1718:
3996:, which was sited in the center of the city. Markets were established at convenient points, which were overseen by market officers charged with ensuring the quality of goods. The cities were divided into quarters, and each quarter was reserved for particular tribes. During the reign of Umar, there were restrictions on the construction of palatial buildings by the rich and elites—symbolic of the egalitarian society of Islam, where all were equal—although the restrictions were later revoked by Uthman because of the rise in the overall standard of living, and the construction of two-story buildings were permitted. As a result, many palatial buildings were constructed throughout the empire, including Uthman's huge palace in Medina,
2144:
4158:
3500:
1617:
4576:
2257:
2386:
902:
1703:
2193:
2159:
2081:
4220:, Khalid ibn al-Walid's extraordinary march from the Persian border to Damascus). The cavalry was the army's main strike force and also served as a strategic mobile reserve. The common tactic was to use the infantry and archers to engage and maintain contact with the enemy while the cavalry was held back till the enemy was fully engaged. Once fully engaged, the enemy reserves were held by the infantry and archers, while the cavalry executed a pincer movement (like modern tank and mechanized divisions) to attack the enemy from the sides or to assault their base camps.
1992:
2378:
1232:
871:
63:
1111:
481:
4659:
4115:) and Uthman had "already inaugurated a nepotistic style of government", for which later Caliphs were condemned, and wonders if the idea of a divinely guided "golden age" of early Islam came from a need by late Umayyad and Abbasid religious scholars to differentiate the first caliphs (who had more power in law making) and the contemporary Caliphs who they wanted to defer to them (the ulama) in religious matters. Consequently, the companions were "given a makeover" as "model's of piety and beyond reproach".
1498:
1898:
garrisoned and administered. The continued existence of the
Persian government was, however, incitement to revolt in the conquered territories and unlike the Byzantine army, the Sasanian army was continuously striving to regain their lost territories. Finally, Umar pressed forward, which eventually resulted in the wholesale conquest of the Sasanian Empire. Yazdegerd, the Sasanian king, made yet another effort to regroup and defeat the invaders. By 641 he had raised a new force, which made a stand at the
4486:
2750:
4338:
4413:
9721:
2777:
958:, "Successor of the Messenger of God") or simply caliph. Abu Bakr embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes, which had claimed that although they pledged allegiance to Muhammad and accepted Islam, they owed nothing to Abu Bakr. As a caliph, Abu Bakr was not a monarch and never claimed such a title; nor did any of his three successors. Rather, their election and leadership were based upon
2491:
2574:
2116:
1346:, a bureau for transacting government affairs. The military was brought directly under state control and into its pay. Crucially, in conquered lands, Umar did not require that non-Muslim populations convert to Islam, nor did he try to centralize government. Instead, he allowed subject populations to retain their religion, language, and customs, and he left their government relatively untouched, imposing only a governor (
2793:
be the foundation stone of the
Caliphate. Caliph Umar has been reported to have said: "O Muslims, straighten me with your hands when I go wrong", and at that instance, a Muslim man stood up and said, "O Amir al-Mu'minin (Leader of the Believers) if you are not straightened by our hands we will use our sword to straighten you!". Hearing this Caliph Umar said "Alhamdulillah (Praise be to Allah) I have such followers."
9710:
562:
1090:, by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue amongst themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men.
4228:
of his
Caliphate, adopted a more hands-on approach, directing his generals where to stay and when to move to the next target and who was to command the left and right-wing of the army in each particular battle. This made conquests comparatively slower but made the campaigns well-organized. Uthman and Ali reverted to Abu Bakr's method, giving missions to their generals and leaving the details to them.
2108:, the Byzantine stronghold, was conquered shortly after on 19 September 634. The Byzantine army was given a deadline of 3 days to flee as far as they could, with their families and treasure, or simply agree to stay in Damascus and pay tribute. After the three days had passed, the Muslim cavalry, under Khalid's command, attacked the Roman army by catching up to them using an unknown shortcut at the
4185:. Reconstructing the military equipment of early Muslim armies is problematic. Compared with Roman armies or later medieval Muslim armies, the range of visual representation is very small, often imprecise. Physically, very little material evidence has survived, and much of it is difficult to date. The soldiers wore iron and bronze segmented helmets from Iraq, of Central Asian type.
4143:. The army maintained a very high level of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization, along with the motivation and initiative of the officer corps. For much of its history, this army was one of the most powerful and effective military forces throughout the region. At the height of the Rashidun Caliphate, the maximum size of the army was around 100,000 troops.
1474:
them, at which point, the protesters returned to Uthman's home, bearing the order. Uthman swore that he did not write the order and to talk the protesters down. The protesters responded by demanding he step down as caliph. Uthman refused and returned to his room, whereupon the protesters broke into Uthman's house from the back and killed him while he was reading the
3232:, or consultative assembly. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir, as there was no basis in the majority Sunni view that the head of state or governor should be chosen based on lineage alone.
1601:, a faction of his former supporters who, as a result of their dissatisfaction with the arbitration, opposed both Ali and Mu'awiya. Weakened by this internal rebellion and a lack of popular support in many provinces, Ali's forces lost control over most of the caliphate's territory to Mu'awiya while large sections of the empire—such as
1570:
It is said, according to Sunni Muslim traditions, that those who were involved in the assassination of Uthman initiated combat, as they were afraid that negotiations between Ali and the opposing army would result in their capture and execution. The battle thus fought was the first battle between
Muslims and is known as the
4023:. In important cities, guest houses were constructed to serve traders and merchants coming from faraway places. Roads and bridges were constructed for public use. On the road from Medina to Mecca, shelters, wells, and meal houses were constructed at every stage for the convenience of the people who came for hajj.
3373:
connected with Allah’s
Prescribed Punishments?" Then he got up and delivered a sermon saying, "What destroyed the nations preceding you, was that if a noble amongst them stole, they would forgive him, and if a poor person amongst them stole, they would inflict Allah's Legal punishment on him. By Allah, if
3848:
the
Muslims won heavy spoils, filling the coffers at Medina. The problem before Umar was what to do with this money. Someone suggested that the money should be kept in the treasury as a reserve for public expenditures. However, this view was not acceptable to the general body of Muslims. Accordingly,
3147:
The judicial administration, like the rest of the administrative structure of the
Rashidun Caliphate, was set up by Umar, and it remained basically unchanged throughout the duration of the Caliphate. In order to provide adequate and speedy justice for the people, justice was administered according to
2232:
in April 637. Abu Ubaida sent Amr bin al-As, Yazid bin Abu Sufyan, and
Sharjeel bin Hassana back to their areas to reconquer them; most submitted without a fight. Abu Ubaida himself, along with Khalid, moved to northern Syria to reconquer it with a 17,000-man army. Khalid, along with his cavalry, was
2184:
made peace with the
Muslims for one year in order to buy time for Heraclius to prepare his defences and raise new armies. The Muslims welcomed the peace and consolidated their control over the conquered territory. However, as soon as the Muslims received the news of reinforcements being sent to Emesa
4227:
Abu Bakr's strategy was to give his generals their mission, the geographical area in which that mission would be carried out, and resources for that purpose. He would then leave it to his generals to accomplish their missions in whatever manner they chose. On the other hand, Umar, in the latter part
3093:
During the reign of Abu Bakr the state was economically weak, while during Umar's reign because of an increase in revenues and other sources of income, the state was on its way to economic prosperity. Hence Umar felt it necessary to treat the officers strictly, in order to prevent corruption. During
2792:
The basic administrative system of the Dar al-Islamiyyah (The House of Islam) was laid down in the days of
Muhammad. Caliph Abu Bakr stated in his sermon when he was elected: "If I order any thing that would go against the order of Allah and his Messenger; then do not obey me". This is considered to
1897:
and onto the Iranian plateau. One tradition has it that he wished for a "wall of fire" to keep the Arabs and Persians apart. Later commentators explain this as a common-sense precaution against over-extension of his forces. The Arabs had only recently conquered large territories that still had to be
1569:
and captured it, whereupon 4,000 suspected seditionists were put to death. Subsequently, Ali turned towards Basra and the caliph's army met the rebel army. Though neither Ali nor the leaders of the opposing force, Talha and Zubayr, wanted to fight, a battle broke out at night between the two armies.
1363:
were given pensions on which to live, allowing them to pursue religious studies and exercise spiritual leadership in their communities and beyond. Umar is also remembered for establishing the Islamic calendar; it is lunar-like the Arabian calendar, but the origin is set in 622, the year of the Hijra
3488:
and Muiqib. A separate Accounts Department was also set up to maintain spending records. Later treasuries were set up in the provinces. After meeting the local expenditure the provincial treasuries were required to remit the surplus revenue to the central treasury at Medina. According to Yaqubi the
3381:
Various Islamic lawyers do, however, place multiple conditions, and stipulations—e.g., the poor cannot be penalised for stealing out of poverty—before executing such a law, making it very difficult to reach such a stage. It is well known that, during a time of drought during the Rashidun caliphate,
2204:
Abu Ubaida ordered the Muslim commanders to withdraw from all the conquered areas, return the tributes they had previously gathered, and move towards Yarmuk. Heraclius's army also moved towards Yarmuk, but the Muslim armies reached it in early July 636, a week or two before the Byzantines. Khalid's
1081:
Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting became concerned about a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that any attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own
3529:
Most historical accounts state that, among the Rashidun caliphs, Uthman was the first to strike coins; some accounts, however, state that Umar was the first to do so. When Persia was conquered, three types of coins were current there: the Baghli, of eight dang; Tabari of four dang; and Maghribi of
4223:
The Rashidun army was, in quality and strength, below the standard set by the Sasanian and Byzantine armies. Khalid ibn al-Walid was the first general of the Rashidun Caliphate to successfully conquer foreign lands. During his campaign against the Sasanian Empire (Iraq, 633–634) and the Byzantine
3947:
got 4,000. The ordinary Muslim citizens were given allowances of between 2,000 and 2,500. The regular annual allowance was given only to the urban population because they formed the backbone of the state's economic resources. The Bedouin living in the desert, cut off from the state's affairs, and
2220:
was fought. The battle lasted 6 days during which Abu Ubaida transferred the command of the entire army to Khalid. Outnumbered five-to-one, the Muslims nevertheless defeated the Byzantine army in October 636. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high command officers, including Khalid, to decide on
2200:
The prisoners taken in the battle informed them about Emperor Heraclius's plans to take back Syria. They said that an army possibly 200,000 strong would soon emerge to recapture the province. Khalid stopped here on June 636. As soon as Abu Ubaida heard the news of the advancing Byzantine army, he
1473:
After a protest turned into a siege on his house, Uthman refused to initiate any military action, in order to avoid civil war between Muslims and preferred to negotiate a peaceful solution. After the negotiations, the protesters returned but found a man following them, holding an order to execute
3968:
The mosques were not merely places for offering prayers, but also community centers where the faithful gathered to discuss problems of social and cultural importance. During the caliphate of Umar, as many as four thousand mosques were constructed extending from Persia in the east to Egypt in the
3852:
The next question was what system should be adopted for distribution. One suggestion was to distribute it equally on an ad hoc basis. Others objected that, as the spoils were considerable, the proposal would make the people very rich. It was therefore agreed that, instead of ad hoc division, the
3372:
who had committed theft. They asked, "Who will intercede for her with Allah's Apostle?" Some said, "No one dare to do so except Usama bin Zaid the beloved one to Allah's Apostle." When Usama spoke about that to Allah's Apostle Allah's Apostle said: "Do you try to intercede for somebody in a case
1102:
stated that Ali also had support among the Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely. Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance,
3814:
should be levied in such a way so as to avoid hardship, so as not to affect trade within the Caliphate. The tax was levied only on merchandise meant for sale; goods imported for consumption or personal use but not for sale were not taxed. Merchandise valued at 200 dirhams or less was not taxed.
1644:
briefly assumed the caliphate for six months and came to an agreement with Mu'awiya to fix relations between the two groups of Muslims that were each loyal to one of the two men. The treaty stated that Mu'awiya would not name a successor during his reign, and that he would let the Islamic world
3130:
At the time of an officer's appointment, a complete inventory of all his possessions was prepared and kept on record. If there was later an unusual increase in his possessions, he was immediately called to account, and the unlawful property confiscated by the State. The principal officers were
2095:
From Bosra, Khalid sent orders to the other corps commanders to join him at Ajnadayn, where, according to early Muslim historians, a Byzantine army of 90,000 (modern sources state 9,000) was concentrated to push back the Muslims. The Byzantine army was defeated decisively on 30 July 634 in the
3864:
Then the question arose as to what basis should be used for placing some above others. Some suggested that the Caliph should first get the highest allowance, with the remaining allowances graduating downward from that. Umar rejected the proposal and decided to start with the clan of Muhammad.
3088:
Remember, I have not appointed you as commanders and tyrants over the people. I have sent you as leaders instead, so that the people may follow your example. Give the Muslims their rights and do not beat them lest they become abused. Do not praise them unduly, lest they fall into the error of
2465:
The Muslims were assisted by some Copts, who found the Muslims more tolerant than the Byzantines, and of these, some turned to Islam. In return for a tribute of money and food for the occupation troops, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the
7364:
As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the drahms of the Sasanian-style, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic
3868:
Umar set up a committee to compile a list of persons by nearness to Muhammad. The committee produced the list clan-wise. Bani Hashim appeared as the first clan, then the clan of Abu Bakr, and then the clan of Umar. Umar accepted the first two placements but relegated his clan lower on the
2166:
The last large garrison of the Byzantine army was at Fahl, which was joined by survivors of Ajnadayn. With this threat at their rear, the Muslim armies could not move further north nor south. Thus Abu Ubaidah decided to deal with the situation, and defeated and routed this garrison at the
2179:
sent an army to re-capture the city. This army, however, could not make it to Damascus and was intercepted by Abu Ubaidah and Khalid on their way to Emesa. The army was destroyed in the battle of Maraj-al-Rome and the second battle of Damascus. Emesa and the strategic town of
3709:
imposed on able bodied non-Muslim men of military age since non-Muslims did not have to pay zakāt. Slaves, women, children, monks, the old, the sick, hermits and the poor were all exempt. In addition to the exemptions, some needy non-Muslims were given stipends by the state.
1243:. This corps was used to fight the most powerful of the rebel forces. Other corps were given areas of secondary importance in which to bring the less dangerous apostate tribes to submission. Abu Bakr's plan was first to clear Najd and Western Arabia near Medina, then tackle
3076:
The officers were appointed by the Caliph. Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment, an instrument of instructions was issued to regulate the conduct of the governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to assemble the people in the main
2663:. After apprehending a breach of the treaty, the Arabs re-invaded the island in 654 with five hundred ships. This time, however, a garrison of 12,000 men was left in Cyprus, bringing the island under Muslim influence. After leaving Cyprus, the Muslim fleet headed towards
1802:
in the last week of August 633. Returning from Arabia, he received news that a large Persian army was assembling. Within a few weeks, he decided to defeat them piecemeal in order to avoid the risk of defeat by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and
4215:
The basic strategy of early Muslim armies on the campaign was to exploit every possible weakness of the enemy. Their key strength was mobility. The cavalry had both horses and camels, the latter used as both transport and food for long marches through the desert
3228:(1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early Caliphates was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves, although there was no specified procedure for this
3126:
the state became more economically prosperous than ever before; the allowance of the citizens was increased by 25%, and the economic condition of the ordinary person was more stable, which led Caliph Uthman to revoke the second and third postulates of the oath.
