
161:
2345:
2325:
1085:
911:
759:
737:
733:
661:
653:
517:
490:
451:
416:
412:
404:
377:
357:
56:
1442:
Markku Filppula; Juhani Klemola; Devyani Sharma, eds. (2017).
1901:. (Larry E. Smith Eds.) Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press
871:
720:, yet retain standard English for official purposes, such as
697:
673:
564:
521:
447:
400:
365:
2211:
1588:
World Englishes : the study of new linguistic varieties
2082:
Crystal, D. (2001) Language and the Internet. Cambridge UP.
1101:
1081:
649:
332:
Second dispersal: English is transported to Asia and Africa
777:
is developed in these countries. The outer circle (mainly
49:
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)
1766:"Minute on Education (1835) by Thomas Babington Macaulay"
1159:: that it may ultimately fragment into a large number of
983:
837:
of the settlers which eventually results in a new stable
87:
430:
English was formally introduced to the sub-continent of
356:. English soon gained official status in what are today
272:
First dispersal: English is transported to the New World
180:
kingdoms of England. Eventually, one of these dialects,
606:
The most influential model of the spread of English is
1959:
World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties
1416:
1347:"English World-Wide A Journal of Varieties of English"
1170:
934:: At this stage, there is a change in the dynamics of
98:
World English vs. World Englishes vs. Global Englishes
2039:. Department of English, Stockholm University, Sweden
971:
215:
character of England in this period was thus formed.
1233:
1013:
590:
1862:
World englishes : a resource book for students
1814:"Philippine Englishes: A timely or premature call?"
1391:
789:
Schneider's dynamic model of postcolonial Englishes
2097:World Englishes: Critical concepts in linguistics.
2035:Melchers, G. and Shaw, P. (2003) World Englishes.
962:
2022:Kachru, B. B., Kachru, Y. and Nelson, C. (2009).
1846:The Features of Philippine English across Regions
957:
203:and ultimately developed a Norman variety called
118:refers to the different varieties of English and
3360:
2095:Bolton, Kingsley; Braj B. Kachru (Eds.) (2006).
1943:Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world
1488:
1272:List of countries by English-speaking population
1150:
384:which developed from English contact, including
344:', the second-language varieties of English. In
2065:(Research on Youth and Language) 2(1), 92–119.
1923:Le Page, R. B. and Tabouret-Keller, A. (1985).
1539:English around the world : an introduction
559:national communication in communities that are
207:. For two centuries after the Norman Conquest,
2125:World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students.
2069:However, it remains to be seen whether such a
1998:Studies in the History of the English Language
1983:McArthur, A. (1987). "The English Languages?"
1957:Mesthrie, Rajend and Bhatt, Rakesh M. (2008).
1752:World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students.
527:
78:(L1) or as an unofficial or institutionalized
2234:
1972:Teaching English as an International Language
1763:
1326:International Association of World Englishes
1192:
1037:
2592:
2213:International Association of World Englishes
1619:
1057:
664:and language groups. Higher education, the
266:
130:, which has resulted in increased usage of
3268:Comparison of American and British English
2241:
2227:
2139:The Routledge Handbook of World Englishes.
2067:http://www.novitasroyal.org/paradowski.pdf
1842:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1570:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1521:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1474:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1002:Englishes. Most scholars would argue that
255:By the 19th century, the expansion of the
1886:The Other Tongue: English across cultures
1535:
1491:The Routledge handbook of world Englishes
1421:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1419:The Cambridge Handbook of World Englishes
2961:
2029:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1584:
1368:"World Englishes - Wiley Online Library"
954:starts to show greater differentiation.
922:(and not always for localized grammar).
594:
288:, Scotland and Ireland predominantly to
1927:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
1859:
1732:
1648:
284:of mother-tongue English speakers from
3361:
1687:The Interpreter and Translator Trainer
1680:
1444:The Oxford handbook of World Englishes
640:of English was produced by the second
600:Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English
392:, have large numbers of speakers now.
2222:
1953:
1951:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1697:
1658:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
926:in local English begins to flourish.
903:Phase 4 – Endonormative stabilization
142:
137:
3338:Non-native pronunciations of English
1843:Villanueva, Rey John Castro (2016).
1811:
1667:Galloway, N. & Rose, H. (2015).
1626:. Cambridge : Cambridge Univ Press.
855:Phase 2 – Exonormative stabilization
110:refers to the English language as a
31:is a term for emerging localised or
1712:Baugh, A. C. and Cable. T. (1993).
1493:(Second ed.). Abingdon, Oxon.
1396:(2nd ed.). Malden: Blackwell.
