Umayyad Caliphate - Knowledge

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reformed it and paid only to those who participated in the battle. On the pattern of the Byzantine system, the Umayyads reformed their army organization in general and divided it into five corps: the centre, two wings, vanguards, and rearguards, following the same formation while on the march or on a battlefield. Marwan II (740–50) abandoned the old division and introduced the Kurdus (cohort), a small compact body. The Umayyad troops were divided into three divisions: infantry, cavalry, and artillery. Arab troops were dressed and armed in Greek fashion. The Umayyad cavalry used plain and round saddles. The artillery used the arradah (ballista), the manjaniq (mangonel), and the dabbabah or kabsh (battering ram). The heavy engines, siege machines, and baggage were carried on camels behind the army.

4564: 2719: 79: 2869: 3004: 3333: 2644: 3457: 3165: 3526:(land tax). Since avoidance of taxation incentivized both mass conversions to Islam and abandonment of land for migration to the garrison cities, it put a strain on tax revenues, especially in Egypt, Iraq and Khurasan. Thus, "the Umayyad rulers had a vested interest in preventing the conquered peoples from accepting Islam or forcing them to continue paying those taxes from which they claimed exemption as Muslims", according to Hawting. To prevent a collapse in revenue, the converts' lands would become the property of their villages and remain liable for the full rate of the 5510:. As the Muslims took over cities, they left the people's political representatives, the Roman tax collectors, and the administrators in the office. The taxes to the central government were calculated and negotiated by the people's political representatives. Both the central and local governments were compensated for the services each provided. Many Christian cities used some of the taxes to maintain their churches and run their own organizations. Later, the Umayyads were criticized by some Muslims for not reducing the taxes of the people who converted to Islam. 4282:

caliph and his agents and officials posted in the provinces. The main highways were divided into stages of 12 miles (19 km) each and each stage had horses, donkeys, or camels ready to carry the post. Primarily the service met the needs of Government officials, but travellers and their important dispatches were also benefited by the system. The postal carriages were also used for the swift transport of troops. They were able to carry fifty to a hundred men at a time. Under Governor Yusuf bin Umar, the postal department of Iraq costs 4,000,000 dirhams a year.

3600: 2770:(whom Mu'awiya adopted as his half-brother), respectively. In return for recognizing his suzerainty, maintaining order, and forwarding a token portion of the provincial tax revenues to Damascus, the caliph let his governors rule with practical independence. After al-Mughira's death in 670, Mu'awiya attached Kufa and its dependencies to the governorship of Basra, making Ziyad the practical viceroy over the eastern half of the caliphate. Afterward, Ziyad launched a concerted campaign to firmly establish Arab rule in the vast 2535:, all of whom were close, early companions of Muhammad and belonged to the Quraysh. He was chosen over Ali because he would ensure the concentration of state power into the hands of the Quraysh, as opposed to Ali's determination to diffuse power among all of the Muslim factions. From early in his reign, Uthman displayed explicit favouritism to his kinsmen, in stark contrast to his predecessors. He appointed his family members as governors over the regions successively conquered under Umar and himself, namely much of the 595: 727: 3612: 2808: 2453: 5381: 2820:, as his successor in 676, introducing hereditary rule to caliphal succession and, in practice, turning the office of the caliph into a kingship. The act was met with disapproval or opposition by the Iraqis and the Hejaz-based Quraysh, including the Umayyads, but most were bribed or coerced into acceptance. Yazid acceded after Mu'awiya's death in 680 and almost immediately faced a challenge to his rule by the Kufan partisans of Ali who had invited Ali's son and Muhammad's grandson 5441:("deputy of God"). The distinction seems to indicate that the Umayyads "regarded themselves as God's representatives at the head of the community and saw no need to share their religious power with, or delegate it to, the emergent class of religious scholars." In fact, it was precisely this class of scholars, based largely in Iraq, that was responsible for collecting and recording the traditions that form the primary source material for the history of the Umayyad period. In 4041:

Christian Syrian tribes. Soldiers were registered with the Army Ministry, the Diwan Al-Jaysh, and were salaried. The army was divided into junds based on regional fortified cities. The Umayyad Syrian forces specialised in close order infantry warfare, and favoured using a kneeling spear wall formation in battle, probably as a result of their encounters with Roman armies. This was radically different from the original Bedouin style of mobile and individualistic fighting.

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According to Gibb, the decrees were the "first step towards the reorganization and unification of the diverse tax-systems in the provinces, and also a step towards a more definitely Muslim administration". Indeed, it formed an important part of the Islamization measures that lent the Umayyad Caliphate "a more ideological and programmatic coloring it had previously lacked", according to Blankinship.

5623: 2668:, the seat of Mu'awiya's power. Syria's emergence as the metropolis of the Umayyad Caliphate was the result of Mu'awiya's twenty-year entrenchment in the province, the geographic distribution of its relatively large Arab population throughout the province in contrast to their seclusion in garrison cities in other provinces, and the domination of a single tribal confederation, the Kalb-led 3077:. Initially, the new coinage contained depictions of the caliph as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community and its supreme military commander. This image proved no less acceptable to Muslim officialdom and was replaced in 696 or 697 with image-less coinage inscribed with Qur'anic quotes and other Muslim religious formulas. In 698/99, similar changes were made to the silver 2704:, to guarantee the loyalty of the key military components of Syria. Mu'awiya preoccupied his core Syrian troops in nearly annual or bi-annual land and sea raids against Byzantium, which provided them with battlefield experience and war spoils, but secured no permanent territorial gains. Toward the end of his reign the caliph entered a thirty-year truce with Byzantine emperor 3863: 2855:, whose authority was likely restricted to Damascus and Syria's southern districts. Mu'awiya II had been ill from the beginning of his accession, with al-Dahhak assuming the practical duties of his office, and he died in early 684 without naming a successor. His death marked the end of the Umayyads' Sufyanid ruling house, called after Mu'awiya I's father Abu Sufyan. 2284:. The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious accommodation that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, as in Syria. This policy also boosted Mu'awiya's popularity and solidified Syria as his power base. The Umayyad era is often considered the formative period in 4007:

province. Local expenses were paid for by taxes coming from that province, with the remainder each year being sent to the central government in Damascus. As the central power of the Umayyad rulers waned in the later years of the dynasty, some governors neglected to send the extra tax revenue to Damascus and created great personal fortunes.

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signaling a new policy by the caliph and his successors to balance the interests of the Qays and Yaman in the Umayyad state. With his unified army, Abd al-Malik marched against the Zubayrids of Iraq, having already secretly secured the defection of the province's leading tribal chiefs, and defeated Iraq's ruler, Ibn al-Zubayr's brother

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and was subsequently given authority over the rest of the eastern caliphate. Resentment among the Iraqi troops towards al-Hajjaj's methods of governance, particularly his death threats to force participation in the war efforts and his reductions to their stipends, culminated with a mass Iraqi rebellion against the Umayyads in

3583:, which sparked revolts in Khurasan in 721 or 722 that persisted for some twenty years and met strong resistance among the Berbers of Ifriqiya, where the Umayyad governor was assassinated by his discontented Berber guards. Warfare on the frontiers was also resumed, with renewed annual raids against the Byzantines and the 3363:(Central Asia), which had been a largely impenetrable region for earlier Muslim armies, between 705 and 715. Despite the distance from the Arab garrison towns of Khurasan, the unfavorable terrain and climate and his enemies' numerical superiority, Qutayba, through his persistent raids, gained the surrender of 5464:, by Imam Malik, was written in the early Abbasid period in Medina. It does not contain any anti-Umayyad content because it was more concerned with what the Quran and what Muhammad said and was not a history book on the Umayyads. Even the earliest pro-Shia accounts of al-Masudi are more balanced. Al-Masudi's 5603:

The seven heads of the dragon are symbolic of the seven provinces of the lands dominated by the Umayyads: Damascus, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, Africa, Andalusia, and Transoxiana. The ten horns represent the ten names of the leaders of the Umayyad dynasty: Abu Sufyan, Muawiya, Yazid, Marwan, Abd al-Malik,

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tax for converts to Islam. Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam stated that Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz also stopped the personal allowance offered to his relatives, stating that he could only give them an allowance if he gave an allowance to everyone else in the empire. After Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz was

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Early Islamic coins re-used Byzantine and Sasanian iconography directly but added new Islamic elements. So-called "Arab-Byzantine" coins replicated Byzantine coins and were minted in Levantine cities before and after the Umayyads rose to power. Some examples of these coins, likely minted in Damascus,

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Iraq remained politically unstable and the garrisons of Kufa and Basra had become exhausted by warfare with Kharijite rebels. In 694 Abd al-Malik combined both cities as a single province under the governorship of al-Hajjaj, who oversaw the suppression of the Kharijite revolts in Iraq and Iran by 698

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in early 657. Ali agreed to settle the matter with Mu'awiya by arbitration, though the talks failed to achieve a resolution. The decision to arbitrate fundamentally weakened Ali's political position as he was forced to negotiate with Mu'awiya on equal terms, while it drove a significant number of his

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To assist the caliph in administration there were six boards at the centre: Diwan al-Kharaj (the Board of Revenue), Diwan al-Rasa'il (the Board of Correspondence), Diwan al-Khatam (the Board of Signet), Diwan al-Barid (the Board of Posts), Diwan al-Qudat (the Board of Justice) and Diwan al-Jund (the

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in 705/06. Arabic ultimately became the sole official language of the Umayyad state, but the transition in faraway provinces, such as Khurasan, did not occur until the 740s. Although the official language was changed, Greek and Persian-speaking bureaucrats who were versed in Arabic kept their posts.

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to the caliphal treasury in Damascus to pay the Syrian troops in Iraq. The system of military pay established by Umar, which paid stipends to veterans of the earlier Muslim conquests and their descendants, was ended, salaries being restricted to those in active service. The old system was considered

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The first four caliphs created a stable administration for the empire, following the practices and administrative institutions of the Byzantine Empire which had ruled the same region previously. These consisted of four main governmental branches: political affairs, military affairs, tax collection,

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in its place as a "symbol of the political supremacy and moral prestige of Islam", according to historian Nikita Elisséeff. Noting al-Walid's awareness of architecture's propaganda value, historian Robert Hillenbrand calls the Damascus mosque a "victory monument" intended as a "visible statement of

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regards the period of the Umayyads as part of the Arab Golden Age which it sought to emulate and restore. This is particularly true of Syrian nationalists and the present-day state of Syria, centered like that of the Umayyads on Damascus. The Umayyad banners were white, after the banner of Muawiya

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As the empire grew, the number of qualified Arab workers was too small to keep up with the rapid expansion of the empire. Therefore, Muawiya allowed many of the local government workers in conquered provinces to keep their jobs under the new Umayyad government. Thus, much of the local government's

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clan, rivals of the Umayyads, but the word "Hashimiyya" seems to refer specifically to Abu Hashim, a grandson of Ali and son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. According to certain traditions, Abu Hashim died in 717 in Humeima in the house of Muhammad ibn Ali, the head of the Abbasid family, and before

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in Palestine, and the Ansar and South Arabians of Homs all opted to recognize Ibn al-Zubayr. Marwan ibn al-Hakam, the leader of the Umayyads expelled to Syria from Medina, was prepared to submit to Ibn al-Zubayr as well but was persuaded to forward his candidacy for the caliphate by Ibn Ziyad. The

2750:, resented the transition of power to Syria. They remained divided, nonetheless, as both cities competed for power and influence in Iraq and its eastern dependencies and remained divided between the Arab tribal nobility and the early Muslim converts, the latter of whom were divided between the pro- 2607:

Although Ali was able to replace Uthman's governors in Egypt and Iraq with relative ease, Mu'awiya had developed a solid power-base and an effective military against the Byzantines from the Arab tribes of Syria. Mu'awiya did not claim the caliphate but was determined to retain control of Syria and

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The Umayyad caliphate was marked both by territorial expansion and by the administrative and cultural problems that such expansion created. Despite some notable exceptions, the Umayyads tended to favor the rights of the old Arab families, and in particular their own, over those of newly converted

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and Jews still continued to produce great theological thinkers within their communities, but as time wore on, many of the intellectuals converted to Islam, leading to a lack of great thinkers in the non-Muslim communities. Important Christian writers from the Umayyad period include the theologian

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says that Zoroastrians in the northern parts of Iran were hardly penetrated by the "believers", winning virtually complete autonomy in-return for tribute-tax or jizyah. Donner adds "Zoroastrians continued to exist in large numbers in northern and western Iran and elsewhere for centuries after the

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In contrast to Uthman, Mu'awiya restricted the influence of his Umayyad kinsmen to the governorship of Medina, where the dispossessed Islamic elite, including the Umayyads, was suspicious or hostile toward his rule. However, in an unprecedented move in Islamic politics, Mu'awiya nominated his own

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Mu'awiyah introduced the postal service, Abd al-Malik extended it throughout his empire, and Walid made full use of it. Umar bin Abdul-Aziz developed it further by building caravanserais at stages along the Khurasan highway. Relays of horses were used for the conveyance of dispatches between the

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Mu'awiya's main challenge was reestablishing the unity of the Muslim community and asserting his authority and that of the caliphate in the provinces amid the political and social disintegration of the First Fitna. There remained significant opposition to his assumption of the caliphate and to a

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were all treated well by Muawiyah. Muawiyah even restored Edessa's cathedral after it had been toppled by an earthquake. Holland also writes that, "Savagely though Muawiyah prosecuted his wars against the Romans, yet his subjects, no longer trampled by rival armies, no longer divided by hostile

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Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the caliph. The governor was in charge of the religious officials, army leaders, police, and civil administrators in his

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After Uthman's assassination, Ali was recognized as caliph in Medina, though his support stemmed from the Ansar and the Iraqis, while the bulk of the Quraysh was wary of his rule. The first challenge to his authority came from the Qurayshite leaders al-Zubayr and Talha, who had opposed Uthman's

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The Umayyad army was mainly Arab, with its core consisting of those who had settled in urban Syria and the Arab tribes who originally served in the army of the Eastern Roman Empire in Syria. These were supported by tribes in the Syrian desert and in the frontier with the Byzantines, as well as

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setting of Jerusalem, home of the two older Abrahamic faiths, Judaism and Christianity. An alternative motive may have been to divert the religious focus of Muslims in the Umayyad realm from the Ka'aba in Zubayrid Mecca (683–692), where the Umayyads were routinely condemned during the Hajj. In

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allies compelled him to sign a peace treaty with Byzantium in 689 which substantially increased the Umayyads' annual tribute to the Empire. During his siege of Circesium in 691, Abd al-Malik reconciled with Zufar and the Qays by offering them privileged positions in the Umayyad court and army,

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The Diwan of Umar, assigning annuities to all Arabs and to the Muslim soldiers of other races, underwent a change in the hands of the Umayyads. The Umayyads meddled with the register and the recipients regarded pensions as the subsistence allowance even without being in active service. Hisham

5559:. In Shia sources, the Umayyad Caliphate is widely described as "tyrannical, anti-Islamic and godless". Shias point out that the founder of the dynasty, Muawiyah, declared himself a caliph in 657 and went to war against Muhammad's son-in-law and cousin, the ruling caliph Ali, clashing at the 4356:

As Islam spread, more and more of the Muslim population consisted of non-Arabs. This caused social unrest, as the new converts were not given the same rights as Muslim Arabs. Also, as conversions increased, tax revenues (peasant tax) from non-Muslims decreased to dangerous lows. These issues

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In order to reduce forgery, Diwan al-Khatam (Bureau of Registry), a kind of state chancellery, was instituted by Mu'awiyah. It used to make and preserve a copy of each official document before sealing and despatching the original to its destination. Thus in the course of time a state archive

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caliphs. In green, the Umayyad caliphs of Damascus. In yellow, the Umayyad emirs of Córdoba. In orange, the Umayyad caliphs of Córdoba. Abd Al-Rahman III was an emir until 929 when he proclaimed himself caliph. Muhammad is included (in caps) to show the kinship of the Umayyads with him. See

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launched a naval campaign against the city. The Byzantines destroyed the Umayyad fleets and defeated Maslama's army, prompting his withdrawal to Syria in 718. The massive losses incurred during the campaign led to a partial retrenchment of Umayyad forces from the captured Byzantine frontier

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in modern France was conquered during his reign. To maintain stronger oversight in the provinces, Umar dismissed all his predecessors' governors, his new appointees being generally competent men he could control. To that end, the massive viceroyalty of Iraq and the east was broken up.

2851:. The Syrians withdrew upon news of Yazid's death in 683, after which Ibn al-Zubayr declared himself caliph and soon after gained recognition in most provinces of the caliphate, including Iraq and Egypt. In Syria Ibn Bahdal secured the succession of Yazid's son and appointed successor 2404:) curtailed the influence of the Qurayshite elite in favor of Muhammad's earlier supporters in the administration and military, but nonetheless allowed the growing foothold of Abu Sufyan's sons in Syria, which was all but conquered by 638. When Umar's overall commander of the province 2566:

and Egypt forwarded to the treasury in Medina, which he used at his personal disposal, frequently disbursing its funds and war booty to his Umayyad relatives. Moreover, the lucrative Sasanian crown lands of Iraq, which Umar had designated as communal property for the benefit of the

5521:. Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam (who lived in 829 and wrote a biography on Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz) stated that the reduction in these taxes stimulated the economy and created wealth but it also reduced the government's budget, including, eventually, the defence budget. 5422:) to a dynastic one. However, the Umayyad caliphs do seem to have understood themselves as the representatives of God on earth, and to have been responsible for the "definition and elaboration of God's ordinances, or in other words the definition or elaboration of Islamic law." 3420:

policies, but expansion mostly ground to a halt during his reign. The deaths of al-Hajjaj in 714 and Qutayba in 715 left the Arab armies in Transoxiana in disarray. For the next twenty-five years, no further eastward conquests were undertaken and the Arabs lost territory. The

5477:, the history books were written during the later Abbasid period are more anti-Umayyad. The books written later in the Abbasid period in Iran are more anti-Umayyad. Iran was Sunni at the time. There was much anti-Arab feeling in Iran after the fall of the Persian empire. 3989:(clients) were often better educated and more civilised than their Arab overlords. The new converts, on the basis of equality of all Muslims, transformed the political landscape. Previté-Orton also argues that the feud between Syria and Iraq further weakened the empire. 2663:

The recognition of Mu'awiya in Kufa, referred to as the "year of unification of the community" in the Muslim traditional sources, is generally considered the start of his caliphate. With his accession, the political capital and the caliphal treasury were transferred to

2344:, but after the latter captured Mecca in 630, Abu Sufyan and the Quraysh embraced Islam. To reconcile his influential Qurayshite tribesmen, Muhammad gave his former opponents, including Abu Sufyan, a stake in the new order. Abu Sufyan and the Umayyads relocated to 3638:

in northern Syria, which was closer to the Byzantine border than Damascus, and resumed hostilities against the Byzantines, which had lapsed following the failure of the last siege of Constantinople. The new campaigns resulted in a number of successful raids into

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is the earliest Shia account of Muawiyah. He recounted that Muawiyah spent a great deal of time in prayer, in spite of the burden of managing a large empire. After killing off most of the Umayyads and destroying the graves of the Umayyad rulers apart from

3390:. Both cities developed as future centers of Islamic and Arabic learning. Umayyad suzerainty was secured over the rest of conquered Transoxiana through tributary alliances with local rulers, whose power remained intact. From 708/09, al-Hajjaj's kinsman 3814:, a son of al-Walid I, was proclaimed caliph in Damascus, and his army tracked down and killed al-Walid II. Yazid III has received a certain reputation for piety and may have been sympathetic to the Qadariyya. He died a mere six months into his reign. 4064:

copied the coins of Byzantine emperor Heraclius, including a depiction of the emperor and his son Heraclius Constantine. On the reverse side, the traditional Byzantine cross-on-steps image was modified to avoid any explicitly non-Islamic connotation.

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as a military force and the beginning of Syrian military domination of Iraq. Iraqi internal divisions, and the utilization of more disciplined Syrian forces by Abd al-Malik and al-Hajjaj, voided the Iraqis' attempt to reassert power in the province.

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carving, and some of these included representations of human figures and animals. Umayyad architecture was thus an important transitional period during which early Islamic architecture and visual culture began to develop its own distinct identity.

4060:. In addition to this, the Umayyad government began to mint its own coins in Damascus, which were initially similar to pre-existing coins but evolved in an independent direction. These were the first coins minted by a Muslim government in history. 4257:

A regular Board of Correspondence was established under the Umayyads. It issued state missives and circulars to the Central and Provincial Officers. It coordinated the work of all Boards and dealt with all correspondence as the chief secretariat.

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in August 684, Marwan led his tribal allies to a decisive victory against a much larger Qaysite army led by al-Dahhak, who was slain. Not long after, the South Arabians of Homs and the Judham joined the Quda'a to form the tribal confederation of

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In the early period of Islam, justice was administered by Muhammad and the orthodox caliphs in person. After the expansion of the Islamic State, Umar al-Faruq had to separate the judiciary from the general administration and appointed the first

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was eliminated. Hitherto, the jizya, which was traditionally reserved for the non-Muslim majorities of the caliphate, continued to be imposed on non-Arab converts to Islam, while all Muslims who cultivated conquered lands were liable to pay the

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broke out in North Africa, which was probably the largest military setback in the reign of Caliph Hisham. From it emerged some of the first Muslim states outside the caliphate. It is also regarded as the beginning of Moroccan independence, as

2363:, Muhammad's early followers and fellow emigrants from Mecca, would ally with their fellow tribesmen from the former Qurayshite elite and take control of the Muslim state. The Muhajirun gave allegiance to one of their own, the early, elderly 3951:, and most of the remaining members of the Umayyad family were tracked down and killed. When Abbasids declared amnesty for members of the Umayyad family, eighty gathered to receive pardons, and all were massacred. One grandson of Hisham, 4098:

Between 696 and 699, the caliph introduced a new system of coinage of gold, silver, and bronze. The coins generally featured Arabic inscriptions without any images, ending the earlier iconographic traditions. The main gold unit was the

2587:'s government by the traditional elite of the Quraysh, particularly his Umayyad clan, which he believed possessed the "experience and ability" to govern, at the expense of the interests, rights and privileges of many early Muslims. 3051:, situated between Kufa and Basra, and instituted a more rigorous administration in the province. Power thereafter derived from the Syrian troops, who became Iraq's ruling class, while Iraq's Arab nobility, religious scholars and 2261:

The Umayyad Caliphate ruled over a vast multiethnic and multicultural population. Christians, who still constituted a majority of the caliphate's population, and Jews were allowed to practice their own religion but had to pay the

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districts, but already in 720, Umayyad raids against Byzantium recommenced. Nevertheless, the goal of conquering Constantinople was effectively abandoned, and the frontier between the two empires stabilized along the line of the

6299: 2754:(loyalists of Ali) and the Kharijites, who followed their own strict interpretation of Islam. The caliph applied a decentralized approach to governing Iraq by forging alliances with its tribal nobility, such as the Kufan leader 2967:. Although Ibn Ziyad attempted to restore the Syrian army of the Sufyanid caliphs, persistent divisions along Qays–Yaman lines contributed to the army's massive rout and Ibn Ziyad's death at the hands of the pro-Alid forces of 4352:

The Muslim Arabs were at the top of the society and saw it as their duty to rule over the conquered areas. The Arab Muslims held themselves in higher esteem than Muslim non-Arabs and generally did not mix with other Muslims.

3570:. The latter declared a holy war against the Umayyads, took control of Basra and Wasit and gained the support of the Kufan elite. The caliph's Syrian army defeated the rebels and pursued and nearly eliminated the influential 3247:

was founded and equipped with an arsenal on Abd al-Malik's orders to establish a strong Arab fleet. Hassan ibn al-Nu'man continued the campaign against the Berbers, defeating them and killing their leader, the warrior queen

2562:(Upper Mesopotamia) to Mu'awiya's Syrian governorship and granted the latter's request to take possession of all Byzantine crown lands in Syria to help pay his troops. He had the surplus taxes from the wealthy provinces of 4428:

Although non-Muslims could not hold the highest public offices in the empire, they held many bureaucratic positions within the government. An important example of Christian employment in the Umayyad government is that of

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Although the Umayyads were harsh when it came to defeating their Zoroastrian adversaries, they did offer protection and relative religious tolerance to the Zoroastrians who accepted their authority. As a matter of fact,

2828:. Although it stymied active opposition to Yazid in Iraq, the killing of Muhammad's grandson left many Muslims outraged and significantly increased Kufan hostility toward the Umayyads and sympathy for the family of Ali. 5407:

Muslims (mawali). Therefore, they held to a less universalist conception of Islam than did many of their rivals. As G.R. Hawting has written, "Islam was in fact regarded as the property of the conquering aristocracy."

3795:(743–44), the son of Yazid II. Al-Walid is reported to have been more interested in earthly pleasures than in religion, a reputation that may be confirmed by the decoration of the so-called "desert palaces" (including 5414:

was initiated in the Levant, Mesopotamia, North Africa, and Iberia. State documents and currency were issued in Arabic. Mass conversions also created a growing population of Muslims in the territory of the caliphate.

4377:. They were given a legally protected status as second-class citizens as long as they accepted and acknowledged the political supremacy of the ruling Muslims. More specifically, non-Muslims had to pay a tax, known as 2604:, in which al-Zubayr and Talha were slain and A'isha consequently entered self-imposed seclusion. Ali's sovereignty was thereafter recognized in Basra and Egypt and he established Kufa as the caliphate's new capital. 3064:

a handicap on Abd al-Malik's executive authority and financial ability to reward loyalists in the army. Thus, a professional army was established during Abd al-Malik's reign whose salaries derived from tax proceeds.

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latter had been driven out of Iraq and strove to uphold Umayyad rule. During a summit of pro-Umayyad Syrian tribes, namely the Quda'a and their Kindite allies, organized by Ibn Bahdal in the old Ghassanid capital of

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as a major military base and launched several invasions of the northern Caucasus, but failed to subdue the nomadic Khazars. The conflict was arduous and bloody, and the Arab army even suffered a major defeat at the

2600:, they attempted to rally support against Ali among the troops of Basra, prompting the caliph to leave for Iraq's other garrison town, Kufa, where he could better confront his challengers. Ali defeated them at the 5599:

that the "great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads", refers to the Umayyad caliphs who "rose against the religion of Prophet Muhammad and against the reality of Ali".

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as a virtual partner of Mu'awiya until his death in 663, after which loyalist governors were appointed and the province became a practical appendage of Syria. Under Mu'awiya's direction, the Muslim conquest of

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Previté-Orton argues that the reason for the decline of the Umayyads was the rapid expansion of Islam. During the Umayyad period, mass conversions brought Persians, Berbers, Copts, and Aramaic to Islam. These

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Under al-Walid I the Umayyad Caliphate reached its greatest territorial extent. The war with the Byzantines had resumed under his father after the civil war, with the Umayyads defeating the Byzantines at the

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Arab tribe in Syria. The Kalb tribe had remained largely neutral when the Muslims first went into Syria. After the plague that killed much of the Muslim army in Syria, by marrying Maysun, Muawiyah used the

2672:, as opposed to the wide array of competing tribal groups in Iraq. The long-established, formerly Christian Arab tribes in Syria, having been integrated into the military of the Byzantine Empire and their 2629:

succeeded him but abdicated in return for compensation upon Mu'awiya's arrival to Iraq with his Syrian army in the summer. At that point, Mu'awiya entered Kufa and received the allegiance of the Iraqis.

3011:, in 693, which originally depicted a human figure, likely the caliph, as shown in this coin minted in 695. In 697, the figural depictions were replaced solely by Qur'anic and other Islamic inscriptions 2947:

and moved to avenge their losses. Although Marwan regained full control of Syria in the months following the battle, the inter-tribal strife undermined the foundation of Umayyad power: the Syrian army.