2713:(the protected people). Those who accepted Islam were treated in a similar manner to other Muslims and were given equivalent rights in legal matters. Non-Muslims were given legal rights according to their faiths' law except where it conflicted with Islamic law.
2907:
Umar had instructed his successor, Uthman, not to make any change in the administrative setup for one year after his death, which Uthman honored; however, after the expiration of the moratorium, he made Egypt one province and created a new province comprising
690:
clan, who was elected by a six-person committee arranged by Umar. Under Uthman, the caliphate concluded its conquest of Persia in 651 and continued expeditions into the Byzantine territories. During his reign, rebels rose, and he was assassinated in June 656.
997:
of Muhammad, where he foretold that the caliphate after him would last for 30 years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) and would then be followed by kingship (the Umayyad Caliphate was a hereditary monarchy). Furthermore, according to other hadiths in
2225:. The siege of Jerusalem lasted four months, after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to Caliph Umar Ibn Al Khattab in person. Amr ibn Al As suggested that Khalid should be sent as Caliph, because of his very strong resemblance to Caliph Umar.
1885:. After seizing the city, they continued their drive eastwards, following Yazdgird and his remaining troops. Within a short span of time, the Arab armies defeated a major Sasanian counterattack in the Battle of Jalūlā', as well as other engagements at
1093:
Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of Caliph) as a result of Saqifah, though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being
2424:. The imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year or more. However, the Muslims sent for reinforcements, and the invading army, joined by another 12,000 men in 640, defeated a Byzantine army at the
1327:. These were regions of great wealth controlled by powerful states, but the long conflict between Byzantines and Persians had left both sides militarily exhausted, and the Islamic armies easily prevailed against them. By 640, they had brought all of
1176:, the alms tax, without formally challenging Islam. Many tribal leaders made claims to prophethood; some made it during the lifetime of Muhammad. The first incident of apostasy was fought and concluded while Muhammad still lived; a supposed prophet
3165:
were chosen for their integrity and learning in Islamic law. Wealthy men and men of high social status, compensated highly by the Caliphate, were appointed in order to make them resistant to bribery or undue influence based on social position. The
3289:
Al-Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their Islamic responsibilities to the public, the people must obey their laws, but if they become either unjust or severely ineffective then the Caliph or ruler must be impeached via the Majlis al-Shura.
2617:. Each side also agreed to afford free passage to each other through their respective territories. Nubia agreed to provide 360 slaves to Egypt every year, while Egypt agreed to supply grain, horses, and textiles to Nubia according to demand.
1910:. The Rashidun army, under the command of Umar's appointed general Nu'man ibn Muqarrin al-Muzani, attacked and again defeated the Persian forces. The Muslims proclaimed it the Victory of Victories (Fath alfotuh), as it marked the End of the
1585:, a kinsman of Uthman and governor of the province of Syria. However, it is regarded more as an attempt by Mu'awiya to assume the caliphate, rather than to take revenge for Uthman's murder. Ali fought Mu'awiya's forces to a stalemate at the
3135:, during which people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize the chances of corruption, Umar made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff. Provincial governors received as much as five to seven thousand
2597:. The Muslim army pulled out of Nubia with nothing to show for it. Ten years later, Uthman's governor of Egypt, Abdullah ibn Saad, sent another army to Nubia. This army penetrated deeper into Nubia and laid siege to the Nubian capital of
4127:
and his descendants of the divinely ordained right to leadership. In this Shi'ite perspective, many of the companions and their successors were usurpers, even hypocrites, who never ceased to subvert the religion for their own interests.
3770:
usually denoted a lump-sum duty levied upon the conquered provinces and collected by the officials of the former Byzantine and Sasanian empires, or, more broadly, any kind of tax levied by Muslim conquerors on their non-Muslim subjects,
3455:(632–634) established a house where all money was kept on receipt. As all money was distributed immediately, the treasury generally remained locked up; at the time of Abu Bakr's death, there was only one dirham in the public treasury.
3325:
Islamic lawyers have commented that when the rulers refuse to step down via successful impeachment through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, the majority, upon agreement, has the option to launch a
3320:
And they (the sinners on qiyama) will say, "Our Lord! We obeyed our leaders and our chiefs, and they misled us from the right path. Our Lord! Give them (the leaders) double the punishment you give us and curse them with a very great
2201:
gathered all his officers to plan their next move. Khalid suggested that they should consolidate all of their forces present in the province of Syria (Syria, Jordan, Palestine) and then move towards the plain of Yarmouk for battle.
1247:
and his forces between the Najd and al-Bahrayn, and finally concentrate against the most dangerous enemy, Musaylimah and his allies in al-Yamama. After a series of successful campaigns Khalid ibn al-Walid defeated Musaylimah in the
7482:
Ghabban, A.I.I., Translation and concluding remarks by and Hoyland, R., 2008. The inscription of Zuhayr, the oldest Islamic inscription (24 AH/AD 644–645), the rise of the Arabic script and the nature of the early Islamic state 1.
4122:
of the companions, including the Rashidun Caliphs. Many of the Shi'a do not share the Sunni view that the companions were all models of piety, instead accusing many of them of conspiring after the Prophet's death to dispossess
1409:. Ali was from the Banu Hashim clan (the same clan as Muhammad) of the Quraysh tribe, and he was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and had been one of his companions from the inception of his mission. Uthman was from the
2065:
road. At Bosra, the Corps of Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil joined Khalid, upon which, per Abu Bakr's orders, Khalid assumed overall command from Abu Ubaidah. Bosra, caught unprepared, surrendered after a brief siege in July 634
2719:
were allowed to "practice their religion, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy" and were guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, but only in return for paying tax and acknowledging Muslim rule.
4099:
states that "writers who lived at the same time as the first four caliphs ... recorded next to nothing about them, and their names do not appear on coins, inscriptions, or documents. It is only with the fifth caliph",
1964:; these regions were later re-conquered during Uthman's reign with further expansion into the regions which were not conquered during Umar's reign; hence, the Rashidun Caliphate's frontiers in the east extended to the
4104:(661–680), "that was have evidence of a functioning Arab government, since his name appears on all official state media." However, there do exist inscriptions dating to the period, one of which for instance mentions
969:, were his closest companions by association and support and were often highly praised by Muhammad and delegated roles of leadership within the nascent Muslim community. These caliphs are collectively known in
4026:
Military cantonments were constructed at strategic points. Special stables were provided for cavalry, which could accommodate as many as 4,000 horses. Special pasture grounds were provided and maintained for
3254:. At that meeting, Abu Bakr was elected caliph by the Muslim community. Sunni Muslims developed the belief that the caliph is a temporal political ruler, appointed to rule within the bounds of Islamic law (
1837:
Khalid then left Mesopotamia to lead another campaign in Syria against the Byzantine Empire, after which Mithna ibn Haris took command in Mesopotamia. The Persians once again concentrated armies to regain
1458:
Uthman's most lasting project was the final compilation of the Qur'an. Under his authority diacritics were written with Arabic letters so that non-native speakers of Arabic could easily read the Qur'an.
1212:). Many tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance was ended. Caliph Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined an
3860:
there were two opinions. Some held that it should be the same for all Muslims. Umar, on the other hand, believed that the allowance should be graduated according to one's merit with reference to Islam.
2279:
to clear the flank and rear of Byzantine troops. On their way to Antioch, a Roman army blocked them near a river on which there was an iron bridge. Because of this, the following battle is known as the
1862:
in 636. Umar was then able to transfer forces to the east and resume the offensive against the Sasanians. Umar dispatched 36,000 men along with 7500 troops from the Syrian front, under the command of
3477:, sent his revenue to Umar, amounting to five hundred thousand dirhams. Umar summoned a meeting of his Consultative Assembly and sought the opinion of the Companions about the disposal of the money.
1398:
Before Umar died, he appointed a committee of six men to decide on the next caliph and charged them with choosing one of their own numbers. All of the men, like Umar, were from the tribe of Quraysh.
1252:. The Campaign on the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned on 18 March 633 with the Arabian peninsula united under the caliph in Medina.
3449:. Whatever revenues or other amounts were received were distributed immediately. There were no salaries to be paid, and there was no state expenditure, thereby making a public treasury unnecessary.
1184:; he was killed on 30 May 632 (6 Rabi' al-Awwal, 11 Hijri) by Governor Fērōz of Yemen, a Persian Muslim. The news of his death reached Medina shortly after the death of Muhammad. The apostasy of
1794:
in the last week of July 633. By now, almost the whole of Iraq was under Islamic control. Khalid received a call for help from Daumat-ul-jandal in Northern Arabia, where another Muslim general,
1747:
The first Islamic invasion of the Sasanian Empire, launched by Caliph Abu Bakr in 633, was a swift conquest, taking only four months. Abu Bakr sent his general, Khalid ibn al-Walid, to conquer
2466:
observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Others sided with the Byzantines, hoping that they would provide a defense against the Arab invaders. During the reign of
2018:. However, their advance was halted by a concentration of the Byzantine army at Ajnadayn. Abu Ubaidah then sent for reinforcements. Abu Bakr ordered Khalid, who by now was planning to attack
3089:
conceit. Do not keep your doors shut in their faces, lest the more powerful of them eat up the weaker ones. And do not behave as if you were superior to them, for that is tyranny over them.
635:. It was ruled by the first four successive caliphs of Muhammad after his death in 632 CE. During its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in
2675:
and captured a large part of the island. Soon after this, Uthman was murdered, ending his expansionist policy, and the Muslims accordingly retreated from Sicily. In 655 Byzantine Emperor
1268:. Whether or not he intended a full-out imperial conquest is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the
1637:
as part of a Kharijite plot to assassinate all the different Islamic leaders in an attempt to end the civil war, but the Kharijites failed to assassinate Mu'awiya and 'Amr ibn al-'As.
11319:
2412:). The power of the Byzantine Empire was shattered during the Muslim conquest of Syria, and therefore the conquest of Egypt was much easier. In 639 some 4000 Rashidun troops led by
4111:
Hoyland also questions the alleged moral superiority of the Rashidun (or at least of Uthman and Ali) to their Umayyad successors, noting Ali was involved in the first civil war (
5973:
3481:
advised that the amount should be kept for future needs. Walid bin Hisham suggested that, like the Byzantines, separate departments of treasury and accounts should be set up.
4041:, was a nine-mile (14 km) long canal which brought water from the Tigris to Basra. The Maqal canal was also dug from the Tigris. The Amir al-Mu'minin canal, named for a
4250:
up to of their successor states such as the area Transoxiana from area located in between the Jihun River(Oxus/Amu Darya) and Syr Darya, to Sindh (present day Pakistan), by
3806:
was a reciprocal 10% levy on agricultural land as well as merchandise imported from states that taxed the Muslims on their products. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to levy
1542:, a garrison city in Iraq. Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides, such as
7338:
4208:. They also possessed spears and daggers. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to organize the army as a state department, in 637. A beginning was made with the Quraysh and the
1420:, while in the latter half of his reign he met increasing opposition, led by the Egyptians and concentrated around Ali, who would albeit briefly, succeed Uthman as caliph.
1098:, initially refused to acknowledge his authority. Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad. The theologian
737:
in 661 by Mu'awiya. The civil war permanently consolidated the divide between Sunni and Shia Muslims, with Shia Muslims believing Ali to be the first rightful caliph and
4108:
by name and the date of his death, and there were also coins struck during his rule (although as Hoyland notes, they do not bear his name, simply "In the name of God,")
3484:
After consulting the Companions, Umar decided to establish the central Treasury at Medina. Abdullah bin Arqam was appointed as the Treasury Officer. He was assisted by
4053:. During the famine of 639, grain was brought from Egypt to Arabia through this canal, which saved the lives of millions. The Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas canal, named for the
444:
419:
405:
391:
377:
1239:
Abu Bakr planned his strategy accordingly. He divided the Muslim army into several corps. The strongest corps, and the primary force of the Muslims, was the corps of
792:
in the east. The four Rashidun caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body - consisting of prominent members of the high-ranking companions of the Prophet - called
3445:) was the department that dealt with the revenues and all other economic matters of the state. In the time of Muhammad, there was no permanent Bait-ul-Mal or public
2348:
to enter into negotiations with Muawiyah. The truce that followed allowed a short respite and made it possible for Constans II to hold on to the western portions of
2155:
to the overall command of the Muslim armies. The conquest of Syria slowed down under him while he relied heavily on the advice of Khalid, who he kept close at hand.
2175:; Yazid was stationed in Damascus while Amr and Shurhabil marched south to capture Palestine. While the Muslims were at Fahl, sensing the weak defense of Damascus,
1822:. These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Iraq. In December 633, Khalid reached the border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the
9470:
2288:
surrendered on 30 October 637 CE. Later during the year, Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Iyad ibn Ghanm at the head of two separate armies against the western part of
3977:
were enlarged first during the reign of Umar and then during the reign of Uthman ibn Affan, who not only expanded them but also beautified them on a large scale.
2639:
but Umar rejected the proposal because of the risk to the soldiers. Once Uthman became caliph, however, he approved Muawiyah's request. In 650, Muawiyah attacked
11314:
9352:
8720:
2737:, which were also provided 'protection' by the Caliphate and were not expected to fight. Sometimes, particularly when there were not enough qualified Muslims,
1645:
choose the next leader (this treaty would later be broken by Mu'awiya as he named his son Yazid I successor). Hasan was assassinated, and Mu'awiya founded the
1574:. Ali emerged victoriously and the dispute was settled. The eminent companions of Muhammad, Talha, and Zubayr, were killed in the battle and Ali sent his son
2521:
Uthman gave him permission after considering it in the Majlis al-Shura. A force of 10,000 soldiers was sent as reinforcement. The Rashidun army assembled in
1478:. It was later discovered that the order to kill the rebels did not, in fact, originate from Uthman, but was, rather, part of a conspiracy to overthrow him.
1810:
In November 633, Khalid divided his army into three units, and attacked these auxiliaries one by one from three different sides at night, starting with the
7667:
9337:
2647:, after a brief siege, but signed a treaty with the local rulers. During this expedition, a relative of Muhammad, Umm-Haram, fell from her mule near the
2240:
and reached Qasreen before Abu Ubaidah. The city surrendered to Khalid, and soon after, Abu Ubaidah arrived in June 637. Abu Ubaidah then moved against
62:
5966:
1870:
followed, with the Persians prevailing at first, but, on the third day of fighting, the Muslims gained the upper hand. The legendary Persian general
3270:. The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun, meaning the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the
11334:
9436:
7543:
1342:
While the caliphate continued its rapid expansion, Umar laid the foundations of a political structure that could hold it together. He created the
3853:
amount of the allowance to the stipend should be determined beforehand and this allowance should be paid regardless of the amount of the spoils.
1284:, but the decisive operation was only undertaken when Khalid, after completing the conquest of Iraq, was transferred to the Syrian front in 634.
1280:. He sent general Khalid ibn al-Walid to invade the Sassanian Empire in 633. He thereafter also sent four armies to invade the Roman province of
1086:, would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion,
6404:
Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb; Johannes Hendrik Kramers; Bernard Lewis; Charles Pellat; Joseph Schacht (1970). "The Encyclopaedia of Islam".
11344:
3400:, kinship or prejudice. There were also a number of cases where caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to deliver their verdict.