1171:English as the language of 'others'
352:began with trade, particularly the
13:
2089:
1964:
1948:
1930:
1917:
1693:(2): 312–320 – via Academia.
1320:
1277:List of macaronic forms of English
972:McArthur's Circle of World English
551:(ESL); an additional language for
14:
3395:
1899:World Englishes in Asian Contexts
1812:Gonzales, Wilkinson Daniel Wong.
1714:A History of the English Language
1070:Kachru's Three Circles of English
1014:Görlach's circle model of English
591:Kachru's Three Circles of English
1336:, Retrieved on 18 November 2010.
1250:
1236:
1163:varieties (in effect, different
833:; (b) contact between different
489:, exemplified the English-based
280:involved relatively large-scale
16:Indigenized varieties of English
2076:
2055:
2042:
2024:The Handbook of World Englishes
2016:
2003:
1990:
1977:
1904:
1891:
1888:. University of Illinois Press.
1878:
1853:
1836:
1805:
1780:
1757:
1754:London and New York: Routledge.
1719:
1674:
1661:
1613:
1394:The Handbook of World Englishes
963:Strevens's world map of English
241:period, becoming recognizably "
3374:Comparison of forms of English
3288:English-based creole languages
2152:Oxford Guide to World English.
1578:
1542:(Second ed.). Cambridge.
1529:
1489:Andy Kirkpatrick, ed. (2021).
1482:
1435:
1410:
1385:
1360:
1339:
958:Other models of classification
304:Englishes. In contrast to the
1:
3328:List of English-based pidgins
2111:English as a Global Language.
1961:. Cambridge University Press.
1945:. Cambridge University Press.
1669:Introducing Global Englishes.
1656:English as a Global Language.
1313:
1282:List of English-based pidgins
1151:The future of World Englishes
328:populations in the colonies.
3384:English as a global language
3323:Linguistic purism in English
2113:Cambridge University Press.
1536:Schneider, Edgar W. (2020).
7:
2424:London & Thames Estuary
2137:Kirkpatrick, Andy. (2010).
2123:Jenkins, Jennifer. (2003).
2037:The English Language Series
1229:
1064:List of dialects of English
528:Classification of Englishes
500:The Americans came late in
197:Normans in the 11th century
10:
3400:
3283:English as a lingua franca
2000:. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.
1860:Jenkins, Jennifer (2006).
1620:Kirkpatrick, Andy (2007).
1193:A different world language
1061:
1038:Modiano's model of English
792:
779:New Commonwealth countries
146:
132:English as a lingua franca
20:
3263:Broad and general accents
3245:
3198:
3173:regional and occupational
3153:
3140:
3133:
3045:
3006:
2954:
2932:
2872:
2804:
2669:
2658:
2603:
2585:
2558:
2530:
2493:
2470:
2409:
2371:
2294:
2285:
2274:
2265:
2154:Oxford University Press.
1974:. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
1941:Schneider, E. W. (2007).
1914:, 25: 1-14. Cambridge UP.
1585:Mesthrie, Rajend (2008).
931:Phase 5 – Differentiation
795:Schneider's dynamic model
157:that originated from the
2109:Crystal, David. (2003).
1671:Arbingdon, UK: Routledge
1058:Variations and varieties
804:sociolinguistic concepts
306:English of Great Britain
267:Global spread of English
2150:McArthur, Tom. (2002).
1372:onlinelibrary.wiley.com
1161:mutually unintelligible
82:(L2) in fields such as
2441:Received Pronunciation
1681:Paradowski, Michał B.
1224:
1186:
948:social differentiation
879:Phase 3 – Nativisation
862:English is a colonial
806:pertaining to acts of
800:Edgar Werner Schneider
714:Languages of Singapore
603:
155:West Germanic language
61:University of Illinois
2635:Multicultural Toronto
1970:Strevens, P. (1980).
1219:
1181:
1139:, while dialects are
940:former colonial power
868:indigenous population
785:in the inner circle.
598:
461:British influence in
120:English-based creoles
23:International English
2796:Western Pennsylvania
1729:. Mouton de Gruyter.
1654:Crystal, D. (2007).
1114:language acquisition
831:indigenous languages
829:between English and
822:Phase 1 – Foundation
718:English-based creole
555:national as well as
487:British protectorate
184:, came to dominate.
3333:Mid-Atlantic accent
2924:Trinidad and Tobago
2099:London: Routledge.
1996:Görlach, M. (1990).
1897:Kachru, Y. (2006).
1884:Kachru, B. (1992).
1824:on October 13, 2016
1764:Frances Pritchett.