4628:. Among these projects, the construction of the Great Mosque in Damascus reflected the diversity of the empire, as Greek, Persian, Coptic, Indian and Maghrebi craftsmen were recruited to build it. 2575:, were turned into caliphal crown lands to be used at Uthman's discretion. Mounting resentment against Uthman's rule in Iraq and Egypt and among the Ansar and Quraysh of Medina culminated in the 3940:, and the Umayyads were defeated. Damascus fell to the Abbasids in April, and in August, Marwan was killed in Egypt. Some Umayyads in Syria continued to resist the takeover. The Umayyad princes 3825:(744–50), the grandson of Marwan I, led an army from the northern frontier and entered Damascus in December 744, where he was proclaimed caliph. Marwan immediately moved the capital north to 3449:

coast. His Khurasani and Iraqi troops were reinforced by Syrians, marking their first deployment to Khurasan, but the Arabs' initial successes were reversed by the local Iranian coalition of

3750:. Both areas had already been partially conquered but remained difficult to govern. Once again, a particular difficulty concerned the question of the conversion of non-Arabs, especially the 3966:). In a claim unrecognized outside of al-Andalus, he maintained that the Umayyad Caliphate, the true, authentic caliphate, more legitimate than the Abbasids, was continued through him in 6284: 78: 5845: 3499:, as his successor and he took office in 717. After the Arabs' severe losses in the offensive against Constantinople, Umar drew down Arab forces on the caliphate's war fronts, though 2975:

in August 686. The setback delayed Abd al-Malik's attempts to reestablish Umayyad authority in Iraq, while pressures from the Byzantine Empire and raids into Syria by the Byzantines'

9331: 9309: 15154: 4493:), serving as his "secretary and the person in charge of his business". The hagiographies, although less reliable, also assign to him a role in the administration, even as "ruler" ( 3683:

would never again come under the rule of an eastern caliph or any other foreign power until the 20th century. It was followed by the collapse of Umayyad authority in al-Andalus. In

4647:

are prominently featured in both the Dome of the Rock and the Great Mosque of Damascus, but the lack of human figures in their imagery was a new trait that demonstrates an Islamic

4643:

architectural traditions, but it also innovated by combining elements of these styles together, experimenting with new building types, and implementing lavish decorative programs.

2280:

for the benefit of Muslims or Muslim converts. Under the early Umayyad caliphs, prominent positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served the

3905:). They sought support for a "member of the family" of Muhammad, without making explicit mention of the Abbasids. These missions met with success both among Arabs and non-Arabs ( 3936:

was recognized as the new caliph in the mosque at Kufa. At this point Marwan mobilized his troops from Harran and advanced toward Iraq. In January 750 the two forces met in the

11234:

Sanchez, Fernando Lopez (2015). "The Mining, Minting, and Acquisition of Gold in the Roman and Post-Roman World". In Paul Erdkamp; Koenraad Verboven; Arjan Zuiderhoek (eds.).

4549:

watchtowers, knew only peace at last. Justice flourished in his time, and there was great peace in the regions under his control. He allowed everyone to live as they wanted."

4505:), of Damascus and its environs, where he was responsible for collecting the revenue. In this capacity, he is attested in later collections of source material such as that of 2843:

in Mecca. The Ansar and Quraysh of Medina also took up the anti-Umayyad cause and in 683 expelled the Umayyads from the city. Yazid's Syrian troops routed the Medinans at the

2041: 2883:. The area shaded in red represents the approximate territory of the Umayyads, while the areas shaded in blue, green and yellow respectively represent the territories of the 14841: 3219:

in 692. The Umayyads frequently raided Byzantine Anatolia and Armenia in the following years. By 705, Armenia was annexed by the caliphate along with the principalities of

2596:

empowerment of the Umayyad clan but feared that their own influence and the power of the Quraysh, in general, would dissipate under Ali. Backed by one of Muhammad's wives,

2336:

tribes that controlled the northern and central Arabian desert expanses, affording the clan a degree of political power in the region. The Umayyads under the leadership of

11049: 9332:"Student Resources, Chapter 12: The First Global Civilization: The Rise and Spread of Islam, IV. The Arab Empire of the Umayyads, G. Converts and 'People of the Book'" 558: 544: 530: 516: 502: 488: 474: 449: 435: 421: 407: 393: 379: 365: 351: 3803:) that have been attributed to him. He quickly attracted the enmity of many, both by executing a number of those who had opposed his accession and by persecuting the 11127: 4085:(Friday sermon). Another coin minted probably between 695 and 698 features the image of a spear under an arch. This has been variously interpreted as representing a 3916:

assumed leadership of the Hashimiyya in Khurasan. In 747, he successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of the

5604:

Walid, Sulayman, Umar, Hisham, and Ibrahim. Some names were re-used, as in the case of Yazid II and Yazid III, which were not accounted for in this interpretation.

3535:

In tandem, Umar intensified the Islamization drive of his Marwanid predecessors, enacting measures to distinguish Muslims from non-Muslims and inaugurating Islamic

2539:, i.e. Iraq and Iran, and the former Byzantine territories of Syria and Egypt. In Medina, he relied extensively on the counsel of his Umayyad cousins, the brothers 14554: 6040: 3305: 15149: 14436: 5848:, who had support from the Kalb of the Jordan district, recognized the caliphate of his maternal uncle Ibn al-Zubayr. Ibn Bahdal favored Mu'awiya II's brothers, 3539:. His position among the Umayyad caliphs is unusual, in that he became the only one to have been recognized in subsequent Islamic tradition as a genuine caliph ( 9426: 13804: 10327:

Griffith, Sidney H. (2016). "The Manṣūr Family and Saint John of Damascus: Christians and Muslims in Umayyad Times". In Antoine Borrut; Fred M. Donner (eds.).

2440:

which had already killed Abu Ubayda and Yazid. Under Mu'awiya's stewardship, Syria remained domestically peaceful, organized and well-defended from its former

2424:

in his place. Umar's exceptional treatment of Abu Sufyan's sons may have stemmed from his respect for the family, their burgeoning alliance with the powerful

3981:

and Maslama ibn Ya'qub, successively seized control of Damascus from 811 to 813, and declared themselves caliphs. However, their rebellions were suppressed.

3777:. After this defeat, al-Harith's movement seems to have been dissolved. The problem of the rights of non-Arab Muslims would continue to plague the Umayyads. 2551:, this policy stemmed from Uthman's "conviction that the house of Umayya, as the core clan of Quraysh, was uniquely qualified to rule in the name of Islam". 3762:, promised tax relief to those Sogdians who converted to Islam but went back on his offer when it proved too popular and threatened to reduce tax revenues. 9456: 14421: 11512: 10123: 4079:

and replaced it with three male figures standing in Arab dress. This was possibly an attempt to depict the act of Muslim prayer or the delivery of the

3727:

in 730. Marwan ibn Muhammad, the future Marwan II, finally ended the war in 737 with a massive invasion that is reported to have reached as far as the

2608:

opposed Ali in the name of avenging his kinsman Uthman, accusing the caliph of culpability in his death. Ali and Mu'awiya fought to a stalemate at the

2034: 5524:

The only Umayyad ruler who is unanimously praised by Sunni sources for his devout piety and justice is Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz. In his efforts to spread

4049:

The Byzantine and Sassanid Empires relied on money economies before the Muslim conquest and that system remained in effect during the Umayyad period.

14834: 9592:

The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power Among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese During the Early Middle Ages

3944:, al-Abbas ibn Muhammad, and Hashim ibn Yazid launched revolts in Syria and the Islamic–Byzantine frontier around late 750, but they were defeated. 15094: 14520: 2824:

to stage a revolt against Umayyad rule from Iraq. An army mobilized by Iraq's governor Ibn Ziyad intercepted and killed Husayn outside Kufa at the

10494: 5367: 4166:

models. The switch to a five-branched version may have been intended to further differentiate this depiction from Jewish and Christian versions.

3844:

and then Abu Dulaf as rival caliphs. In 747, Marwan managed to reestablish control of Iraq, but by this time a more serious threat had arisen in

3566:) became caliph. Not long after his accession, another mass revolt against Umayyad rule was staged in Iraq, this time by the prominent statesman 3113:

in Jerusalem. It was possibly intended as a monument of victory over the Christians that would distinguish Islam's uniqueness within the common

12251: 10790: 6141: 4393:

was reported to have said in one of his letters commanding not to "destroy a synagogue or a church or temple of fire worshippers (meaning the

3662:(last stronghold at Narbonne in 759). Hisham's reign witnessed the end of expansion in the west, following the defeat of the Arab army by the 15089: 2378:), and put an end to Ansarite deliberations. Abu Bakr was viewed as acceptable by the Ansar and the Qurayshite elite and was acknowledged as 2027: 9848: 8662:

Fine, Steven (2015). "When Is a Menorah "Jewish"?: On the Complexities of a Symbol during the Age of Transition". In Evans, Helen C. (ed.).

15164: 14827: 11642: 9335: 9293: 370: 6013: 3833:. A rebellion soon broke out in Syria, perhaps due to resentment over the relocation of the capital, and in 746 Marwan razed the walls of 14451: 11733: 9359: 9246: 9207: 8663: 2774:

region east of Iran and restart the Muslim conquests in the surrounding areas. Not long after Ziyad's death, he was succeeded by his son

9986: 4402:

rise of Islam, and indeed, much of the canon of Zoroastrian religious texts was elaborated and written down during the Islamic period."

4249:

The Central Board of Revenue administered the entire finances of the empire. It also imposed and collected taxes and disbursed revenue.

2617:, to revolt. Ali's coalition steadily disintegrated and many Iraqi tribal nobles secretly defected to Mu'awiya, while the latter's ally 11195:

The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXIV: The Empire in Transition: The Caliphates of Sulaymān, ʿUmar, and Yazīd, A.D. 715–724/A.H. 96–105

10143: 2995:

and killed Ibn al-Zubayr in 692, marking the end of the Second Fitna and the reunification of the caliphate under Abd al-Malik's rule.

10198: 5425:

The Umayyads have met with a largely negative reception from later Islamic historians, who have accused them of promoting a kingship (

15124: 14525: 14441: 10944: 9540: 9498: 9391: 6056: 5844:, the son of Mu'awiya I's full brother, died shortly after Mu'awiya II's death, while another paternal uncle of the deceased caliph, 5087: 2839:

among the Quraysh to elect the caliph and rallied opposition to the Umayyads from his headquarters in Islam's holiest sanctuary, the

2746:

strong central government. The garrison towns of Kufa and Basra, populated by the Arab immigrants and troops who arrived during the

14542: 10994:

Die byzantinische Reaktion auf die Ausbreitung der Araber. Studien zur Strukturwandlung des byzantinischen Staates im 7. und 8. Jhd

3894:

dying named Muhammad ibn Ali as his successor. This tradition allowed the Abbasids to rally the supporters of the failed revolt of

2436:

who viewed themselves as equals to the Quraysh in nobility, or the lack of a suitable candidate at the time, particularly amid the

9664: 4152:

One group of bronze coins from Palestine, dated after the coinage reform of the late 690s, features the image of a seven-branched

14505: 14426: 5551:

is briefly expressed in the Shi'a book "Sulh al-Hasan". According to Shia hadiths, which are not considered authentic by Sunnis,

3398:. The massive war spoils netted by the conquests of Transoxiana, Sind and Hispania were comparable to the amounts accrued in the 6415: 3901:

Beginning around 719, Hashimiyya missions began to seek adherents in Khurasan. Their campaign was framed as one of proselytism (

3634:), whose long and eventful reign was above all marked by the curtailment of military expansion. Hisham established his court at 15109: 14446: 13394: 11505: 9392:"Sermon 92: About the annihilation of the Kharijites, the mischief mongering of Umayyads and the vastness of his own knowledge" 6261: 4295:

in Egypt as early as AD 643/23 AH. After 661, a series of judges served in Egypt during the caliphates of Hisham and Walid II.

3467:

On the Byzantine front, Sulayman took up his predecessor's project to capture Constantinople with increased vigor. His brother

5856:, for the succession, but they were viewed as too young and inexperienced by most of the pro-Umayyad tribal nobility in Syria. 2230:). At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 11,100,000 km (4,300,000 sq mi), making it one of the 15114: 14456: 14413: 13204: 12586: 11662: 11627: 11424: 11386: 11203: 11182: 11113: 11065: 10979: 10930: 10877: 10853: 10829: 10770: 10751: 10727: 10703: 10629: 10548: 10529: 10455: 10431: 10357: 10336: 10317: 10282: 10021: 9966: 9905: 9816: 9703: 9653: 9604: 9579: 9534: 9492: 9420: 9371: 9303: 9240: 9201: 8743: 8711: 8673: 8609: 8584: 8401: 6378: 6339: 6201: 6168: 3471: 3461: 10447:

The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXVI: The Waning of the Umayyad Caliphate: Prelude to Revolution, A.D. 738–744/A.H. 121–126

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Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz By Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi

8921: 5327: 3973:

Some Umayyads also survived in Syria, and their descendants would once more attempt to restore their old regime during the

14968: 13110: 10664: 9618: 4464:

dismissed him as part of his efforts to Arabicize the administration of the caliphate. According to the Muslim historians

4267:

developed in Damascus by the Umayyads under Abd al-Malik. This department survived till the middle of the Abbasid period.

2963:, was appointed to suppress Zufar's rebellion in the Jazira. Marwan died in April 685 and was succeeded by his eldest son 5360: 4944: 3232: 2905:

Umayyad authority nearly collapsed in their Syrian stronghold after the death of Mu'awiya II. Al-Dahhak in Damascus, the

704: 11148: 10965: 10916: 10891: 10815: 10689: 10515: 10417: 10303: 10227: 10172: 10070: 10007: 9933: 9869: 9802: 9689: 9639: 15134: 15129: 15099: 13256: 12256: 11856: 11484: 9837: 8454: 5977: 4201: 6083: 5640: 5617: 5539:

poisoned in 720, successive governments tried to reverse Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz's tax policies, but rebellion resulted.

5502:

Many Muslims criticized the Umayyads for having too many non-Muslim, former Roman administrators in their government,

4563: 2676:

client kings, were "more accustomed to order and obedience" than their Iraqi counterparts, according to the historian

15139: 14308: 14262: 13922: 13916: 11900: 11498: 11462: 11443: 11405: 11338: 11243: 11089: 11035: 10653: 10605: 10480: 10381: 10103: 10042: 9724: 9410: 9051: 8479: 5295: 4227: 9916: 9107: 4209: 15119: 14179: 14035: 13570: 13466: 11798: 5517:

came to power, he reduced these taxes. He is therefore praised as one of the greatest Muslim rulers after the four

4510: 4346: 3391: 11213: 4598:

region, their main base of power. They also continued the existing Muslim policy of building new garrison cities (

2328:. By the end of the 6th century, the Umayyads dominated the Quraysh's increasingly prosperous trade networks with 15084: 14663: 14479: 12882: 5952: 3998:

and religious administration. Each of these was further subdivided into more branches, offices, and departments.

2952: 993: 12044: 10940: 10210: 10155: 9448: 3243:", according to Kennedy. Kairouan was firmly secured as a launchpad for later conquests, while the port town of 14728: 14286: 14184: 11652: 11637: 11105:

The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XVIII: Between Civil Wars: The Caliphate of Muʿāwiyah, 661–680 A.D./A.H. 40–60

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and they were minted in much larger quantities than in the earlier Byzantine era. The bronze coin was called a

3841: 3155: 3147: 1673: 5418:

According to one common view, the Umayyads transformed the caliphate from a religious institution (during the

14096: 13855: 13590: 13320: 10392: 5576: 5442: 5103: 4752: 4702: 4604:) in their provinces that served as bases for further expansion. Their most famous constructions include the 4418: 3924:, and dispatched an army westwards. Kufa fell to the Hashimiyya in 749, the last Umayyad stronghold in Iraq, 2944: 2559: 2348:, Islam's political centre, to maintain their new-found political influence in the nascent Muslim community. 199: 10053: 1238: 14648: 14625: 14245: 14101: 14091: 13997: 13708: 13315: 13199: 11707: 11647: 5450: 5446: 4949: 3773:

led a revolt that received broad backing from Arabs and natives alike, capturing Balkh but failing to take

3655: 3299: 2741:

was adopted as a half-brother by Mu'awiya I, who made him his practical viceroy over the eastern caliphate.

10250: 2922:, Marwan was elected caliph in exchange for economic privileges to the loyalist tribes. At the subsequent 15079: 14750: 14615: 14431: 14199: 13992: 13427: 13325: 12362: 4987: 3151: 2693: 9958:

Early Islamic Institutions: Administration and Taxation from the Caliphate to the Umayyads and ʿAbbāsids

3003: 2621:

ousted Ali's governor from Egypt in July 658. In July 660 Mu'awiya was formally recognized as caliph in

2382:(leader of the Muslim community). He showed favor to the Umayyads by awarding them command roles in the 1168: 15074: 14510: 14393: 13910: 13387: 11657: 11027: 10996:(in German). Munich: Institut für Byzantinistik und Neugriechische Philologie der Universität München. 10597: 9596: 6004: 5273: 4530: 3487:, over which both sides continued to launch regular raids and counter-raids during the next centuries. 3475: 3159: 3143: 3039:

To consolidate Umayyad rule after the Second Fitna, the Marwanids launched a series of centralization,

2923: 2351:

Muhammad's death in 632 left open the succession of leadership of the Muslim community. Leaders of the

2231: 11672: 5317: 4680: 2509:, was a wealthy Umayyad and early Muslim convert with marital ties to Muhammad. He was elected by the 14590: 14291: 14120: 13816: 13596: 13559: 13283: 12431: 11995: 11838: 11786: 11566: 11330: 10952: 10907: 10806: 10680: 10558:

Johns, Jeremy (January 2003). "Archaeology and the History of Early Islam: The First Seventy Years".

10502: 10472: 10408: 10290: 9994: 9793: 9680: 9626: 5720: 4525: 4068: 3978: 3692: 3406: 3332: 3310: 3081:

issued by the Muslims in the former Sasanian Persian lands of the eastern caliphate. Arabic replaced

3028: 2747: 2722: 8391: 5322: 3909:), although the latter may have played a particularly important role in the growth of the movement. 2643: 15159: 14745: 14474: 14298: 14071: 13609: 13241: 13216: 13066: 12725: 12720: 11667: 10786: 10206: 10151: 9614: 9565: 6133: 5564: 4709: 4613: 4385:

tax. If non-Muslims converted to Islam, they would cease paying jizya and would instead pay zakat.

4190: 3671: 3659: 3468: 3395: 3236: 2763: 2697: 2625:

by his Syrian tribal allies. Ali was assassinated by a Kharijite dissident in January 661. His son

2405: 2383: 2277: 2215: 1917: 440: 261: 17: 9571:

The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads

9412:

Black Banners from the East: The Establishment of the ʻAbbāsid State : Incubation of a Revolt

4091:

or a "sacral arch", the latter being a late antique motif. The spear is believed to be the spear (

3047:

measures. To prevent further rebellions in Iraq, al-Hajjaj founded a permanent Syrian garrison in

14608: 13482: 13308: 13189: 12730: 12683: 12626: 12325: 12269: 12017: 11581: 11556: 10887: 10869:

The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century

10719:

The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century

6224: 6094: 6064: 5821: 5750: 5700: 5596: 5312: 5205: 5059: 4576: 4461: 4194: 4029: 3941: 3624: 2981: 2964: 2888: 2832: 2576: 2195:, from another branch of the clan. Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, with 1663: 697: 13636: 11415:

Boekhoff-van der Voort, Nicolet (2014). "Umayyad Court". In Fitzpatrick, C.; Walker, A. (eds.).

5410:

During the period of the Umayyads, Arabic became the administrative language and the process of

4676: 3495:

Contrary to expectations of a son or brother succeeding him, Sulayman had nominated his cousin,

2251: 642: 412: 14926: 14760: 14689: 14658: 14598: 13580: 13575: 13493: 13330: 13231: 13226: 12914: 12862: 12782: 12715: 12619: 12604: 12497: 12264: 12218: 12059: 11946: 11816: 11758: 11687: 8868:

Recorded by Ibn Abu Shayba in Al-Musanaf and Abu 'Ubaid Ibn Sallam in his book Al-Amwal, pp.123

5999: 5894: 5798: 5518: 5305: 4636: 4369:

Non-Muslim groups in the Umayyad Caliphate, which included Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and

3840:

Marwan also faced significant opposition from Kharijites in Iraq and Iran, who put forth first

3724: 3616: 3507:

Umar's most significant policy entailed fiscal reforms to equalize the status of the Arabs and

3399: 3224: 3216: 2956: 2932: 2755: 2540: 2528: 2520: 2364: 2203: 2145: 1768: 1713: 11135: 11013: 9961:. Translated by Razia Ali. London and Beirut: I. B. Tauris and Centre for Arab Unity Studies. 9856: 9377: 9230: 9191: 8733: 8701: 6331: 2868: 2175:

caliphs, was also a member of the clan. The family established dynastic, hereditary rule with

15022: 14706: 14684: 13503: 13380: 13261: 13221: 13034: 12909: 11973: 11963: 11922: 11893: 11677: 11198:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 11170: 11108:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 10450:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 10347: 6191: 5278: 4959: 4718: 4640: 4591: 4162:. These images may have been based on Christian representations of the menorah or on earlier 3567: 3484: 3434: 2775: 2734: 2532: 2524: 1758: 1728: 13149: 9734:

Crone, Patricia (1994). "Were the Qays and Yemen of the Umayyad Period Political Parties?".

9714: 4672: 3967: 3650:

From the caliphate's north-western African bases, a series of raids on coastal areas of the

2247: 481: 15034: 14373: 14280: 14225: 13354: 13184: 13154: 13029: 12960: 12931: 12850: 12184: 12022: 12012: 11806: 11682: 11596: 10989: 5917: 5780: 5730: 5514: 5437:("successor of the messenger of God", the title preferred by the tradition), but rather as 5332: 5215: 4861: 4688: 4632: 4558: 3770: 3766: 3734:

Hisham suffered still worse defeats in the east, where his armies attempted to subdue both

3711: 3496: 3426: 2992: 2928: 2848: 2758:, and entrusting the administration of Kufa and Basra to highly experienced members of the 2387: 1902: 1783: 13134: 9524: 9482: 9395: 6068: 6035: 8: 15104: 14603: 14484: 14378: 14194: 13691: 13488: 13046: 12926: 12892: 12794: 12614: 12609: 12421: 12140: 12076: 11951: 11936: 11768: 11290: 10117: 9106:

Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (1992). "The Great Mosque of Córdoba". In Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (ed.).

5853: 5627: 5300: 4954: 4911: 3450: 3240: 3235:

restored Umayyad control over Ifriqiya after defeating the Byzantines and Berbers there.

3169: 2989: 2960: 2715:), obliging the Umayyads to pay the Empire an annual tribute of gold, horses and slaves. 2701: 2601: 2544: 2337: 1992: 1003: 662: 398: 189: 12762: 12752: 11352: 11300: 10541:

In the Shadow of the Sword The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World

9520: 9478: 6218: 5592: 5433:). In this respect it is notable that the Umayyad caliphs referred to themselves not as 4520:(Yazid's mother) was politically motivated, as she was the daughter of the chief of the 1308: 14866: 14765: 14679: 14530: 14466: 14274: 14250: 13927: 13905: 13865: 13755: 13668: 13619: 13585: 13476: 13159: 13139: 13122: 13073: 12938: 12747: 12698: 12631: 12549: 12490: 12485: 12480: 12436: 12406: 12298: 12196: 12064: 12039: 11702: 11278: 11270: 10956: 10911: 10810: 10684: 10575: 10506: 10441: 10412: 9998: 9797: 9759: 9684: 9630: 8851: 8843: 8791: 8426: 5969: 5588: 5108: 5070: 5044: 4648: 4517: 3857: 3818: 3651: 3644: 3356: 3339: 3313: 3291: 3192: 2968: 2895: 2844: 2689: 2584: 2313: 2255: 2235: 1698: 1463: 1348: 1208: 933: 868: 690: 609: 523: 454: 384: 356: 274: 14819: 9776: 6414:. Based on original work by Linda Komaroff. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 4594:

and palaces within their empire. Most of their surviving monuments are located in the

4067:

In the 690s, under Abd al-Malik's reign, a new period of experimentations began. Some

4053:

was used until 658; Byzantine gold coins were still in use until the monetary reforms

1288: 14908: 14902: 14878: 14740: 14735: 14640: 14630: 14620: 14303: 14189: 14141: 13984: 13895: 13656: 13646: 13641: 13631: 13459: 13268: 13164: 13100: 13095: 13024: 12921: 12636: 12564: 12559: 12401: 12330: 12313: 12308: 12103: 12054: 11458: 11439: 11420: 11401: 11382: 11358: 11348: 11334: 11308: 11304: 11282: 11239: 11199: 11178: 11158: 11109: 11099: 11085: 11061: 11031: 10997: 10975: 10926: 10873: 10849: 10825: 10766: 10747: 10723: 10699: 10649: 10625: 10601: 10579: 10544: 10525: 10476: 10451: 10427: 10377: 10353: 10332: 10313: 10237: 10182: 10127: 10099: 10080: 10038: 10017: 9962: 9943: 9901: 9879: 9833: 9812: 9763: 9751: 9720: 9699: 9649: 9600: 9575: 9530: 9488: 9416: 9367: 9299: 9236: 9197: 9113: 9047: 8855: 8739: 8707: 8669: 8605: 8580: 8475: 8450: 8397: 6407: 6374: 6335: 6197: 6105: 5841: 5572: 5220: 5155: 5150: 5034: 5024: 4964: 4762: 4728: 4644: 4621: 4430: 4163: 4050: 3959: 3937: 3871: 3800: 3220: 3027:, grandson of al-Ash'ath ibn Qays. Al-Hajjaj defeated Ibn al-Ash'ath's rebels at the 3024: 2825: 2677: 2187:

in 661. After Mu'awiya's death in 680, conflicts over the succession resulted in the

1808: 1653: 1258: 898: 888: 763: 652: 647: 624: 619: 467: 426: 11294: 10002: 6253: 2390:, the son of Abu Sufyan, who owned property and maintained trade networks in Syria. 2243: 14938: 14920: 14890: 14770: 14755: 14515: 14220: 13942: 13880: 13870: 13860: 13845: 13651: 13554: 13526: 13414: 13117: 12904: 12899: 12855: 12842: 12772: 12740: 12735: 12599: 12594: 12576: 12537: 12470: 12453: 12394: 12384: 12379: 12320: 12276: 12246: 12206: 12189: 12172: 12135: 11886: 11826: 11320: 11262: 11075: 11045: 11009: 10899: 10798: 10672: 10567: 10400: 10259: 9785: 9743: 9672: 8835: 8783: 5961: 5849: 5816: 5631: 5560: 5507: 5481: 5258: 5210: 5190: 5170: 5160: 5082: 5074: 5064: 5039: 4733: 4684: 4679:, also undertook major architectural projects in the Iberian Peninsula such as the 4605: 4534: 4422: 4414: 4410: 4370: 4072: 4025: 3845: 3765:

Discontent among the Khorasani Arabs rose sharply after the losses suffered in the

3759: 3688: 3480: 3352: 3207: 3110: 2985: 2972: 2771: 2737:. The latter's governorship later spanned all of the eastern caliphate. His father 2609: 2548: 2506: 2441: 2281: 2168: 2109: 2103: 2071: 1962: 1958: 1947: 1928: 1593: 1573: 1553: 1473: 1268: 1148: 1073: 1063: 1013: 943: 843: 793: 657: 551: 509: 11377:

Al-Ajmi, Abdulhadi (2014). "The Umayyads". In Fitzpatrick, C.; Walker, A. (eds.).

8826:

Stepaniants, Marietta (April 2002). "The Encounter of Zoroastrianism with Islam".