2447:, and the incompetence of the Byzantine generals, as well as the loss of most of the Byzantine troops in Syria. Cyrus had persecuted the local
1684:
to the invading Rashidun army, although the civil wars among the Muslims halted the war of conquest for many years, and this gave time for the
1413:
clan of the Quraysh. He was the second cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and one of the early converts of Islam. Uthman was ultimately chosen.
10108:
3655:, that over a certain amount unused for a year) to give to the poor. All and only those persons whose annual wealth exceeded a minimum level (
2458:
In 645, during Uthman's reign, the Byzantines briefly regained Alexandria, but it was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by
965:
Notably, according to Sunnis, all four Rashidun Caliphs were connected to Muhammad through marriage, were early converts to Islam, were among
5959:
2034:
6392:
He also foretold that there would be a caliphate for thirty years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) that would be followed by kingship.
3948:
making no contributions to development, were nevertheless often given stipends. On assuming office, Uthman increased these stipends by 25%.
11339:
6420:
3572:
were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist
396:
3286:
or remove rulers in the Caliphate. This is usually when the rulers are not meeting public responsibilities obliged upon them under Islam.
2002:
After Khalid consolidated his control of Iraq, Abu Bakr sent four armies to Syria on the Byzantine front under four different commanders:
1889:, and Masabadhan. By the mid-7th century, the Arabs controlled all of Mesopotamia, including the area that is now the Iranian province of
9367:
3306:
upon the people if the caliph began to act with no regard for Islamic law. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani said that to ignore such a situation is
2518:
sent raiding parties to the west, resulting in considerable booty and encouraging Sa'ad to propose a campaign to conquer the Exarchate.
2404:
In 639, Egypt was a prefecture of the Byzantine Empire. However, it had been occupied just a decade before by the Sasanian Empire under
8242:
7406:
Shadi Hamid (August 2003), "An Islamic Alternative? Equality, Redistributive Justice, and the Welfare State in the Caliphate of Umar",
7298:
4069:. This proposal, however, did not materialize due to unknown reasons, and it was 1200 years later that such a canal was dug—the modern
1497:
7603:
7572:
1775:, fought in mid-May of 633. In the last week of May 633, the capital city of Iraq fell to the Muslims after initial resistance in the
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6864:
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Demands to take revenge for the assassination of Caliph Uthman rose among parts of the population, and a large army of rebels led by
9458:
7528:
Zaman, M.Q., 1998. Sectarianism in Pakistan: The radicalization of Shi‘i and Sunni identities. Modern Asian Studies, 32(3), p. 691.
2655:
and was killed. She was buried in that same spot, which became a holy site for many local Muslims and Christians and, in 1816, the
3294:
argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler that deviates from this goal must be impeached. Al-Ghazali believed that
9421:
9342:
3170:
also were not allowed to engage in trade. Judges were appointed in sufficient numbers to staff every district with at least one.
7167:
11294:
11249:
9362:
8310:
6827:
3746:
represented war booty, four-fifths of which was distributed among serving soldiers, while one-fifth was allotted to the state.
2444:
2439:
The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the Byzantine Empire appears to have been due to the treachery of
1107:
which may have involved violence. However, after six months the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty.
1416:
Uthman reigned for twelve years as a caliph. During the first half of his reign, he was the most popular caliph among all the
11254:
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on 23 January 635, which proved to be the "Key to Palestine". After this battle Abu Ubaidah and Khalid marched north towards
1066:
clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the
729:, who were former supporters of Ali, rebelled against both Ali and Mu'awiya after refusing to accept the arbitration in the
7421:
2448:
10967:
3651:) is the Islamic equivalent of a luxury tax. It was taken from the Muslims in the amount of 2.5% of their dormant wealth (
3139:
annually besides their share of the spoils of war (if they were also the commander-in-chief of the army of their sector).
11289:
4242:
The early caliphate naval conquest managed to mark long time legacy of Islamic maritime enterprises from the Conquest of
3815:
Imports by citizens for trade purposes were subject to the customs duty or import tax at lower rates. In the case of the
1920:
was unable to raise another army and became a hunted fugitive. In 642 Umar sent the army to conquer the remainder of the
966:
590:
7145:
3956:
The evaluation greatly contributed to the prosperity of the citizens as trade increased, and their contributions to the
3392:
later formulated the concept of the rule of law, the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of the land. A
1874:
was killed during the battle. According to some sources, the Persian losses were 20,000, and the Arabs lost 10,500 men.
1854:
in which Abu Ubayd was killed. The response was delayed until after a decisive Muslim victory against the Romans in the
1717:
1339:
under the control of the Rashidun Caliphate; Egypt was conquered by 642, and almost the entire Sassanian Empire by 643.
11304:
11113:
10113:
2626:
1743:
in margin/ Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames; date to left, mint name to right.
1451:
was raided in 652. The Rashidun army fully conquered the Sasanian Empire, and its eastern frontiers extended up to the
11309:
11284:
9757:
9224:
9178:
8838:
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8178:
8103:
8082:
7989:
7877:
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7785:
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6241:
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4139:
The Rashidun Military was the primary arm of the Islamic armed forces of the seventh century, serving alongside the
3469:
In the time of Umar, things changed. With each conquest, revenue increased. Umar also granted salaries to the army.
2316:, which were all conquered by Khalid in the autumn of 638 CE. During Uthman's reign, the Byzantines recaptured many
2022:, to march from Iraq to Syria with half his army. There were 2 major routes to Syria from Iraq, one passing through
11269:
9095:
8951:
8486:
8382:
6403:
3992:. These cities were laid out according to the principles of urban planning. All streets in these cities led to the
1144:
Troubles emerged soon after Muhammad's death, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state.
11264:
10739:
9579:
9395:
6837:
6703:
6063:
4925:
1823:
1657:
The Rashidun Caliphate expanded steadily; within the span of 24 years, a vast territory was conquered comprising
9901:
7675:
6460:
4224:
Empire (Syria, 634–638), Khalid developed brilliant tactics that he used effectively against both enemy armies.
2801:
Under Abu Bakr, the empire was not clearly divided into provinces, though it had many administrative districts.
2143:
1790:, and eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in July 633. Khalid then moved towards the south, and
11329:
9644:
9202:
9100:
8235:
8137:
8021:
6733:
5605:
3312:, and those who cannot revolt inside the caliphate should launch a struggle from outside. Al-Asqalani used two
3258:, the rules of life set by Allah in the Qur'an). The job of adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law was left to
2676:
2459:
725:), who believed that Uthman's murderers should be punished immediately. Additionally, a third faction known as
7267:"The Muslims Internet Directory: e Process of Choosing the Leader (Caliph) of the Muslims: The Muslim Khilafa"
4157:
1755:. After entering Iraq with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the
147:
11279:
11177:
9012:
8771:
8506:
7436:
Shahid Alam, Articulating Group Differences: A Variety of Autocentrisms, Journal of Science and Society, 2003
4604:
4505:
3882:
2840:
1986:
8145:
5170:
4131:
The stark differences in these two views has led to sectarian tension that has even culminated in violence.
3576:(Algazel, 1058–1111), the government was also expected to stockpile food supplies in every region in case a
2462:
was repulsed. After this, no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country.
2320:
in the region and on Uthman's orders, a series of campaigns were launched to regain control of them. In 647
11299:
11172:
11056:
9564:
9541:
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against them. Many noted that this option is only exercised after factoring in the potential cost of life.
2671:
and conquered them without much resistance. From 652 to 654, the Muslims launched a naval campaign against
2363:
in Turkey marked the western frontiers of the Rashidun Caliphate in Anatolia during Caliph Uthman's reign.
3663:
did not include one's primary residence, primary transportation, a moderate amount of woven jewelry, etc.
3499:
11324:
11239:
11182:
10219:
9666:
9531:
9347:
9115:
8908:
8343:
6208:
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shields were also used as protection in combat. The soldiers were usually equipped with swords hung in a
2557:. When the stipulated amount of the tribute was paid, the Muslim forces withdrew to Barqa. Following the
1104:
5100:
11259:
9426:
9309:
8826:
8303:
8013:
7539:
7383:
1799:
7910:"Reformasi Sistem Administrasi Pemerintahan, Penakhlukkan di Darat Dan Dilautan Pada Era Bani Umayyah"
2995:. Each of the 100 or more districts of the empire, along with the main cities, were administered by a
2988:), the remaining ten provinces were under his control, with no change in administrative organization.
2256:
1867:
674:
clan. Under Umar, the caliphate expanded at an unprecedented rate, ruling more than two-thirds of the
11140:
10288:
9852:
9506:
9207:
9036:
8732:
8512:
8475:
8228:
6421:"The Khilaafah Lasted for 30 Years Then There Was Kingship Which Allaah Gives To Whomever He Pleases"
6137:
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three dang. Umar (or Uthman, according to some accounts) first struck an Islamic dirham of six dang.
2281:
2152:
2003:
1697:
1316:
1087:
246:
7890:
Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God [2 volumes]
2420:. The Rashidun army crossed into Egypt from Palestine in December 639 and advanced rapidly into the
2385:
11098:
11073:
10923:
10582:
10577:
9661:
9390:
9214:
8987:
8525:
7869:
7835:
6125:
5849:
4061:, the governor of Egypt during the reign of Umar, even proposed the digging of a canal to join the
3699:
3239:
3069:
In some districts there were separate military officers, though the governor was in most cases the
2606:
2538:
2372:
2229:
2109:
1882:
1616:
1324:
1320:
937:
6605:, Volume 4, ed. William Bayne Fisher, Richard Nelson Frye (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 5–6.
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3721:
was the income from State land, whether an agricultural land or a meadow or land with any natural
11165:
11046:
10587:
10540:
10483:
10182:
10126:
9874:
9524:
8398:
6759:
5595:
4073:. Shuaibia was the port for Mecca, but it was inconvenient, so Uthman had a new seaport built at
4038:
4037:
were dug to irrigate fields as well as provide drinking water. The Abu Musa canal, named for the
3932:
3845:
3533:
2594:
2271:
Abu Ubaidah and Khalid ibn al-Walid, after conquering all of northern Syria, moved north towards
1863:
1846:
to delay war until reinforcement came from Medina. Umar sent reinforcements under the command of
1468:
1372:
1269:
1003:
906:
583:
283:
8552:
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and the system was gradually extended to the whole of Arabia and to Muslims of conquered lands.
3489:
salaries and stipends charged to the central treasury amounted to over 30 million dirhams.
2104:
between the Muslims and Byzantines and cleared the way for the former to capture central Syria.
1359:
With the bounty secured from conquest, Umar was able to support its faith in material ways: the
1231:
646:
The caliphate arose following Muhammad’s passing in June 632 and the subsequent debate over the
528:
11187:
11088:
11083:
10771:
10719:
10639:
10572:
10476:
10461:
10354:
10121:
10075:
9916:
9803:
9676:
9605:
9574:
9514:
8496:
8491:
8409:
5700:
5645:
4494:
4263:
2151:
On 22 August 634, Abu Bakr died, making Umar his successor. As Umar became caliph, he restored
1356:. These new posts were integral to the efficient network of taxation that financed the empire.
1312:
1281:
1114:
1024:
745:
738:
663:
647:
617:
233:
7888:
6489:
6099:
2733:
The Rashidun caliphs had placed special emphasis on relatively fair and just treatment of the
1680:, the Byzantines, after losing Syria, retreated back to Anatolia. As a result, they also lost
1006:, towards the end times, the Rightly Guided Caliphate will be restored once again by God. The
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9820:
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5660:
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2984:'s control) and Egypt (lost during the latter years of his caliphate to the rebel troops of
1899:
1702:
1371:
While Umar was leading the morning prayers in 644, he was assassinated by the Persian slave
11211:
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a consensus was reached to distribute whatever was received during a year to the citizens.
3841:
3485:
2781:
2425:
2405:
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2015:
2011:
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Following this Battle, the Arab Muslim armies pushed forward toward the Persian capital of
1851:
1847:
1798:, was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid diverted there and defeated the rebels in the
297:
10991:
7274:
7175:
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6980:
6956:
6936:
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6900:
6876:
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2455:, a seventh-century heresy, and some supposed him to have been a secret convert to Islam.
1991:
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8:
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10903:
10783:
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9110:
8607:
8404:
6337:
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5924:
4935:
4515:
4247:
4042:
3876:
3396:(Islamic judge) was also not allowed to discriminate on the grounds of religion, gender,
2753:
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2542:
2503:
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2085:
1707:
1626:
1571:
1510:
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and the other through Daumat ul-Jandal. Khalid took an unconventional route through the
1235:
Tombs of caliphs: Abu Bakr and Umar (right), Medina, present-day Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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10996:
10979:
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10795:
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8152:. Brussels: Éditions de l'Institut de philologie et d'histoire orientales. p. 90.
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3412:
3404:
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2470:, Egypt was captured by rebel troops under the command of former Rashidun army general
2097:
1787:
1594:
1554:
1547:
1393:
1336:
1244:
901:
870:
863:) to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view. This term is not used by
576:
5220:
2561:, the first Islamic civil war, Muslim forces withdrew from north Africa to Egypt. The
2292:, most of which was conquered without strong resistance, including parts of Anatolia,
1423:
Despite internal troubles, Uthman continued the wars of conquest started by Umar. The
733:. The war led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the
11125:
11021:
10957:
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caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body consisting of prominent members of the
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2765:
2656:
2648:
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1961:
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Thereafter, there rose another cry for revenge for the blood of Uthman, this time by
1436:
1149:
1095:
757:
734:
538:
533:
510:
505:
500:
437:
7237:
The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis,
6855:
A. I. Alkram. "Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains – Chapter 26: The Last Opposition".
6841:
6291:
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his reign, at the time of appointment, every officer was required to swear an oath:
993:). According to Sunni Muslims, the term Rashidun Caliphate is derived from a famous
10974:
10761:
10756:
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10699:
10629:
10597:
10592:
10456:
10451:
10433:
10394:
10327:
10310:
10251:
10241:
10236:
10177:
10133:
10103:
10063:
10046:
10029:
9992:
9743:
9686:
9671:
9431:
9136:
8858:
8796:
8786:
8776:
8761:
8567:
8470:
8442:
8330:
8170:
8113:
7955:
7921:
7807:
6823:
6149:
6133:
6072:
5894:
5890:
5879:
5860:
5525:
5505:
5485:
5405:
5200:
5080:
5005:
4995:
4945:
4875:
4775:
4725:
4520:
4255:
3970:
3478:
3397:
3123:
2959:
2915:
During Uthman's reign the caliphate was divided into twelve provinces. These were:
2541:, the Exarchate was defeated and Gregory was killed due to the superior tactics of
2360:
2305:
2261:
2124:
1929:
1894:
1819:
1811:
1772:
1764:
1756:
1685:
1621:
1586:
1261:
1249:
999:
730:
675:
640:
543:
11192:
11160:
11033:
11001:
10984:
10940:
10935:
10913:
10908:
10866:
10859:
10834:
10694:
10689:
10530:
10411:
10305:
10300:
10268:
10093:
10083:
9977:
9970:
9965:
9950:
9906:
9788:
9774:
9612:
9319:
9264:
9064:
8750:
8710:
8661:
8613:
8387:
8117:
8093:
8053:
8032:
8007:
7863:
7841:
The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text
7839:
7775:
7568:
7425:
7199:
6330:
6028:
5830:
5800:
5565:
5555:
5465:
5445:
5335:
5270:
5230:
5210:
5120:
5045:
5035:
5025:
4985:
4955:
4895:
4885:
4765:
4715:
4527:
4421:
3974:
3195:
2644:
2389:
2329:
2237:
2070:
1911:
1881:(also called Madā'in in Arabic), which was quickly evacuated by Yazdgird after a
1831:
1815:
1768:
1760:
1670:
1543:
1311:, which later became the standard title of caliphs. The new caliph continued the
1277:
1265:
890:
801:
781:
687:
679:
608:
410:
382:
36:
10614:
7417:
6486:
Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God
3298:
by a caliph is enough for impeachment. Rather than just relying on impeachment,
3122:
Caliph Umar himself followed the above postulates strictly. During the reign of
2356:, but this plan was not carried out due to the civil war that broke out in 656.