1044:non-native speakers
924:Literary creativity
835:dialects of English
726:Trinidad and Tobago
388:(Sierra Leone) and
193:Scandinavian branch
2856:Pennsylvania Dutch
2185:English World-Wide
2165:and the journals:
2026:. Wiley-Blackwell.
1332:2010-12-14 at the
1199:international role
950:) the new English
845:). At this stage,
604:
511:Philippine English
376:, and some of the
224:Hundred Years' War
149:History of English
143:History of English
138:Historical context
65:English World-Wide
3356:
3355:
3241:
3240:
3041:
3040:
2950:
2949:
2868:
2867:
2864:
2863:
2789:Pacific Northwest
2650:Standard Canadian
2581:
2580:
2526:
2525:
2466:
2465:
1912:Language Teaching
1871:978-0-415-25806-7
1748:Jenkins, Jennifer
1633:978-0-521-61687-4
1598:978-0-511-40823-6
1549:978-1-108-44226-8
1500:978-0-367-14439-5
1453:978-0-19-977771-6
946:(with the aid of
758:, non-Anglophone
235:Great Vowel Shift
166:Germanic invaders
67:(since 1980) and
3391:
3369:Anglic languages
3253:English language
3138:
3137:
2959:
2958:
2942:Falkland Islands
2841:General American
2814:African-American
2667:
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2601:
2600:
2590:
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2083:
2080:
2074:
2073:will take place.
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1337:
1324:
1287:Standard English
1260:
1255:
1254:
1246:
1241:
1240:
1074:language contact
1048:American English
827:language contact
768:Nordic countries
750:Expanding Circle
742:Papua New Guinea
584:foreign language
542:primary language
483:Papua New Guinea
124:Global Englishes
3399:
3398:
3394:
3393:
3392:
3390:
3389:
3388:
3359:
3358:
3357:
3352:
3237:
3194:
3149:
3129:
3037:
3033:Solomon Islands
3002:
2946:
2928:
2860:
2851:New York Latino
2826:American Indian
2806:
2800:
2661:
2654:
2595:
2577:
2563:Channel Islands
2554:
2522:
2489:
2462:
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2367:
2277:
2261:
2247:
2171:World Englishes
2092:
2090:Further reading
2087:
2086:
2081:
2077:
2060:
2056:
2050:World Englishes
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1991:
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1344:
1340:
1334:Wayback Machine
1325:
1321:
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1256:
1249:
1244:Language portal
1242:
1235:
1232:
1195:
1173:
1153:
1090:World Englishes
1066:
1060:
1052:British English
1040:
1032:mixed languages
1016:
1004:English pidgins
974:
965:
960:
944:language change
797:
791:
783:native speakers
625:native language
593:
549:second language
538:native language
530:
502:South-East Asia
463:South-East Asia
390:Cameroon Pidgin
346:colonial Africa
334:
310:Native American
274:
269:
182:Late West Saxon
151:
145:
140:
116:World Englishes
102:The notions of
100:
80:second language
69:World Englishes
29:World Englishes
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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3386:
3381:
3379:Global culture
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3293:Englishisation
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3200:Southeast Asia
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3115:South Atlantic
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2897:Cayman Islands
2894:
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2807:ethno-cultural
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2258:Modern English
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2181:
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2084:
2075:
2071:paradigm shift
2054:
2052:, 16: 135–146.
2041:
2028:
2015:
2002:
1989:
1976:
1963:
1947:
1929:
1916:
1903:
1890:
1877:
1870:
1852:
1835:
1804:
1779:
1768:. Columbia.edu
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1434:
1428:978-1108425957
1427:
1409:
1403:978-1119164210
1402:
1384:
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1318:
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1310:
1309:
1307:Pseudo-English
1304:
1299:
1294:
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1274:
1269:
1267:Language shift
1263:
1262:
1261:
1247:
1231:
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1172:
1169:
1157:world language
1152:
1149:
1062:Main article:
1059:
1056:
1039:
1036:
1015:
1012:
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970:
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793:Main article:
790:
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764:Central Europe
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529:
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333:
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273:
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257:British Empire
239:Middle English
220:Middle English
147:Main article:
144:
141:
139:
136:
99:
96:
76:first language
51:conference in
37:United Kingdom
15:
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6:
4:
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2063:Novitas-ROYAL
2058:
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2038:
2032:
2025:
2019:
2013:: 15/4: 3-13.