5865:

Mu'awiya I was generally favourably disposed towards Christians and, according to

4156:

and then later of a five-branched menorah, topped by an Arabic inscription of the

3511:, thus remedying a long-standing issue which threatened the Muslim community. The 2795:(modern southern Tunisia), where Uqba founded the permanent Arab garrison city of 2464:), the metropolis of the Umayyad Caliphate. The founder of the Umayyad Caliphate, 2254:, became a world centre of science, medicine, philosophy and invention during the 14992: 14962: 14932: 14696: 14403: 14348: 14148: 13834: 13794: 13745: 13697: 13471: 13335: 13303: 13176: 13144: 13127: 13083: 13078: 13056: 13051: 13009: 13002: 12977: 12837: 12832: 12673: 12554: 12448: 12443: 12411: 12236: 12226: 12120: 12113: 12108: 12093: 12049: 11931: 11917: 11728: 11324: 11193: 11103: 11079: 11053: 11021: 11017: 10895: 10867: 10863: 10843: 10794: 10741: 10737: 10717: 10713: 10668: 10643: 10639: 10619: 10591: 10466: 10445: 10396: 10371: 10095:

The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Culture

10093: 10032: 9956: 9895: 9827: 9781: 9668: 9590: 9569: 6368: 6325: 6110: 5885: 5613: 5486: 5445:, therefore, it is necessary to rely mainly on sources, such as the histories of 5263: 5227: 5185: 5019: 4992: 4790: 4625: 4125: 4021: 3952: 3921: 3898:, who had represented themselves as the supporters of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. 3882: 3667: 3287: 3253: 3244: 3098: 2936: 2767: 2738: 2580: 2536: 2499: 2437: 2317: 2302: 2239: 2164: 2136: 2065: 1898: 1868: 1633: 1623: 1533: 1513: 1403: 1338: 1298: 1278: 1188: 1113: 1103: 1093: 1053: 1023: 963: 953: 833: 783: 153: 54: 31: 12757: 11417:

Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God

11379:

Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God

10331:. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. pp. 29–51. 8913: 4111:), which was worth 20 silver coins. It was most likely modeled on the Byzantine 3947:

The victors desecrated the tombs of the Umayyads in Syria, sparing only that of

3456: 3394:

conquered northwestern South Asia and established out of this new territory the

2583:, Uthman was killed because of his determination to centralize control over the 594: 15028: 15016: 15004: 14956: 14808: 14535: 14388: 14230: 13932: 13278: 13273: 13236: 13211: 13194: 13105: 13090: 13061: 13019: 12867: 12827: 12822: 12777: 12703: 12663: 12653: 12643: 12458: 12337: 12231: 12098: 11980: 11821: 11811: 11546: 11143: 11139: 10960: 10948: 10903: 10839: 10802: 10676: 10571: 10510: 10498: 10404: 10298: 10286: 10222: 10214: 10167: 10159: 10065: 10061: 9990: 9928: 9924: 9891: 9864: 9860: 9789: 9676: 9634: 9622: 5947: 5943: 5568: 5338: 5288: 5268: 5133: 5128: 4807: 4617: 4568: 4358: 4130: 4113: 4017: 3929: 3917: 3599: 3574:, marking the suppression of the last major Iraqi revolt against the Umayyads. 3379:

in 713. He established Arab garrisons and tax administrations in Samarkand and

3130: 3090: 3082: 3069: 2910: 2852: 2821: 2705: 2648: 2483: 2417: 2329: 1973: 1883: 1827: 1603: 1493: 1423: 1123: 537: 163: 158: 148: 11023:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs

10763:

The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In

10743:

The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In

3611: 3577:

Yazid II reversed Umar II's equalization reforms, reimposing the jizya on the

3351:

Al-Hajjaj managed the eastern expansion from Iraq. His lieutenant governor of

2835:, the son of al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and grandson of Abu Bakr, advocated for a 15068: 14998: 14986: 14974: 14950: 14711: 14548: 14398: 13937: 13900: 13875: 13760: 13359: 13246: 13041: 13014: 12987: 12965: 12943: 12710: 12693: 12678: 12522: 12475: 12463: 12389: 12281: 12155: 12150: 12125: 12007: 11692: 11536: 11362: 11312: 11162: 11131: 11123: 11001: 10782: 10367: 10349:

A Tale of Two Factions: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen

10294: 10241: 10218: 10202: 10194: 10186: 10163: 10147: 10139: 10131: 10113: 10084: 10057: 9947: 9920: 9883: 9852: 9755: 9747: 8442: 8422: 8418: 6009: 5866: 5253: 5248: 5118: 5113: 4878: 4872: 4844: 4738: 4506: 4483: 4457: 4449: 3755: 3675: 3588: 2807: 2788: 2726: 2685: 2626: 2618: 2465: 2457: 2421: 2413: 2352: 2180: 2176: 1853: 1358: 1218: 218: 12787: 12767: 11865: 5965: 5380: 4071:

dated between 692 and 696, associated with the mints in Iraq under governor

726: 14798: 14723: 14383: 14235: 14113: 13829: 13733: 13721: 13435: 13251: 12992: 12982: 12948: 12877: 12872: 12799: 12589: 12571: 12532: 12527: 12507: 12502: 12374: 12367: 12357: 12352: 12347: 12241: 12179: 12160: 12145: 12081: 11632: 11490: 11236:

Ownership and Exploitation of Land and Natural Resources in the Roman World

10615: 10587: 10490: 10034:

Medieval Jerusalem and Islamic Worship: Holy Places, Ceremonies, Pilgrimage

9771: 6098: 5869:, the first Muslim caliph to employ Christians in administrative positions. 5556: 5175: 5049: 4773: 4465: 4394: 3974: 3920:. He soon established control of Khurasan, expelling its Umayyad governor, 3804: 3422: 3040: 2873: 2652: 2475: 2452: 2409: 2188: 1857: 1328: 1083: 680: 10645:

The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State

9041: 8839: 8757: 8755: 7251: 5948:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" 5489:

which appear in various combinations on the flags of most Arab countries.

4397:) as long as they have reconciled with and agreed upon with the Muslims". 4316:

Ivory (circa 8th century) discovered in the Abbasid homestead in Humeima,

3889:

family, overthrew the Umayyad caliphate. The Abbasids were members of the

14360: 13850: 13789: 13716: 13603: 12970: 12955: 12804: 12517: 12426: 12416: 12342: 11990: 11985: 11833: 11697: 11622: 11586: 10278: 8774:

Egan, Virginia; Bikai, Patricia M. (July 1999). "Archaeology in Jordan".

5760: 5680: 5411: 5054: 5002: 4905: 4898: 4888: 4778: 4545: 4398: 4332: 3890: 3792: 3786: 3743: 3735: 3615:

Musicians and hunting cavalier, circa 730 CE. Floor fresco from Hisham's

3446: 3387: 3384: 3360: 3044: 2659:

in 663, the only known epigraphic attestation to Mu'awiya's rule in Syria

2359:

in 622, discussed forwarding their own candidate out of concern that the

2285: 2211: 2184: 1717: 1483: 1393: 1178: 1033: 983: 11357:. Translated by Margaret Graham Weir. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. 8524: 3055:

became their virtual subjects. The surplus from the agriculturally rich

15046: 15040: 14653: 13750: 13725: 12997: 12814: 12688: 12648: 12581: 11776: 11561: 10263: 8847: 8752: 5973: 5710: 5660: 5470: 5283: 5180: 4893: 4743: 4668: 4541: 4437: 4405: 4381:, which the Muslims did not have to pay; Muslims would instead pay the 4100: 4076: 3963: 3955:, survived, escaped across North Africa, and established an emirate in 3913: 3878: 3571: 3536: 3442: 3417: 3295: 3119: 3074: 3008: 2899: 2831:

The next major challenge to Yazid's rule emanated from the Hejaz where

2681: 2614: 2554:

Uthman's nepotism provoked the ire of the Ansar and the members of the

2355:, the natives of Medina who had provided Muhammad safe haven after his 2340:

were the principal leaders of Meccan opposition to the Islamic prophet

2227: 2003: 1643: 1613: 1443: 1248: 813: 495: 307: 11274: 8796: 6430: 6285:"The Qur'an's Call to Alms Zakat, the Muslim Tradition of Alms-giving" 2959:, who would rule the province until his death in 704/05. Another son, 2811:

Genealogical tree of the Sufyanids. The names in red indicate caliphs.

2802: 2778:. Meanwhile, Amr ibn al-As ruled Egypt from the provincial capital of 14914: 14896: 14368: 13799: 13614: 12887: 12658: 12542: 12512: 12293: 12167: 11958: 11601: 11591: 11060:. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 541–544. 8425:(1934). "Northern India in Medieval Times". In Dodwell, H. H. (ed.). 6370:

The Tragedy of the Templars: The Rise and Fall of the Crusader States

5790: 5770: 5165: 5138: 5123: 5014: 4969: 4939: 4927: 4839: 4783: 4609: 4469: 4441: 3933: 3822: 3811: 3796: 3747: 3453:. Afterward, the Arabs withdrew in return for a tributary agreement. 3372: 3249: 3114: 2940: 2840: 2673: 2669: 2622: 2597: 2425: 2360: 2156: 1988: 1943: 1913: 1838: 1823: 1228: 1198: 1043: 803: 743: 577: 233: 192: 5429:, a term with connotations of tyranny) instead of a true caliphate ( 4179: 3129:) confiscated the cathedral of St. John the Baptist and founded the 3031:

in April. The suppression of the revolt marked the end of the Iraqi

14980: 14944: 14884: 14701: 14207: 14065: 14017: 13811: 13765: 13729: 13454: 12288: 12071: 12029: 11968: 11753: 11576: 11551: 11266: 8787: 5740: 5690: 5635: 5419: 5200: 4922: 4856: 4849: 4796: 4572: 4445: 4343:(non-Muslim free persons such as Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians) 4153: 4107: 3751: 3707: 3698: 3640: 3556: 3500: 3430: 3376: 3368: 3228: 3183: 2976: 2796: 2792: 2784: 2665: 2656: 2420:

districts. Yazid died shortly after and Umar appointed his brother

2368: 2341: 2272:) from which Muslims were exempt. Muslims were required to pay the 2269: 2223: 2207: 2196: 2192: 2172: 2160: 1772: 1543: 1503: 1453: 1413: 1318: 973: 923: 823: 115: 8359: 8209: 14854: 14716: 14322: 14010: 13890: 13782: 13775: 13770: 13512: 12201: 12130: 12086: 11941: 11571: 11541: 9716:

God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam

8602:

The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam

7649: 7647: 7645: 7449: 5670: 5474: 5454: 5195: 5009: 4997: 4866: 4829: 4723: 4479: 4453: 4434: 4390: 4374: 4158: 4081: 3948: 3895: 3886: 3867: 3719: 3715: 3680: 3584: 3380: 3364: 3327: 3317: 3273: 3269: 3257: 3239:

and destroyed in 698, signaling "the final, irretrievable end of

2817: 2333: 2321: 2219: 1932: 1842: 1812: 1747: 1583: 1563: 1523: 1433: 1368: 1158: 773: 84: 12002: 10252:

Syria for the Syrians: the rise of Syrian nationalism, 1970–2013

9261: 9065: 9063: 8175: 8173: 7887: 6164: 4440:

official of the early Umayyad Caliphate. The son of a prominent

4312: 3164: 14240: 14214: 14173: 14134: 14051: 13964: 13885: 13740: 13686: 13681: 13448: 13372: 12034: 11909: 11852: 11781: 11748: 11723: 11617: 11479: 8197: 6088: 5794: 5530: 5232: 5029: 4932: 4917: 4834: 4824: 4819: 4812: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4595: 4495: 4340: 4317: 4145: 4119: 4087: 4032:

that government work began to be regularly recorded in Arabic.

3906: 3830: 3826: 3663: 3635: 3604: 3438: 3321: 3265: 3261: 3078: 2919: 2914: 2779: 2759: 2495: 2429: 2379: 2356: 2345: 2007: 1887: 1743: 753: 313: 135: 121: 102: 9112:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 505–508. 8347: 8236: 8011: 7955: 7722: 7642: 3670:

in 732. Arab expansion had already been limited following the

3647:), and did not lead to any significant territorial expansion. 2863: 15010: 14489: 14314: 14268: 14256: 14058: 14044: 14003: 13676: 13533: 13519: 13440: 13403: 12668: 11763: 11743: 11738: 11058:

Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume VI/5: Čūb-bāzī–Daf(f) and Dāyera

9060: 8170: 8158: 8001: 7999: 7824: 7676: 7674: 7334: 5563:. Muawiyah also declared his son, Yazid, as his successor in 5548: 5535: 5525: 4883: 4802: 4600: 4474: 4382: 4378: 4276: 4095:) that Muhammad carried before him when entering the mosque. 3956: 3925: 3902: 3739: 3728: 3684: 3512: 3298:(the Iberian Peninsula) in 711 and within five years most of 3282: 3056: 3048: 3007:

Abd al-Malik introduced an independent Islamic currency, the

2884: 2751: 2730: 2572: 2568: 2511: 2470: 2325: 2276:, which was earmarked or hypothecated explicitly for various 2273: 2264: 2112: 2074: 1977: 1732: 1702: 179: 10373:

The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750

9180:

Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By Aisha Bewley Page 41

8804: 8558: 8556: 8554: 8110: 6603: 6601: 2998: 14155: 14127: 14077: 14024: 13969: 13540: 11253:

Sprengling, Martin (April 1939). "From Persian to Arabic".

9529:. Wilmette, Illinois: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. p. 51. 9487:. Wilmette, Illinois: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. p. 69. 7875: 7297: 7295: 6920: 6825: 6803: 6801: 6670: 6668: 6666: 6664: 6514: 6466: 6196:. Macmillan International Higher Education. pp. 44–5. 4768: 4521: 4501: 4321: 4134: 3834: 3774: 3594: 3277: 2906: 2892: 2563: 2490:) in 639 before gaining authority over the rest of Syria's 2433: 2394: 2242:

in 750. Survivors of the dynasty established themselves in

2121: 2083: 1872: 319: 83:

The Umayyad Caliphate at its greatest extent, under Caliph

11878: 11081:

The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate

8992: 8990: 8963: 8941: 8939: 8431:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 131–132. 8371: 8323: 8277: 8275: 8260: 8098: 8076: 8074: 8059: 7996: 7986: 7984: 7982: 7734: 7671: 7659: 7229: 7227: 5622: 4456:, and served as the head of the fiscal administration for 11255:

The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures

10761:

Kennedy, Hugh (2007a). "1. The Foundations of Conquest".

9978:

The Umayyad Caliphate, 65–86/684–705: (A Political Study)

9150: 8889: 8665:

Age of Transition: Byzantine Culture in the Islamic World

8551: 8299: 8185: 8134: 8023: 7899: 7863: 7851: 7841: 7839: 7812: 7800: 7790: 7788: 7775: 7773: 7746: 7710: 7632: 7630: 7628: 7603: 7601: 7561: 7559: 7557: 7555: 7542: 7540: 7538: 7536: 7521: 7509: 7365: 7122: 7110: 6813: 6721: 6651: 6649: 6647: 6645: 6643: 6618: 6616: 6598: 5552: 4460:

from the mid-7th century until the year 700, when Caliph

3862: 3555:

After the death of Umar II, another son of Abd al-Malik,

2516: 2124: 2089: 2086: 15155:

States and territories disestablished in the 8th century

10872:(3rd ed.). Abingdon, Oxon and New York: Routledge. 10560:

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient

9574:. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 8146: 7933: 7931: 7929: 7461: 7437: 7425: 7413: 7377: 7355: 7353: 7351: 7349: 7292: 7270: 7268: 7266: 7202: 7200: 7185: 7175: 7173: 7158: 7076: 7074: 7047: 7037: 7035: 7033: 7031: 7016: 6980: 6956: 6944: 6908: 6798: 6788: 6786: 6784: 6757: 6699: 6697: 6695: 6661: 6628: 6562: 6550: 6502: 6454: 6041:

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language

5579:

would be killed at the hands of ruling Umayyad caliphs.

5567:, Muhammad's grandson. Another of Muhammad's grandsons, 14849: 10886: 10621:

Muslim Expansion and Byzantine Collapse in North Africa

9273: 9087: 9002: 8987: 8936: 8630: 8335: 8272: 8248: 8226: 8224: 8071: 8035: 7979: 7943: 7916: 7914: 7588: 7586: 7584: 7582: 7580: 7578: 7576: 7574: 7257: 7224: 6932: 6862: 6860: 6858: 6856: 6854: 6852: 6837: 6745: 6436: 6236: 6234: 3758:" in 724, Ashras ibn 'Abd Allah al-Sulami, governor of 3687:, the Umayyad armies were defeated by the south Indian 2332:

and developed economic and military alliances with the

11414: 9228: 9162: 9138: 8951: 8512: 8488: 8311: 8287: 8047: 7836: 7785: 7770: 7686: 7625: 7613: 7598: 7552: 7533: 7324: 7322: 7098: 6992: 6733: 6640: 6613: 6574: 5395: Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661 3168:

The expansion of the Muslim Caliphate until 750, from

11436:

Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity

9357: 9126: 9075: 8975: 8618: 8122: 7926: 7497: 7473: 7401: 7389: 7346: 7280: 7263: 7239: 7197: 7170: 7146: 7134: 7086: 7071: 7059: 7028: 7004: 6884: 6872: 6781: 6769: 6709: 6692: 6680: 6586: 6538: 6526: 6478: 5401: Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750 3754:

of Transoxiana. Following the Umayyad defeat in the "

3309:

Umayyad coinage in India, from the time of the first

2787:(central North Africa) was launched by the commander 11453:

Crone, Patricia; Cook, M. A.; Cook, Michael (1977).

9829:

White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750–880

8735:

Dome of the Rock and its Umayyad Mosaic Inscriptions

8221: 7967: 7911: 7698: 7571: 6968: 6849: 6490: 6442: 6231: 5911: 5899: 4651:

in religious art. Palaces were decorated with floor

4328:

The Umayyad Caliphate had four main social classes:

3578: 3527: 3521: 3490: 2408:

died in 639, he appointed Yazid governor of Syria's

2150: 2127: 2092: 61: 10376:(Second ed.). London and New York: Routledge. 9014: 8918:

Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit Online

8883:

Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam

8500: 8086: 7758: 7485: 7319: 7307: 7212: 6896: 3623:The final son of Abd al-Malik to become caliph was 3324:), dated AH 97 (715–6 CE): obverse circular legend 2803:

Succession of Yazid I and collapse of Sufyanid rule

2159:established after the death of the Islamic prophet 2118: 2115: 2080: 2077: 10781: 9775: 9232:Iran and America Re-Kind[l]ing a Love Lost 8365: 5587:Asked for an explanation of the prophecies in the 4616:, while other constructions include the so-called 4448:, he was a favourite of the early Umayyad caliphs 3252:, between 698 and 703. His successor in Ifriqiya, 3023:. The leader of the rebels was the Kufan nobleman 9360:"Mu'awiya and the Shi'a Of 'Ali, Peace Be On Him" 6282: 2791:in 670, which extended Umayyad control as far as 15066: 10468:Islamic Architecture: Form, Function and Meaning 9519: 9477: 8416: 4357:continued to worsen until they helped cause the 4320:. The style indicates an origin in northeastern 2680:. Mu'awiya relied on the powerful Kalbite chief 11261:(2). The University of Chicago Press: 175–224. 9229:Badiozamani, Badi; Badiozamani, Ghazal (2005). 8449:. University of California Press. p. 333. 3433:. Meanwhile, in 716, the governor of Khurasan, 15150:States and territories established in the 660s 11289: 10939: 9351: 9235:. East West Understanding Press. p. 118. 8668:. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 48–50. 7961: 7893: 5938: 5936: 4337:Muslim non-Arabs (clients of the Muslim Arabs) 3851: 3695:, stagnating further eastward Arab expansion. 2733:in 675/76 in the name of the Umayyad governor 297:11,100,000 km (4,300,000 sq mi) 14835: 13388: 11894: 11870: 11506: 11452: 11212: 10746:. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Da Capo Press. 9980:(Thesis). London: University of London, SOAS. 9295:A Companion to the History of the Middle East 9069: 8530: 5361: 4667:The later offshoot of the Umayyad dynasty in 4586:and completed shortly after his death in 715. 3437:, attempted to conquer the principalities of 3326:"in the name of Allah, struck this dirham in 2651:inscription crediting Mu'awiya for restoring 2428:tribe as a counterbalance to the influential 2035: 698: 13351:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 11520: 11326:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 9334:. occawlonline.pearsoned.com. Archived from 8389: 5905: 5453:, that were written in the Abbasid court at 3337: 3227:, which collectively became the province of 581: 371:Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty 46: 11227:A Chronology Of Islamic History 570–1000 CE 10464: 10440: 9564: 9196:. Cambridge University Press. p. 166. 8825: 8738:. Edinburgh University Press. p. 231. 8396:. New York : Rizzoli. pp. 34–37. 8377: 8329: 8266: 8203: 8179: 8065: 7881: 7830: 7740: 7680: 7665: 7653: 6165:"Sahih Bukhari: Read, Study, Search Online" 5933: 4208:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3718:peaked under Hisham: the Arabs established 3200: Expansion under the Umayyad Caliphate 3118:Damascus, Abd al-Malik's son and successor 2951:In 685, Marwan and Ibn Bahdal expelled the 2864:Marwanid transition and end of Second Fitna 2579:in 656. In the assessment of the historian 14842: 14828: 13395: 13381: 11901: 11887: 11513: 11499: 11347: 11252: 11169: 11149:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 10966:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 10917:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 10816:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 10690:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 10516:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 10418:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 10329:Christians and Others in the Umayyad State 10304:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 10228:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 10173:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 10071:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 10008:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9934:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9870:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9803:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9712: 9690:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9662: 9640:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 9366:. Ansariyan Publishers. pp. 297–344. 9156: 8969: 8895: 8810: 8562: 8472:An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History 8447:Early India: From the Origins to A.D. 1300 8353: 8242: 8017: 8005: 7728: 7515: 7371: 7340: 7128: 7116: 6950: 6926: 6914: 6831: 6807: 6674: 6520: 6508: 6472: 6210: 6034: 5547:The negative view of the Umayyads held by 5485:ibn Abi Sufyan; it is now one of the four 5368: 5354: 4540:Tom Holland writes that Christians, Jews, 4075:, stopped using the Sasanian image of the 2320:or Banu Umayya were a leading clan of the 2042: 2028: 705: 691: 77: 30:For the corresponding ruling dynasty, see 11455:Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World 11319: 11084:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10974:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 643–644. 10925:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 837–839. 10698:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 127–128. 10624:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10593:Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests 10524:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 263–268. 10426:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 840–847. 10312:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 298–299. 10079:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 277–291. 10051: 10016:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 821–822. 9942:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 323–327. 9900:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 9811:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 821–822. 9719:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9698:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 789–790. 9648:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 268–269. 9189: 8876: 8874: 8821: 8819: 8795: 8773: 8731: 8164: 8140: 7818: 6408:"The Art of the Umayyad Period (661–750)" 6323: 6183: 5942: 5492: 4689:architecture in the western Islamic world 4228:Learn how and when to remove this message 3073:was replaced in Syria and Egypt with the 2999:Domestic consolidation and centralization 2988:in 691. Afterward, the Umayyad commander 2847:and subsequently plundered Medina before 2183:, who became caliph after the end of the 11220:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 11074: 11044: 11008: 10760: 10390: 10345: 10326: 9846: 9613: 9588: 9291: 9279: 9039: 8945: 8908: 8906: 8904: 8624: 8599: 8542: 8128: 8116: 8104: 8041: 7233: 6938: 6843: 6751: 6739: 6727: 6655: 6622: 6607: 6580: 5621: 5379: 4562: 4324:, the base of Hashimiyya military power. 4311: 3861: 3697: 3610: 3598: 3595:Caliphate of Hisham and end of expansion 3455: 3304: 3163: 3002: 2867: 2858: 2806: 2717: 2642: 2638: 2451: 15095:8th-century disestablishments in Africa 13175: 11376: 11233: 10862: 10838: 10736: 10712: 10662: 10638: 10538: 10366: 10248: 10236:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 76–77. 10181:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 54–55. 9984: 9878:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 39–43. 9713:Crone, Patricia; Hinds, Martin (1986). 9267: 9168: 9144: 9132: 9035: 9033: 9031: 9029: 9008: 8996: 8699: 8636: 8574: 8469: 8341: 8317: 8305: 8293: 8281: 8254: 8080: 8053: 8029: 7990: 7949: 7845: 7794: 7716: 7692: 7636: 7619: 7607: 7565: 7546: 7527: 7503: 7479: 7443: 7419: 7407: 7395: 7383: 7359: 7301: 7274: 7206: 7191: 7179: 7164: 7152: 7104: 7092: 7080: 7065: 7053: 7041: 7022: 7010: 6986: 6962: 6890: 6878: 6819: 6792: 6775: 6763: 6715: 6703: 6686: 6634: 6568: 6556: 6544: 6532: 6484: 6460: 6216: 5389: Expansion under Muhammad, 622-632 3658:by the Umayyads (starting in 711), and 3550: 3137: 2515:council, composed of Muhammad's cousin 169:(official in certain regions until 700) 14: 15067: 11398:Muʻawiya: Restorer of the Muslim Faith 11395: 11224: 11218:The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History 11191: 11098: 11014:"The Minor Dynasties of Northern Iran" 10277: 9890: 9742:(1). Walter de Gruyter and Co.: 1–57. 9543:from the original on 24 September 2012 9408: 9292:Choueiri, Youssef M. (15 April 2008). 8981: 8957: 8880: 8871: 8816: 8727: 8725: 8723: 8706:. Penn State Press. pp. 216–217. 8695: 8693: 8691: 8689: 8687: 8685: 8657: 8655: 8653: 8651: 8649: 8647: 8645: 8577:The Great Islamic Conquests AD 632–750 8441: 8428:The Cambridge Shorter History of India 8152: 7779: 6592: 6496: 6448: 6418:from the original on 20 September 2020 6405: 6240: 6189: 6156: 4307: 3866:The caliphate at the beginning of the 3731:, but the Khazars remained unsubdued. 3656:permanent occupation of most of Iberia 3359:, launched numerous campaigns against 3109:In 691/92, Abd al-Malik completed the 2935:coalitions. The Qays regrouped in the 2468:, had originally been governor of the 2447: 14823: 14575: 14343: 13959: 13376: 11882: 11869: 11494: 11433: 11296:The Arab Emirates in Bagratid Armenia 11122: 10988: 10614: 10586: 10557: 10489: 10193: 10138: 10091: 9975: 9733: 9193:The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'an 9105: 9093: 9081: 9040:Petersen, Andrew (1996). "Umayyads". 9020: 8924:from the original on 25 December 2019 8901: 8761: 8579:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 30. 8215: 8191: 7973: 7937: 7920: 7905: 7869: 7857: 7806: 7752: 7592: 7491: 7467: 7455: 7431: 7328: 7313: 7218: 6998: 6974: 6902: 6866: 6305:from the original on 24 November 2020 5980:from the original on 19 November 2018 4010: 3345:l'Hind) in the year seven and ninety" 3268:confederations and advanced into the 2931:. Marj Rahit led to the long-running 2913:(northern Syria) and the Jazira, the 27:Second Islamic caliphate (661–750 CE) 15090:7th-century establishments in Africa 14344: 13960: 11157:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 271. 10824:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 311. 10112: 10030: 9976:Dixon, 'Abd al-Ameer (August 1969). 9954: 9914: 9825: 9770: 9501:from the original on 8 December 2010 9109:Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain 9026: 8732:Milwright, Milwright Marcus (2019). 8661: 8518: 8506: 8494: 8230: 8092: 7764: 7704: 7286: 7245: 7140: 6366: 6264:from the original on 5 November 2019 6171:from the original on 4 February 2016 4509:. Sarjun ibn Mansur was replaced by 4206:adding citations to reliable sources 4173: 3543:) and not merely as a worldly king ( 3429:in 717, forcing their withdrawal to 3405:Al-Walid I's successor, his brother 2692:alongside the Qurayshite commanders 2613:supporters, who became known as the 720:Historical Arab states and dynasties 15165:Historical transcontinental empires 9394:. nahjulbalagha.org. Archived from 8720: 8682: 8642: 7258:Levi Della Vida & Bosworth 2000 6437:Levi Della Vida & Bosworth 2000 6162: 5906: 5889: 5725:23 February 715 – 22 September 717 5528:, he established liberties for the 4252: 4129:). Its size and shape was based on 3970:. It was to survive for centuries. 3932:, and in November of the same year 3619:, Syria. National Museum, Damascus. 3607:, site of Hisham's palace and court 3460:A 14th-century illustration of the 3272:(western North Africa), conquering 3182: Muslim state at the death of 2955:and replaced him with Marwan's son 2933:conflict between the Qays and Yaman 2700:, the son of the prominent general 2140: 582: 47: 24: 11396:Bewley, Aisha Abdurrahman (2002). 11370: 10648:. London and New York: Routledge. 10119:The Arab Conquests in Central Asia 9459:from the original on 21 April 2017 9429:from the original on 24 March 2023 9312:from the original on 24 March 2023 9249:from the original on 24 March 2023 9210:from the original on 24 March 2023 9043:Dictionary of Islamic Architecture 8703:Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader 6387:from the original on 24 March 2023 6348:from the original on 24 March 2023 5735:22 September 717 – 4 February 720 5607: 5571:, would be killed by Yazid in the 4261: 4244: 4028:. It was only during the reign of 3643:, but also in a major defeat (the 3134:Muslim supremacy and permanence". 2633: 2307: 2234:in terms of area. The dynasty was 25: 15176: 11472: 11128:"Ḥassān b. al-Nuʿmān al-Ghassānī" 10722:(2nd ed.). Harlow: Longman. 10249:Gilbert, Victoria J. (May 2013). 9589:Beckwith, Christopher I. (1993). 6412:Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History 6217:Venable, Francis Preston (1894). 6144:from the original on 19 June 2015 6061:Oxford Dictionaries US Dictionary 5384:Map of the caliphate's expansion 4575:was constructed on the orders of 4285: 4270: 4169: 3992: 3817:Yazid had appointed his brother, 3491:Caliphate of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz 3402:during the reign of Caliph Umar. 2748:conquest of Iraq in the 630s–640s 2725:-style Umayyad coin minted under 15125:History of the Arabian Peninsula 14804: 14803: 14792: 14323:Schools of islamic jurisprudence 13571:Timeline of the history of Islam 13402: 11851: 11478: 9513: 9471: 9441: 9402: 9384: 9342: 9324: 9285: 9222: 9183: 9174: 9099: 8862: 8767: 8764:, p. 89 (see footnote 146). 8593: 8568: 8536: 8463: 8435: 8410: 8383: 6016:from the original on 12 May 2019 5859: 5846:Uthman ibn Anbasa ibn Abi Sufyan 5804:4 December 744 – 25 January 750 5755:26 January 724 – 6 February 743 5745:4 February 720 – 26 January 724 5715:8 October 705 – 23 February 715 4298: 4178: 3331: 3256:, subjugated the Berbers of the 3233:Hassan ibn al-Nu'man al-Ghassani 2872:Map of the caliphate during the 2849:besieging Ibn al-Zubayr in Mecca 2108: 2070: 1141:Western dynasties and caliphates 725: 674: 593: 556: 542: 528: 514: 500: 486: 472: 447: 433: 419: 405: 391: 377: 363: 349: 14664:List of ex-Muslim organisations 10258:(MA). Northeastern University. 10037:(2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. 9558: 9190:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (2006). 9046:. Routledge. pp. 295–297. 8920:(in German). De Gruyter. 2013. 8776:American Journal of Archaeology 6399: 6360: 6317: 6276: 6246: 5953:International Studies Quarterly 5840:The eldest surviving Sufyanid, 5834: 5785:4 October 744 – 4 December 744 5675:27 April 680 – 11 November 683 4649:taboo on figural representation 4590:The Umayyads constructed grand 4552: 4488: 4117:. The silver coin was called a 3702:The Umayyad Caliphate in 740 CE 3629: 3561: 3416:), continued his predecessors' 3411: 3124: 2710: 2399: 2373: 2191:, and power eventually fell to 643:Umayyad Caliphate in al-Andalus 11678:Revolt of Yazid b. al-Muhallab 11663:Second siege of Constantinople 11653:Muslim conquest of Transoxiana 11638:Muslim conquest of the Maghreb 11438:. Cambridge University Press. 11192:Powers, David S., ed. (1989). 10890:& Bosworth, C. E. (2000). 10848:. Cambridge University Press. 10845:A History of Islamic Societies 9663:Christides, Vassilios (2000). 9358:Shaykh Radi Aal-yasin (2000). 8604:. Pen and Sword. p. 226. 8547:. RoutledgeCurzon. p. 22. 8390:Ettinghausen, Richard (1977). 8366:Lammens & Blankinship 2002 6406:Yalman, Suzan (October 2001). 6330:. Marshall Cavendish. p. 6190:Barton, Simon (30 June 2009). 6126: 6111:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary 6028: 5992: 5878: 5765:6 February 743 – 17 April 744 5565:breach of a treaty with Hassan 4569:Great Mosque or Umayyad Mosque 4364: 3780: 3472:besieged the Byzantine capital 3156:Muslim conquest of Transoxiana 3148:Muslim conquest of the Maghreb 3059:lands was redirected from the 2590: 13: 1: 15110:Former countries in West Asia 11628:First siege of Constantinople 11354:The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall 10791:"Yazīd (II) b. ʿAbd al-Malik" 10092:Flood, Finbarr Barry (2001). 9777:"ʿUmar (II) b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz" 8545:Islam: A Concise Introduction 6044:(5th ed.). HarperCollins 5927: 5775:17 April 744 – 4 October 744 5705:12 April 685 – 8 October 705 5577:Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin 4635:was derived from established 4580: 4511:Sulayman ibn Sa'd al-Khushani 4419:Pope Benjamin I of Alexandria 4054: 3837:and Damascus in retaliation. 3017: 2945:Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi 2877: 2547:. According to the historian 88: 15115:History of the Mediterranean 14649:Apostasy in Islam by country 14526:Liberalism and progressivism 11708:Umayyad rule in North Africa 11648:Umayyad conquest of Hispania 10465:Hillenbrand, Robert (1994). 8881:Donner, Fred M. (May 2010). 8218:, pp. 143–144, 158–162. 7458:, pp. 174–176, 206–208. 6324:Cavendish, Marshall (2006). 6220:A Short History of Chemistry 5641:interactive version of chart 5555:described them as the worst 4001: 3881:movement (a sub-sect of the 2386:. One of the appointees was 2179:, the long-time governor of 7: 15145:States in medieval Anatolia 11908: 11419:. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. 11381:. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. 11238:. Oxford University Press. 9987:"Sulaymān b. ʿAbd al-Malik" 9897:The Early Islamic Conquests 8914:"Sarğūn ibn Manṣūr ar-Rūmī" 8474:. M.E. Sharpe. p. 34. 5912: 5900: 5810: 5711:al-Walid I ibn Abd al-Malik 5685:11 November 683 – June 684 5665:28 July 661 – 27 April 680 5618:Umayyad dynasty family tree 5443:reconstructing this history 5296:Mandatory Syria and Lebanon 5069:Diocese of the East in the 4988:Wars of Alexander the Great 4035: 3852:Abbasid Revolution and fall 3579: 3528: 3522: 3320:" (possibly in the city of 3231:. In 695–698 the commander 3152:Muslim conquest of Hispania 3067:In 693, the Byzantine gold 2694:al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri 2498:(644–656), a member of the 2202:The Umayyads continued the 2151: 861:Arab empires and caliphates 62: 10: 15181: 14576: 11683:Revolt of Harith b. Surayj 11658:Umayyad campaigns in India 11175:The Middle East, A History 11028:Cambridge University Press 10598:Cambridge University Press 10572:10.1163/156852003772914848 10495:"Muʿāwiya I b. Abī Sufyān" 10144:"ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Zubayr" 10052:Elisséeff, Nikita (1965). 9955:Duri, Abd al-Aziz (2011). 9915:Duri, Abd al-Aziz (1965). 9597:Princeton University Press 6283:Benthal, Jonathan (1998). 6005:Collins English Dictionary 5611: 4556: 4531:Syriac Orthodox Christians 4274: 4044: 3855: 3784: 3660:on into south-eastern Gaul 3476:Umar ibn Hubayra al-Fazari 3425:defeated the Arabs at the 3191: Expansion under the 3160:Umayyad campaigns in India 3144:Muslim conquest of Armenia 3141: 2953:Zubayrid governor of Egypt 2558:. In 645/46, he added the 2300: 2296: 2291: 2232:largest empires in history 171:various regional languages 29: 15135:Medieval history of Syria 15130:Medieval history of Spain 15100:8th century in al-Andalus 14862: 14787: 14672: 14639: 14589: 14585: 14571: 14498: 14465: 14437:Geography and cartography 14412: 14359: 14355: 14339: 14165: 14087: 14034: 13983: 13979: 13955: 13825: 13707: 13667: 13550: 13502: 13426: 13422: 13411: 13344: 13296: 12813: 12217: 11916: 11876: 11871:Links to related articles 11849: 11839:Painting of the Six Kings 11797: 11716: 11610: 11529: 11331:Stanford University Press 10663:Kennedy, Hugh N. (2002). 10473:Columbia University Press 10199:"ʿAbd al-Malik b. Marwān" 10124:The Royal Asiatic Society 9847:Dietrich, Albert (1971). 9566:Blankinship, Khalid Yahya 9320:– via Google Books. 9298:. John Wiley & Sons. 8700:Richard, Suzanne (2003). 8470:Schmidt, Karl J. (1995). 5741:Yazid II ibn Abd al-Malik 5721:Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik 5626:Genealogical tree of the 5582: 4694: 4687:, which influenced later 4631:Under Umayyad patronage, 4526:Syriac Orthodox Christian 4524:tribe, which was a large 3979:Abu al-Umaytir al-Sufyani 3338: 3280:in 708/09. Musa's Berber 3029:Battle of Dayr al-Jamajim 2766:and the latter's protege 2246:which, in the form of an 2141:ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة 583: 328: 301: 293: 288: 284: 271: 258: 254: 246: 242: 227: 212: 208: 198: 185: 175: 141: 131: 108: 98: 76: 71: 48:ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة 41: 15140:Medieval history of Iran 14746:Islamic view of miracles 11822:Great Mosque of Damascus 11668:Umayyad invasion of Gaul 11643:Revolt of Ibn al-Ash'ath 11434:Crone, Patricia (1980). 11329:. Stanford, California: 10888:Levi Della Vida, Giorgio 9748:10.1515/islm.1994.71.1.1 9270:, pp. 21–24, 39–40. 8828:Philosophy East and West 8600:Crawford, Peter (2013). 5827: 5695:June 684 – 12 April 685 5661:Muawiya I ibn Abu Sufyan 5542: 5497: 4614:Great Mosque of Damascus 3821:, as his successor, but 3791:Hisham was succeeded by 3691:and by the north Indian 2891:, the pro-Alid ruler of 2494:during the caliphate of 2474:(military districts) of 2406:Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah 2384:Muslim conquest of Syria 1169:Umayyad state of Córdoba 441:Brahman dynasty of Sindh 15120:History of North Africa 14917:(970–11th/12th century) 14511:Creationism (evolution) 10391:Hawting, G. R. (2000). 10346:Hathaway, Jane (2012). 9849:"Al-Ḥadjdjādj b. Yūsuf" 9526:Some Answered Questions 9484:Some Answered Questions 8575:Nicolle, David (2012). 8543:Robinson, Neal (1999). 6138:Encyclopædia Britannica 6095:Oxford University Press 6065:Oxford University Press 5966:10.1111/0020-8833.00053 5822:List of Sunni dynasties 5751:Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik 5701:Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan 5597:Some Answered Questions 4681:Great Mosque of Córdoba 4645:Byzantine-style mosaics 4462:Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan 3942:Abu Muhammad al-Sufyani 3674:in 721. In 739 a major 3462:siege of Constantinople 3085:as the language of the 2889:Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr 2833:Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr 132:Official languages 15085:750s disestablishments 14761:Persecution of Muslims 14659:List of former Muslims 13576:Succession to Muhammad 11817:Great Mosque of Aleppo 11673:Second Arab–Khazar War 9826:Cobb, Paul M. (2001). 9409:Sharon, Moshe (1983). 9157:Crone & Hinds 1986 6367:Haag, Michael (2012). 5791:Marwan II ibn Muhammad 5771:Yazid III ibn al-Walid 5643: 5575:. Further Shia Imams, 5519:Rightly Guided Caliphs 5493:Religious perspectives 5403: 4592:congregational mosques 4587: 4516:Muawiya's marriage to 4325: 3874: 3725:Battle of Marj Ardabil 3703: 3620: 3617:Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi 3608: 3464: 3400:early Muslim conquests 3348: 3300:Hispania was conquered 3217:Battle of Sebastopolis 3211: 3097:in 700, and Greek and 3012: 2902: 2812: 2742: 2660: 2521:al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam 2502: 2152:al-Khilāfa al-Umawiyya 63:Al-Khilāfa al-Umawiyya 14555:Conversion to mosques 14422:Alchemy and chemistry 13321:Medieval great powers 11787:Arab–Sasanian coinage 11688:Revolt of Zayd b. Ali 11225:Rahman, H.U. (1999). 10990:Lilie, Ralph-Johannes 10892:"Umayya b. Abd Shams" 10539:Holland, Tom (2013). 10031:Elad, Amikam (1999). 8840:10.1353/pew.2002.0030 6327:World and Its Peoples 6091:UK English Dictionary 5761:al-Walid II ibn Yazid 5691:Marwan I ibn al-Hakam 5625: 5383: 4960:Neo-Babylonian Empire 4719:Levantine Aurignacian 4703:History of the Levant 4566: 4513:, another Christian. 