1224:, community) of which he was the new head. The result of this situation was the
1110:
480:
11135:
11130:
11093:
11068:
11051:
10962:
10947:
10918:
10876:
10724:
10684:
10679:
10634:
10560:
10520:
10510:
10500:
10315:
10194:
10088:
9955:
9837:
9724:
9451:
9304:
9146:
8848:
6058:
6054:
5905:
5815:
5759:
5535:
5425:
5355:
5055:
4196:), the one under the main one being shorter or even made of fabric or leather.
4020:
3944:
3900:
3893:
3416:
3343:
3099:
2964:
2706:
2660:
2530:
2353:
2186:
2168:
2101:
2089:
1921:
1843:
1827:
1795:
1776:
1722:
1593:, pronouncing his support for Mu'awiya. After this Ali was forced to fight the
1197:
1063:
7959:
7811:
7153:
744:
The Rashidun Caliphate is characterized by a twenty-five-year period of rapid
11233:
11216:
11103:
10898:
10871:
10844:
10822:
10800:
10567:
10550:
10535:
10379:
10332:
10320:
10246:
10138:
10012:
10007:
9982:
9864:
9627:
9464:
9314:
8853:
8816:
8791:
8676:
8157:
8149:
7926:
7909:
5785:
5290:
5150:
4634:
4630:
4299:
4209:
4182:
4152:
4062:
3993:
3889:
3819:, the rate was 5% and, in the case of the Muslims, 2.5%, the same as that of
3585:
2949:
2944:
2896:
2860:
2854:
2471:
2413:
2317:
2027:
2007:
1917:
1886:
1711:
1641:
1575:
1424:
1192:, who arose before Muhammad's death; other centers of the rebels were in the
1039:
925:
765:
753:
715:
10644:
10624:
6284:
6076:
4658:
3238:
has said that the leader of the Muslims should simply be from the majority.
1260:
After Abu Bakr unified Arabia under Islam, he began the incursions into the
756:
numbered more than 100,000 men at its peak. By the 650s, in addition to the
11108:
10849:
10839:
10805:
10734:
10729:
10656:
10446:
10428:
10389:
10384:
10364:
10359:
10231:
10224:
10214:
10209:
10204:
10098:
10036:
10017:
10002:
9938:
9714:
9639:
9299:
9151:
9029:
8745:
8649:
8637:
8351:
7943:
6129:
5789:
5260:
5015:
3980:
During the caliphate of Umar, many new cities were founded. These included
3872:
The main provisions of the final scale of allowance approved by Umar were:
3784:
3369:
3282:
Sunni Islamic lawyers have commented on when it is permissible to disobey,
3235:
3046:
2909:
2769:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2297:
2206:
2120:
2050:
1842:, while Mithna ibn Haris withdrew from central Iraq to the region near the
1783:
1606:
1515:
1428:
1181:
864:
851:) means "rightly-guided". The reign of these four caliphs is considered in
785:
769:
566:
7608:
The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State
7577:
The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State
6059:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"
4192:. There are also references to the practice of wearing two coats of mail (
3377:, the daughter of Muhammad (my daughter) stole, I would cut off her hand."
2228:
Khalid was recognized and eventually, Caliph Umar ibn Al Khattab came and
2216:
Nothing further happened until the third week of August, during which the
1893:. It is said that Caliph Umar did not wish to send his troops through the
10827:
10812:
10661:
10374:
10283:
10273:
10199:
9847:
9842:
9276:
8766:
8705:
8632:
8519:
8203:
7859:
5649:
5415:
5325:
5110:
4965:
4915:
4616:
4112:
3512:
3470:
3464:
3433:
3408:
3353:
3283:
3221:
2878:
2874:
2749:
2558:
2452:
2432:, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. The
2345:
2038:
2030:, and after a perilous march of 5 days, appeared in north-western Syria.
2023:
1937:
1933:
1839:
1748:
1658:
1589:, and then lost a controversial arbitration that ended with the arbiter,
1492:
1328:
1161:
970:
959:
882:
852:
749:
707:
699:
310:
269:
8077:. Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford University Press.
7819:
7795:
4485:
4412:
4337:
2352:. In 654–655, on the orders of Uthman, an expedition prepared to attack
666:. His brief reign ended in August 634 when he died and was succeeded by
10854:
10671:
10545:
10505:
10438:
9569:
8666:
8641:
7999:
In God's Path: the Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire
6084:
5935:
5575:
5545:
5375:
5180:
4745:
4356:
4201:
4119:
4101:
4070:
3921:
3885:, the uncle of Muhammad, received an annual allowance of 7,000 dirhams;
3703:
3573:
3569:
3516:
3327:
3295:
3291:
2981:
2954:
2904:
2892:
2632:
2549:
sued for peace, agreeing to pay an annual tribute. Instead of annexing
2429:
2421:
2409:
2325:
2324:, the governor of Syria, sent an expedition against Anatolia, invading
2321:
2147:
Syrian tile panel (c. 1600) with the names of the four Rashidun Caliphs
2074:
1949:
1804:
1752:
1734:
1726:
1634:
1598:
1582:
1225:
1189:
1177:
928:
debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the
918:
789:
726:
711:
424:
7967:
7168:"John, Bishop of Nikiu: Chronicle. London (1916). English Translation"
10744:
10515:
10399:
10369:
10150:
10024:
9815:
9284:
8715:
8530:
7238:
5920:
5875:
5845:
5770:
5755:
5160:
5130:
4975:
4735:
4675:
4368:
4361:
4267:
4189:
4007:
quarters, government offices and residences for officers were sited.
3504:
3303:
3026:
3013:
2848:
2635:, sent a request to build a naval force to invade the islands of the
2614:
2602:
2526:
2222:
2176:
2132:
2057:
were the first to fall to the invading Muslims. Khalid marched on to
2019:
1969:
1890:
1878:
1807:
Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni, and Muzieh.
1475:
1432:
1185:
1071:
655:
636:
628:
463:
140:
86:
8196:"The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth"
3766:
Initially, after the first Muslim conquests in the seventh century,
1733:) mint. Dated YE 25 = AH 36 (AD 656). Sasanian style bust imitating
855:
to have been 'rightly-guided', meaning that it constitutes a model (
10145:
9928:
9886:
9825:
9617:
9123:
8981:
8933:
8727:
8681:
8645:
8370:
8262:
8220:
8144:. Corpus Bruxellense Historiae Byzantinae (in French). French ed.:
6705:
Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History: The Rashidun Caliphs
5704:
5475:
5435:
5385:
5345:
5250:
4905:
4855:
4755:
4443:
4375:
On 23 August 634, Abu Bakr fell sick and he developed a high fever.
4313:
4291:
4178:
4166:
3577:
3565:
3452:
3446:
3357:
3263:
3179:
3056:
3023:
2996:
2992:
2805:
2620:
2578:
2490:
2301:
2272:
2210:
2136:
2105:
2062:
1953:
1730:
1677:
1666:
1610:
1417:
1172:. In some cases, entire tribes apostatized. Others merely withheld
1165:
1145:
975:
941:
914:
835:
671:
651:
632:
166:
6236:(illustrated ed.). Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd. p. 37.
3496:, which, in large cities, was protected by as many as 400 guards.
2776:
2573:
2115:
10058:
9987:
9943:
9798:
9632:
9238:
8926:
8806:
8698:
8691:
8686:
8428:
8200:
Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shi'i Practice and Thought
6353:
Muslim Nationhood in India: Perceptions of Seven Eminent Thinkers
6160:
5864:
5774:
5744:
5679:
5515:
5495:
5455:
5365:
5300:
5090:
4705:
4587:
4205:
4197:
4170:
4162:
4066:
4050:
3787:
paid by dhimmis. Muslim landowners, on the other hand, paid only
3722:
3537:
3520:
3474:
3374:
3259:
3251:
3183:
3149:
3036:
2980:
During Ali's reign, with the exception of Syria (which was under
2974:
2652:
2598:
2534:
2511:
2495:
2433:
2417:
2349:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2313:
2285:
2265:
2181:
2054:
1957:
1903:
1738:
1410:
1083:
1028:
1007:
945:
886:
867:, who reject the rule of the first three caliphs as illegitimate.
777:
9859:
8122:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 268.
7046:
The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns
3492:
A separate building was constructed for the royal treasury, the
3001:
2196:
Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of northern Syria
1932:(which included the modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern
741:
after Muhammad, favouring his bloodline connection to Muhammad.
9891:
9766:
9156:
9130:
9089:
9050:
8967:
8880:
8801:
8656:
8602:
8597:
8364:
8288:
8272:
6619:
Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict
6290:(illustrated, annotated ed.). Marshall Cavendish. p.
5939:
5819:
5675:
4685:
4633:
in 661. He ruled for five to six months and then abdicated for
4461:
4243:
4074:
3989:
3772:
3755:
3581:
3541:
3349:
3339:
3308:
3271:
3136:
3078:
2919:
2844:
2820:
2757:
2700:
2687:) but it was defeated: both sides suffered heavy losses in the
2680:
2672:
2668:
2640:
2309:
2293:
2241:
2209:
defeated the Christian Arab auxiliaries of the Roman army in a
2162:
Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of central Syria
2042:
1996:
1945:
1855:
1662:
1602:
1535:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1402:
1376:
1365:
1360:
1303:) as his successor. Upon his accession, Umar adopted the title
1292:
Before dying in August 634 from an illness, Abu Bakr appointed
1157:
994:
929:
922:
858:
761:
683:
659:
345:
193:
112:
96:
68:
8142:
Byzance et les Arabes, Tome I: La dynastie d'Amorium (820–867)
7780:, Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press,
6380:. Sira: Companion- versus Caliph-Oriented History: Routledge.
4003:
Many buildings were built for administrative purposes. In the
10525:
9405:
9230:
9184:
9172:
8974:
8960:
8919:
8592:
8449:
8435:
8356:
8319:
7573:"Chapter Seven: Weapons and equipment in early Muslim armies"
6575:
Citizenship in the Arab World: Kin, Religion and Nation-state
6205:
Indonesia, Islam, and Democracy: Dynamics in a Global Context
5997:
5909:
5664:
5634:
4346:
4092:
4034:
3985:
3792:
3734:
3680:
3656:
3637:
3389:
3365:
3267:
3229:
3189:
2969:
2939:
2929:
2924:
2870:
2864:
2830:
2816:
2761:
2726:
2684:
2664:
2586:
2522:
2397:
2393:
2260:
Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn al-Walid's invasion of
2172:
2058:
1965:
1681:
1566:
1562:
1502:
1452:
1343:
1332:
1214:
1173:
1153:
1075:
1067:
795:
773:
682:. Umar was assassinated in November 644 and was succeeded by
130:
7702:
6231:
2233:
sent to Hazir and Abu Ubaidah moved to the city of Qasreen.
67:
The Rashidun Caliphate at its greatest extent, under Caliph
9071:
9043:
8993:
8940:
8885:
8456:
8267:
7690:
7635:
6674:. 3. Arab Renaissance House – Beirut, Lebanon. p. 370.
5804:
4386:
4105:
4046:
4016:
3981:
3393:
3313:
3157:
3132:
2934:
2884:
2834:
2826:
2785:
2610:
2276:
2244:, with Khalid, as usual, commanding the cavalry. After the
1925:
1907:
1782:
After resting his armies, Khalid moved in June 633 towards
1539:
1435:
and even raided Spain, conquering the coastal areas of the
1348:
1293:
1273:
1193:
1169:
933:
881:, imitating Byzantine coins, featuring a Byzantine figure (
703:
667:
181:
101:
9735:
8009:
The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate
7714:
3161:(judges) were appointed at all administrative levels. The
2589:
during the Caliphate of Umar in 642, but failed after the
1010:
believe the first three caliphs to be legitimate leaders.
714:
was unrecognized by Uthman's kinsman and Syria's governor
8277:
7726:
7367:
https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-
6792:
6101:
Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective
4561:
4545:
3706:
3553:
3250:
Following the death of Muhammad, a meeting took place at
2479:
2467:
1524:
1506:
1406:
695:
205:
11320:
States and territories disestablished in the 7th century
7250:
6124:
3411:
were replaced by a law governed by the state due to the
3386:
were suspended until the effects of the drought passed.
3242:
also wrote that the leader must come from the majority.
2609:. As the Muslims were unable to overpower Makuria, they
2436:
seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition.
1070:
among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the
7887:
Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (25 April 2014).
7750:
7738:
7647:
6685:
6683:
6681:
6665:
6663:
6661:
6659:
6657:
6655:
3081:, and read the instrument of instructions before them.
2502:
After the withdrawal of the Byzantines from Egypt, the
2381:
Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of Egypt
1995:
Map detailing the Rashidun Caliphate's invasion of the
1078:), though this has later become the subject of debate.
1038:
After Muhammad's death in June 632, a gathering of the
6640:
6378:
Medieval Islamic Historiography: Remembering Rebellion
6257:
Anheier, Helmut K.; Juergensmeyer, Mark, eds. (2012).
6128:; Marín, Manuela; Ayalon, A. (1960–2007). "Shūrā". In
4091:
Some secular scholars have questioned the traditional
4077:. Uthman also reformed the city's police departments.
3118:
That he would always keep his door open to the public.
2510:, its dominions extended from the borders of Egypt to
1565:, set out to fight the perpetrators. The army reached
1534:) was elected caliph by the rebels and townspeople of
1128: Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661
6804:
6172:
3584:
occurred. The Caliphate was thus one of the earliest
3407:, the legal scholars and jurists who once upheld the
2605:
in the center of the city, but Makuria also won this
2416:
were sent by Umar to conquer the land of the ancient
2248:
the city finally agreed to surrender in October 637.
1850:. This army was defeated by the Sasanian army at the
1134: Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750
932:
while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial.
7444:
7442:
6780:
6678:
6652:
6637:, Vol. 1, ed. Stanley Sandler (ABC-CLIO, 2002), 458.
6256:
4565:
4476:
4402:
4328:
3368:: The people of Quraish worried about the lady from
3187:
1975:
1834:. This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq.
1523:
Following Uthman's assassination, Muhammad's cousin
1304:
987:
856:
841:
833:
793:
622:
44:
7946:(October 1972). "The Murder of the Caliph Uthman".
7865:
Muhammad and the Believers, at the Origins of Islam
6478:
6184:
3262:, judiciary, or specialists individually termed as
2804:Under Umar the Empire was divided into a number of
1315:begun by his predecessor, pushing further into the
948:soon following suit. Abu Bakr adopted the title of
8167:Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights
7796:"Arab Attacks on Rhodes in the Pre-Ottoman Period"
6438:
6355:. Kanishka Publishers, Distributors. p. 173.
6329:
6283:
3591:
3173:
3084:Umar's general instructions to his officers were:
2741:were given important positions in the government.
2691:, and the emperor himself narrowly avoided death.