2012:
2011:English Today
2006:
1999:
1993:
1986:
1985:English Today
1980:
1973:
1967:
1960:
1954:
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1944:
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1211:David Crystal
1208:
1207:lingua franca
1203:
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747:Finally, the
745:
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658:lingua franca
655:
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646:Great Britain
643:
639:
638:
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629:mother tongue
626:
622:
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609:
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585:
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563:, such as in
562:
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467:South Pacific
464:
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342:New Englishes
339:
329:
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315:
311:
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299:
296:, Australia,
295:
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290:North America
287:
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261:Great Britain
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198:
194:
190:
187:The original
185:
183:
179:
175:
172:. Initially,
171:
167:
163:
160:
159:Anglo-Frisian
156:
153:English is a
150:
135:
133:
129:
128:globalization
125:
121:
117:
113:
112:lingua franca
109:
108:World English
105:
104:World English
95:
93:
89:
85:
81:
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72:
70:
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41:United States
38:
34:
30:
24:
19:
3098:South Africa
3093:Sierra Leone
2846:Miami Latino
2735:Philadelphia
2723:Inland North
2628:Newfoundland
2446:West Country
2260:by continent
2212:
2198:
2184:
2170:
2164:
2151:
2138:
2124:
2110:
2096:
2078:
2057:
2049:
2044:
2036:
2031:
2023:
2018:
2010:
2005:
1997:
1992:
1984:
1979:
1971:
1966:
1958:
1942:
1924:
1919:
1911:
1906:
1898:
1893:
1885:
1880:
1861:
1855:
1845:
1838:
1826:. Retrieved
1822:the original
1818:ResearchGate
1817:
1807:
1795:. Retrieved
1792:ResearchGate
1791:
1782:
1772:November 17,
1770:. Retrieved
1759:
1751:
1726:
1721:
1716:. Routledge.
1713:
1690:
1686:
1676:
1668:
1663:
1655:
1650:
1622:
1615:
1587:
1580:
1538:
1531:
1490:
1484:
1446:. New York.
1443:
1437:
1418:
1412:
1393:
1387:
1375:. Retrieved
1371:
1362:
1350:. Retrieved
1341:
1322:
1302:Euro English
1292:Vulgar Latin
1258:World portal
1225:
1220:
1204:
1196:
1187:
1182:
1174:
1154:
1144:
1141:heteronomous
1130:
1124:
1122:
1112:contexts of
1089:
1078:South Africa
1069:
1067:
1041:
1017:
981:
975:
966:
930:
929:
928:
902:
901:
900:
878:
877:
876:
854:
853:
852:
847:bilingualism
821:
820:
819:
816:
812:
798:
772:
762:(especially
749:
748:
746:
702:South Africa
637:Outer Circle
636:
635:
633:
616:Inner Circle
615:
614:
612:
605:
599:
561:multilingual
556:
552:
531:
520:, Japan and
515:
499:
460:
429:
394:
362:Sierra Leone
335:
298:South Africa
275:
254:
250:18th century
247:
228:
217:
205:Anglo-Norman
199:, who spoke
186:
152:
123:
115:
107:
101:
73:
68:
64:
45:
28:
27:
18:
3223:Philippines
3016:New Zealand
2902:Bay Islands
2882:The Bahamas
2805:Social and
2762:New Orleans
2679:New England
2573:Isle of Man
2518:Port Talbot
2419:East Anglia
2336:Northumbria
2127:Routledge.
756:South Korea
706:Philippines
666:legislature
608:Braj Kachru
540:(ENL); the
506:Philippines
397:East Africa
354:slave trade
350:West Africa
336:The second
302:New Zealand
231:Renaissance
229:During the
218:During the
189:Old English
178:Anglo-Saxon
174:Old English
164:brought by
33:indigenised
3363:Categories
3163:Bangladesh
3155:South Asia
3108:Cape Flats
3058:The Gambia
2983:Aboriginal
2819:vernacular
2784:California
2757:High Tider
2752:Appalachia
2613:Aboriginal
2545:South-West
2389:Birmingham
2346:Sunderland
2331:Manchester
2321:Lancashire
2146:0203849329
2133:0415258065
1987:: 11:9-13.
1750:. (2003).
1689:(Review).
1558:1193301209
1509:1200831762
1314:References
1137:autonomous
1123:The terms
912:nationhood
896:Neologisms
874:develops.
860:colloquial
682:Bangladesh
436:Bangladesh
432:South Asia
322:Aboriginal
282:migrations
276:The first
201:Old Norman
84:government
3228:Singapore
3190:Sri Lanka
3145:Hong Kong
2971:variation
2963:Australia
2874:Caribbean
2740:Baltimore
2623:Lunenburg
2568:Gibraltar
2485:Highlands
2363:Yorkshire
2326:Liverpool
2207:0266-0784
2193:0172-8865
2179:0883-2919
1849:(Thesis).