4315: 4069:"Arab-Sasanian" coins 4016:work was recorded in 3865: 3746:, with its centre at 3738:, with its centre at 3701: 3654:paved the way to the 3614: 3602: 3568:Yazid ibn al-Muhallab 3485:Anti-Taurus Mountains 3474:from the land, while 3459: 3435:Yazid ibn al-Muhallab 3392:Muhammad ibn al-Qasim 3383:and demolished their 3308: 3241:Roman power in Africa 3237:Carthage was captured 3167: 3006: 2871: 2859:Early Marwanid period 2810: 2776:Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad 2764:al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba 2735:Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad 2721: 2646: 2639:Caliphate of Mu'awiya 2577:killing of the caliph 2533:Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf 2525:Talha ibn Ubayd Allah 2455: 2393:Abu Bakr's successor 2365:companion of Muhammad 2357:emigration from Mecca 2163:and was ruled by the 1759:Sultanate of Zanzibar 1674:Mutawakkilite Kingdom 142:Common languages 15047:Hashemites of Jordan 14281:Ma malakat aymanukum 13856:Association football 13331:European colonialism 13316:Ancient great powers 11807:Umayyad architecture 11487:at Wikimedia Commons 11291:Ter-Ghewondyan, Aram 11214:Previté-Orton, C. W. 11030:. pp. 198–249. 9985:Eisener, R. (1997). 5781:Ibrahim ibn al-Walid 5731:Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz 5681:Muawiya II ibn Yazid 5671:Yazid I ibn Muawiyah 5647:Caliphs of Damascus 5515:Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz 5475:Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz 5435:khalifat rasul Allah 4862:New Kingdom of Egypt 4677:Caliphate of Córdoba 4633:Islamic architecture 4559:Umayyad architecture 4202:improve this section 3934:Abul Abbas as-Saffah 3771:al-Harith ibn Surayj 3767:Battle of the Defile 3551:Late Marwanid period 3497:Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz 3138:Renewal of conquests 2924:Battle of Marj Rahit 413:Kingdom of the Aurès 262:Hasan–Muawiya treaty 15001:(16th–19th century) 14995:(15th–19th century) 14947:(11th–12th century) 14899:(10th–11th century) 13326:Modern great powers 11769:al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf 11171:Ochsenwald, William 10787:Blankinship, Kh. Y. 10442:Hillenbrand, Carole 9380:on 20 January 2004. 8885:. pp. 110–111. 8356:, pp. 313–318. 8206:, pp. 117–121. 8194:, pp. 132–133. 8167:, pp. 347–348. 8119:, pp. 198–199. 8020:, pp. 437–438. 7962:Lévi-Provençal 1993 7908:, pp. 113–115. 7894:Ter-Ghewondyan 1976 7872:, pp. 112–116. 7860:, pp. 110–112. 7809:, pp. 425–426. 7755:, pp. 424–426. 7731:, pp. 219–220. 7470:, pp. 235–239. 7434:, pp. 220–222. 7343:, pp. 201–202. 7260:, pp. 838–839. 6254:"Islamic Economics" 6089:Oxford Dictionaries 5648: 5301:Mandatory Palestine 4980:Classical antiquity 4955:Neo-Assyrian Empire 4912:Syro-Hittite states 4308:Social organization 3870:revolt, before the 3451:Farrukhan the Great 3445:along the southern 3316:. Minted in India " 3170:William R. Shepherd 2990:al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf 2756:al-Ash'ath ibn Qays 2702:Khalid ibn al-Walid 2602:Battle of the Camel 2569:Arab garrison towns 2545:Marwan ibn al-Hakam 2529:Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas 2448:Caliphate of Uthman 2338:Abu Sufyan ibn Harb 2171:, the third of the 736:Ancient Arab states 663:Sharifian Caliphate 637:Parallel caliphates 399:Exarchate of Africa 15080:661 establishments 15041:Hashemites of Iraq 14766:Quran and miracles 14680:Criticism of Islam 14394:Geometric patterns 14246:Gender segregation 13817:Non-denominational 11759:Qays–Yaman rivalry 11703:Abbasid Revolution 11349:Wellhausen, Julius 11100:Morony, Michael G. 10941:Lévi-Provençal, E. 10368:Hawting, Gerald R. 10283:"Kubbat al-Ṣakhra" 10264:10.17760/d20004883 10211:Lévi-Provençal, E. 10156:Lévi-Provençal, E. 9398:on 19 August 2007. 9070:Previté-Orton 1971 8531:Previté-Orton 1971 8245:, p. 268–269. 7656:, pp. 28, 94. 6822:, pp. 76, 78. 6258:www.hetwebsite.net 6193:A History of Spain 6103: • 6081: • 6054: • 5946:(September 1997). 5646: 5644: 5634:, one of the four 5630:. In blue: Caliph 5589:Book of Revelation 5534:by abolishing the 5420:Rashidun caliphate 5404: 5045:Herodian Tetrarchy 4744:Ghassulian culture 4671:, which ruled the 4588: 4518:Maysun bint Bahdal 4326: 4011:Government workers 3930:placed under siege 3875: 3858:Abbasid Revolution 3704: 3672:Battle of Toulouse 3652:Visigothic Kingdom 3645:Battle of Akroinon 3621: 3609: 3515:(poll tax) on the 3465: 3357:Qutayba ibn Muslim 3349: 3314:Muhammad ibn Qasim 3292:Visigothic Kingdom 3212: 3193:Rashidun Caliphate 3013: 2969:Mukhtar al-Thaqafi 2903: 2896:Mukhtar al-Thaqafi 2845:Battle of al-Harra 2813: 2743: 2690:Shurahbil ibn Simt 2661: 2505:Umar's successor, 2503: 2314:pre-Islamic period 2256:Islamic Golden Age 2199:as their capital. 1801:Current monarchies 1464:Sharifate of Mecca 934:Emirate of Tbilisi 924:Emirate of Armenia 774:Kingdom of Osroene 610:Rashidun Caliphate 524:Emirate of Tlemcen 482:Emirate of Córdoba 455:Hephthalite Empire 385:Visigothic Kingdom 357:Rashidun Caliphate 275:Abbasid Revolution 15075:Umayyad Caliphate 15062: 15061: 15056: 15055: 14851:Islamic dynasties 14817: 14816: 14783: 14782: 14779: 14778: 14751:Domestic violence 14741:Islamic terrorism 14736:Islamic extremism 14567: 14566: 14563: 14562: 14335: 14334: 14331: 14330: 14121:Marriage contract 13951: 13950: 13911:Political aspects 13698:Story of Prophets 13467:Prophets of Islam 13370: 13369: 13292: 13291: 13257:Polish–Lithuanian 12432:Gurjara-Pratihara 11863: 11862: 11522:Umayyad Caliphate 11485:Umayyad Caliphate 11483:Media related to 11426:978-1-61069-177-2 11388:978-1-61069-177-2 11321:Treadgold, Warren 11305:Livraria Bertrand 11205:978-0-7914-0072-2 11184:978-0-07-244233-5 11115:978-0-87395-933-9 11076:Madelung, Wilferd 11067:978-1-56859-003-5 11046:Madelung, Wilferd 10981:978-90-04-09419-2 10932:978-90-04-11211-7 10879:978-0-367-36690-2 10855:978-0-521-51430-9 10831:978-90-04-12756-2 10772:978-0-306-81728-1 10753:978-0-306-81740-3 10729:978-0-582-40525-7 10705:978-90-04-12756-2 10631:978-0-521-19677-2 10550:978-0-349-12235-9 10531:978-90-04-09419-2 10457:978-0-88706-810-2 10433:978-90-04-11211-7 10359:978-0-7914-8610-8 10338:978-1-614910-31-2 10319:978-90-04-07819-2 10098:. Boston: Brill. 10023:978-90-04-10422-8 9968:978-1-84885-060-6 9907:978-1-4008-4787-7 9818:978-90-04-11211-7 9705:978-90-04-11211-7 9655:978-90-04-09419-2 9606:978-0-691-02469-1 9581:978-0-7914-1827-7 9536:978-0-87743-190-9 9494:978-0-87743-190-9 9422:978-965-223-501-5 9373:978-1-4960-4085-5 9305:978-1-4051-5204-4 9242:978-0-9742172-0-8 9203:978-0-521-53934-0 9096:, pp. 22–24. 8745:978-1-4744-6045-3 8713:978-1-57506-547-2 8675:978-0-300-21111-5 8611:978-1-84884-612-8 8586:978-1-84603-890-7 8533:, vol. 1, p. 239. 8521:, pp. 56–61. 8497:, pp. 47–50. 8445:(February 2004). 8419:Haig, T. Wolseley 8403:978-0-8478-0081-0 8308:, pp. 77–79. 8182:, pp. 33–34. 8155:, pp. 39–40. 8107:, pp. 88–89. 8032:, pp. 90–91. 7896:, pp. 20–21. 7833:, pp. 71–72. 7719:, pp. 63–64. 7530:, pp. 87–88. 7446:, pp. 97–98. 7422:, pp. 32–33. 7386:, pp. 92–93. 7304:, pp. 90–91. 7289:, pp. 24–25. 7248:, pp. 23–24. 7194:, pp. 89–90. 7167:, pp. 88–89. 7143:, pp. 22–23. 7056:, pp. 83–85. 7025:, pp. 82–83. 7001:, pp. 81–82. 6989:, pp. 87–88. 6965:, pp. 86–87. 6929:, pp. 59–60. 6834:, pp. 55–56. 6766:, pp. 75–76. 6730:, pp. 80–81. 6637:, pp. 62–64. 6610:, pp. 60–61. 6571:, pp. 51–53. 6559:, pp. 51–52. 6523:, pp. 20–21. 6475:, pp. 40–41. 6463:, pp. 22–23. 6380:978-1-84765-854-8 6373:. Profile Books. 6341:978-0-7614-7571-2 6223:. Heath. p. 6203:978-1-137-01347-7 6134:"Umayyad dynasty" 6114:. Merriam-Webster 5898: 5842:al-Walid ibn Utba 5808: 5807: 5573:Battle of Karbala 5378: 5377: 5035:Hasmonean dynasty 4965:Achaemenid Empire 4729:Mushabian culture 4622:Khirbat al-Majfar 4431:Sarjun ibn Mansur 4238: 4237: 4230: 4051:Byzantine coinage 3938:Battle of the Zab 3872:Battle of the Zab 3829:, in present-day 3801:Khirbat al-Mafjar 3221:Caucasian Albania 2826:Battle of Karbala 2678:Julius Wellhausen 2155:) was the second 2149: 2056:Umayyad Caliphate 2052: 2051: 2017: 2016: 1792: 1791: 1784:Tippu Tip's State 1682: 1681: 1654:Emirate of Beihan 1386:Arabian Peninsula 1377: 1376: 1132: 1131: 916:Eastern dynasties 907: 906: 852: 851: 764:Nabataean Kingdom 754:Kingdom of Lihyan 715: 714: 653:Almohad Caliphate 648:Fatimid Caliphate 625:Ottoman Caliphate 620:Abbasid Caliphate 615:Umayyad Caliphate 572: 571: 568: 567: 564: 563: 468:Abbasid Caliphate 460: 459: 427:Kingdom of Altava 43:Umayyad Caliphate 16:(Redirected from 15172: 14844: 14837: 14830: 14821: 14820: 14807: 14806: 14799:Islam portal 14797: 14796: 14795: 14587: 14586: 14579: 14573: 14572: 14414:Medieval science 14357: 14356: 14347: 14341: 14340: 13998:Economic history 13981: 13980: 13957: 13956: 13943:Islam by country 13776:Bektashi Alevism 13424: 13423: 13415:Outline of Islam 13397: 13390: 13383: 13374: 13373: 13173: 13172: 12838:Austro-Hungarian 12538:Chagatai Khanate 11903: 11896: 11889: 11880: 11879: 11867: 11866: 11855: 11827:Dome of the Rock 11773:Umayyad coinage 11515: 11508: 11501: 11492: 11491: 11482: 11468: 11449: 11430: 11411: 11400:. Dar Al Taqwa. 11392: 11366: 11344: 11316: 11301:Nina G. Garsoïan 11299:. Translated by 11286: 11249: 11230: 11221: 11209: 11188: 11166: 11119: 11095: 11071: 11054:Yarshater, Ehsan 11041: 11018:Frye, Richard N. 11005: 10985: 10957:Heinrichs, W. P. 10945:"Mūsā b. Nuṣayr" 10936: 10912:Heinrichs, W. P. 10883: 10859: 10835: 10811:Heinrichs, W. P. 10776: 10765:. Hachette, UK. 10757: 10733: 10714:Kennedy, Hugh N. 10709: 10685:Heinrichs, W. P. 10659: 10635: 10616:Kaegi, Walter E. 10611: 10588:Kaegi, Walter E. 10583: 10554: 10535: 10507:Heinrichs, W. P. 10486: 10461: 10437: 10413:Heinrichs, W. P. 10387: 10363: 10342: 10323: 10274: 10272: 10270: 10257: 10245: 10190: 10135: 10109: 10088: 10048: 10027: 9999:Heinrichs, W. P. 9981: 9972: 9951: 9911: 9887: 9843: 9822: 9798:Heinrichs, W. P. 9779: 9767: 9730: 9709: 9685:Heinrichs, W. P. 9665:"ʿUkba b. Nāfiʿ" 9659: 9631:Heinrichs, W. P. 9610: 9585: 9553: 9552: 9550: 9548: 9517: 9511: 9510: 9508: 9506: 9475: 9469: 9468: 9466: 9464: 9453:biblegateway.com 9445: 9439: 9438: 9436: 9434: 9406: 9400: 9399: 9388: 9382: 9381: 9376:. Archived from 9355: 9349: 9346: 9340: 9339: 9328: 9322: 9321: 9319: 9317: 9289: 9283: 9277: 9271: 9265: 9259: 9258: 9256: 9254: 9226: 9220: 9219: 9217: 9215: 9187: 9181: 9178: 9172: 9166: 9160: 9154: 9148: 9142: 9136: 9130: 9124: 9123: 9103: 9097: 9091: 9085: 9079: 9073: 9067: 9058: 9057: 9037: 9024: 9018: 9012: 9006: 9000: 8994: 8985: 8979: 8973: 8967: 8961: 8955: 8949: 8943: 8934: 8933: 8931: 8929: 8910: 8899: 8893: 8887: 8886: 8878: 8869: 8866: 8860: 8859: 8823: 8814: 8813:, p. 55–56. 8808: 8802: 8801: 8799: 8771: 8765: 8759: 8750: 8749: 8729: 8718: 8717: 8697: 8680: 8679: 8659: 8640: 8634: 8628: 8622: 8616: 8615: 8597: 8591: 8590: 8572: 8566: 8560: 8549: 8548: 8540: 8534: 8528: 8522: 8516: 8510: 8504: 8498: 8492: 8486: 8485: 8467: 8461: 8460: 8439: 8433: 8432: 8414: 8408: 8407: 8387: 8381: 8378:Blankinship 1994 8375: 8369: 8363: 8357: 8351: 8345: 8339: 8333: 8330:Blankinship 1994 8327: 8321: 8315: 8309: 8303: 8297: 8291: 8285: 8279: 8270: 8267:Blankinship 1994 8264: 8258: 8252: 8246: 8240: 8234: 8228: 8219: 8213: 8207: 8204:Blankinship 1994 8201: 8195: 8189: 8183: 8180:Blankinship 1994 8177: 8168: 8162: 8156: 8150: 8144: 8138: 8132: 8126: 8120: 8114: 8108: 8102: 8096: 8090: 8084: 8078: 8069: 8066:Blankinship 1994 8063: 8057: 8051: 8045: 8039: 8033: 8027: 8021: 8015: 8009: 8003: 7994: 7988: 7977: 7971: 7965: 7959: 7953: 7947: 7941: 7935: 7924: 7918: 7909: 7903: 7897: 7891: 7885: 7882:Blankinship 1994 7879: 7873: 7867: 7861: 7855: 7849: 7843: 7834: 7831:Hillenbrand 1994 7828: 7822: 7816: 7810: 7804: 7798: 7792: 7783: 7777: 7768: 7762: 7756: 7750: 7744: 7741:Blankinship 1994 7738: 7732: 7726: 7720: 7714: 7708: 7702: 7696: 7690: 7684: 7681:Blankinship 1994 7678: 7669: 7666:Blankinship 1994 7663: 7657: 7654:Blankinship 1994 7651: 7640: 7634: 7623: 7617: 7611: 7605: 7596: 7590: 7569: 7563: 7550: 7544: 7531: 7525: 7519: 7513: 7507: 7501: 7495: 7489: 7483: 7477: 7471: 7465: 7459: 7453: 7447: 7441: 7435: 7429: 7423: 7417: 7411: 7405: 7399: 7393: 7387: 7381: 7375: 7369: 7363: 7357: 7344: 7338: 7332: 7326: 7317: 7311: 7305: 7299: 7290: 7284: 7278: 7272: 7261: 7255: 7249: 7243: 7237: 7231: 7222: 7216: 7210: 7204: 7195: 7189: 7183: 7177: 7168: 7162: 7156: 7150: 7144: 7138: 7132: 7126: 7120: 7114: 7108: 7102: 7096: 7090: 7084: 7078: 7069: 7063: 7057: 7051: 7045: 7039: 7026: 7020: 7014: 7008: 7002: 6996: 6990: 6984: 6978: 6972: 6966: 6960: 6954: 6948: 6942: 6936: 6930: 6924: 6918: 6912: 6906: 6900: 6894: 6888: 6882: 6876: 6870: 6864: 6847: 6841: 6835: 6829: 6823: 6817: 6811: 6805: 6796: 6790: 6779: 6773: 6767: 6761: 6755: 6749: 6743: 6737: 6731: 6725: 6719: 6713: 6707: 6701: 6690: 6684: 6678: 6672: 6659: 6653: 6638: 6632: 6626: 6620: 6611: 6605: 6596: 6590: 6584: 6578: 6572: 6566: 6560: 6554: 6548: 6542: 6536: 6530: 6524: 6518: 6512: 6506: 6500: 6494: 6488: 6482: 6476: 6470: 6464: 6458: 6452: 6446: 6440: 6434: 6428: 6427: 6425: 6423: 6403: 6397: 6396: 6394: 6392: 6364: 6358: 6357: 6355: 6353: 6321: 6315: 6314: 6312: 6310: 6304: 6289: 6280: 6274: 6273: 6271: 6269: 6250: 6244: 6238: 6229: 6228: 6214: 6208: 6207: 6187: 6181: 6180: 6178: 6176: 6163:Bukhari, Sahih. 6160: 6154: 6153: 6151: 6149: 6130: 6124: 6123: 6121: 6119: 6102: 6097:. Archived from 6080: 6078: 6076: 6067:. Archived from 6053: 6051: 6049: 6032: 6026: 6025: 6023: 6021: 5996: 5990: 5989: 5987: 5985: 5940: 5921: 5915: 5909: 5908: 5903: 5893: 5891: 5882: 5870: 5863: 5857: 5838: 5817:History of Islam 5649: 5645: 5561:Battle of Siffin 5508:John of Damascus 5487:Pan-Arab colours 5482:Arab nationalism 5400: 5394: 5388: 5370: 5363: 5356: 5341: 5065:Syria-Palaestina 5040:Herodian kingdom 4945:Israel and Judah 4734:Natufian culture 4699: 4698: 4685:Madinat al-Zahra 4606:Dome of the Rock 4585: 4582: 4492: 4490: 4423:Isaac of Nineveh 4415:Cosmas of Maiuma 4411:John of Damascus 4253:Diwan al-Rasa'il 4241:Military Board) 4233: 4226: 4222: 4219: 4213: 4182: 4174: 4143:(from Byzantine 4073:Bishr ibn Marwan 4059: 4056: 3977:. Two Umayyads, 3769:in 731. In 734, 3689:Chalukya dynasty 3633: 3631: 3582: 3565: 3563: 3531: 3525: 3415: 3413: 3396:province of Sind 3343: 3342: 3335: 3311:Governor of Sind 3208:Byzantine Empire 3205: 3201: 3199: 3195: 3190: 3186: 3181: 3174:Historical Atlas 3128: 3126: 3111:Dome of the Rock 3101:in the Egyptian 3089:in Iraq in 697, 3022: 3019: 2986:Battle of Maskin 2973:Battle of Khazir 2882: 2879: 2714: 2712: 2655:bathhouses near 2610:Battle of Siffin 2549:Wilferd Madelung 2507:Uthman ibn Affan 2403: 2401: 2377: 2375: 2204:Muslim conquests 2169:Uthman ibn Affan 2154: 2144: 2142: 2134: 2133: 2130: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2120: 2117: 2114: 2107: 2099: 2098: 2095: 2094: 2091: 2088: 2085: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2069: 2044: 2037: 2030: 1805: 1804: 1769:Nabahani dynasty 1714:Nabahani dynasty 1699:Makhzumi dynasty 1695: 1694: 1390: 1389: 1145: 1144: 944:Emirate of Crete 920: 919: 865: 864: 844:Kingdom of Kinda 794:Kingdom of Hatra 744:Kingdom of Qedar 740: 739: 729: 717: 716: 707: 700: 693: 681:Islam portal 679: 678: 677: 658:Sokoto Caliphate 597: 588: 587: 585: 574: 573: 560: 559: 552:Bagratid Armenia 546: 545: 532: 531: 518: 517: 510:Emirate of Nekor 504: 503: 490: 489: 476: 475: 464: 463: 451: 450: 437: 436: 423: 422: 409: 408: 395: 394: 381: 380: 367: 366: 353: 352: 346: 345: 330: 329: 238: 223: 93: 90: 81: 66: 65: 58: 50: 49: 39: 38: 21: 15180: 15179: 15175: 15174: 15173: 15171: 15170: 15169: 15160:Umayyad dynasty 15065: 15064: 15063: 15058: 15057: 15052: 14858: 14848: 14818: 14813: 14793: 14791: 14775: 14697:Cultural Muslim 14668: 14635: 14591:Other religions 14581: 14577: 14559: 14494: 14461: 14408: 14351: 14349:Islamic studies 14345: 14327: 14161: 14106: 14083: 14030: 13975: 13974: 13947: 13896:Moral teachings 13839: 13821: 13795:Nation of Islam 13756:Twelver Shi'ism 13703: 13669:Religious texts 13663: 13581:Early conquests 13564: 13546: 13498: 13418: 13407: 13401: 13371: 13366: 13355:American Empire 13340: 13336:African empires 13288: 13171: 12863:Central African 12809: 12627:Romano-Germanic 12213: 11947:Middle Assyrian 11920: 11912: 11907: 11872: 11864: 11859: 11845: 11793: 11729:Umayyad dynasty 11712: 11606: 11525: 11519: 11475: 11465: 11457:. CUP Archive. 11446: 11427: 11408: 11389: 11373: 11371:Further reading 11341: 11246: 11206: 11185: 11177:. McGraw Hill. 11116: 11092: 11068: 11038: 10982: 10949:Bosworth, C. E. 10933: 10904:Bosworth, C. E. 10880: 10856: 10840:Lapidus, Ira M. 10832: 10803:Bosworth, C. E. 10773: 10754: 10730: 10706: 10677:Bosworth, C. E. 10656: 10632: 10608: 10551: 10532: 10499:Bosworth, C. E. 10483: 10458: 10434: 10405:Bosworth, C. E. 10384: 10360: 10339: 10320: 10287:Bosworth, C. E. 10268: 10266: 10255: 10106: 10045: 10024: 9991:Bosworth, C. E. 9969: 9908: 9892:Donner, Fred M. 9840: 9819: 9790:Bosworth, C. E. 9727: 9706: 9677:Bosworth, C. E. 9656: 9623:Bosworth, C. E. 9607: 9582: 9561: 9556: 9546: 9544: 9537: 9518: 9514: 9504: 9502: 9495: 9476: 9472: 9462: 9460: 9447: 9446: 9442: 9432: 9430: 9423: 9407: 9403: 9390: 9389: 9385: 9374: 9356: 9352: 9347: 9343: 9338:on 21 May 2002. 9330: 9329: 9325: 9315: 9313: 9306: 9290: 9286: 9278: 9274: 9266: 9262: 9252: 9250: 9243: 9227: 9223: 9213: 9211: 9204: 9188: 9184: 9179: 9175: 9167: 9163: 9155: 9151: 9143: 9139: 9131: 9127: 9120: 9104: 9100: 9092: 9088: 9084:, pp. 2–3. 9080: 9076: 9068: 9061: 9054: 9038: 9027: 9019: 9015: 9007: 9003: 8995: 8988: 8980: 8976: 8970:Sprengling 1939 8968: 8964: 8956: 8952: 8944: 8937: 8927: 8925: 8912: 8911: 8902: 8896:Ochsenwald 2004 8894: 8890: 8879: 8872: 8867: 8863: 8824: 8817: 8811:Ochsenwald 2004 8809: 8805: 8772: 8768: 8760: 8753: 8746: 8730: 8721: 8714: 8698: 8683: 8676: 8660: 8643: 8635: 8631: 8623: 8619: 8612: 8598: 8594: 8587: 8573: 8569: 8563:Ochsenwald 2004 8561: 8552: 8541: 8537: 8529: 8525: 8517: 8513: 8505: 8501: 8493: 8489: 8482: 8468: 8464: 8457: 8440: 8436: 8415: 8411: 8404: 8388: 8384: 8376: 8372: 8364: 8360: 8354:Wellhausen 1927 8352: 8348: 8340: 8336: 8328: 8324: 8316: 8312: 8304: 8300: 8292: 8288: 8280: 8273: 8265: 8261: 8253: 8249: 8243:Wellhausen 1927 8241: 8237: 8229: 8222: 8214: 8210: 8202: 8198: 8190: 8186: 8178: 8171: 8163: 8159: 8151: 8147: 8139: 8135: 8127: 8123: 8115: 8111: 8103: 8099: 8091: 8087: 8079: 8072: 8064: 8060: 8052: 8048: 8040: 8036: 8028: 8024: 8018:Wellhausen 1927 8016: 8012: 8006:Wellhausen 1927 8004: 7997: 7989: 7980: 7972: 7968: 7960: 7956: 7948: 7944: 7936: 7927: 7919: 7912: 7904: 7900: 7892: 7888: 7880: 7876: 7868: 7864: 7856: 7852: 7844: 7837: 7829: 7825: 7817: 7813: 7805: 7801: 7793: 7786: 7778: 7771: 7763: 7759: 7751: 7747: 7739: 7735: 7729:Wellhausen 1927 7727: 7723: 7715: 7711: 7703: 7699: 7691: 7687: 7679: 7672: 7664: 7660: 7652: 7643: 7635: 7626: 7618: 7614: 7606: 7599: 7591: 7572: 7564: 7553: 7545: 7534: 7526: 7522: 7516:Wellhausen 1927 7514: 7510: 7502: 7498: 7490: 7486: 7478: 7474: 7466: 7462: 7454: 7450: 7442: 7438: 7430: 7426: 7418: 7414: 7406: 7402: 7394: 7390: 7382: 7378: 7372:Wellhausen 1927 7370: 7366: 7358: 7347: 7341:Wellhausen 1927 7339: 7335: 7327: 7320: 7312: 7308: 7300: 7293: 7285: 7281: 7273: 7264: 7256: 7252: 7244: 7240: 7232: 7225: 7217: 7213: 7205: 7198: 7190: 7186: 7178: 7171: 7163: 7159: 7151: 7147: 7139: 7135: 7129:Wellhausen 1927 7127: 7123: 7117:Christides 2000 7115: 7111: 7103: 7099: 7091: 7087: 7079: 7072: 7064: 7060: 7052: 7048: 7040: 7029: 7021: 7017: 7009: 7005: 6997: 6993: 6985: 6981: 6973: 6969: 6961: 6957: 6951:Wellhausen 1927 6949: 6945: 6937: 6933: 6927:Wellhausen 1927 6925: 6921: 6915:Wellhausen 1927 6913: 6909: 6901: 6897: 6889: 6885: 6877: 6873: 6865: 6850: 6842: 6838: 6832:Wellhausen 1927 6830: 6826: 6818: 6814: 6808:Wellhausen 1927 6806: 6799: 6791: 6782: 6774: 6770: 6762: 6758: 6750: 6746: 6738: 6734: 6726: 6722: 6714: 6710: 6702: 6693: 6685: 6681: 6675:Wellhausen 1927 6673: 6662: 6654: 6641: 6633: 6629: 6621: 6614: 6606: 6599: 6591: 6587: 6579: 6575: 6567: 6563: 6555: 6551: 6543: 6539: 6531: 6527: 6521:Wellhausen 1927 6519: 6515: 6509:Wellhausen 1927 6507: 6503: 6495: 6491: 6483: 6479: 6473:Wellhausen 1927 6471: 6467: 6459: 6455: 6447: 6443: 6435: 6431: 6421: 6419: 6404: 6400: 6390: 6388: 6381: 6365: 6361: 6351: 6349: 6342: 6322: 6318: 6308: 6306: 6302: 6292:ISIM Newsletter 6287: 6281: 6277: 6267: 6265: 6252: 6251: 6247: 6239: 6232: 6215: 6211: 6204: 6188: 6184: 6174: 6172: 6161: 6157: 6147: 6145: 6132: 6131: 6127: 6117: 6115: 6104: 6101:on 12 May 2019. 