1767:, fought in May 633 (where he successfully used a
1691:
1255:
313:(internal conflict) ends after Hasan's abdication
7886:
7439:
7035:
7033:
6536:
6524:
6375:
4534:Assassinated at the end of a siege upon his house
3131:required to come to Mecca on the occasion of the
2694:
2568:
11231:
7610:. London: Routledge. p. 183. Archived from
7604:"Chapter Eight: Fortification and siege warfare"
7579:. London: Routledge. p. 168. Archived from
7371:
6757:
6281:
6033:. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 126–132.
4161:Rashidun soldier wears an iron-bronze helmet, a
3906:Those who had become Muslims by the time of the
3458:
3005:). Other officers at the provincial level were:
2709:, and Christians—in conquered lands were called
2621:Conquest of the islands of the Mediterranean Sea
1401:The committee narrowed down the choices to two:
7204:. Princeton University Press. pp. 10, 20.
7078:. The Sword of Allah. p. 1. Archived from
6594:
6592:
6327:
3795:, which carried a much lower rate of taxation.
3525:on their coins, instead of designing a new one.
2679:led a fleet in person to attack the Muslims at
2553:, the Muslims preferred to make North Africa a
2236:Khalid defeated a strong Byzantine army at the
2189:and eventually captured the city in March 636.
1914:, shattering the last strongest Sasanian army.
1609:, the coastal areas of Spain and some forts in
11315:States and territories established in the 630s
7777:A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period
7563:
7561:
7506:
7490:
7030:
6672:First Islamic Arab State (1–41 AH/ 623–661 CE)
6202:
6053:
3943:received an allowance of 3,000 dirhams, while
3403:According to Noah Feldman, a law professor at
2284:. The Muslim army defeated the Byzantines and
2185:and Chalcis, they marched against Emesa, laid
1980:
9751:
8304:
8236:
7460:
6635:Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia
5967:
4057:, brought water to Anbar from the Euphrates.
3835:
2529:, and from there they marched west, captured
2506:declared its independence. Under its exarch,
1763:, fought in the third week of April 633; the
1721:Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate. Imitation of
1018:
706:. Ali presided over the civil war called the
584:
334:6,400,000 km (2,500,000 sq mi)
11208:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy
7948:International Journal of Middle East Studies
7567:
7336:
7287:Sahih Bukhari, Volume 4, Book 56, Number 681
7146:"Catholic Encyclopedia: Cyrus of Alexandria"
7076:Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns
7025:Yarmuk 636 AD – The Muslim Conquest of Syria
6857:Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns
6589:
6569:
6567:
6565:
6563:
6466:
4552:
4468:
4393:
4320:
4011:were constructed to house official records.
3913:Those who became Muslims at the time of the
3693:
3646:
3115:That he would not keep a porter at his door.
2631:During Umar's reign, the governor of Syria,
1219:
1058:), the natives of Medina, took place in the
980:
953:
846:
467:
28:
8164:
7844:. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing.
7558:
7405:
7365:inscriptions like besmellāh in the margins.
7324:
7261:
7259:
6751:
6599:The Arab Conquest of Iran and its Aftermath
4273:
4000:, constructed from his personal resources.
3277:
3203:
2744:
2565:would later re-invade North Africa in 664.
1513:(16th-century miniature from a copy of the
1486:
1382:
1043:
809:
9758:
9744:
8311:
8297:
8243:
8229:
8165:Weeramantry, Judge Christopher G. (1997).
6418:
6350:
5974:
5960:
3823:. The levy was thus regarded as a part of
3596:The economic resources of the State were:
3142:
2485:
1462:
591:
577:
61:
8112:
8072:
7925:
7773:
7720:
7708:
6738:, Oxford University Press, p. 1892,
6560:
6178:
6091:
6026:
4169:leather armour. His sword is hung from a
2796:
2611:negotiated a mutual non-aggression treaty
2428:. Amr next proceeded in the direction of
2251:
2073:), effectively ending the dynasty of the
1287:
1033:
967:ten who were explicitly promised paradise
8190:
8136:
8034:A Concise History of Sunnis & Shi'is
8005:
7907:
7793:
7756:
7744:
7732:
7696:
7653:
7641:
7256:
6854:
6822:
6701:
6689:
6646:
6512:
6472:
6456:
6234:Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps
6166:
4156:
4080:
3498:
2991:The provinces were further divided into
2863:was divided in two provinces: Aylya and
2775:
2748:
2572:
2489:
2384:
2376:
2344:in 650–651 forced the Byzantine Emperor
2255:
2191:
2157:
2142:
2114:
2079:
1990:
1716:
1701:
1624:, from a 14th-century manuscript of the
1615:
1496:
1481:
1230:
1109:
900:
869:
11335:7th-century disestablishments in Africa
11032:
7834:
7601:
7537:
7330:
6766:(6th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
6728:
6577:(Amsterdam University Press, 2009), 52.
6232:C. T. R. Hewer; Allan Anderson (2006).
4623:Assassinated during Fajr prayer in the
4019:were constructed for the first time in
3903:got an allowance of 6,000 dirhams each;
3073:of the army quartered in the province.
1122: Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632
905:Rashidun Caliphate at greatest extent (
11232:
8051:
8030:
7858:
7451:
7296:
7251:Bosworth, Marín & Ayalon 1960–2007
7039:
6810:
6798:
6190:
6146:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
6097:
1649:, supplanting the Rashidun Caliphate.
658:clan, was elected the first caliph in
11345:7th-century disestablishments in Asia
9739:
9491:
9259:
8875:
8292:
8224:
7942:
7399:
7377:
7218:
7197:
6877:"Chapter 20: The Battle of the River"
6786:
6669:
6332:The first Muslims: history and memory
6104:. Taylor & Francis. p. 159.
6003:The ten to whom Paradise was promised
3274:(example) of Muhammad in all things.
2760:, the empire's first capital, in the
2478:, the governor of Egypt appointed by
2006:(acting as their supreme commander),
1652:
1387:
1188:was led by another supposed prophet,
702:clan, who transferred the capital to
9260:
8876:
8250:
8091:
7800:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
7665:
7408:Renaissance: Monthly Islamic Journal
6977:"Chapter 25: Daumat-ul-Jandal Again"
6484:Coeli Fitzpatrick, Adam Hani Walker
6444:
4652:Historical Arab states and dynasties
4629:After his death he was succeeded by
4188:The standard form of body armor was
4015:was used to house royal treasuries.
3109:That he would not wear fine clothes.
2843:was divided into two provinces, the
2366:
1613:—were also lost to outside empires.
1352:) and a financial officer called an
1152:with the exception of the people in
11340:Historical transcontinental empires
8095:Islam and Contemporary Civilisation
7914:Jurnal Kajian Ekonomi Hukum Syariah
6957:"Chapter 24: Anbar and Ain-ut-Tamr"
6702:El-Hibri, Tayeb (19 October 2010).
4553:
4469:
4394:
4321:
4177:The Rashidun army was divided into
3694:
3647:
3199:
3112:That he would not eat sifted flour.
1220:
981:
954:
847:
805:
760:, the caliphate had subjugated the
670:, his appointed successor from the
612:
468:
29:
13:
7380:Medieval Islamic Political Thought
6937:"Chapter 23: The Conquest of Hira"
6865:"Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains"
6261:. Sage Publications. p. 151.
4173:, and he carries a leather shield.
3515:, the picture of the last emperor
2887:was divided into three provinces:
2784:, the empire's second capital, in
2627:History of Islam in southern Italy
2585:A campaign was undertaken against
2332:. In 648 the Rashidun army raided
748:followed by a five-year period of
14:
11356:
7794:Bosworth, C. Edmund (July 1996).
7485:Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy
6997:"Chapter 26: The Last Opposition"
6963:from the original on 6 March 2002
6943:from the original on 6 March 2002
6883:from the original on 6 March 2002
3316:from the Qur'an to justify this:
2705:The non-Muslim monotheists—Jews,
1976:Wars against the Byzantine Empire
1792:conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr
694:He was subsequently succeeded by
664:conquest of the Arabian Peninsula
16:First Islamic caliphate (632–661)
11275:History of the Arabian Peninsula
9720:
9719:
9708:
9239:Schools of islamic jurisprudence
8487:Timeline of the history of Islam
8318:
7546:from the original on 16 May 2011
7072:"Chapter 32: The Battle of Fahl"
6917:"Chapter 22: The River of Blood"
6897:"Chapter 21: The Hell of Walaja"
6859:. The Sword of Allah. p. 1.
6154:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1063
5073:Western dynasties and caliphates
4657:
4574:
4484:
4411:
4336:
4231:
4146:
3810:. Umar issued instructions that
3763:was a tax on agricultural land.
2873:was divided into two provinces:
2829:was divided into two provinces,
2815:was divided into two provinces,
1633:In 661, Ali was assassinated by
1578:to escort Aisha back to Medina.
1538:. He transferred the capital to
874:Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate,
560:
479:
442:
417:
403:
389:
375:
9580:List of ex-Muslim organisations
8037:. Georgetown University Press.
7996:
7659:
7626:
7595:
7531:
7522:
7512:
7496:
7476:
7466:
7430:
7358:
7317:
7290:
7281:
7244:
7231:
7191:
7182:
7160:
7138:
7116:
7094:
7064:
7017:
6848:
6838:Encyclopedia Iranica Foundation
6816:
6722:
6695:
6624:
6608:
6580:
6551:
6542:
6530:
6518:
6506:
6493:
6450:
6412:
6408:. 3 (Parts 57–58). Brill: 1164.
6397:
6369:
6344:
6321:
6308:
6275:
6250:
6064:International Studies Quarterly
4450:Assassinated by a Persian slave
4382:23 August 634 – 3 November 644
3963:
3592:Economic resources of the State
3427:
3245:
3174:Electing or appointing a caliph
2451:. He was one of the authors of
1948:(part of modern-day Pakistan),
1692:Conquest of the Sasanian Empire
1529:
1298:
1256:Expeditions to Persia and Syria
979:, or "Rightly Guided" caliphs (
720:
631:to succeed the Islamic prophet
529:Umayyad Caliphate in al-Andalus
8119:The Byzantine Revival, 780–842
7337:Noah Feldman (16 March 2008).
6735:Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
6537:Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014
6525:Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014
6419:Aqidah.Com (1 December 2009).
6259:Encyclopedia of Global Studies
6225:
6196:
6118:
6047:
6020:
4506:Umm Hakim bint Abd al-Muttalib
4457:11 November 644 – 20 June 656
3552:, since the time of Umar. The
3503:The Rashidun caliphs used the
3333:
2724:were also required to pay the
2695:Treatment of conquered peoples
2569:Campaign against Nubia (Sudan)
2221:future conquests, settling on
1924:. The entirety of present-day
1866:against the Persian army. The
1276:, the richest province of the
1:
11295:Medieval history of Palestine
11250:Former countries in West Asia
7988:: CS1 maint: date and year (
7538:Fratini, Dan (1 April 2006).
7303:. A&C Black. p. 61.
6708:. Columbia University Press.
6603:The Cambridge History of Iran
6501:The Essentials of Ibadi Islam
6013:
4605:Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib
4541:20 June 656 – 29 January 661
4254:, naval cove of privateer in
3951:
3939:Under this scale, Umar's son
3879:received 12,000 dirhams each;
3459:Establishment of Bait-ul-Maal
3352:establishes the principle of
2300:. Other columns were sent to
1987:Muslim conquest of the Levant
1505:, battling the fourth caliph
1204:) and South Arabia (known as
1148:spread to every tribe in the
1139:
875:
650:. Muhammad's close companion
72:
11255:Countries in medieval Africa
9565:Apostasy in Islam by country
9442:Liberalism and progressivism
8198:. In al-Sarhan, Saud (ed.).
8073:Sowerwine, James E. (2010).
8052:Netton, Ian Richard (2013).
7774:Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. (1987),
7300:Islam Today: An Introduction
7042:"Chapter 31: The Unkind Cut"
6828:"Ḥasan B. ʿAli B. Abi Ṭāleb"
6601:, 'Abd Al-Husein Zarrinkub,
3935:received 2,000 dirhams each.
3924:received 3,000 dirhams each.
3917:received 3,000 dirhams each;
3896:received 5,000 dirhams each;
3830:
3827:rather than a separate tax.
2537:, Gregory's capital. In the
1902:, some forty miles south of
1439:, as well as the islands of
827:
648:succession to his leadership
7:
9765:
7997:Hoyland, Robert G. (2015).
7542:. Military History Online.
7540:"The Battle Of Yarmuk, 636"
7048:. p. 1. Archived from
7027:, p. 43: gives 9,000–10,000
6999:. p. 1. Archived from
6979:. p. 1. Archived from
6919:. p. 1. Archived from
6899:. p. 1. Archived from
6867:. p. 1. Archived from
6209:Equinox Publishing (London)
4793:Arab empires and caliphates
4644:
4597:, Muhammad's granddaughter.
4566:
4477:
4403:
4329:
4309:8 June 632 – 22 August 634
4134:
3888:The grandsons of Muhammad,
3883:`Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib
3783:, which later emerged as a
3659:) were collected from. The
3419:in the early 19th century.
3266:and collectively named the
3226:The Early Islamic Conquests
3188:
3104:which was a symbol of pride
2545:. Afterward, the people of
2084:Map detailing the route of
1981:Conquest of Byzantine Syria
1928:was conquered, followed by
1830:and Christian Arabs in the
1759:, fought in April 633; the
1706:Map detailing the route of
1561:and the widow of Muhammad,
1364:when Muhammad emigrated to
1305:
1168:and the Bani Abdul Qais of
988:
857:
842:
834:
794:
623:
45:
10:
11361:
11290:Medieval history of Jordan
9492:
8014:Cambridge University Press
8006:Madelung, Wilferd (1997).
8001:. Oxford University Press.
7766:
7384:Edinburgh University Press
6764:The Middle East: A History
6406:The Encyclopaedia of Islam
6376:Heather N. Keaney (2013).
6318:(I.B.Tauris, 2015), 51–54.
6169:, pp. 63, 72, note 1.
4508:, Muhammad's paternal aunt
4235:
4150:
4084:
3836:Beginning of the allowance
3753:
3732:
3678:
3635:
3462:
3431:
3422:
3337:
2698:
2643:, conquering the capital,
2624:
2601:. The Muslims damaged the
2370:
1984:
1800:Battle of Daumat-ul-jandal
1695:
1490:
1466:
1391:
1270:largest empires in history
1022:
1019:Abu Bakr's reign (632–634)
1013:
122:Various regional languages
11305:Medieval history of Syria
11201:
11153:
10670:
10074:
9773:
9703:
9588:
9555:
9505:
9501:
9487:
9414:
9381:
9353:Geography and cartography
9328:
9275:
9271:
9255:
9081:
9003:
8950:
8899:
8895:
8871:
8741:
8623:
8583:
8466:
8418:
8342:
8338:
8327:
8258:
7960:10.1017/S0020743800025216
7903:– via Google Books.
7812:10.1017/S1356186300007161
7327:, pp. 132 & 135)
6670:شبارو, عصام محمد (1995).
6282:Claire Alkouatli (2007).