1828:April 25,
1797:April 25,
1642:141382470
1607:254167348
1566:cite book
1517:cite book
1470:cite book
1462:964294896
1377:April 25,
1352:April 27,
1177:Widdowson
1165:languages
1118:pluralism
1110:political
1094:Caribbean
894:English.
710:Singapore
670:judiciary
577:Singapore
495:Tok Pisin
485:, also a
479:Hong Kong
471:Singapore
444:Sri Lanka
294:Caribbean
213:bilingual
92:education
3348:Standard
3318:Learning
3306:Nerrière
3297:Globish
3213:Malaysia
3185:Pakistan
3125:Zimbabwe
3053:Cameroon
2887:Barbados
2618:Atlantic
2586:Americas
2503:Abercraf
2472:Scotland
2451:Cornwall
2372:Midlands
2356:Teesside
2351:Tyneside
2341:Pitmatic
2304:Cheshire
2250:Dialects
1330:Archived
1297:Hinglish
1230:See also
1215:Internet
1126:language
1106:cultural
977:McArthur
936:identity
916:identity
884:identity
808:identity
730:Barbados
694:Tanzania
690:Malaysia
686:Pakistan
660:between
642:diaspora
621:diaspora
569:Pakistan
475:Malaysia
465:and the
440:Pakistan
434:(India,
421:Zimbabwe
409:Tanzania
374:Cameroon
338:diaspora
292:and the
278:diaspora
162:dialects
53:Honolulu
3278:Engrish
3273:E-Prime
3246:Related
3233:Vietnam
3218:Myanmar
3088:Nigeria
3083:Namibia
3073:Liberia
2955:Oceania
2937:Bermuda
2909:Jamaica
2836:Chicano
2674:Midland
2660:United
2596:America
2532:Ireland
2508:Cardiff
2480:Glasgow
2429:Cockney
2309:Cumbria
2287:England
2278:Britain
2254:accents
1145:variety
1132:dialect
1028:creoles
1024:pidgins
1008:creoles
996:creoles
992:pidgins
839:dialect
722:Jamaica
678:Nigeria
573:Nigeria
395:As for
382:creoles
370:Nigeria
314:Khoisan
286:England
248:By the
170:Britain
39:or the
3301:Gogate
3208:Brunei
3120:Uganda
3103:accent
3078:Malawi
3046:Africa
3021:accent
2976:accent
2919:Samaná
2892:Bequia
2711:accent
2684:Boston
2662:States
2645:Quebec
2605:Canada
2594:North
2550:Ulster
2540:Dublin
2456:Dorset
2314:Barrow
2276:Great
2267:Europe
2205:
2191:
2177:
2158:
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2117:
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1497:
1460:
1450:
1425:
1400:
1217:data:
1213:cites
1098:Africa
1088:. The
1086:Africa
1030:, and
760:Europe
738:Belize
734:Guyana
704:, the
662:ethnic
654:Africa
575:, and
518:Taiwan
491:pidgin
452:Bhutan
417:Zambia
413:Malawi
405:Uganda
378:pidgin
358:Gambia
243:modern
209:French
90:, and
57:Hawaii
3343:Plain
3258:Basic
3180:Nepal
3168:India
3068:Kenya
3063:Ghana
3028:Palau
2988:South
2831:Cajun
2772:Texas
2767:Older
2747:South
2718:North
2694:Maine
2513:Gower
2495:Wales
2411:South
2296:North
952:koiné
920:lexis
908:norms
892:koiné
872:elite
864:koiné
843:koiné
841:(see
775:norms
698:Kenya
674:India
565:India
557:inter
553:intra
522:Korea
448:Nepal
425:Chewa
401:Kenya
366:Ghana
326:Maori
318:Bantu
168:into
3134:Asia
3011:Fiji
2998:West
2914:Saba
2779:West
2699:West
2689:East
2252:and
2203:ISSN
2189:ISSN
2175:ISSN
2156:ISBN
2142:ISBN
2129:ISBN
2115:ISBN
2101:ISBN
1866:ISBN
1830:2018
1799:2018
1774:2010
1638:OCLC
1628:ISBN
1603:OCLC
1593:ISBN
1572:link
1554:OCLC
1544:ISBN
1523:link
1505:OCLC
1495:ISBN
1476:link
1458:OCLC
1448:ISBN
1423:ISBN
1398:ISBN
1379:2018
1354:2021
1129:and
1108:and
1102:Asia
1100:and
1084:and
1082:Asia
1020:EFLs
1006:and
998:and
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740:and
668:and
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650:Asia
634:The
613:The
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