6082: 6074: 6072: 6055: 6047: 6045: 6033: 6029: 6019: 6017: 5998: 5997: 5993: 5983: 5981: 5944:Taagepera, Rein 5941: 5934: 5930: 5925: 5924: 5916:, 'sons of 5883: 5879: 5874: 5873: 5864: 5860: 5839: 5835: 5830: 5813: 5620: 5614:Umayyad dynasty 5612:Main articles: 5610: 5608:List of caliphs 5585: 5545: 5500: 5495: 5402: 5398: 5396: 5392: 5390: 5386: 5374: 5337: 5104:Muslim conquest 5088:Sassanid Empire 5075:Early Byzantine 5020:Parthian Empire 4993:Seleucid Empire 4791:Akkadian Empire 4753:Ancient history 4724:Kebaran culture 4697: 4675:and subsequent 4583: 4561: 4555: 4487: 4472:, Sarjun was a 4367: 4310: 4301: 4288: 4279: 4273: 4264: 4262:Diwan al-Khatam 4255: 4247: 4245:Diwan al-Kharaj 4234: 4223: 4217: 4214: 4199: 4183: 4172: 4057: 4047: 4038: 4013: 4004: 3995: 3953:Abd al-Rahman I 3922:Nasr ibn Sayyar 3883:Kaysanites Shia 3860: 3854: 3842:Dahhak ibn Qays 3789: 3783: 3668:Battle of Tours 3628: 3597: 3560: 3553: 3493: 3410: 3375:in 711–712 and 3288:Tariq ibn Ziyad 3254:Musa ibn Nusayr 3210: 3203: 3197: 3196: 3188: 3187: 3179: 3178: 3177: 3162: 3140: 3123: 3020: 3001: 2971:of Kufa at the 2937:Euphrates river 2880: 2866: 2861: 2805: 2768:Ziyad ibn Abihi 2739:Ziyad ibn Abihi 2709: 2641: 2636: 2634:Sufyanid period 2593: 2581:Hugh N. Kennedy 2537:Sasanian Empire 2450: 2438:plague of Amwas 2398: 2372: 2310: 2308:Early influence 2305: 2303:Umayyad dynasty 2299: 2294: 2278:alms programmes 2165:Umayyad dynasty 2111: 2102: 2101: 2073: 2064: 2063: 2048: 2019: 2018: 1802: 1794: 1793: 1729:Mahdali dynasty 1692: 1684: 1683: 1624:Muscat and Oman 1394:Imamate of Oman 1387: 1379: 1378: 1142: 1134: 1133: 917: 909: 908: 862: 854: 853: 784:Emesene Dynasty 737: 711: 675: 673: 668: 667: 638: 630: 629: 605: 604:Main caliphates 580: 557: 543: 529: 515: 501: 487: 473: 448: 434: 420: 406: 392: 378: 364: 350: 277: 264: 236: 230: 229:• 744–750 221: 215: 214:• 661–680 170: 168: 127: 94: 91: 67: 60: 59: 52: 44: 35: 32:Umayyad dynasty 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 15178: 15168: 15167: 15162: 15157: 15152: 15147: 15142: 15137: 15132: 15127: 15122: 15117: 15112: 15107: 15102: 15097: 15092: 15087: 15082: 15077: 15060: 15059: 15054: 15053: 15051: 15050: 15049:(1921–present) 15044: 15038: 15032: 15026: 15020: 15014: 15008: 15002: 14996: 14990: 14984: 14978: 14972: 14966: 14960: 14954: 14948: 14942: 14936: 14930: 14924: 14918: 14912: 14906: 14900: 14894: 14888: 14882: 14876: 14870: 14863: 14860: 14859: 14847: 14846: 14839: 14832: 14824: 14815: 14814: 14812: 14811: 14801: 14788: 14785: 14784: 14781: 14780: 14777: 14776: 14774: 14773: 14768: 14763: 14758: 14753: 14748: 14743: 14738: 14733: 14732: 14731: 14721: 14720: 14719: 14714: 14709: 14699: 14694: 14693: 14692: 14687: 14676: 14674: 14673:Related topics 14670: 14669: 14667: 14666: 14661: 14656: 14651: 14645: 14643: 14637: 14636: 14634: 14633: 14628: 14623: 14618: 14613: 14612: 14611: 14606: 14595: 14593: 14583: 14582: 14569: 14568: 14565: 14564: 14561: 14560: 14558: 14557: 14552: 14545: 14540: 14539: 14538: 14528: 14523: 14518: 14513: 14508: 14502: 14500: 14496: 14495: 14493: 14492: 14487: 14482: 14477: 14471: 14469: 14463: 14462: 14460: 14459: 14454: 14449: 14444: 14439: 14434: 14429: 14424: 14418: 14416: 14410: 14409: 14407: 14406: 14401: 14396: 14391: 14386: 14381: 14376: 14371: 14365: 14363: 14353: 14352: 14337: 14336: 14333: 14332: 14329: 14328: 14326: 14325: 14320: 14319: 14318: 14306: 14304:Sources of law 14301: 14296: 14295: 14294: 14284: 14277: 14272: 14265: 14260: 14253: 14248: 14243: 14238: 14233: 14228: 14223: 14218: 14211: 14204: 14203: 14202: 14197: 14192: 14182: 14177: 14169: 14167: 14163: 14162: 14160: 14159: 14152: 14145: 14138: 14131: 14124: 14117: 14109: 14107: 14105: 14104: 14099: 14094: 14088: 14085: 14084: 14082: 14081: 14074: 14069: 14062: 14055: 14048: 14040: 14038: 14032: 14031: 14029: 14028: 14021: 14014: 14007: 14000: 13995: 13989: 13987: 13977: 13976: 13973: 13972: 13967: 13961: 13953: 13952: 13949: 13948: 13946: 13945: 13940: 13935: 13930: 13928:Social welfare 13925: 13920: 13913: 13908: 13903: 13898: 13893: 13888: 13883: 13878: 13873: 13868: 13863: 13858: 13853: 13848: 13842: 13840: 13838: 13837: 13832: 13826: 13823: 13822: 13820: 13819: 13814: 13809: 13808: 13807: 13797: 13792: 13787: 13786: 13785: 13780: 13779: 13778: 13768: 13763: 13758: 13748: 13743: 13738: 13737: 13736: 13713: 13711: 13705: 13704: 13702: 13701: 13694: 13689: 13684: 13679: 13673: 13671: 13665: 13664: 13662: 13661: 13660: 13659: 13654: 13649: 13644: 13639: 13634: 13629: 13624: 13612: 13607: 13600: 13593: 13591:Historiography 13588: 13583: 13578: 13573: 13567: 13565: 13563: 13562: 13557: 13551: 13548: 13547: 13545: 13544: 13537: 13530: 13523: 13516: 13508: 13506: 13500: 13499: 13497: 13496: 13491: 13486: 13479: 13474: 13469: 13464: 13463: 13462: 13452: 13445: 13444: 13443: 13432: 13430: 13420: 13419: 13412: 13409: 13408: 13400: 13399: 13392: 13385: 13377: 13368: 13367: 13365: 13364: 13363: 13362: 13357: 13348: 13346: 13342: 13341: 13339: 13338: 13333: 13328: 13323: 13318: 13313: 13312: 13311: 13300: 13298: 13294: 13293: 13290: 13289: 13287: 13286: 13281: 13276: 13271: 13266: 13265: 13264: 13254: 13249: 13244: 13239: 13234: 13229: 13224: 13219: 13214: 13209: 13208: 13207: 13202: 13192: 13187: 13181: 13179: 13170: 13169: 13168: 13167: 13162: 13157: 13152: 13147: 13137: 13132: 13131: 13130: 13120: 13115: 13114: 13113: 13108: 13103: 13093: 13088: 13087: 13086: 13081: 13071: 13070: 13069: 13064: 13059: 13054: 13049: 13039: 13038: 13037: 13032: 13022: 13017: 13012: 13007: 13006: 13005: 13000: 12995: 12990: 12985: 12975: 12974: 12973: 12968: 12958: 12953: 12952: 12951: 12946: 12936: 12935: 12934: 12929: 12919: 12918: 12917: 12912: 12902: 12897: 12896: 12895: 12890: 12885: 12880: 12875: 12865: 12860: 12859: 12858: 12853: 12845: 12840: 12835: 12830: 12825: 12819: 12817: 12811: 12810: 12808: 12807: 12802: 12797: 12792: 12791: 12790: 12785: 12780: 12775: 12770: 12765: 12760: 12750: 12745: 12744: 12743: 12738: 12733: 12728: 12723: 12718: 12708: 12707: 12706: 12701: 12696: 12691: 12681: 12676: 12671: 12666: 12661: 12656: 12651: 12646: 12641: 12640: 12639: 12634: 12624: 12623: 12622: 12617: 12612: 12607: 12602: 12597: 12584: 12579: 12574: 12569: 12568: 12567: 12562: 12557: 12547: 12546: 12545: 12540: 12535: 12530: 12520: 12515: 12510: 12505: 12500: 12495: 12494: 12493: 12488: 12483: 12478: 12468: 12467: 12466: 12461: 12456: 12451: 12441: 12440: 12439: 12434: 12429: 12419: 12414: 12409: 12404: 12399: 12398: 12397: 12392: 12387: 12377: 12372: 12371: 12370: 12365: 12360: 12355: 12350: 12345: 12335: 12334: 12333: 12328: 12318: 12317: 12316: 12311: 12306: 12301: 12291: 12286: 12285: 12284: 12274: 12273: 12272: 12267: 12259: 12254: 12249: 12244: 12239: 12234: 12229: 12223: 12221: 12219:Post-classical 12215: 12214: 12212: 12211: 12210: 12209: 12199: 12194: 12193: 12192: 12187: 12177: 12176: 12175: 12165: 12164: 12163: 12158: 12153: 12148: 12143: 12138: 12128: 12123: 12118: 12117: 12116: 12111: 12106: 12101: 12091: 12090: 12089: 12084: 12074: 12069: 12068: 12067: 12062: 12057: 12052: 12047: 12037: 12032: 12027: 12026: 12025: 12020: 12018:Middle Kingdom 12015: 12005: 12000: 11999: 11998: 11993: 11988: 11978: 11977: 11976: 11974:Neo-Babylonian 11971: 11966: 11964:Old Babylonian 11956: 11955: 11954: 11949: 11939: 11934: 11928: 11926: 11914: 11913: 11906: 11905: 11898: 11891: 11883: 11877: 11874: 11873: 11861: 11860: 11850: 11847: 11846: 11844: 11843: 11842: 11841: 11831: 11830: 11829: 11824: 11819: 11814: 11812:Desert castles 11803: 11801: 11795: 11794: 11792: 11791: 11790: 11789: 11784: 11779: 11771: 11766: 11761: 11756: 11751: 11746: 11741: 11736: 11731: 11726: 11720: 11718: 11714: 11713: 11711: 11710: 11705: 11700: 11695: 11690: 11685: 11680: 11675: 11670: 11665: 11660: 11655: 11650: 11645: 11640: 11635: 11630: 11625: 11620: 11614: 11612: 11608: 11607: 11605: 11604: 11599: 11594: 11589: 11584: 11579: 11574: 11569: 11564: 11559: 11554: 11549: 11544: 11539: 11533: 11531: 11527: 11526: 11518: 11517: 11510: 11503: 11495: 11489: 11488: 11474: 11473:External links 11471: 11470: 11469: 11463: 11450: 11444: 11431: 11425: 11412: 11406: 11393: 11387: 11372: 11369: 11368: 11367: 11345: 11339: 11317: 11287: 11267:10.1086/370538 11250: 11244: 11231: 11222: 11210: 11204: 11189: 11183: 11167: 11120: 11114: 11102:, ed. (1987). 11096: 11090: 11072: 11066: 11042: 11036: 11006: 10986: 10980: 10953:van Donzel, E. 10937: 10931: 10908:van Donzel, E. 10896:Bearman, P. J. 10884: 10878: 10860: 10854: 10836: 10830: 10807:van Donzel, E. 10795:Bearman, P. J. 10779: 10778: 10777: 10771: 10752: 10734: 10728: 10710: 10704: 10681:van Donzel, E. 10669:Bearman, P. J. 10665:"Al-Walīd (I)" 10660: 10654: 10636: 10630: 10612: 10606: 10584: 10566:(4): 411–436. 10555: 10549: 10536: 10530: 10503:van Donzel, E. 10487: 10481: 10462: 10456: 10444:, ed. (1989). 10438: 10432: 10409:van Donzel, E. 10397:Bearman, P. J. 10388: 10382: 10364: 10358: 10352:. SUNY Press. 10343: 10337: 10324: 10318: 10291:van Donzel, E. 10275: 10246: 10207:Kramers, J. H. 10203:Gibb, H. A. R. 10195:Gibb, H. A. R. 10191: 10152:Kramers, J. H. 10148:Gibb, H. A. R. 10140:Gibb, H. A. R. 10136: 10114:Gibb, H. A. R. 10110: 10104: 10089: 10049: 10043: 10028: 10022: 9995:van Donzel, E. 9982: 9973: 9967: 9952: 9912: 9906: 9888: 9844: 9839:978-0791448809 9838: 9832:. SUNY Press. 9823: 9817: 9794:van Donzel, E. 9782:Bearman, P. J. 9768: 9731: 9725: 9710: 9704: 9681:van Donzel, E. 9669:Bearman, P. J. 9660: 9654: 9627:van Donzel, E. 9615:Bosworth, C.E. 9611: 9605: 9586: 9580: 9560: 9557: 9555: 9554: 9535: 9512: 9493: 9470: 9440: 9421: 9401: 9383: 9372: 9350: 9341: 9323: 9304: 9284: 9272: 9260: 9241: 9221: 9202: 9182: 9173: 9161: 9149: 9137: 9125: 9118: 9098: 9086: 9074: 9072:, p. 236. 9059: 9052: 9025: 9013: 9011:, p. 406. 9001: 8999:, p. 402. 8986: 8974: 8972:, p. 213. 8962: 8960:, p. 216. 8950: 8935: 8900: 8888: 8870: 8861: 8815: 8803: 8788:10.2307/506971 8782:(3): 513–514. 8766: 8751: 8744: 8719: 8712: 8681: 8674: 8641: 8639:, p. 324. 8629: 8617: 8610: 8592: 8585: 8567: 8550: 8535: 8523: 8511: 8499: 8487: 8480: 8462: 8456:978-0520242258 8455: 8443:Thapar, Romila 8434: 8423:Dodwell, H. H. 8409: 8402: 8382: 8370: 8368:, p. 311. 8358: 8346: 8344:, p. 107. 8334: 8322: 8310: 8298: 8286: 8284:, p. 107. 8271: 8259: 8257:, p. 106. 8247: 8235: 8233:, p. 821. 8220: 8208: 8196: 8184: 8169: 8165:Treadgold 1997 8157: 8145: 8143:, p. 344. 8141:Treadgold 1997 8133: 8121: 8109: 8097: 8085: 8083:, p. 821. 8070: 8058: 8046: 8034: 8022: 8010: 8008:, p. 438. 7995: 7993:, p. 127. 7978: 7966: 7964:, p. 643. 7954: 7952:, p. 217. 7942: 7940:, p. 271. 7925: 7910: 7898: 7886: 7884:, p. 107. 7874: 7862: 7850: 7835: 7823: 7821:, p. 801. 7819:Elisséeff 1965 7811: 7799: 7784: 7782:, p. 299. 7769: 7757: 7745: 7733: 7721: 7709: 7707:, p. 324. 7697: 7685: 7670: 7658: 7641: 7624: 7612: 7597: 7570: 7551: 7532: 7520: 7518:, p. 231. 7508: 7496: 7484: 7472: 7460: 7448: 7436: 7424: 7412: 7400: 7388: 7376: 7374:, p. 182. 7364: 7345: 7333: 7318: 7306: 7291: 7279: 7262: 7250: 7238: 7236:, p. 268. 7223: 7211: 7196: 7184: 7169: 7157: 7145: 7133: 7131:, p. 135. 7121: 7119:, p. 790. 7109: 7107:, p. 209. 7097: 7085: 7070: 7058: 7046: 7027: 7015: 7003: 6991: 6979: 6977:, p. 247. 6967: 6955: 6943: 6941:, p. 842. 6931: 6919: 6907: 6895: 6883: 6871: 6869:, p. 265. 6848: 6846:, p. 190. 6836: 6824: 6812: 6797: 6780: 6768: 6756: 6754:, p. 141. 6744: 6732: 6720: 6708: 6691: 6679: 6660: 6639: 6627: 6612: 6597: 6595:, p. 114. 6585: 6573: 6561: 6549: 6537: 6525: 6513: 6501: 6489: 6477: 6465: 6453: 6441: 6439:, p. 838. 6429: 6398: 6379: 6359: 6340: 6316: 6275: 6245: 6243:, p. 128. 6230: 6209: 6202: 6182: 6155: 6125: 6071:on 12 May 2019 6027: 5991: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5923: 5922: 5907:بَنُو أُمَيَّة 5890:ٱلْأُمَوِيُّون 5876: 5875: 5872: 5871: 5858: 5832: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5825: 5824: 5819: 5812: 5809: 5806: 5805: 5802: 5787: 5786: 5783: 5777: 5776: 5773: 5767: 5766: 5763: 5757: 5756: 5753: 5747: 5746: 5743: 5737: 5736: 5733: 5727: 5726: 5723: 5717: 5716: 5713: 5707: 5706: 5703: 5697: 5696: 5693: 5687: 5686: 5683: 5677: 5676: 5673: 5667: 5666: 5663: 5657: 5656: 5653: 5628:Umayyad family 5609: 5606: 5584: 5581: 5569:Husayn ibn Ali 5544: 5541: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5439:khalifat Allah 5397: 5391: 5385: 5376: 5375: 5373: 5372: 5365: 5358: 5350: 5347: 5346: 5345: 5344: 5343: 5342: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5309: 5308: 5298: 5293: 5292: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5243: 5242: 5241:Modern history 5238: 5237: 5236: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5224: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5148: 5143: 5142: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5111: 5106: 5098: 5097: 5093: 5092: 5091: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5079: 5078: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5006: 5005: 5000: 4990: 4982: 4981: 4977: 4976: 4975: 4974: 4973: 4972: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4936: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4908: 4903: 4902: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4853: 4852: 4847: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4816: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4793: 4788: 4787: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4756: 4755: 4749: 4748: 4747: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4713: 4712: 4706: 4705: 4696: 4693: 4618:desert palaces 4557:Main article: 4554: 4551: 4491: 661–680 4373:, were called 4366: 4363: 4359:Abbasid Revolt 4350: 4349: 4344: 4338: 4335: 4309: 4306: 4300: 4297: 4287: 4286:Diwan al-Qudat 4284: 4275:Main article: 4272: 4271:Diwan al-Barid 4269: 4263: 4260: 4254: 4251: 4246: 4243: 4236: 4235: 4186: 4184: 4177: 4171: 4170:Central diwans 4168: 4131:Sasanian coins 4046: 4043: 4037: 4034: 4012: 4009: 4003: 4000: 3994: 3993:Administration 3991: 3885:), led by the 3856:Main article: 3853: 3850: 3785:Main article: 3782: 3779: 3632: 724–743 3596: 3593: 3564: 720–724 3552: 3549: 3492: 3489: 3427:Battle of Aksu 3414: 715–717 3290:, invaded the 3202: 3139: 3136: 3127: 705–715 3093:in the Syrian 3025:Ibn al-Ash'ath 3000: 2997: 2993:besieged Mecca 2887:-based caliph 2865: 2862: 2860: 2857: 2804: 2801: 2713: 668–685 2706:Constantine IV 2640: 2637: 2635: 2632: 2592: 2589: 2500:Umayyad family 2449: 2446: 2402: 634–644 2376: 632–634 2309: 2306: 2301:Main article: 2298: 2295: 2293: 2290: 2060:Umayyad Empire 2050: 2049: 2047: 2046: 2039: 2032: 2024: 2021: 2020: 2015: 2014: 2011: 2000: 1999: 1996: 1985: 1984: 1981: 1970: 1969: 1966: 1955: 1954: 1951: 1940: 1939: 1936: 1925: 1924: 1921: 1910: 1909: 1906: 1895: 1894: 1891: 1880: 1879: 1876: 1865: 1864: 1861: 1850: 1849: 1846: 1835: 1834: 1831: 1828:Ras al Khaymah 1820: 1819: 1816: 1803: 1800: 1799: 1796: 1795: 1790: 1789: 1786: 1780: 1779: 1776: 1765: 1764: 1761: 1755: 1754: 1751: 1744:Mazrui dynasty 1740: 1739: 1736: 1725: 1724: 1721: 1710: 1709: 1706: 1693: 1690: 1689: 1686: 1685: 1680: 1679: 1676: 1670: 1669: 1666: 1660: 1659: 1656: 1650: 1649: 1646: 1640: 1639: 1636: 1630: 1629: 1626: 1620: 1619: 1616: 1610: 1609: 1606: 1600: 1599: 1596: 1590: 1589: 1586: 1580: 1579: 1576: 1570: 1569: 1566: 1560: 1559: 1556: 1550: 1549: 1546: 1540: 1539: 1536: 1530: 1529: 1526: 1520: 1519: 1516: 1510: 1509: 1506: 1500: 1499: 1496: 1490: 1489: 1486: 1480: 1479: 1476: 1470: 1469: 1466: 1460: 1459: 1456: 1450: 1449: 1446: 1440: 1439: 1436: 1430: 1429: 1426: 1420: 1419: 1416: 1410: 1409: 1406: 1400: 1399: 1396: 1388: 1385: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1375: 1374: 1371: 1365: 1364: 1361: 1355: 1354: 1351: 1345: 1344: 1341: 1335: 1334: 1331: 1325: 1324: 1321: 1315: 1314: 1311: 1305: 1304: 1301: 1295: 1294: 1291: 1285: 1284: 1281: 1275: 1274: 1271: 1265: 1264: 1261: 1255: 1254: 1251: 1245: 1244: 1241: 1235: 1234: 1231: 1225: 1224: 1221: 1215: 1214: 1211: 1205: 1204: 1201: 1195: 1194: 1191: 1185: 1184: 1181: 1175: 1174: 1171: 1165: 1164: 1161: 1159:Fihrid Emirate 1155: 1154: 1151: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1136: 1135: 1130: 1129: 1126: 1120: 1119: 1116: 1110: 1109: 1106: 1100: 1099: 1096: 1090: 1089: 1086: 1080: 1079: 1076: 1070: 1069: 1066: 1060: 1059: 1056: 1050: 1049: 1046: 1040: 1039: 1036: 1030: 1029: 1026: 1020: 1019: 1016: 1010: 1009: 1006: 1000: 999: 996: 990: 989: 986: 980: 979: 976: 970: 969: 966: 960: 959: 956: 950: 949: 946: 940: 939: 936: 930: 929: 926: 918: 915: 914: 911: 910: 905: 904: 901: 895: 894: 891: 885: 884: 881: 875: 874: 871: 863: 860: 859: 856: 855: 850: 849: 846: 840: 839: 836: 830: 829: 826: 820: 819: 816: 810: 809: 806: 800: 799: 796: 790: 789: 786: 780: 779: 776: 770: 769: 766: 760: 759: 756: 750: 749: 746: 738: 735: 734: 731: 730: 722: 721: 713: 712: 710: 709: 702: 695: 687: 684: 683: 670: 669: 666: 665: 660: 655: 650: 645: 639: 636: 635: 632: 631: 628: 627: 622: 617: 612: 606: 603: 602: 599: 598: 590: 589: 570: 569: 566: 565: 562: 561: 554: 548: 547: 540: 538:Bavand dynasty 534: 533: 526: 520: 519: 512: 506: 505: 498: 492: 491: 484: 478: 477: 470: 461: 458: 457: 452: 444: 443: 438: 430: 429: 424: 416: 415: 410: 402: 401: 396: 388: 387: 382: 374: 373: 368: 360: 359: 354: 342: 341: 336: 326: 325: 324: 323: 317: 311: 303: 299: 298: 295: 291: 290: 286: 285: 282: 281: 278: 272: 269: 268: 265: 259: 256: 255: 252: 251: 248: 244: 243: 240: 239: 231: 228: 225: 224: 216: 213: 210: 209: 206: 205: 202: 196: 195: 187: 183: 182: 177: 173: 172: 167: 166: 161: 159:Medieval Greek 156: 151: 149:Middle Persian 145: 143: 139: 138: 133: 129: 128: 126: 125: 119: 112: 110: 106: 105: 100: 96: 95: 82: 74: 73: 69: 68: 45: 42: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 15177: 15166: 15163: 15161: 15158: 15156: 15153: 15151: 15148: 15146: 15143: 15141: 15138: 15136: 15133: 15131: 15128: 15126: 15123: 15121: 15118: 15116: 15113: 15111: 15108: 15106: 15103: 15101: 15098: 15096: 15093: 15091: 15088: 15086: 15083: 15081: 15078: 15076: 15073: 15072: 15070: 15048: 15045: 15042: 15039: 15036: 15033: 15030: 15027: 15024: 15021: 15018: 15015: 15012: 15009: 15006: 15003: 15000: 14997: 14994: 14991: 14988: 14985: 14982: 14979: 14976: 14973: 14970: 14967: 14964: 14961: 14958: 14955: 14952: 14949: 14946: 14943: 14940: 14937: 14934: 14931: 14928: 14925: 14922: 14919: 14916: 14913: 14910: 14907: 14904: 14901: 14898: 14895: 14892: 14889: 14886: 14883: 14880: 14877: 14874: 14871: 14868: 14865: 14864: 14861: 14856: 14852: 14845: 14840: 14838: 14833: 14831: 14826: 14825: 14822: 14810: 14802: 14800: 14790: 14789: 14786: 14772: 14769: 14767: 14764: 14762: 14759: 14757: 14754: 14752: 14749: 14747: 14744: 14742: 14739: 14737: 14734: 14730: 14727: 14726: 14725: 14722: 14718: 14715: 14713: 14712:Post-Islamism 14710: 14708: 14705: 14704: 14703: 14700: 14698: 14695: 14691: 14688: 14686: 14683: 14682: 14681: 14678: 14677: 14675: 14671: 14665: 14662: 14660: 14657: 14655: 14652: 14650: 14647: 14646: 14644: 14642: 14638: 14632: 14629: 14627: 14624: 14622: 14619: 14617: 14614: 14610: 14609:Protestantism 14607: 14605: 14602: 14601: 14600: 14597: 14596: 14594: 14592: 14588: 14584: 14574: 14570: 14556: 14553: 14551: 14550: 14546: 14544: 14541: 14537: 14534: 14533: 14532: 14529: 14527: 14524: 14522: 14519: 14517: 14514: 14512: 14509: 14507: 14504: 14503: 14501: 14497: 14491: 14488: 14486: 14483: 14481: 14478: 14476: 14473: 14472: 14470: 14468: 14464: 14458: 14455: 14453: 14452:Ophthalmology 14450: 14448: 14445: 14443: 14440: 14438: 14435: 14433: 14430: 14428: 14425: 14423: 14420: 14419: 14417: 14415: 14411: 14405: 14402: 14400: 14397: 14395: 14392: 14390: 14387: 14385: 14382: 14380: 14377: 14375: 14372: 14370: 14367: 14366: 14364: 14362: 14358: 14354: 14350: 14342: 14338: 14324: 14321: 14317: 14316: 14312: 14311: 14310: 14307: 14305: 14302: 14300: 14297: 14293: 14290: 14289: 14288: 14285: 14283: 14282: 14278: 14276: 14273: 14271: 14270: 14266: 14264: 14261: 14259: 14258: 14254: 14252: 14249: 14247: 14244: 14242: 14239: 14237: 14234: 14232: 14229: 14227: 14224: 14222: 14219: 14217: 14216: 14212: 14210: 14209: 14205: 14201: 14200:Death penalty 14198: 14196: 14193: 14191: 14188: 14187: 14186: 14183: 14181: 14178: 14176: 14175: 14171: 14170: 14168: 14166:Other aspects 14164: 14158: 14157: 14153: 14151: 14150: 14146: 14144: 14143: 14139: 14137: 14136: 14132: 14130: 14129: 14125: 14123: 14122: 14118: 14116: 14115: 14111: 14110: 14108: 14103: 14100: 14098: 14095: 14093: 14090: 14089: 14086: 14080: 14079: 14075: 14073: 14070: 14068: 14067: 14063: 14061: 14060: 14056: 14054: 14053: 14049: 14047: 14046: 14042: 14041: 14039: 14037: 14033: 14027: 14026: 14022: 14020: 14019: 14015: 14013: 14012: 14008: 14006: 14005: 14001: 13999: 13996: 13994: 13991: 13990: 13988: 13986: 13982: 13978: 13971: 13970:Jurisprudence 13968: 13966: 13963: 13962: 13958: 13954: 13944: 13941: 13939: 13936: 13934: 13931: 13929: 13926: 13924: 13921: 13919: 13918: 13914: 13912: 13909: 13907: 13904: 13902: 13899: 13897: 13894: 13892: 13889: 13887: 13884: 13882: 13879: 13877: 13874: 13872: 13869: 13867: 13864: 13862: 13859: 13857: 13854: 13852: 13849: 13847: 13844: 13843: 13841: 13836: 13833: 13831: 13828: 13827: 13824: 13818: 13815: 13813: 13810: 13806: 13803: 13802: 13801: 13798: 13796: 13793: 13791: 13788: 13784: 13781: 13777: 13774: 13773: 13772: 13769: 13767: 13764: 13762: 13759: 13757: 13754: 13753: 13752: 13749: 13747: 13744: 13742: 13739: 13735: 13731: 13727: 13723: 13720: 13719: 13718: 13715: 13714: 13712: 13710: 13709:Denominations 13706: 13700: 13699: 13695: 13693: 13690: 13688: 13685: 13683: 13680: 13678: 13675: 13674: 13672: 13670: 13666: 13658: 13655: 13653: 13650: 13648: 13645: 13643: 13640: 13638: 13635: 13633: 13630: 13628: 13625: 13623: 13622: 13618: 13617: 13616: 13613: 13611: 13608: 13606: 13605: 13601: 13599: 13598: 13594: 13592: 13589: 13587: 13584: 13582: 13579: 13577: 13574: 13572: 13569: 13568: 13566: 13561: 13558: 13556: 13553: 13552: 13549: 13543: 13542: 13538: 13536: 13535: 13531: 13529: 13528: 13524: 13522: 13521: 13517: 13515: 13514: 13510: 13509: 13507: 13505: 13501: 13495: 13494:Holiest sites 13492: 13490: 13489:Judgement Day 13487: 13485: 13484: 13480: 13478: 13475: 13473: 13470: 13468: 13465: 13461: 13458: 13457: 13456: 13453: 13451: 13450: 13446: 13442: 13439: 13438: 13437: 13434: 13433: 13431: 13429: 13425: 13421: 13417: 13416: 13410: 13405: 13398: 13393: 13391: 13386: 13384: 13379: 13378: 13375: 13361: 13360:Soviet empire 13358: 13356: 13353: 13352: 13350: 13349: 13347: 13345:Miscellaneous 13343: 13337: 13334: 13332: 13329: 13327: 13324: 13322: 13319: 13317: 13314: 13310: 13307: 13306: 13305: 13302: 13301: 13299: 13295: 13285: 13282: 13280: 13277: 13275: 13272: 13270: 13267: 13263: 13260: 13259: 13258: 13255: 13253: 13250: 13248: 13245: 13243: 13240: 13238: 13235: 13233: 13230: 13228: 13225: 13223: 13220: 13218: 13215: 13213: 13210: 13206: 13203: 13201: 13198: 13197: 13196: 13193: 13191: 13188: 13186: 13183: 13182: 13180: 13178: 13174: 13166: 13163: 13161: 13158: 13156: 13153: 13151: 13148: 13146: 13143: 13142: 13141: 13138: 13136: 13133: 13129: 13126: 13125: 13124: 13121: 13119: 13116: 13112: 13109: 13107: 13104: 13102: 13099: 13098: 13097: 13094: 13092: 13089: 13085: 13082: 13080: 13077: 13076: 13075: 13072: 13068: 13065: 13063: 13060: 13058: 13055: 13053: 13050: 13048: 13045: 13044: 13043: 13040: 13036: 13033: 13031: 13028: 13027: 13026: 13023: 13021: 13018: 13016: 13013: 13011: 13008: 13004: 13001: 12999: 12996: 12994: 12991: 12989: 12986: 12984: 12981: 12980: 12979: 12976: 12972: 12969: 12967: 12964: 12963: 12962: 12959: 12957: 12954: 12950: 12947: 12945: 12944:German Empire 12942: 12941: 12940: 12937: 12933: 12930: 12928: 12925: 12924: 12923: 12920: 12916: 12913: 12911: 12908: 12907: 12906: 12903: 12901: 12898: 12894: 12891: 12889: 12886: 12884: 12881: 12879: 12876: 12874: 12871: 12870: 12869: 12866: 12864: 12861: 12857: 12854: 12852: 12849: 12848: 12846: 12844: 12841: 12839: 12836: 12834: 12831: 12829: 12826: 12824: 12821: 12820: 12818: 12816: 12812: 12806: 12803: 12801: 12798: 12796: 12793: 12789: 12786: 12784: 12781: 12779: 12776: 12774: 12771: 12769: 12766: 12764: 12761: 12759: 12756: 12755: 12754: 12751: 12749: 12746: 12742: 12739: 12737: 12734: 12732: 12729: 12727: 12724: 12722: 12719: 12717: 12714: 12713: 12712: 12709: 12705: 12702: 12700: 12697: 12695: 12692: 12690: 12687: 12686: 12685: 12684:Turco-Persian 12682: 12680: 12677: 12675: 12672: 12670: 12667: 12665: 12662: 12660: 12657: 12655: 12652: 12650: 12647: 12645: 12642: 12638: 12635: 12633: 12630: 12629: 12628: 12625: 12621: 12618: 12616: 12613: 12611: 12608: 12606: 12603: 12601: 12598: 12596: 12593: 12592: 12591: 12588: 12585: 12583: 12580: 12578: 12575: 12573: 12570: 12566: 12563: 12561: 12558: 12556: 12553: 12552: 12551: 12548: 12544: 12541: 12539: 12536: 12534: 12531: 12529: 12526: 12525: 12524: 12521: 12519: 12516: 12514: 12511: 12509: 12506: 12504: 12501: 12499: 12496: 12492: 12489: 12487: 12484: 12482: 12479: 12477: 12474: 12473: 12472: 12469: 12465: 12462: 12460: 12457: 12455: 12452: 12450: 12447: 12446: 12445: 12442: 12438: 12435: 12433: 12430: 12428: 12425: 12424: 12423: 12420: 12418: 12415: 12413: 12410: 12408: 12405: 12403: 12400: 12396: 12393: 12391: 12388: 12386: 12383: 12382: 12381: 12378: 12376: 12373: 12369: 12366: 12364: 12361: 12359: 12356: 12354: 12351: 12349: 12346: 12344: 12341: 12340: 12339: 12336: 12332: 12329: 12327: 12324: 12323: 12322: 12319: 12315: 12312: 12310: 12307: 12305: 12302: 12300: 12297: 12296: 12295: 12292: 12290: 12287: 12283: 12280: 12279: 12278: 12275: 12271: 12268: 12266: 12263: 12262: 12260: 12258: 12255: 12253: 12250: 12248: 12245: 12243: 12240: 12238: 12235: 12233: 12230: 12228: 12225: 12224: 12222: 12220: 12216: 12208: 12205: 12204: 12203: 12200: 12198: 12195: 12191: 12188: 12186: 12183: 12182: 12181: 12178: 12174: 12171: 12170: 12169: 12166: 12162: 12159: 12157: 12154: 12152: 12149: 12147: 12144: 12142: 12139: 12137: 12134: 12133: 12132: 12129: 12127: 12124: 12122: 12119: 12115: 12112: 12110: 12107: 12105: 12102: 12100: 12097: 12096: 12095: 12092: 12088: 12085: 12083: 12080: 12079: 12078: 12075: 12073: 12070: 12066: 12063: 12061: 12058: 12056: 12053: 12051: 12048: 12046: 12043: 12042: 12041: 12038: 12036: 12033: 12031: 12028: 12024: 12021: 12019: 12016: 12014: 12011: 12010: 12009: 12006: 12004: 12001: 11997: 11994: 11992: 11989: 11987: 11984: 11983: 11982: 11979: 11975: 11972: 11970: 11967: 11965: 