3749:
3540:were introduced in early
3098:That he would not ride a
2336:. A major offensive into
2282:Battle of the Iron Bridge
2153:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah
2100:. It was the first major
2004:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah
1698:Muslim conquest of Persia
1323:territory, and went into
1088:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah
944:, with the Ansar and the
940:pledged their loyalty to
896:
613:ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ
469:
354:
338:
330:
325:
321:
307:
294:
280:
266:
258:• Ascension of Umar
256:
243:
230:
226:
218:
214:
199:
187:
175:
160:
156:
146:
136:
126:
118:
108:
92:
82:
60:
55:
30:ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ
23:
11310:Muslim conquest of Egypt
11285:Medieval history of Iraq
9662:Islamic view of miracles
7927:10.37567/shar-e.v6i2.227
7908:Frastuti, Melia (2020).
7870:Harvard University Press
7674:. Oxford. Archived from
7424:August 25, 2011, at the
7378:Crone, Patricia (2005),
7124:"The Conquest of Emessa"
6760:Fisher, Sydney Nettleton
6573:Gianluca Paolo Parolin,
6328:Asma Afsaruddin (2008).
6027:Versteegh, Kees (2014).
5101:Umayyad state of Córdoba
4583:Muhammad's first cousin.
4274:List of Rashidun caliphs
3728:
3674:
3631:
3278:Accountability of rulers
2745:Political administration
2373:Muslim conquest of Egypt
2308:, the important city of
2110:battle of Maraj-al-Debaj
1487:Crisis and fragmentation
1383:Uthman's reign (644–656)
982:الْخُلَفاءُ الرّاشِدُونَ
938:Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah
272:and Ascension of Uthman
11270:History of Central Asia
9427:Creationism (evolution)
8202:. London and New York:
8098:. Academic Monographs.
7198:Lewis, Bernard (1984).
6615:Battle of Yarmouk River
6557:Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 467.
6203:Azyumardi Azra (2006).
6077:10.1111/0020-8833.00053
4501:, Muhammad's daughters.
3960:increased accordingly.
3933:Battle of al-Qadisiyyah
3910:got 4,000 dirhams each;
3846:Battle of al-Qadisiyyah
3798:
3519:) by adding the phrase
3143:Judicial administration
2808:which were as follows:
2659:was built there by the
2595:First Battle of Dongola
2533:, and then advanced to
2486:Conquest of the Maghreb
2445:Patriarch of Alexandria
2443:, prefect of Egypt and
2296:and the area up to the
1868:Battle of al-Qādisiyyah
1597:against the rebellious
1469:Assassination of Uthman
1463:Assassination of Uthman
1004:Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal
917:'s death in 632 CE (11
907:orthographic projection
716:Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan
284:Assassination of Uthman
109:Official languages
11265:Early Muslim conquests
9677:Persecution of Muslims
9575:List of former Muslims
8492:Succession to Muhammad
8138:Vasiliev, Alexander A.
8055:Encyclopaedia of Islam
8012:. Cambridge, England:
7672:Oxford Islamic studies
7602:Kennedy, Hugh (2001).
6586:Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 518
6316:Islam: An Introduction
6098:Triana, María (2017).
4590:, Muhammad's daughter.
4174:
4095:view of the Rashidun.
4045:, was dug to join the
3877:The widows of Muhammad
3713:
3548:(charity), one of the
3526:
3379:
3323:
3091:
2797:Districts or provinces
2789:
2773:
2582:
2499:
2401:
2382:
2268:
2252:Occupation of Anatolia
2197:
2163:
2148:
2140:
2092:
1999:
1744:
1714:
1630:
1520:
1361:companions of Muhammad
1288:Umar's reign (634–644)
1272:. Abu Bakr began with
1236:
1136:
1034:Accession to Caliphate
1025:Succession to Muhammad
989:al-Khulafāʾ ar-Rāšidūn
955:خَلِيفةُ رَسُولِ اللهِ
910:
893:
678:and nearly the entire
624:al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah
234:Succession to Muhammad
46:al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah
11330:661 disestablishments
11178:Medieval great powers
9471:Conversion to mosques
9338:Alchemy and chemistry
8192:Melchert, Christopher
8031:McHugo, John (2017).
7487:, 19(2), pp. 210–237.
7226:Encyclopedia of Islam
6758:Ochsenweld, William;
6621:(ABC-CLIO, 2010), 92.
5691:Sultanate of Zanzibar
5606:Mutawakkilite Kingdom
4625:Great Mosque of Kufah
4432:Al-Khattab ibn Nufayl
4160:
4118:This is in-line with
4087:Shia view of Abu Bakr
4081:Assessment and legacy
4043:title created by Umar
3908:Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
3856:On the amount of the
3669:Five Pillars of Islam
3550:Five Pillars of Islam
3502:
3362:
3318:
3300:Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani
3236:Abu Bakr Al-Baqillani
3086:
2779:
2752:
2625:Further information:
2576:
2508:Gregory the Patrician
2493:
2476:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr
2388:
2380:
2371:Further information:
2259:
2230:Jerusalem surrendered
2195:
2161:
2146:
2118:
2083:
1994:
1985:Further information:
1786:, which resisted and
1720:
1705:
1696:Further information:
1619:
1500:
1482:Ali's reign (656–661)
1379:to lead the prayers.
1234:
1113:
904:
873:
780:in the west; and the
286:and Ascension of Ali
270:Assassination of Umar
119:Common languages
11280:7th century in Egypt
11188:European colonialism
11173:Ancient great powers
9197:Ma malakat aymanukum
8772:Association football
8092:Rane, Halim (2010).
8075:Caliph and Caliphate
7386:, pp. 308–309,
7297:Geaves, Ron (2010).
7188:Nadvi (2000), p. 522
7128:Khalid bin Al-Waleed
7106:Khalid bin Al-Waleed
6844:on 17 November 2013.
6833:Encyclopædia Iranica
6499:Valerie J. Hoffman,
6336:. Oneworld. p.
6314:Catharina Raudvere,
4595:Umama bint Abi al-As
4238:Early Caliphate navy
4200:and large wooden or
3927:The veterans of the
3920:The veterans of the
3899:The veterans of the
3869:relationship scale.
3842:Battle of the Yarmuk
3779:was synonymous with
3486:Abdur Rahman bin Awf
3360:and accountability:
3240:Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man
3053:Sahib-ul-Bait-ul-Mal
2782:Great Mosque of Kufa
2577:The Grand Mosque of
2426:Battle of Heliopolis
2033:The border forts of
2016:Shurhabil ibn Hasana
2012:Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan
1852:Battle of the Bridge
1848:Abu Ubayd al-Thaqafi
1676:Unlike the Sasanian
1620:Illustration of the
950:Khalīfaṫ Rasūl Allāh
298:Assassination of Ali
11300:7th century in Iran
11183:Modern great powers
7711:, pp. 285–286.
7668:"Islam and the Sea"
7644:, pp. 157–158.
7457:Lewis (2002), p. 72
7102:"The Eve of Yarmuk"
6871:on 26 January 2002.
6801:, pp. 157–159.
6351:Safia Amir (2000).
6030:The Arabic Language
5988:The Four Companions
4668:Ancient Arab states
4516:Affan ibn Abi al-As
4437:Hantama bint Hisham
4248:Battle of the Masts
3702:: cizye). It was a
3564:) collected in the
3384:capital punishments
3150:principles of Islam
2754:Al-Masjid an-Nabawi
2543:Abdullah ibn Zubayr
2504:Exarchate of Africa
2494:The Roman ruins of
2304:as far west as the
2275:taking the fort of
2086:Khalid ibn al-Walid
1864:Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās
1708:Khalid ibn al-Walid
1572:Battle of the Camel
1511:Battle of the Camel
1241:Khalid ibn al-Walid
1062:(courtyard) of the
549:Sharifian Caliphate
523:Parallel caliphates
11325:632 establishments
11240:Rashidun Caliphate
9682:Quran and miracles
9596:Criticism of Islam
9310:Geometric patterns
9162:Gender segregation
8733:Non-denominational
8206:. pp. 63–79.
7836:Charles, Robert H.
7699:, p. 131-207.
7678:on 27 January 2014
7448:Ali (1990), p. 507
7344:The New York Times
7178:on 9 January 2011.
7172:www.tertullian.org
7082:on 10 January 2003
6730:Kazhdan, Alexander
6617:, Spencer Tucker,
6136:; Bosworth, C.E.;
6057:(September 1997).
6008:Timeline of Medina
5993:Islamic Golden Age
5733:Current monarchies
5396:Sharifate of Mecca
4866:Emirate of Tbilisi
4856:Emirate of Armenia
4706:Kingdom of Osroene
4424:, Muhammad's wife.
4349:, Muhammad's wife.
4290:Relationship with
4175:
3527:
3473:, the Governor of
3443:the house of money
3405:Harvard University
3071:commander-in-chief
3065:, the Chief Judge.
2790:
2774:
2583:
2516:Abdullah ibn Sa'ad
2500:
2402:
2383:
2269:
2198:
2164:
2149:
2141:
2098:Battle of Ajnadayn
2093:
2000:
1900:Battle of Nihawānd
1818:, and finally the
1745:
1715:
1669:, and most of the
1653:Military expansion
1631:
1595:Battle of Nahrawan
1548:Salman the Persian
1521:
1501:Muhammad's widow,
1394:Election of Uthman
1388:Election of Uthman
1245:Malik ibn Nuwayrah
1237:
1208:and including the
1180:arose and invaded
1137:
1100:Ibrahim al-Nakha'i
1008:Zaydi Shia Muslims
911:
894:
746:military expansion
698:, a member of the
686:, a member of the
605:Rashidun Caliphate
496:Rashidun Caliphate
247:Conquest of Persia
25:Rashidun Caliphate
11260:7th-century Islam
11227:
11226:
11149:
11148:
11114:Polish–Lithuanian
10289:Gurjara-Pratihara
9733:
9732:
9699:
9698:
9695:
9694:
9667:Domestic violence
9657:Islamic terrorism
9652:Islamic extremism
9483:
9482:
9479:
9478:
9251:
9250:
9247:
9246:
9037:Marriage contract
8867:
8866:
8827:Political aspects
8614:Story of Prophets
8383:Prophets of Islam
8286:
8285:
8213:978-1-83860-765-4
8129:978-0-8047-1462-4
8114:Treadgold, Warren
8065:978-1-135-17960-1
8044:978-1-62-616587-8
7900:978-1-61069-178-9
7868:. Cambridge, MA:
7735:, pp. 68–69.
7723:, pp. 55–58.
7666:Fromherz, Allen.
7393:978-0-7486-2194-1
7211:978-0-691-00807-3
7201:The Jews of Islam
7156:on 24 March 2011.
7052:on 5 January 2003
6923:on 22 August 2002
6824:Madelung, Wilferd
6773:978-0-07-244233-5
6745:978-0-19-504652-6
6715:978-0-231-52165-9
6548:Balazuri: p. 113.
6515:, pp. 32–33)
6040:978-0-7486-4529-9
5984:
5983:
5949:
5948:
5724:
5723:
5716:Tippu Tip's State
5614:
5613:
5586:Emirate of Beihan
5318:Arabian Peninsula
5309:
5308:
5064:
5063:
4848:Eastern dynasties
4839:
4838:
4784:
4783:
4696:Nabataean Kingdom
4686:Kingdom of Lihyan
4642:
4641:
4610:Fatimah bint Asad
4125:Ali ibn Abi Talib
4097:Robert G. Hoyland
4039:governor of Basra
3941:Abdullah ibn Umar
3929:Battle of Yarmouk
3915:Conquest of Mecca
3509:Star and crescent
3415:of Sharia by the
2766:Arabian Peninsula
2657:Hala Sultan Tekke
2637:Mediterranean Sea
2613:with their king,
2563:Umayyad Caliphate
2449:Coptic Christians
2367:Conquest of Egypt
2218:Battle of Yarmouk
2177:Emperor Heraclius
1968:and north to the
1966:lower river Indus
1872:Rostam Farrokhzād
1860:Battle of Yarmouk
1824:Sasanian Persians
1647:Umayyad Caliphate
1453:lower Indus River
1437:Iberian Peninsula
1373:Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz
1150:Arabian Peninsula
1115:Islamic conquests
1096:Ali ibn Abi Talib
758:Arabian Peninsula
735:Umayyad Caliphate
662:and he began the
621:
601:
600:
539:Almohad Caliphate
534:Fatimid Caliphate
511:Ottoman Caliphate
506:Abbasid Caliphate
501:Umayyad Caliphate
458:
457:
454:
453:
450:
449:
438:Umayyad Caliphate
430:
429:
11352:
11030:
11029:
10695:Austro-Hungarian
10395:Chagatai Khanate
9760:
9753:
9746:
9737:
9736:
9723:
9722:
9715:Islam portal
9713:
9712:
9711:
9503:
9502:
9495:
9489:
9488:
9330:Medieval science
9273:
9272:
9263:
9257:
9256:
8914:Economic history
8897:
8896:
8873:
8872:
8859:Islam by country
8692:Bektashi Alevism
8340:
8339:
8331:Outline of Islam
8313:
8306:
8299:
8290:
8289:
8252:Rashidun Caliphs
8245:
8238:
8231:
8222:
8221:
8217:
8184:
8171:Brill Publishers
8161:
8133:
8109:
8088:
8069:
8048:
8027:
8002:
7993:
7987:
7979:
7939:
7929:
7904:
7883:
7855:
7831:
7790:
7760:
7754:
7748:
7742:
7736:
7730:
7724:
7718:
7712:
7706:
7700:
7694:
7688:
7687:
7685:
7683:
7663:
7657:
7651:
7645:
7639:
7633:
7630:
7624:
7623:
7621:
7619:
7599:
7593:
7592:
7590:
7588:
7565:
7556:
7555:
7553:
7551:
7535:
7529:
7526:
7520:
7510:
7504:
7494:
7488:
7480:
7474:
7464:
7458:
7455:
7449:
7446:
7437:
7434:
7428:
7415:
7403:
7397:
7396:
7375:
7369:
7362:
7356:
7355:
7353:
7351:
7334:
7328:
7325:Weeramantry 1997
7321:
7315:
7314:
7294:
7288:
7285:
7279:
7278:
7273:. Archived from
7271:www.2muslims.com
7263:
7254:
7248:
7242:
7235:
7229:
7222:
7216:
7215:
7195:
7189:
7186:
7180:
7179:
7174:. Archived from
7164:
7158:
7157:
7152:. Archived from
7142:
7136:
7135:
7134:on 6 March 2007.
7130:. Archived from
7120:
7114:
7113:
7112:on 2 April 2007.
7108:. Archived from
7098:
7092:
7091:
7089:
7087:
7068:
7062:
7061:
7059:
7057:
7037:
7028:
7021:
7015:
7012:
7010:
7008:
6992:
6990:
6988:
6972:
6970:
6968:
6952:
6950:
6948:
6932:
6930:
6928:
6912:
6910:
6908:
6892:
6890:
6888:
6872:
6860:
6852:
6846:
6845:
6840:. Archived from
6820:
6814:
6808:
6802:
6796:
6790:
6784:
6778:
6777:
6755:
6749:
6748:
6726:
6720:
6719:
6699:
6693:
6687:
6676:
6675:
6667:
6650:
6644:
6638:
6631:Khalid ibn Walid
6628:
6622:
6612:
6606:
6596:
6587:
6584:
6578:
6571:
6558:
6555:
6549:
6546:
6540:
6534:
6528:
6522:
6516:
6510:
6504:
6497:
6491:
6482:
6476:
6470:
6464:
6454:
6448:
6442:
6436:
6435:
6433:
6431:
6416:
6410:
6409:
6401:
6395:
6394:
6373:
6367:
6366:
6348:
6342:
6341:
6335:
6325:
6319:
6312:
6306:
6305:
6289:
6279:
6273:
6272:
6254:
6248:
6247:
6229:
6223:
6222:
6200:
6194:
6188:
6182:
6176:
6170:
6164:
6158:
6157:
6122:
6116:
6115:
6095:
6089:
6088:
6051:
6045:
6044:
6024:
5976:
5969:
5962:
5737:
5736:
5701:Nabahani dynasty
5646:Nabahani dynasty
5631:Makhzumi dynasty
5627:
5626:
5322:
5321:
5077:
5076:
4876:Emirate of Crete
4852:
4851:
4797:
4796:
4776:Kingdom of Kinda
4726:Kingdom of Hatra
4676:Kingdom of Qedar
4672:
4671:
4661:
4649:
4648:
4578:
4569:
4556:
4555:
4521:Arwa bint Kurayz
4488:
4480:
4472:
4471:
4415:
4406:
4397:
4396:
4340:
4332:
4324:
4323:
4278:
4277:
4260:Cordoban Emirate
4256:La Garde-Freinet
4055:governor of Kufa
3971:Masjid an-Nabawi
3775:. At that time,
3697:
3696:
3650:
3649:
3479:Uthman ibn Affan
3217:
3214:
3211:
3208:
3205:
3201:
3193:
2361:Taurus Mountains
2306:Taurus Mountains
2262:Eastern Anatolia
2246:Battle of Aleppo
2125:Haram Ash-Sharif
1930:Greater Khorasan
1895:Zagros Mountains
1820:Battle of Zumail
1812:Battle of Muzieh
1773:Battle of Ullais
1765:Battle of Walaja
1757:Battle of Chains
1686:Byzantine Empire
1627:Tarikh-i Bal'ami
1622:Battle of Siffin
1587:Battle of Siffin
1533:
1531:
1447:. Also, coastal
1377:Suhayb ibn Sinan
1317:Sassanian Empire
1313:war of conquests
1310:
1307:amir al-mu'minin
1302:
1300:
1262:Byzantine Empire
1250:Battle of Yamama
1223:
1222:
1133:
1127:
1121:
1068:Muslim community
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1000:Sunan Abu Dawood
991:
984:
983:
957:
956:
880:
877:
862:
850:
849:
845:
839:
832:The Arabic word
823:
820:
817:
814:
811:
807:
799:
731:Battle of Siffin
724:
722:
676:Byzantine Empire
641:Northeast Africa
627:) was the first
626:
616:
614:
593:
586:
579:
567:Islam portal
565:
564:
563:
544:Sokoto Caliphate
483:
474:
473:
471:
460:
459:
446:
445:
434:
433:
421:
420:
407:
406:
397:Byzantine Empire
393:
392:
379:
378:
372:
371:
356:
355:
210:
171:
77:
74:
65:
50:
49:
48:
40:
32:
31:
21:
20:
11360:
11359:
11355:
11354:
11353:
11351:
11350:
11349:
11230:
11229:
11228:
11223:
11212:American Empire
11197:
11193:African empires
11145:
11028:
10720:Central African
10666:
10484:Romano-Germanic
10070:
9804:Middle Assyrian
9777:
9769:
9764:
9734:
9729:
9709:
9707:
9691:
9613:Cultural Muslim
9584:
9551:
9507:Other religions
9497:
9493:
9475:
9410:
9377:
9324:
9267:
9265:Islamic studies
9261:
9243:
9077:
9022:
8999:
8946:
8891:
8890:
8863:
8812:Moral teachings
8755:
8737:
8711:Nation of Islam
8672:Twelver Shi'ism
8619:
8585:Religious texts
8579:
8497:Early conquests
8480:
8462:
8414:
8334:
8323:
8317:
8287:
8282:
8254:
8249:
8214:
8187:
8181:
8130:
8106:
8085:
8066:
8045:
8024:
7981:
7980:
7901:
7880:
7860:Donner, Fred M.
7852:
7788:
7769:
7764:
7763:
7755:
7751:
7743:
7739:
7731:
7727:
7719:
7715:
7707:
7703:
7695:
7691:
7681:
7679:
7664:
7660:
7652:
7648:
7640:
7636:
7631:
7627:
7617:
7615:
7600:
7596:
7586:
7584:
7566:
7559:
7549:
7547:
7536:
7532:
7527:
7523:
7511:
7507:
7495:
7491:
7481:
7477:
7465:
7461:
7456:
7452:
7447:
7440:
7435:
7431:
7426:Wayback Machine
7404:
7400:
7394:
7376:
7372:
7363:
7359:
7349:
7347:
7335:
7331:
7322:
7318:
7311:
7295:
7291:
7286:
7282:
7277:on 7 July 2011.
7265:
7264:
7257:
7249:
7245:
7236:
7232:
7223:
7219:
7212:
7196:
7192:
7187:
7183:
7166:
7165:
7161:
7144:
7143:
7139:
7122:
7121:
7117:
7100:
7099:
7095:
7085:
7083:
7070:
7069:
7065:
7055:
7053:
7038:
7031:
7022:
7018:
7006:
7004:
7003:on 6 March 2002
6995:
6986:
6984:
6983:on 6 March 2002
6975:
6966:
6964:
6955:
6946:
6944:
6935:
6926:
6924:
6915:
6906:
6904:
6903:on 6 March 2002
6895:
6886:
6884:
6875:
6863:
6853:
6849:
6821:
6817:
6809:
6805:
6797:
6793:
6785:
6781:
6774:
6756:
6752:
6746:
6727:
6723:
6716:
6700:
6696:
6688:
6679:
6668:
6653:
6645:
6641:
6633:, Timothy May,
6629:
6625:
6613:
6609:
6597:
6590:
6585:
6581:
6572:
6561:
6556:
6552:
6547:
6543:
6535:
6531:
6523:
6519:
6511:
6507:
6498:
6494:
6483:
6479:
6471:
6467:
6455:
6451:
6443:
6439:
6429:
6427:
6417:
6413:
6402:
6398:
6388:
6374:
6370:
6363:
6349:
6345:
6326:
6322:
6313:
6309:
6302:
6280:
6276:
6269:
6255:
6251:
6244:
6230:
6226:
6219:
6201:
6197:
6189:
6185:
6177:
6173:
6165:
6161:
6142:Heinrichs, W.P.
6123:
6119:
6112:
6096:
6092:
6052:
6048:
6041:
6025:
6021:
6016:
5980:
5951:
5950:
5734:
5726:
5725:
5661:Mahdali dynasty
5624:
5616:
5615:
5556:Muscat and Oman
5326:Imamate of Oman
5319:
5311:
5310:
5074:
5066:
5065:
4849:
4841:
4840:
4794:
4786:
4785:
4716:Emesene Dynasty
4669:
4647:
4549:
4465:
4390:
4317:
4304:Notable events
4276:
4240:
4234:
4155:
4149:
4137:
4089:
4083:
4059:'Amr ibn al-'As
3975:Masjid al-Haram
3966:
3954:
3838:
3833:
3801:
3758:
3752:
3737:
3731:
3716:
3700:Ottoman Turkish
3683:
3677:
3640:
3634:
3594:
3467:
3461:
3436:
3430:
3425:
3390:Islamic jurists
3356:in relation to
3346:
3336:
3280:
3260:Islamic lawyers
3248:
3215:
3212:
3209:
3206:
3176:
3145:
3043:Sahib-ul-Ahdath
3033:Sahib-ul-Kharaj
2986:Amr ibn Al-A'as
2857:was a province.
2799:
2747:
2703:
2697:
2629:
2623:
2571:
2488:
2390:Al-Azhar Mosque
2375:
2369:
2330:Caesarea Mazaca
2254:
2238:Battle of Hazir
2088:'s invasion of
2071:Battle of Bosra
1989:
1983:
1978:
1832:Battle of Firaz
1816:Battle of Sanni
1769:pincer movement
1761:Battle of River
1710:'s conquest of
1700:
1694:
1671:Sasanian Empire
1655:
1591:'Amr ibn al-'As
1544:Malik al-Ashtar
1528:
1495:
1489:
1484:
1471:
1465:
1396:
1390:
1385:
1375:. He appointed
1297:
1290:
1278:Sasanian Empire
1266:Sasanian Empire
1258:
1200:(known then as
1142:
1135:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1123:
1119:
1074:(migrants from
1055:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1036:
1031:
1023:Main articles:
1021:
1016:
899:
891:globus cruciger
878:
830:
821:
818:
815:
812:
782:Iranian Plateau
776:to present-day
750:internal strife
719:
680:Sasanian Empire
597:
561:
559:
554:
553:
524:
516:
515:
491:
490:Main caliphates
466:
443:
418:
411:Sasanian Empire
404:
390:
383:State of Medina
376:
350:
314:
300:
287:
273:
259:
249:
236:
208:
202:
201:• 656–661
190:
189:• 644–656
178:
177:• 634–644
169:
163:
162:• 632–634
100:
78:
75:
51:
43:
42:
41:
34:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
11358:
11348:
11347:
11342:
11337:
11332:
11327:
11322:
11317:
11312:
11307:
11302:
11297:
11292:
11287:
11282:
11277:
11272:
11267:
11262:
11257:
11252:
11247:
11242:
11225:
11224:
11222:
11221:
11220:
11219:
11214:
11205:
11203:
11199:
11198:
11196:
11195:
11190:
11185:
11180:
11175:
11170:
11169:
11168:
11157:
11155:
11151:
11150:
11147:
11146:
11144:
11143:
11138:
11133:
11128:
11123:
11122:
11121:
11111:
11106:
11101:
11096:
11091:
11086:
11081:
11076:
11071:
11066:
11065:
11064:
11059:
11049:
11044:
11038:
11036:
11027:
11026:
11025:
11024:
11019:
11014:
11009:
11004:
10994:
10989:
10988:
10987:
10977:
10972:
10971:
10970:
10965:
10960:
10950:
10945:
10944:
10943:
10938:
10928:
10927:
10926:
10921:
10916:
10911:
10906:
10896:
10895:
10894:
10889:
10879:
10874:
10869:
10864:
10863:
10862:
10857:
10852:
10847:
10842:
10832:
10831:
10830:
10825:
10815:
10810:
10809:
10808:
10803:
10793:
10792:
10791:
10786:
10776:
10775:
10774:
10769:
10759:
10754:
10753:
10752:
10747:
10742:
10737:
10732:
10722:
10717:
10716:
10715:
10710:
10702:
10697:
10692:
10687:
10682:
10676:
10674:
10668:
10667:
10665:
10664:
10659:
10654:
10649:
10648:
10647:
10642:
10637:
10632:
10627:
10622:
10617:
10607:
10602:
10601:
10600:
10595:
10590:
10585:
10580:
10575:
10565:
10564:
10563:
10558:
10553:
10548:
10538:
10533:
10528:
10523:
10518:
10513:
10508:
10503:
10498:
10497:
10496:
10491:
10481:
10480:
10479:
10474:
10469:
10464:
10459:
10454:
10441:
10436:
10431:
10426:
10425:
10424:
10419:
10414:
10404:
10403:
10402:
10397:
10392:
10387:
10377:
10372:
10367:
10362:
10357:
10352:
10351:
10350:
10345:
10340:
10335:
10325:
10324:
10323:
10318:
10313:
10308:
10298:
10297:
10296:
10291:
10286:
10276:
10271:
10266:
10261:
10256:
10255:
10254:
10249:
10244:
10234:
10229:
10228:
10227:
10222:
10217:
10212:
10207:
10202:
10192:
10191:
10190:
10185:
10175:
10174:
10173:
10168:
10163:
10158:
10148:
10143:
10142:
10141:
10131:
10130:
10129:
10124:
10116:
10111:
10106:
10101:
10096:
10091:
10086:
10080:
10078:
10076:Post-classical
10072:
10071:
10069:
10068:
10067:
10066:
10056:
10051:
10050:
10049:
10044:
10034:
10033:
10032:
10022:
10021:
10020:
10015:
10010:
10005:
10000:
9995:
9985:
9980:
9975:
9974:
9973:
9968:
9963:
9958:
9948:
9947:
9946:
9941:
9931:
9926:
9925:
9924:
9919:
9914:
9909:
9904:
9894:
9889:
9884:
9883:
9882:
9877:
9875:Middle Kingdom
9872:
9862:
9857:
9856:
9855:
9850:
9845:
9835:
9834:
9833:
9831:Neo-Babylonian
9828:
9823:
9821:Old Babylonian
9813:
9812:
9811:
9806:
9796:
9791:
9785:
9783:
9771:
9770:
9763:
9762:
9755:
9748:
9740:
9731:
9730:
9728:
9727:
9717:
9704:
9701:
9700:
9697:
9696:
9693:
9692:
9690:
9689:
9684:
9679:
9674:
9669:
9664:
9659:
9654:
9649:
9648:
9647:
9637:
9636:
9635:
9630:
9625:
9615:
9610:
9609:
9608:
9603:
9592:
9590:
9589:Related topics
9586:
9585:
9583:
9582:
9577:
9572:
9567:
9561:
9559:
9553:
9552:
9550:
9549:
9544:
9539:
9534:
9529:
9528:
9527:
9522:
9511:
9509:
9499:
9498:
9485:
9484:
9481:
9480:
9477:
9476:
9474:
9473:
9468:
9461:
9456:
9455:
9454:
9444:
9439:
9434:
9429:
9424:
9418:
9416:
9412:
9411:
9409:
9408:
9403:
9398:
9393:
9387:
9385:
9379:
9378:
9376:
9375:
9370:
9365:
9360:
9355:
9350:
9345:
9340:
9334:
9332:
9326:
9325:
9323:
9322:
9317:
9312:
9307:
9302:
9297:
9292:
9287:
9281:
9279:
9269:
9268:
9253:
9252:
9249:
9248:
9245:
9244:
9242:
9241:
9236:
9235:
9234:
9222:
9220:Sources of law
9217:
9212:
9211:
9210:
9200:
9193:
9188:
9181:
9176:
9169:
9164:
9159:
9154:
9149:
9144:
9139:
9134:
9127:
9120:
9119:
9118:
9113:
9108:
9098:
9093:
9085:
9083:
9079:
9078:
9076:
9075:
9068:
9061:
9054:
9047:
9040:
9033:
9025:
9023:
9021:
9020:
9015:
9010:
9004:
9001:
9000:
8998:
8997:
8990:
8985:
8978:
8971:
8964:
8956:
8954:
8948:
8947:
8945:
8944:
8937:
8930:
8923:
8916:
8911:
8905:
8903:
8893:
8892:
8889:
8888:
8883:
8877:
8869:
8868:
8865:
8864:
8862:
8861:
8856:
8851:
8846:
8844:Social welfare
8841:
8836:
8829:
8824:
8819:
8814:
8809:
8804:
8799:
8794:
8789:
8784:
8779:
8774:
8769:
8764:
8758:
8756:
8754:
8753:
8748:
8742:
8739:
8738:
8736:
8735:
8730:
8725:
8724:
8723:
8713:
8708:
8703:
8702:
8701:
8696:
8695:
8694:
8684:
8679:
8674:
8664:
8659:
8654:
8653:
8652:
8629:
8627:
8621:
8620:
8618:
8617:
8610:
8605:
8600:
8595:
8589:
8587:
8581:
8580:
8578:
8577:
8576:
8575:
8570:
8565:
8560:
8555:
8550:
8545:
8540:
8528:
8523:
8516:
8509:
8507:Historiography
8504:
8499:
8494:
8489:
8483:
8481:
8479:
8478:
8473:
8467:
8464:
8463:
8461:
8460:
8453:
8446:
8439:
8432:
8424:
8422:
8416:
8415:
8413:
8412:
8407:
8402:
8395:
8390:
8385:
8380:
8379:
8378:
8368:
8361:
8360:
8359:
8348:
8346:
8336:
8335:
8328:
8325:
8324:
8316:
8315:
8308:
8301:
8293:
8284:
8283:
8281:
8280:
8275:
8270:
8265:
8259:
8256:
8255:
8248:
8247:
8240:
8233:
8225:
8219:
8218:
8212:
8186:
8185:
8179:
8162:
8146:Henri Grégoire
8134:
8128:
8110:
8104:
8089:
8083:
8070:
8064:
8049:
8043:
8028:
8022:
8003:
7994:
7954:(4): 450–469.