11962: 11961: 11960: 11957: 11953: 11950: 11948: 11945: 11944: 11943: 11940: 11938: 11935: 11933: 11930: 11929: 11927: 11924: 11919: 11915: 11911: 11904: 11899: 11897: 11892: 11890: 11885: 11884: 11881: 11875: 11868: 11858: 11854: 11848: 11840: 11837: 11836: 11835: 11832: 11828: 11825: 11823: 11820: 11818: 11815: 11813: 11810: 11809: 11808: 11805: 11804: 11802: 11800: 11796: 11788: 11785: 11783: 11780: 11778: 11775: 11774: 11772: 11770: 11767: 11765: 11762: 11760: 11757: 11755: 11752: 11750: 11747: 11745: 11742: 11740: 11737: 11735: 11732: 11730: 11727: 11725: 11722: 11721: 11719: 11715: 11709: 11706: 11704: 11701: 11699: 11696: 11694: 11693:Berber Revolt 11691: 11689: 11686: 11684: 11681: 11679: 11676: 11674: 11671: 11669: 11666: 11664: 11661: 11659: 11656: 11654: 11651: 11649: 11646: 11644: 11641: 11639: 11636: 11634: 11631: 11629: 11626: 11624: 11621: 11619: 11616: 11615: 11613: 11609: 11603: 11600: 11598: 11595: 11593: 11590: 11588: 11585: 11583: 11580: 11578: 11575: 11573: 11570: 11568: 11565: 11563: 11560: 11558: 11555: 11553: 11550: 11548: 11545: 11543: 11540: 11538: 11535: 11534: 11532: 11528: 11523: 11516: 11511: 11509: 11504: 11502: 11497: 11496: 11493: 11486: 11481: 11477: 11476: 11466: 11464:9780521211338 11460: 11456: 11451: 11447: 11445:9780521229616 11441: 11437: 11432: 11428: 11422: 11418: 11413: 11409: 11407:9781870582568 11403: 11399: 11394: 11390: 11384: 11380: 11375: 11374: 11364: 11360: 11356: 11355: 11350: 11346: 11342: 11340:0-8047-2630-2 11336: 11332: 11328: 11327: 11322: 11318: 11314: 11310: 11306: 11302: 11298: 11297: 11292: 11288: 11284: 11280: 11276: 11272: 11268: 11264: 11260: 11256: 11251: 11247: 11245:9780191795831 11241: 11237: 11232: 11228: 11223: 11219: 11215: 11211: 11207: 11201: 11197: 11196: 11190: 11186: 11180: 11176: 11172: 11168: 11164: 11160: 11156: 11152: 11150: 11145: 11141: 11137: 11136:Ménage, V. L. 11133: 11129: 11125: 11121: 11117: 11111: 11107: 11106: 11101: 11097: 11093: 11091:0-521-56181-7 11087: 11083: 11082: 11077: 11073: 11069: 11063: 11059: 11055: 11051: 11047: 11043: 11039: 11037:0-521-20093-8 11033: 11029: 11026:. Cambridge: 11025: 11024: 11019: 11015: 11011: 11007: 11003: 10999: 10995: 10991: 10987: 10983: 10977: 10973: 10969: 10967: 10962: 10958: 10954: 10950: 10946: 10942: 10938: 10934: 10928: 10924: 10920: 10918: 10913: 10909: 10905: 10901: 10900:Bianquis, Th. 10897: 10893: 10889: 10885: 10881: 10875: 10871: 10870: 10865: 10864:Kennedy, Hugh 10861: 10857: 10851: 10847: 10846: 10841: 10837: 10833: 10827: 10823: 10819: 10817: 10812: 10808: 10804: 10800: 10799:Bianquis, Th. 10796: 10792: 10788: 10784: 10780: 10774: 10768: 10764: 10759: 10758: 10755: 10749: 10745: 10744: 10739: 10738:Kennedy, Hugh 10735: 10731: 10725: 10721: 10720: 10715: 10711: 10707: 10701: 10697: 10693: 10691: 10686: 10682: 10678: 10674: 10673:Bianquis, Th. 10670: 10666: 10661: 10657: 10655:0-415-25093-5 10651: 10647: 10646: 10641: 10640:Kennedy, Hugh 10637: 10633: 10627: 10623: 10622: 10617: 10613: 10609: 10607:0-521-41172-6 10603: 10599: 10596:. Cambridge: 10595: 10594: 10589: 10585: 10581: 10577: 10573: 10569: 10565: 10561: 10556: 10552: 10546: 10542: 10537: 10533: 10527: 10523: 10519: 10517: 10512: 10508: 10504: 10500: 10496: 10492: 10488: 10484: 10482:0-231-10132-5 10478: 10474: 10470: 10469: 10463: 10459: 10453: 10449: 10448: 10443: 10439: 10435: 10429: 10425: 10421: 10419: 10414: 10410: 10406: 10402: 10401:Bianquis, Th. 10398: 10394: 10389: 10385: 10383:0-415-24072-7 10379: 10375: 10374: 10369: 10365: 10361: 10355: 10351: 10350: 10344: 10340: 10334: 10330: 10325: 10321: 10315: 10311: 10307: 10305: 10300: 10296: 10292: 10288: 10284: 10280: 10276: 10265: 10261: 10254: 10253: 10247: 10243: 10239: 10235: 10231: 10229: 10224: 10220: 10216: 10212: 10208: 10204: 10200: 10196: 10192: 10188: 10184: 10180: 10176: 10174: 10169: 10165: 10161: 10157: 10153: 10149: 10145: 10141: 10137: 10133: 10129: 10125: 10121: 10120: 10115: 10111: 10107: 10105:90-04-11638-9 10101: 10097: 10096: 10090: 10086: 10082: 10078: 10074: 10072: 10067: 10063: 10059: 10055: 10050: 10046: 10044:90-04-10010-5 10040: 10036: 10035: 10029: 10025: 10019: 10015: 10011: 10009: 10004: 10000: 9996: 9992: 9988: 9983: 9979: 9974: 9970: 9964: 9960: 9959: 9953: 9949: 9945: 9941: 9937: 9935: 9930: 9926: 9922: 9918: 9913: 9909: 9903: 9899: 9898: 9893: 9889: 9885: 9881: 9877: 9873: 9871: 9866: 9862: 9858: 9857:Ménage, V. L. 9854: 9850: 9845: 9841: 9835: 9831: 9830: 9824: 9820: 9814: 9810: 9806: 9804: 9799: 9795: 9791: 9787: 9786:Bianquis, Th. 9783: 9778: 9773: 9769: 9765: 9761: 9757: 9753: 9749: 9745: 9741: 9737: 9732: 9728: 9726:0-521-32185-9 9722: 9718: 9717: 9711: 9707: 9701: 9697: 9693: 9691: 9686: 9682: 9678: 9674: 9673:Bianquis, Th. 9670: 9666: 9661: 9657: 9651: 9647: 9643: 9641: 9636: 9632: 9628: 9624: 9620: 9619:"Muʿāwiya II" 9616: 9612: 9608: 9602: 9598: 9594: 9593: 9587: 9583: 9577: 9573: 9572: 9567: 9563: 9562: 9542: 9538: 9532: 9528: 9527: 9522: 9516: 9500: 9496: 9490: 9486: 9485: 9480: 9474: 9458: 9454: 9450: 9444: 9428: 9424: 9418: 9414: 9413: 9405: 9397: 9393: 9387: 9379: 9375: 9369: 9365: 9364:Sulh Al-Hasan 9361: 9354: 9345: 9337: 9333: 9327: 9311: 9307: 9301: 9297: 9296: 9288: 9282:, p. 97. 9281: 9280:Hathaway 2012 9276: 9269: 9264: 9248: 9244: 9238: 9234: 9233: 9225: 9209: 9205: 9199: 9195: 9194: 9186: 9177: 9171:, p. 13. 9170: 9165: 9159:, p. 43. 9158: 9153: 9147:, p. 50. 9146: 9141: 9134: 9129: 9121: 9115: 9111: 9110: 9102: 9095: 9090: 9083: 9078: 9071: 9066: 9064: 9055: 9053:9781134613663 9049: 9045: 9044: 9036: 9034: 9032: 9030: 9022: 9017: 9010: 9005: 8998: 8993: 8991: 8984:, p. 72. 8983: 8978: 8971: 8966: 8959: 8954: 8948:, p. 31. 8947: 8946:Griffith 2016 8942: 8940: 8923: 8919: 8915: 8909: 8907: 8905: 8898:, p. 56. 8897: 8892: 8884: 8877: 8875: 8865: 8857: 8853: 8849: 8845: 8841: 8837: 8833: 8829: 8822: 8820: 8812: 8807: 8798: 8793: 8789: 8785: 8781: 8777: 8770: 8763: 8758: 8756: 8747: 8741: 8737: 8736: 8728: 8726: 8724: 8715: 8709: 8705: 8704: 8696: 8694: 8692: 8690: 8688: 8686: 8677: 8671: 8667: 8666: 8658: 8656: 8654: 8652: 8650: 8648: 8646: 8638: 8633: 8626: 8625:Kennedy 2007a 8621: 8613: 8607: 8603: 8596: 8588: 8582: 8578: 8571: 8565:, p. 57. 8564: 8559: 8557: 8555: 8546: 8539: 8532: 8527: 8520: 8515: 8509:, p. 43. 8508: 8503: 8496: 8491: 8483: 8481:9781563243349 8477: 8473: 8466: 8458: 8452: 8448: 8444: 8438: 8430: 8429: 8424: 8420: 8413: 8405: 8399: 8395: 8394: 8393:Arab painting 8386: 8380:, p. 87. 8379: 8374: 8367: 8362: 8355: 8350: 8343: 8338: 8332:, p. 32. 8331: 8326: 8320:, p. 78. 8319: 8314: 8307: 8302: 8296:, p. 77. 8295: 8290: 8283: 8278: 8276: 8269:, p. 31. 8268: 8263: 8256: 8251: 8244: 8239: 8232: 8227: 8225: 8217: 8212: 8205: 8200: 8193: 8188: 8181: 8176: 8174: 8166: 8161: 8154: 8149: 8142: 8137: 8130: 8129:Madelung 1993 8125: 8118: 8117:Madelung 1975 8113: 8106: 8105:Beckwith 1993 8101: 8095:, p. 54. 8094: 8089: 8082: 8077: 8075: 8068:, p. 82. 8067: 8062: 8056:, p. 91. 8055: 8050: 8044:, p. 41. 8043: 8042:Dietrich 1971 8038: 8031: 8026: 8019: 8014: 8007: 8002: 8000: 7992: 7987: 7985: 7983: 7976:, p. 15. 7975: 7970: 7963: 7958: 7951: 7946: 7939: 7934: 7932: 7930: 7923:, p. 14. 7922: 7917: 7915: 7907: 7902: 7895: 7890: 7883: 7878: 7871: 7866: 7859: 7854: 7848:, p. 90. 7847: 7842: 7840: 7832: 7827: 7820: 7815: 7808: 7803: 7797:, p. 60. 7796: 7791: 7789: 7781: 7776: 7774: 7767:, p. 45. 7766: 7761: 7754: 7749: 7743:, p. 95. 7742: 7737: 7730: 7725: 7718: 7713: 7706: 7701: 7695:, p. 63. 7694: 7689: 7683:, p. 94. 7682: 7677: 7675: 7668:, p. 28. 7667: 7662: 7655: 7650: 7648: 7646: 7639:, p. 89. 7638: 7633: 7631: 7629: 7622:, p. 62. 7621: 7616: 7610:, p. 85. 7609: 7604: 7602: 7595:, p. 77. 7594: 7589: 7587: 7585: 7583: 7581: 7579: 7577: 7575: 7568:, p. 34. 7567: 7562: 7560: 7558: 7556: 7549:, p. 88. 7548: 7543: 7541: 7539: 7537: 7529: 7524: 7517: 7512: 7506:, p. 87. 7505: 7500: 7494:, p. 76. 7493: 7488: 7482:, p. 98. 7481: 7476: 7469: 7464: 7457: 7452: 7445: 7440: 7433: 7428: 7421: 7416: 7410:, p. 93. 7409: 7404: 7398:, p. 92. 7397: 7392: 7385: 7380: 7373: 7368: 7362:, p. 33. 7361: 7356: 7354: 7352: 7350: 7342: 7337: 7331:, p. 46. 7330: 7325: 7323: 7316:, p. 45. 7315: 7310: 7303: 7298: 7296: 7288: 7283: 7277:, p. 91. 7276: 7271: 7269: 7267: 7259: 7254: 7247: 7242: 7235: 7234:Bosworth 1993 7230: 7228: 7221:, p. 55. 7220: 7215: 7209:, p. 90. 7208: 7203: 7201: 7193: 7188: 7182:, p. 89. 7181: 7176: 7174: 7166: 7161: 7155:, p. 88. 7154: 7149: 7142: 7137: 7130: 7125: 7118: 7113: 7106: 7101: 7095:, p. 87. 7094: 7089: 7083:, p. 86. 7082: 7077: 7075: 7068:, p. 85. 7067: 7062: 7055: 7050: 7044:, p. 83. 7043: 7038: 7036: 7034: 7032: 7024: 7019: 7013:, p. 82. 7012: 7007: 7000: 6995: 6988: 6983: 6976: 6971: 6964: 6959: 6953:, p. 55. 6952: 6947: 6940: 6939:Hawting 2000a 6935: 6928: 6923: 6917:, p. 59. 6916: 6911: 6905:, p. 59. 6904: 6899: 6893:, p. 80. 6892: 6887: 6881:, p. 79. 6880: 6875: 6868: 6863: 6861: 6859: 6857: 6855: 6853: 6845: 6844:Madelung 1997 6840: 6833: 6828: 6821: 6816: 6810:, p. 53. 6809: 6804: 6802: 6795:, p. 76. 6794: 6789: 6787: 6785: 6778:, p. 27. 6777: 6772: 6765: 6760: 6753: 6752:Madelung 1997 6748: 6742:, p. 81. 6741: 6740:Madelung 1997 6736: 6729: 6728:Madelung 1997 6724: 6718:, p. 63. 6717: 6712: 6706:, p. 75. 6705: 6700: 6698: 6696: 6689:, p. 70. 6688: 6683: 6677:, p. 45. 6676: 6671: 6669: 6667: 6665: 6658:, p. 80. 6657: 6656:Madelung 1997 6652: 6650: 6648: 6646: 6644: 6636: 6631: 6625:, p. 61. 6624: 6623:Madelung 1997 6619: 6617: 6609: 6608:Madelung 1997 6604: 6602: 6594: 6589: 6583:, p. 45. 6582: 6581:Madelung 1997 6577: 6570: 6565: 6558: 6553: 6547:, p. 51. 6546: 6541: 6535:, p. 50. 6534: 6529: 6522: 6517: 6511:, p. 20. 6510: 6505: 6499:, p. 77. 6498: 6493: 6487:, p. 23. 6486: 6481: 6474: 6469: 6462: 6457: 6451:, p. 51. 6450: 6445: 6438: 6433: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6402: 6386: 6382: 6376: 6372: 6371: 6363: 6347: 6343: 6337: 6333: 6329: 6328: 6320: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6286: 6279: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6249: 6242: 6237: 6235: 6226: 6222: 6221: 6213: 6205: 6199: 6195: 6194: 6186: 6170: 6166: 6159: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6129: 6113: 6112: 6107: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6090: 6085: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6043: 6042: 6037: 6031: 6015: 6011: 6010:HarperCollins 6007: 6006: 6001: 5995: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5954: 5949: 5945: 5939: 5937: 5932: 5919: 5914: 5902: 5896: 5887: 5881: 5877: 5868: 5862: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5837: 5833: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5814: 5803: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5789: 5788: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5778: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5768: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5758: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5748: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5738: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5728: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5718: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5708: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5698: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5688: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5678: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5668: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5658: 5654: 5651: 5650: 5642: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5615: 5605: 5601: 5598: 5594: 5590: 5580: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5540: 5537: 5533: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5520: 5516: 5511: 5509: 5505: 5490: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5476: 5472: 5467: 5463: 5458: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5423: 5421: 5416: 5413: 5408: 5382: 5371: 5366: 5364: 5359: 5357: 5352: 5351: 5349: 5348: 5340: 5336: 5335: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5307: 5304: 5303: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5279:Mount Lebanon 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5251: 5250: 5249:Ottoman Syria 5247: 5246: 5245: 5244: 5240: 5239: 5234: 5231: 5229: 5226: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5203: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5116: 5115: 5114:Bilad al-Sham 5112: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5101: 5100: 5099: 5095: 5094: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5081: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5052: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5004: 5001: 4999: 4996: 4995: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4985: 4984: 4983: 4979: 4978: 4971: 4968: 4967: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4915: 4914: 4913: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4879:Aram-Damascus 4877: 4876: 4875: 4874: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4842: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4800: 4799: 4798: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4766: 4765: 4764: 4760: 4759: 4758: 4757: 4754: 4751: 4750: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4739:Halaf culture 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4720: 4717: 4716: 4715: 4714: 4711: 4708: 4707: 4704: 4701: 4700: 4692: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4665: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4629: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4602: 4597: 4593: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4550: 4547: 4543: 4538: 4536: 4532: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4514: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4503: 4498: 4497: 4485: 4481: 4478:of the first 4477: 4476: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4436: 4432: 4426: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4407: 4403: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4386: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4362: 4361:in the 740s. 4360: 4354: 4348: 4345: 4342: 4339: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4330: 4329: 4323: 4319: 4314: 4305: 4299:Diwan al-Jund 4296: 4294: 4283: 4278: 4268: 4259: 4250: 4242: 4232: 4229: 4221: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4197: 4196: 4192: 4187:This section 4185: 4181: 4176: 4175: 4167: 4165: 4161: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4148: 4147: 4142: 4141: 4137: 4132: 4128: 4127: 4122: 4121: 4116: 4115: 4110: 4109: 4104: 4103: 4096: 4094: 4090: 4089: 4084: 4083: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4065: 4061: 4052: 4042: 4033: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4008: 3999: 3990: 3988: 3982: 3980: 3976: 3971: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3945: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3910: 3908: 3904: 3899: 3897: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3873: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3849: 3847: 3843: 3838: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3815: 3813: 3808: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3788: 3778: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3763: 3761: 3757: 3756:Day of Thirst 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3732: 3730: 3726: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3712:confrontation 3709: 3700: 3696: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3677: 3676:Berber Revolt 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3648: 3646: 3642: 3637: 3626: 3618: 3613: 3606: 3601: 3592: 3590: 3589:Transcaucasia 3586: 3581: 3575: 3573: 3569: 3558: 3548: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3533: 3530: 3524: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3502: 3498: 3488: 3486: 3482: 3477: 3473: 3470: 3463: 3458: 3454: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3419: 3408: 3403: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3346: 3341: 3336: 3334: 3329: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3312: 3307: 3303: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3284: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3209: 3194: 3185: 3175: 3171: 3166: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3135: 3132: 3121: 3116: 3112: 3107: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3071: 3065: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3037: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3010: 3005: 2996: 2994: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2949: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2925: 2921: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2901: 2897: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2875: 2870: 2856: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2829: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2809: 2800: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2789:Uqba ibn Nafi 2786: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2723:Arab-Sasanian 2720: 2716: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2698:Abd al-Rahman 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2645: 2631: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2619:Amr ibn al-As 2616: 2611: 2605: 2603: 2599: 2588: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2513: 2508: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2472: 2467: 2463: 2462:Bilad al-Sham 2459: 2458:Islamic Syria 2454: 2445: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2396: 2391: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2349: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2304: 2289: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2266: 2259: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2206:, conquering 2205: 2200: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2181:Greater Syria 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2153: 2147: 2138: 2132: 2105: 2097: 2067: 2061: 2057: 2045: 2040: 2038: 2033: 2031: 2026: 2025: 2023: 2022: 2012: 2009: 2005: 2002: 2001: 1997: 1994: 1990: 1987: 1986: 1982: 1979: 1975: 1972: 1971: 1967: 1964: 1960: 1957: 1956: 1952: 1949: 1945: 1942: 1941: 1937: 1934: 1930: 1927: 1926: 1922: 1919: 1918:Umm al-Quwain 1915: 1912: 1911: 1907: 1904: 1900: 1897: 1896: 1892: 1889: 1885: 1882: 1881: 1877: 1874: 1870: 1867: 1866: 1862: 1859: 1855: 1852: 1851: 1847: 1844: 1840: 1837: 1836: 1832: 1829: 1825: 1822: 1821: 1817: 1814: 1810: 1807: 1806: 1798: 1797: 1787: 1785: 1782: 1781: 1777: 1774: 1770: 1767: 1766: 1762: 1760: 1757: 1756: 1752: 1749: 1745: 1742: 1741: 1737: 1734: 1730: 1727: 1726: 1722: 1719: 1715: 1712: 1711: 1707: 1704: 1700: 1697: 1696: 1688: 1687: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1671: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1661: 1657: 1655: 1652: 1651: 1647: 1645: 1642: 1641: 1637: 1635: 1632: 1631: 1627: 1625: 1622: 1621: 1617: 1615: 1612: 1611: 1607: 1605: 1602: 1601: 1597: 1595: 1592: 1591: 1587: 1585: 1582: 1581: 1577: 1575: 1572: 1571: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1561: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1551: 1547: 1545: 1542: 1541: 1537: 1535: 1532: 1531: 1527: 1525: 1522: 1521: 1517: 1515: 1512: 1511: 1507: 1505: 1502: 1501: 1497: 1495: 1492: 1491: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1481: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1471: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1461: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1451: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1441: 1437: 1435: 1432: 1431: 1427: 1425: 1422: 1421: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1411: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1401: 1397: 1395: 1392: 1391: 1383: 1382: 1372: 1370: 1367: 1366: 1362: 1360: 1357: 1356: 1352: 1350: 1347: 1346: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1336: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1326: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1316: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1306: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1296: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1286: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1276: 1272: 1270: 1267: 1266: 1262: 1260: 1257: 1256: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1242: 1240: 1237: 1236: 1232: 1230: 1227: 1226: 1222: 1220: 1219:Muslim Sicily 1217: 1216: 1212: 1210: 1207: 1206: 1202: 1200: 1197: 1196: 1192: 1190: 1187: 1186: 1182: 1180: 1177: 1176: 1172: 1170: 1167: 1166: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1156: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1146: 1138: 1137: 1127: 1125: 1122: 1121: 1117: 1115: 1112: 1111: 1107: 1105: 1102: 1101: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1091: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1081: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1071: 1067: 1065: 1062: 1061: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1051: 1047: 1045: 1042: 1041: 1037: 1035: 1032: 1031: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1021: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1011: 1007: 1005: 1002: 1001: 997: 995: 992: 991: 987: 985: 982: 981: 977: 975: 972: 971: 967: 965: 962: 961: 957: 955: 952: 951: 947: 945: 942: 941: 937: 935: 932: 931: 927: 925: 922: 921: 913: 912: 902: 900: 897: 896: 892: 890: 887: 886: 882: 880: 877: 876: 872: 870: 867: 866: 858: 857: 848:450 AD–550 AD 847: 845: 842: 841: 837: 835: 832: 831: 827: 825: 822: 821: 817: 815: 812: 811: 807: 805: 802: 801: 797: 795: 792: 791: 788:64 BC–300s AD 787: 785: 782: 781: 778:132 BC–244 AD 777: 775: 772: 771: 768:400 BC–106 AD 767: 765: 762: 761: 758:600 BC–100 BC 757: 755: 752: 751: 748:800 BC–300 BC 747: 745: 742: 741: 733: 732: 728: 724: 723: 719: 718: 708: 703: 701: 696: 694: 689: 688: 686: 685: 682: 672: 671: 664: 661: 659: 656: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 640: 634: 633: 626: 623: 621: 618: 616: 613: 611: 608: 607: 601: 600: 596: 592: 591: 579: 576: 575: 555: 553: 550: 549: 541: 539: 536: 535: 527: 525: 522: 521: 513: 511: 508: 507: 499: 497: 494: 493: 485: 483: 480: 479: 471: 469: 466: 465: 462: 456: 453: 446: 445: 442: 439: 432: 431: 428: 425: 418: 417: 414: 411: 404: 403: 400: 397: 390: 389: 386: 383: 376: 375: 372: 369: 362: 361: 358: 355: 348: 347: 344: 343: 340: 337: 335: 332: 331: 327: 322:(copper coin) 321: 318: 316:(silver coin) 315: 312: 309: 306: 305: 304: 300: 296: 292: 287: 283: 279: 276: 270: 266: 263: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 235: 232: 226: 220: 217: 211: 207: 203: 201: 197: 194: 191: 188: 184: 181: 178: 174: 165: 162: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 146: 144: 140: 137: 134: 130: 123: 120: 117: 114: 113: 111: 107: 104: 101: 97: 86: 80: 75: 70: 64: 56: 40: 37: 33: 19: 15007:(1560s–1690) 14872: 14724:Islamophobia 14599:Christianity 14547: 14480:Contemporary 14374:Architecture 14313: 14279: 14267: 14255: 14213: 14206: 14172: 14154: 14149:Nikah mut'ah 14147: 14140: 14133: 14126: 14119: 14112: 14076: 14064: 14057: 14050: 14043: 14023: 14016: 14009: 14002: 13915: 13696: 13626: 13620: 13602: 13595: 13539: 13532: 13525: 13518: 13511: 13504:Five Pillars 13481: 13447: 13436:God in Islam 13413: 13111:Contemporary 12961:Indo-Persian 12949:Nazi Germany 12893:Contemporary 12795:Vijayanagara 12694:Great Seljuk 12605:Thessalonica 12533:Golden Horde 12303: 12173:Carthaginian 11952:Neo-Assyrian 11937:Neo-Sumerian 11633:Second Fitna 11557:Abd al-Malik 11521: 11454: 11435: 11416: 11397: 11378: 11353: 11325: 11295: 11258: 11254: 11235: 11226: 11217: 11194: 11174: 11154: 11147: 11104: 11080: 11057: 11022: 11010:Madelung, W. 10993: 10971: 10964: 10922: 10915: 10868: 10844: 10821: 10814: 10762: 10742: 10718: 10695: 10688: 10644: 10620: 10592: 10563: 10559: 10540: 10521: 10514: 10471:. New York: 10467: 10446: 10423: 10416: 10372: 10348: 10328: 10309: 10302: 10267:. Retrieved 10251: 10233: 10226: 10178: 10171: 10118: 10094: 10076: 10069: 10033: 10013: 10006: 9977: 9957: 9939: 9932: 9896: 9875: 9868: 9828: 9808: 9801: 9739: 9735: 9715: 9695: 9688: 9645: 9638: 9591: 9570: 9559:Bibliography 9547:16 September 9545:. Retrieved 9525: 9521:`Abdu'l-Bahá 9515: 9503:. Retrieved 9483: 9479:`Abdu'l-Bahá 9473: 9461:. Retrieved 9452: 9443: 9431:. Retrieved 9411: 9404: 9396:the original 9386: 9378:the original 9363: 9353: 9344: 9336:the original 9326: 9314:. Retrieved 9294: 9287: 9275: 9268:Gilbert 2013 9263: 9251:. Retrieved 9231: 9224: 9212:. Retrieved 9192: 9185: 9176: 9169:Hawting 2000 9164: 9152: 9145:Lapidus 2014 9140: 9135:, p. 4. 9133:Hawting 2000 9128: 9108: 9101: 9089: 9077: 9042: 9023:, p. 2. 9016: 9009:Holland 2013 9004: 8997:Holland 2013 8977: 8965: 8953: 8926:. Retrieved 8917: 8891: 8882: 8864: 8831: 8827: 8806: 8779: 8775: 8769: 8734: 8702: 8664: 8637:Sanchez 2015 8632: 8620: 8601: 8595: 8576: 8570: 8544: 8538: 8526: 8514: 8502: 8490: 8471: 8465: 8446: 8437: 8427: 8412: 8392: 8385: 8373: 8361: 8349: 8342:Kennedy 2002 8337: 8325: 8318:Hawting 2000 8313: 8306:Hawting 2000 8301: 8294:Hawting 2000 8289: 8282:Kennedy 2004 8262: 8255:Kennedy 2004 8250: 8238: 8211: 8199: 8187: 8160: 8148: 8136: 8124: 8112: 8100: 8088: 8081:Eisener 1997 8061: 8054:Kennedy 2016 8049: 8037: 8030:Kennedy 2016 8025: 8013: 7991:Kennedy 2002 7969: 7957: 7950:Kennedy 2007 7945: 7901: 7889: 7877: 7865: 7853: 7846:Kennedy 2016 7826: 7814: 7802: 7795:Hawting 2000 7760: 7748: 7736: 7724: 7717:Hawting 2000 7712: 7700: 7693:Hawting 2000 7688: 7661: 7637:Kennedy 2016 7620:Hawting 2000 7615: 7608:Kennedy 2016 7566:Kennedy 2001 7547:Kennedy 2016 7528:Kennedy 2016 7523: 7511: 7504:Kennedy 2016 7499: 7487: 7480:Kennedy 2004 7475: 7463: 7451: 7444:Kennedy 2004 7439: 7427: 7420:Kennedy 2001 7415: 7408:Kennedy 2004 7403: 7396:Kennedy 2004 7391: 7384:Kennedy 2004 7379: 7367: 7360:Kennedy 2001 7336: 7309: 7302:Kennedy 2004 7282: 7275:Kennedy 2004 7253: 7241: 7214: 7207:Kennedy 2004 7192:Kennedy 2004 7187: 7180:Kennedy 2004 7165:Kennedy 2004 7160: 7153:Kennedy 2004 7148: 7136: 7124: 7112: 7105:Kennedy 2007 7100: 7093:Kennedy 2004 7088: 7081:Kennedy 2004 7066:Kennedy 2004 7061: 7054:Kennedy 2004 7049: 7042:Kennedy 2004 7023:Kennedy 2004 7018: 7011:Kennedy 2004 7006: 6994: 6987:Kennedy 2004 6982: 6970: 6963:Kennedy 2004 6958: 6946: 6934: 6922: 6910: 6898: 6891:Kennedy 2004 6886: 6879:Kennedy 2004 6874: 6839: 6827: 6820:Kennedy 2004 6815: 6793:Kennedy 2004 6776:Hawting 2000 6771: 6764:Kennedy 2004 6759: 6747: 6735: 6723: 6716:Kennedy 2004 6711: 6704:Kennedy 2004 6687:Kennedy 2004 6682: 6635:Kennedy 2004 6630: 6588: 6576: 6569:Kennedy 2004 6564: 6557:Kennedy 2004 6552: 6545:Kennedy 2004 6540: 6533:Kennedy 2004 6528: 6516: 6504: 6492: 6485:Hawting 2000 6480: 6468: 6461:Hawting 2000 6456: 6444: 6432: 6422:23 September 6420:. Retrieved 6411: 6401: 6389:. Retrieved 6369: 6362: 6350:. Retrieved 6326: 6319: 6307:. Retrieved 6298:(1): 13–12. 6295: 6291: 6278: 6266:. Retrieved 6257: 6248: 6219: 6212: 6192: 6185: 6173:. Retrieved 6158: 6146:. Retrieved 6137: 6128: 6116:. Retrieved 6109: 6099:the original 6087: 6073:. Retrieved 6069:the original 6060: 6046:. Retrieved 6039: 6030: 6018:. Retrieved 6003: 5994: 5982:. Retrieved 5957: 5951: 5901:al-Umawiyyūn 5880: 5861: 5836: 5793:(ruled from 5602: 5595:suggests in 5593:`Abdu'l-Bahá 5586: 5546: 5529: 5523: 5513:Later, when 5512: 5503: 5501: 5479: 5465: 5461: 5459: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5424: 5417: 5409: 5405: 5176:Banu Munqidh 5145: 5050:Roman Empire 4918:Unqi-Pattina 4910: 4871: 4795: 4761: 4666: 4630: 4626:Qusayr 'Amra 4599: 4589: 4577:Abd al-Malik 4553:Architecture 4539: 4533:against the 4515: 4500: 4494: 4473: 4466:al-Baladhuri 4444:official of 4427: 4404: 4395:Zoroastrians 4387: 4368: 4355: 4351: 4333:Muslim Arabs 4327: 4302: 4292: 4289: 4280: 4265: 4256: 4248: 4239: 4224: 4215: 4200:Please help 4188: 4157: 4151: 4144: 4139: 4135: 4124: 4123:(from Greek 4118: 4112: 4106: 4105:(from Roman 4101: 4097: 4092: 4086: 4080: 4066: 4062: 4048: 4039: 4030:Abd al-Malik 4014: 4005: 3996: 3986: 3983: 3975:Fourth Fitna 3972: 3946: 3912:Around 746, 3911: 3900: 3876: 3839: 3816: 3809: 3790: 3764: 3733: 3705: 3649: 3622: 3603:The city of 3576: 3554: 3544: 3540: 3534: 3516: 3508: 3506: 3494: 3466: 3423:Tang Chinese 3404: 3388:fire temples 3367:in 706–709, 3350: 3344: 3325: 3281: 3213: 3173: 3131:Great Mosque 3108: 3102: 3094: 3086: 3068: 3066: 3060: 3052: 3041:Islamization 3038: 3032: 3014: 2965:Abd al-Malik 2950: 2939:fortress of 2904: 2874:Second Fitna 2836: 2830: 2814: 2744: 2662: 2606: 2594: 2571:of Kufa and 2555: 2553: 2510: 2504: 2491: 2487: 2479: 2469: 2461: 2432:settlers in 2392: 2350: 2334:nomadic Arab 2311: 2263: 2260: 2201: 2189:Second Fitna 2059: 2055: 2053: 2013:1921–present 1998:1900–present 1983:1868–present 1968:1833–present 1953:1810–present 1938:1783–present 1923:1775–present 1908:1761–present 1893:1752–present 1878:1749–present 1863:1744–present 1858:Saudi Arabia 1848:1727–present 1833:1727–present 1818:1631–present 878: 828:300s–500s AD 614: 339:Succeeded by 338: 333: 36: 15043:(1921–1958) 15037:(1805–1952) 15031:(1726–1834) 15025:(1704–1831) 15019:(1697–1842) 15013:(1649–1850) 14989:(1382–1517) 14983:(1376–1843) 14977:(1250–1382) 14971:(1234–1262) 14965:(1171–1341) 14959:(1127–1250) 14953:(1104–1154) 14941:(1024–1080) 14499:Other areas 14490:Theological 14485:Eschatology 14442:Mathematics 14379:Calligraphy 14309:Theological 14263:Inheritance 14180:Cleanliness 13610:Shi'a Imams 13604:Ahl al-Bayt 12699:Khwarezmian 12632:Carolingian 12437:Rashtrakuta 12141:Shaishunaga 12040:Hellenistic 12023:New Kingdom 12013:Old Kingdom 11834:Umayyad art 11698:Third Fitna 11623:First Fitna 11587:Al-Walid II 11547:Mu'awiya II 11153:Volume III: 11144:Schacht, J. 11140:Pellat, Ch. 10970:Volume VII: 10961:Pellat, Ch. 10783:Lammens, H. 10520:Volume VII: 10511:Pellat, Ch. 10299:Pellat, Ch. 10223:Pellat, Ch. 10215:Schacht, J. 10168:Pellat, Ch. 10160:Schacht, J. 10066:Schacht, J. 10062:Pellat, Ch. 10003:Lecomte, G. 9929:Schacht, J. 9925:Pellat, Ch. 9874:Volume III: 9865:Schacht, J. 9861:Pellat, Ch. 9772:Cobb, P. M. 9644:Volume VII: 9635:Pellat, Ch. 9433:22 November 9316:22 November 8982:Rahman 1999 8958:Morony 1987 8417:Allan, J.; 8153:Powers 1989 7780:Grabar 1986 6593:Donner 1981 6497:Donner 1981 6449:Donner 1981 6241:Rahman 1999 6175:16 February 5913:Banū Umayya 5412:Arabization 5306:Transjordan 5096:Middle Ages 5071:Later Roman 5055:Roman Syria 5003:Coele-Syria 4906:Sea Peoples 4889:Paddan Aram 4546:Manichaeans 4433:. He was a 4399:Fred Donner 4365:Non-Muslims 3797:Qusayr Amra 3793:Al-Walid II 3787:Third Fitna 3781:Third Fitna 3744:Transoxiana 3736:Tokharistan 3572:Muhallabids 3385:Zoroastrian 3361:Transoxiana 3045:Arabization 2957:Abd al-Aziz 2853:Mu'awiya II 2591:First Fitna 2312:During the 2286:Islamic art 2250:and then a 2212:Transoxiana 2185:First Fitna 1718:Pate Island 1691:East Africa 1484:Sulaymanids 1424:Ukhaidhirds 1209:Sulaymanids 1179:Muhallabids 1084:Munqidhites 984:Shirvanshah 838:300s–602 AD 808:196–1100 AD 798:100s–241 AD 334:Preceded by 310:(gold coin) 15105:Caliphates 15069:Categories 14935:(990–1096) 14929:(990–1085) 14923:(990–1081) 14905:(909–1171) 14893:(890–1004) 14881:(750–1258) 14654:Ex-Muslims 14549:Shu'ubiyya 14543:Psychology 14531:Literature 14521:Inventions 14467:Philosophy 14275:Leadership 14251:Honorifics 13906:Philosophy 13761:Isma'ilism 13726:Maturidism 13615:Caliphates 13586:Golden Age 13477:Revelation 13269:Portuguese 13150:Revival Le 13140:Vietnamese 12783:Later Tran 12753:Vietnamese 12649:Singhasari 12637:Holy Roman 12261:Bulgarian 12197:Satavahana 12168:Phoenician 12104:Achaemenid 12065:Indo-Greek 12045:Macedonian 11959:Babylonian 11777:Gold dinar 11717:Government 11562:Al-Walid I 11537:Mu'awiya I 11303:. Lisbon: 11050:"DABUYIDS" 10820:Volume XI: 10694:Volume XI: 10543:. Abacus. 10393:"Umayyads" 10279:Grabar, O. 10122:. London: 10075:Volume II: 10012:Volume IX: 9938:Volume II: 9119:0870996371 9094:Flood 2001 9082:Flood 2001 9021:Flood 2001 8834:(2): 163. 8762:Flood 2001 8216:Lilie 1976 8192:Lilie 1976 7974:Kaegi 2010 7938:Talbi 1971 7921:Kaegi 2010 7906:Lilie 1976 7870:Lilie 1976 7858:Lilie 1976 7807:Johns 2003 7753:Johns 2003 7593:Gibb 1960b 7492:Gibb 1960b 7468:Dixon 1969 7456:Dixon 1969 7432:Dixon 1969 7329:Crone 1994 7314:Crone 1994 7219:Gibb 1960a 6999:Lilie 1976 6975:Kaegi 1992 6903:Hinds 1993 6867:Hinds 1993 6268:10 October 5960:(3): 496. 5928:References 5867:al-Ya'qubi 5466:Ibn Hisham 5462:Al Muwatta 5339:Gaza Strip 5284:Jabal Amel 5181:Banu Ammar 4894:Aram-Rehob 4884:Aram-Zobah 4835:Canaanites 4710:Prehistory 4669:al-Andalus 4620:, such as 4584: 705 4542:Samaritans 4535:Byzantines 4507:al-Mas'udi 4484:Mu'awiya I 4450:Mu'awiya I 4406:Christians 4218:March 2024 4077:fire altar 4058: 700 3964:Al-Andalus 3918:black flag 3914:Abu Muslim 3879:Hashimiyya 3693:Pratiharas 3537:iconoclasm 3443:Tabaristan 3418:militarist 3142:See also: 3120:al-Walid I 3021: 700 3009:gold dinar 2909:tribes in 2900:Kharijites 2898:, and the 2881: 686 2727:Mu'awiya I 2682:Ibn Bahdal 2615:Kharijites 2466:Mu'awiya I 2282:Byzantines 2228:al-Andalus 2177:Mu'awiya I 2004:Hashemites 1959:Al Maktoum 1929:Al Khalifa 1614:Upper Yafa 1604:Ya'arubids 1444:Qarmatians 1329:Sumadihids 818:220–638 AD 814:Ghassanids 496:Barghawata 219:Mu'awiya I 190:Hereditary 186:Government 92: 720 14969:Lu'lu'ids 14939:Mirdasids 14927:Marwanids 14921:Numayrids 14915:Jarrahids 14911:(935–969) 14909:Ikhsidids 14897:Hadhabani 14891:Hamdanids 14887:(868–905) 14875:(661–750) 14869:(632–661) 14867:Rashiduns 14771:Symbolism 14729:Incidents 14707:Criticism 14604:Mormonism 14506:Astrology 14432:Cosmology 14427:Astronomy 14369:Arabesque 14236:Etiquette 14195:Blasphemy 13985:Economics 13800:Ahmadiyya 13734:Mu'tazili 13722:Ash'arism 13262:Couronian 12900:Ethiopian 12888:Manchukuo 12843:Brazilian 12689:Ghaznavid 12659:Srivijaya 12610:Trebizond 12595:Byzantine 12577:North Sea 12572:Norwegian 12560:Almoravid 12543:Ilkhanate 12513:Majapahit 12486:Muromachi 12395:Solomonic 12380:Ethiopian 12294:Caliphate 12227:Aragonese 12055:Ptolemaic 11734:Governors 11602:Marwan II 11592:Yazid III 11363:752790641 11313:490638192 11293:(1976) . 11283:170486943 11163:495469525 11132:Lewis, B. 11124:Talbi, M. 11002:797598069 10921:Volume X: 10580:163096950 10491:Hinds, M. 10422:Volume X: 10308:Volume V: 10295:Lewis, B. 10242:495469456 10232:Volume I: 10219:Lewis, B. 10187:495469456 10177:Volume I: 10164:Lewis, B. 10132:499987512 10085:495469475 10058:Lewis, B. 10054:"Dimashk" 9948:495469475 9921:Lewis, B. 9884:495469525 9853:Lewis, B. 9807:Volume X: 9764:154370527 9756:0021-1818 9736:Der Islam 9694:Volume X: 9523:(1990) . 9481:(1990) . 9253:25 August 9214:25 August 8856:201748179 8519:Cobb 2001 8507:Cobb 2001 8495:Cobb 2001 8231:Cobb 2000 8093:Gibb 1923 7765:Elad 1999 7705:Duri 1965 7287:Duri 2011 7246:Duri 2011 7141:Duri 2011 6391:25 August 6352:25 August 6106:"Umayyad" 6084:"Umayyad" 6057:"Umayyad" 6036:"Umayyad" 6000:"Umayyad" 5984:22 August 5895:romanized 5854:Abd Allah 5460:The book 5451:Baladhuri 5333:Palestine 5274:Jerusalem 5216:Jerusalem 5191:Numayrids 5171:Mirdasids 5166:Jarrahids 5161:Hamdanids 5134:Qinnasrin 5119:Palestine 5109:Rashiduns 5015:Commagene 4970:Eber-Nari 4940:Philistia 4840:Phoenicia 4637:Byzantine 4610:Jerusalem 4470:al-Tabari 4442:Byzantine 4438:Christian 4413:, bishop 4189:does not 4164:Hasmonean 4002:Provinces 3823:Marwan II 3812:Yazid III 3805:Qadariyya 3748:Samarkand 3714:with the 3373:Samarkand 3250:al-Kahina 3115:Abrahamic 2984:, at the 2941:Circesium 2911:Qinnasrin 2688:nobleman 2674:Ghassanid 2623:Jerusalem 2585:caliphate 2541:al-Harith 2488:al-Urdunn 2442:Byzantine 2430:Himyarite 2426:Banu Kalb 2414:Palestine 2361:Muhajirun 2324:tribe of 2252:caliphate 2157:caliphate 2146:romanized 1989:Al Sharqi 1944:Al Nuaimi 1914:Al Mualla 1903:Abu Dhabi 1899:Al Nahyan 1839:Al Qasimi 1824:Al Qasimi 1788:1860–1887 1778:1858–1895 1763:1856–1964 1753:1746–1828 1738:1277–1495 1723:1203–1894 1678:1926–1970 1668:1906–1934 1658:1903–1967 1648:1858–1967 1644:Qu'aitids 1638:1836–1921 1634:Rashidids 1628:1820–1970 1618:1800–1967 1608:1624–1742 1598:1597–1872 1588:1463–1521 1578:1454–1526 1568:1395–1967 1564:Kathirids 1558:1305–1487 1554:Jarwanids 1548:1253–1320 1538:1229–1454 1528:1159–1174 1518:1154–1624 1514:Nabhanids 1508:1083–1174 1498:1076–1253 1488:1063–1174 1478:1047–1138 1474:Sulayhids 1373:1837–1969 1369:Senussids 1363:1554–1659 1353:1230–1492 1343:1049–1078 1333:1041–1091 1323:1039–1110 1313:1031–1091 1309:Jawharids 1303:1027–1063 1299:Muzaynids 1293:1026–1057 1289:Hammudids 1283:1023–1062 1279:Yahsubids 1273:1023–1091 1263:1020–1086 1253:1013–1039 1243:1012–1051 1233:1004–1412 1199:Aghlabids 1128:1697–1842 1118:1517–1865 1108:1480–1677 1098:1517–1697 1088:1025–1157 1078:1024–1080 1074:Mirdasids 1064:Numayrids 1044:Jarrahids 1034:Mazyadids 1014:Hamdanids 1004:Hashimids 964:Habbarids 954:Dulafids 804:Tanukhids 578:Caliphate 234:Marwan II 193:caliphate 176:Religion 124:(744–750) 118:(661–744) 15035:Alawiyya 14981:Bahdinan 14963:Ayyubids 14945:Artuqids 14933:Uqaylids 14903:Fatimids 14885:Tulunids 14879:Abbasids 14873:Umayyads 14809:Category 14702:Islamism 14685:Muhammad 14641:Apostasy 14616:Hinduism 14516:Feminism 14447:Medicine 14287:Military 14241:Gambling 14190:Apostasy 14185:Criminal 14097:Marriage 14066:Tayammum 14018:Murabaha 13891:Madrasas 13881:Holidays 13871:Clothing 13866:Children 13861:Calendar 13812:Quranism 13766:Alawites 13730:Atharism 13621:Rashidun 13460:In Islam 13455:Muhammad 13242:Japanese 13205:Scottish 13185:American 13177:Colonial 13106:Imperial 13074:Moroccan 13010:Japanese 12988:Afsharid 12847:Burmese 12833:Austrian 12788:Later Le 12763:Early Le 12748:Venetian 12674:Tiwanaku 12587:Hellenic 12550:Moroccan 12481:Kamakura 12471:Japanese 12454:Saffarid 12407:Georgian 12321:Chalukya 12299:Rashidun 12289:Calakmul 12257:Bruneian 12136:Haryanka 12114:Sasanian 12109:Parthian 12060:Bactrian 12050:Seleucid 12030:Goguryeo 12008:Egyptian 11942:Assyrian 11932:Akkadian 11923:Colonies 11754:al-Haras 11577:Yazid II 11567:Sulayman 11552:Marwan I 11351:(1927). 11323:(1997). 11216:(1971). 11173:(2004). 11146:(eds.). 11126:(1971). 11078:(1997). 11048:(1993). 11012:(1975). 10992:(1976). 10963:(eds.). 10943:(1993). 10914:(eds.). 10866:(2023). 10842:(2014). 10813:(eds.). 10789:(2002). 10740:(2007). 10716:(2004). 10687:(eds.). 10642:(2001). 10618:(2010). 10590:(1992). 10513:(eds.). 10493:(1993). 10415:(eds.). 10370:(2000). 10310:Khe–Mahi 10301:(eds.). 10281:(1986). 10225:(eds.). 10197:(1960). 10170:(eds.). 10142:(1960). 10116:(1923). 10068:(eds.). 10005:(eds.). 9931:(eds.). 9894:(1981). 9867:(eds.). 9800:(eds.). 9774:(2000). 9687:(eds.). 9637:(eds.). 9617:(1993). 9568:(1994). 9541:Archived 9499:Archived 9463:20 April 9457:Archived 9427:Archived 9415:. JSAI. 9310:Archived 9247:Archived 9208:Archived 8928:3 August 8922:Archived 6416:Archived 6385:Archived 6346:Archived 6300:Archived 6262:Archived 6169:Archived 6142:Archived 6014:Archived 5978:Archived 5811:See also 5636:Rashidun 5591:(12:3), 5471:Muawiyah 5264:Harfushs 5228:Ayyubids 5201:Crusades 5186:Uqaylids 5156:Fatimids 5151:Abbasids 5146:Umayyads 5129:al-Urdun 4923:Palistin 4857:Hittites 4850:Carthage 4797:Amorites 4657:frescoes 4641:Sasanian 4612:and the 4579:, begun 4573:Damascus 4499:or even 4482:caliph, 4446:Damascus 4108:denarius 4036:Military 3846:Khorasan 3810:In 744, 3760:Khurasan 3752:Sogdians 3708:Caucasus 3641:Anatolia 3557:Yazid II 3501:Narbonne 3431:Tashkent 3407:Sulayman 3377:Farghana 3369:Khwarazm 3353:Khurasan 3296:Hispania 3229:Arminiya 3184:Muhammad 3061:muqātila 3033:muqātila 2977:Mardaite 2961:Muhammad 2797:Kairouan 2793:Byzacena 2785:Ifriqiya 2772:Khurasan 2729:rule in 2684:and the 2666:Damascus 2657:Tiberias 2476:Damascus 2444:rulers. 2422:Mu'awiya 2410:Damascus 2369:Abu Bakr 2342:Muhammad 2318:Umayyads 2270:poll tax 2240:Abbasids 2224:Hispania 2208:Ifriqiya 2197:Damascus 2193:Marwan I 2173:Rashidun 2161:Muhammad 1993:Fujairah 1974:Al Thani 1884:Al Sabah 1773:Wituland 1708:896–1279 1664:Idrisids 1594:Qasimids 1574:Tahirids 1544:Usfurids 1534:Rasulids 1504:Zurayids 1468:968–1925 1454:Wajihids 1448:899–1077 1438:897–1962 1428:865–1066 1414:Yufirids 1408:819–1138 1404:Ziyadids 1398:751–1970 1339:Tahirids 1269:Abbadids 1249:Tujibids 1223:831–1091 1189:Idrisids 1173:756–1031 1153:710–1019 1149:Salihids 1114:Harfushs 1104:Turabays 1068:990–1081 1058:990–1096 1054:Uqaylids 1048:970–1107 1038:961–1150 1028:955–1071 1024:Rawadids 1018:890–1004 1008:869–1075 988:861–1538 974:Kaysites 968:854–1011 938:736–1122 903:909–1171 899:Fatimids 893:750–1258 889:Abbasids 879:Umayyads 869:Rashidun 834:Lakhmids 824:Salihids 302:Currency 116:Damascus 18:Ummayyad 15029:Jalilis 15023:Mamluks 15017:Shihabs 14993:Harfush 14957:Zengids 14855:Mashriq 14756:Nursing 14717:Qutbism 14631:Sikhism 14626:Judaism 14621:Jainism 14457:Physics 14404:Pottery 14389:Gardens 14384:Carpets 14299:Slavery 14221:Divorce 14208:Dhabiĥa 14036:Hygiene 14011:Takaful 13993:Banking 13923:Science 13917:Qurbani 13886:Mosques 13846:Animals 13835:Culture 13783:Zaydism 13771:Alevism 13657:Ottoman 13647:Almohad 13642:Fatimid 13637:Córdoba 13632:Abbasid 13627:Umayyad 13560:Leaders 13555:History 13513:Shahada 13428:Beliefs 13309:largest 13304:Empires 13284:Swedish 13279:Spanish 13274:Russian 13237:Italian 13212:Chinese 13200:English 13195:British 13190:Belgian 13165:Vietnam 13155:Tay son 13101:Tsarist 13096:Russian 13091:Ottoman 13057:Dzungar 13052:Khoshut 13025:Mexican 13020:Maratha 13003:Pahlavi 12983:Safavid 12978:Iranian 12905:Haitian 12868:Chinese 12828:Ashanti 12800:Wagadou 12726:Eastern 12721:Western 12704:Timurid 12664:Tibetan 12654:Songhai 12644:Serbian 12565:Almohad 12555:Idrisid 12459:Samanid 12449:Tahirid 12444:Iranian 12422:Kannauj 12402:Genoese 12338:Chinese 12331:Eastern 12326:Western 12314:Fatimid 12309:Abbasid 12304:Umayyad 12277:Burmese 12237:Ayyubid 12232:Angevin 12202:Xianbei 12190:Eastern 12185:Western 12131:Magadha 12094:Iranian 12087:Xiongnu 12072:Hittite 11981:Chinese 11969:Kassite 11918:Ancient 11910:Empires 11799:Culture 11611:History 11597:Ibrahim 11572:Umar II 11542:Yazid I 11530:Caliphs 11056:(ed.). 11020:(ed.). 10972:Mif–Naz 10522:Mif–Naz 10014:San–Sze 9917:"Dīwān" 9646:Mif–Naz 9449:"Bible" 8848:1399963 5974:2600793 5920:'). 5897:: 5797:in the 5480:Modern 5455:Baghdad 5431:khilafa 5318:Lebanon 5289:Tripoli 5269:Shihabs 5259:Ma'nids 5254:Al-Azms 5233:Mamluks 5221:Tripoli 5206:Antioch 5196:Seljuks 5139:Thughūr 5083:Palmyra 5025:Nabatea 5010:Osroene 4998:Antioch 4950:Cilicia 4867:Alasiya 4830:Mitanni 4673:Emirate 4653:mosaics 4480:Umayyad 4454:Yazid I 4435:Melkite 4391:Umar II 4375:dhimmis 4341:Dhimmis 4210:removed 4195:sources 4159:shahada 4154:menorah 4126:drachma 4114:solidus 4045:Coinage 4026:Persian 3987:mawalis 3968:Córdoba 3957:Moorish 3949:Umar II 3896:Mukhtar 3887:Abbasid 3868:Abbasid 3819:Ibrahim 3720:Derbent 3716:Khazars 3706:In the 3681:Morocco 3666:at the 3585:Khazars 3541:khalifa 3469:Maslama 3447:Caspian 3381:Bukhara 3365:Bukhara 3328:al-Hind 3318:al-Hind 3274:Tangier 3270:Maghreb 3258:Hawwara 3083:Persian 3079:dirhams 3070:solidus 2818:Yazid I 2762:tribe, 2686:Kindite 2480:Dimashq 2456:Map of 2322:Quraysh 2297:Origins 2292:History 2248:emirate 2244:Córdoba 2238:by the 2236:toppled 2220:Maghreb 2148:: 1933:Bahrain 1869:Al Said 1854:Al Saud 1843:Sharjah 1813:Morocco 1809:'Alawis 1748:Mombasa 1584:Jabrids 1524:Mahdids 1494:Uyunids 1458:926–965 1434:Rassids 1418:847–997 1359:Saadids 1349:Nasrids 1259:Amirids 1239:Bakrids 1229:Kanzids 1213:814–922 1203:800–909 1193:788–974 1183:771–793 1163:745-757 1124:Shihabs 1094:Ma'nids 998:864–928 994:Alavids 978:860–964 958:840–897 948:824–961 928:654–884 883:661–750 873:632–661 586:‎ 273:• 260:• 247:History 222:(first) 109:Capital 85:Umar II 72:661–750 15005:Ridwan 14951:Burids 14857:region 14578: 14536:poetry 14346: 14231:Ethics 14215:Dhimmi 14174:Baligh 14135:Mahram 14092:Family 14072:Toilet 14052:Miswak 13805:Lahori 13746:Salafi 13692:Seerah 13687:Tafsir 13682:Hadith 13652:Sokoto 13597:Sahaba 13472:Angels 13449:Tawhid 13406:topics 13247:Mongol 13232:German 13227:French 13217:Danish 13160:Dainam 13135:Tongan 13123:Somali 13118:Sokoto 13084:'Alawi 13062:Kalmyk 13042:Mongol 13035:Second 13015:Korean 12966:Mughal 12956:Indian 12939:German 12932:Second 12922:French 12915:Second 12851:Second 12823:Afghan 12815:Modern 12741:Kyrgyz 12736:Uighur 12731:Second 12711:Turkic 12679:Toltec 12615:Epirus 12600:Nicaea 12523:Mongol 12476:Yamato 12412:Huetar 12270:Second 12207:Rouran 12156:Shunga 12151:Maurya 12126:Kushan 12099:Median 12077:Hunnic 12035:Harsha 11782:Dirham 11764:Mawali 11749:Shurta 11724:Caliph 11618:Uthman 11582:Hisham 11524:topics 11461: 11442: 11423: 11404: 11385: 11361: 11337: 11311: 11281: 11275:528934 11273: 11242: 11202: 11181: 11161: 11155:H–Iram 11142:& 11112: 11088: 11064: 11034: 11000: 10978: 10959:& 10929: 10910:& 10876: 10852: 10828: 10809:& 10785:& 10769: 10750: 10726: 10702: 10683:& 10652: 10628: 10604: 10578: 10547: 10528: 10509:& 10479: 10454: 10430: 10411:& 10380: 10356: 10335: 10316: 10297:& 10240: 10221:& 10185: 10166:& 10130: 10102: 10083: 10064:& 10041: 10020: 10001:& 9965: 9946: 9927:& 9904: 9882: 9876:H–Iram 9863:& 9836: 9815: 9796:& 9762: 9754: 9723: 9702: 9683:& 9652: 9633:& 9603: 9578: 9533: 9505:19 May 9491: 9419: 9370: 9302: 9239: 9200: 9116: 9050: 8854: 8846: 8797:506971 8794: 8742: 8710: 8672: 8608: 8583: 8478: 8453: 8400: 6377: 6338: 6309:18 May 6200: 6148:19 May 6118:12 May 6075:12 May 6048:12 May 6020:12 May 5972: 5918:Umayya 5886:Arabic 5850:Khalid 5799:Jazira 5795:Harran 5655:Reign 5652:Caliph 5632:Uthman 5583:Bahá'í 5531:Mawali 5506:, St. 5447:Tabari 5399: 5393: 5387: 5328:Israel 5323:Jordan 5211:Edessa 5060:Judaea 5030:Iturea 4933:Luhuti 4928:Sam'al 4899:Hamath 4825:Urkesh 4820:Ugarit 4813:Yamhad 4808:Amurru 4695:Legacy 4661:relief 4659:, and 4596:Levant 4496:archon 4371:pagans 4347:Slaves 4318:Jordan 4146:follis 4120:dirham 4093:'anaza 4088:mihrab 4082:khutba 4024:, and 4022:Coptic 3960:Iberia 3928:, was 3907:mawali 3891:Hashim 3831:Turkey 3827:Harran 3742:, and 3710:, the 3664:Franks 3636:Resafa 3625:Hisham 3605:Resafa 3580:mawali 3529:kharaj 3523:kharaj 3517:mawali 3509:mawali 3481:Taurus 3439:Jurjan 3322:Multan 3266:Kutama 3262:Zenata 3225:Iberia 3206: 3204: 3198: 3189: 3180: 3158:, and 3099:Coptic 3053:mawālī 2982:Mus'ab 2943:under 2920:Jabiya 2915:Judham 2841:Ka'aba 2822:Husayn 2780:Fustat 2760:Thaqif 2670:Quda'a 2598:A'isha 2560:Jazira 2496:Uthman 2484:Jordan 2482:) and 2418:Jordan 2380:caliph 2346:Medina 2316:, the 2218:, the 2137:Arabic 2008:Jordan 1888:Kuwait 1319:Hudids 584:خِلافة 314:Dirham 250: 237:(last) 204: 200:Caliph 154:Coptic 136:Arabic 122:Harran 103:Empire 99:Status 55:Arabic 51: 15011:Baban 14999:Soran 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