7940:
7920:(2): 119–127.
7905:
7899:
7884:
7878:
7856:
7850:
7832:
7806:(2): 157–164.
7791:
7786:
7770:
7768:
7765:
7762:
7761:
7759:, p. 308.
7749:
7747:, p. 139.
7737:
7725:
7721:Abun-Nasr 1987
7713:
7709:Treadgold 1988
7701:
7689:
7658:
7656:, p. 122.
7646:
7634:
7625:
7614:on 5 June 2011
7594:
7583:on 5 June 2011
7557:
7530:
7521:
7505:
7489:
7475:
7459:
7450:
7438:
7429:
7398:
7392:
7370:
7357:
7339:"Why Shariah?"
7329:
7316:
7309:
7289:
7280:
7255:
7243:
7230:
7217:
7210:
7190:
7181:
7159:
7137:
7115:
7093:
7063:
7029:
7016:
7014:
7013:
6993:
6973:
6953:
6933:
6913:
6893:
6873:
6847:
6815:
6813:, p. 358.
6803:
6791:
6789:, p. 457.
6779:
6772:
6750:
6744:
6732:, ed. (1991),
6721:
6714:
6694:
6677:
6651:
6639:
6623:
6607:
6588:
6579:
6559:
6550:
6541:
6529:
6527:, p. 186)
6517:
6513:Madelung (1997
6505:
6492:
6477:
6473:Madelung (1997
6465:
6449:
6437:
6411:
6396:
6386:
6368:
6361:
6343:
6320:
6307:
6300:
6274:
6267:
6249:
6242:
6224:
6217:
6195:
6183:
6179:Sowerwine 2010
6171:
6159:
6138:van Donzel, E.
6126:Bosworth, C.E.
6117:
6110:
6090:
6055:Rein Taagepera
6046:
6039:
6018:
6017:
6015:
6012:
6011:
6010:
6005:
6000:
5995:
5990:
5982:
5981:
5979:
5978:
5971:
5964:
5956:
5953:
5952:
5947:
5946:
5943:
5932:
5931:
5928:
5917:
5916:
5913:
5902:
5901:
5898:
5887:
5886:
5883:
5872:
5871:
5868:
5857:
5856:
5853:
5842:
5841:
5838:
5827:
5826:
5823:
5812:
5811:
5808:
5797:
5796:
5793:
5782:
5781:
5778:
5767:
5766:
5763:
5760:Ras al Khaymah
5752:
5751:
5748:
5735:
5732:
5731:
5728:
5727:
5722:
5721:
5718:
5712:
5711:
5708:
5697:
5696:
5693:
5687:
5686:
5683:
5676:Mazrui dynasty
5672:
5671:
5668:
5657:
5656:
5653:
5642:
5641:
5638:
5625:
5622:
5621:
5618:
5617:
5612:
5611:
5608:
5602:
5601:
5598:
5592:
5591:
5588:
5582:
5581:
5578:
5572:
5571:
5568:
5562:
5561:
5558:
5552:
5551:
5548:
5542:
5541:
5538:
5532:
5531:
5528:
5522:
5521:
5518:
5512:
5511:
5508:
5502:
5501:
5498:
5492:
5491:
5488:
5482:
5481:
5478:
5472:
5471:
5468:
5462:
5461:
5458:
5452:
5451:
5448:
5442:
5441:
5438:
5432:
5431:
5428:
5422:
5421:
5418:
5412:
5411:
5408:
5402:
5401:
5398:
5392:
5391:
5388:
5382:
5381:
5378:
5372:
5371:
5368:
5362:
5361:
5358:
5352:
5351:
5348:
5342:
5341:
5338:
5332:
5331:
5328:
5320:
5317:
5316:
5313:
5312:
5307:
5306:
5303:
5297:
5296:
5293:
5287:
5286:
5283:
5277:
5276:
5273:
5267:
5266:
5263:
5257:
5256:
5253:
5247:
5246:
5243:
5237:
5236:
5233:
5227:
5226:
5223:
5217:
5216:
5213:
5207:
5206:
5203:
5197:
5196:
5193:
5187:
5186:
5183:
5177:
5176:
5173:
5167:
5166:
5163:
5157:
5156:
5153:
5147:
5146:
5143:
5137:
5136:
5133:
5127:
5126:
5123:
5117:
5116:
5113:
5107:
5106:
5103:
5097:
5096:
5093:
5091:Fihrid Emirate
5087:
5086:
5083:
5075:
5072:
5071:
5068:
5067:
5062:
5061:
5058:
5052:
5051:
5048:
5042:
5041:
5038:
5032:
5031:
5028:
5022:
5021:
5018:
5012:
5011:
5008:
5002:
5001:
4998:
4992:
4991:
4988:
4982:
4981:
4978:
4972:
4971:
4968:
4962:
4961:
4958:
4952:
4951:
4948:
4942:
4941:
4938:
4932:
4931:
4928:
4922:
4921:
4918:
4912:
4911:
4908:
4902:
4901:
4898:
4892:
4891:
4888:
4882:
4881:
4878:
4872:
4871:
4868:
4862:
4861:
4858:
4850:
4847:
4846:
4843:
4842:
4837:
4836:
4833:
4827:
4826:
4823:
4817:
4816:
4813:
4807:
4806:
4803:
4795:
4792:
4791:
4788:
4787:
4782:
4781:
4778:
4772:
4771:
4768:
4762:
4761:
4758:
4752:
4751:
4748:
4742:
4741:
4738:
4732:
4731:
4728:
4722:
4721:
4718:
4712:
4711:
4708:
4702:
4701:
4698:
4692:
4691:
4688:
4682:
4681:
4678:
4670:
4667:
4666:
4663:
4662:
4654:
4653:
4646:
4643:
4640:
4639:
4638:
4637:
4627:
4619:
4614:
4613:
4612:
4607:
4600:
4599:
4598:
4591:
4584:
4579:
4572:
4542:
4538:
4537:
4536:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4524:
4523:
4518:
4511:
4510:
4509:
4502:
4489:
4482:
4458:
4454:
4453:
4452:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4440:
4439:
4434:
4427:
4426:
4425:
4416:
4409:
4383:
4379:
4378:
4377:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4365:
4364:
4359:
4352:
4351:
4350:
4341:
4334:
4310:
4306:
4305:
4302:
4297:
4294:
4288:
4285:
4282:
4275:
4272:
4236:Main article:
4233:
4230:
4151:Main article:
4148:
4145:
4136:
4133:
4082:
4079:
4021:Muslim history
3965:
3962:
3953:
3950:
3945:Usama ibn Zaid
3937:
3936:
3925:
3918:
3911:
3904:
3901:Battle of Badr
3897:
3894:Husayn ibn Ali
3886:
3880:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3800:
3797:
3791:, a religious
3754:Main article:
3751:
3748:
3733:Main article:
3730:
3727:
3715:
3712:
3679:Main article:
3676:
3673:
3667:is one of the
3636:Main article:
3633:
3630:
3629:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3593:
3590:
3586:welfare states
3568:of an Islamic
3534:Social welfare
3463:Main article:
3460:
3457:
3432:Main article:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3417:Ottoman Empire
3348:The following
3344:Islamic ethics
3335:
3332:
3279:
3276:
3247:
3244:
3224:, in his book
3175:
3172:
3144:
3141:
3120:
3119:
3116:
3113:
3110:
3107:
3067:
3066:
3060:
3050:
3040:
3030:
3020:Katib-ud-Diwan
3017:
2978:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2901:
2900:
2882:
2868:
2858:
2852:
2838:
2824:
2798:
2795:
2746:
2743:
2696:
2693:
2622:
2619:
2570:
2567:
2539:ensuing battle
2487:
2484:
2368:
2365:
2354:Constantinople
2253:
2250:
2169:Battle of Fahl
2121:Jami'a Al-Aqsa
2102:pitched battle
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1922:Persian Empire
1844:Arabian desert
1796:Iyad ibn Ghanm
1777:Battle of Hira
1723:Sasanid Empire
1693:
1690:
1654:
1651:
1532: 656–661
1491:Main article:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1467:Main article:
1464:
1461:
1392:Main article:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1301: 634–644
1289:
1286:
1257:
1254:
1198:Eastern Arabia
1141:
1138:
1130:
1124:
1118:
1105:an altercation
1035:
1032:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
898:
895:
879: 647–670
829:
826:
768:in the north;
723: 661–680
599:
598:
596:
595:
588:
581:
573:
570:
569:
556:
555:
552:
551:
546:
541:
536:
531:
525:
522:
521:
518:
517:
514:
513:
508:
503:
498:
492:
489:
488:
485:
484:
476:
475:
456:
455:
452:
451:
448:
447:
440:
431:
428:
427:
422:
414:
413:
408:
400:
399:
394:
386:
385:
380:
368:
367:
362:
352:
351:
349:
348:
342:
340:
336:
335:
332:
328:
327:
323:
322:
319:
318:
315:
308:
305:
304:
301:
295:
292:
291:
288:
281:
278:
277:
274:
267:
264:
263:
260:
257:
254:
253:
250:
244:
241:
240:
237:
231:
228:
227:
224:
223:
220:
216:
215:
212:
211:
203:
200:
197:
196:
191:
188:
185:
184:
179:
176:
173:
172:
164:
161:
158:
157:
154:
153:
150:
144:
143:
138:
134:
133:
128:
124:
123:
120:
116:
115:
110:
106:
105:
94:
90:
89:
84:
80:
79:
66:
58:
57:
53:
52:
27:
24:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11357:
11346:
11343:
11341:
11338:
11336:
11333:
11331:
11328:
11326:
11323:
11321:
11318:
11316:
11313:
11311:
11308:
11306:
11303:
11301:
11298:
11296:
11293:
11291:
11288:
11286:
11283:
11281:
11278:
11276:
11273:
11271:
11268:
11266:
11263:
11261:
11258:
11256:
11253:
11251:
11248:
11246:
11243:
11241:
11238:
11237:
11235:
11218:
11217:Soviet empire
11215:
11213:
11210:
11209:
11207:
11206:
11204:
11202:Miscellaneous
11200:
11194:
11191:
11189:
11186:
11184:
11181:
11179:
11176:
11174:
11171:
11167:
11164:
11163:
11162:
11159:
11158:
11156:
11152:
11142:
11139:
11137:
11134:
11132:
11129:
11127:
11124:
11120:
11117:
11116:
11115:
11112:
11110:
11107:
11105:
11102:
11100:
11097:
11095:
11092:
11090:
11087:
11085:
11082:
11080:
11077:
11075:
11072:
11070:
11067:
11063:
11060:
11058:
11055:
11054:
11053:
11050:
11048:
11045:
11043:
11040:
11039:
11037:
11035:
11031:
11023:
11020:
11018:
11015:
11013:
11010:
11008:
11005:
11003:
11000:
10999:
10998:
10995:
10993:
10990:
10986:
10983:
10982:
10981:
10978:
10976:
10973:
10969:
10966:
10964:
10961:
10959:
10956:
10955:
10954:
10951:
10949:
10946:
10942:
10939:
10937:
10934:
10933:
10932:
10929:
10925:
10922:
10920:
10917:
10915:
10912:
10910:
10907:
10905:
10902:
10901:
10900:
10897:
10893:
10890:
10888:
10885:
10884:
10883:
10880:
10878:
10875:
10873:
10870:
10868:
10865:
10861:
10858:
10856:
10853:
10851:
10848:
10846:
10843:
10841:
10838:
10837:
10836:
10833:
10829:
10826:
10824:
10821:
10820:
10819:
10816:
10814:
10811:
10807:
10804:
10802:
10801:German Empire
10799:
10798:
10797:
10794:
10790:
10787:
10785:
10782:
10781:
10780:
10777:
10773:
10770:
10768:
10765:
10764:
10763:
10760:
10758:
10755:
10751:
10748:
10746:
10743:
10741:
10738:
10736:
10733:
10731:
10728:
10727:
10726:
10723:
10721:
10718:
10714:
10711:
10709:
10706:
10705:
10703:
10701:
10698:
10696:
10693:
10691:
10688:
10686:
10683:
10681:
10678:
10677:
10675:
10673:
10669:
10663:
10660:
10658:
10655:
10653:
10650:
10646:
10643:
10641:
10638:
10636:
10633:
10631:
10628:
10626:
10623:
10621:
10618:
10616:
10613:
10612:
10611:
10608:
10606:
10603:
10599:
10596:
10594:
10591:
10589:
10586:
10584:
10581:
10579:
10576:
10574:
10571:
10570:
10569:
10566:
10562:
10559:
10557:
10554:
10552:
10549:
10547:
10544:
10543:
10542:
10541:Turco-Persian
10539:
10537:
10534:
10532:
10529:
10527:
10524:
10522:
10519:
10517:
10514:
10512:
10509:
10507:
10504:
10502:
10499:
10495:
10492:
10490:
10487:
10486:
10485:
10482:
10478:
10475:
10473:
10470:
10468:
10465:
10463:
10460:
10458:
10455:
10453:
10450:
10449:
10448:
10445:
10442:
10440:
10437:
10435:
10432:
10430:
10427:
10423:
10420:
10418:
10415:
10413:
10410:
10409:
10408:
10405:
10401:
10398:
10396:
10393:
10391:
10388:
10386:
10383:
10382:
10381:
10378:
10376:
10373:
10371:
10368:
10366:
10363:
10361:
10358:
10356:
10353:
10349:
10346:
10344:
10341:
10339:
10336:
10334:
10331:
10330:
10329:
10326:
10322:
10319:
10317:
10314:
10312:
10309:
10307:
10304:
10303:
10302:
10299:
10295:
10292:
10290:
10287:
10285:
10282:
10281:
10280:
10277:
10275:
10272:
10270:
10267:
10265:
10262:
10260:
10257:
10253:
10250:
10248:
10245:
10243:
10240:
10239:
10238:
10235:
10233:
10230:
10226:
10223:
10221:
10218:
10216:
10213:
10211:
10208:
10206:
10203:
10201:
10198:
10197:
10196:
10193:
10189:
10186:
10184:
10181:
10180:
10179:
10176:
10172:
10169:
10167:
10164:
10162:
10159:
10157:
10154:
10153:
10152:
10149:
10147:
10144:
10140:
10137:
10136:
10135:
10132:
10128:
10125:
10123:
10120:
10119:
10117:
10115:
10112:
10110:
10107:
10105:
10102:
10100:
10097:
10095:
10092:
10090:
10087:
10085:
10082:
10081:
10079:
10077:
10073:
10065:
10062:
10061:
10060:
10057:
10055:
10052:
10048:
10045:
10043:
10040:
10039:
10038:
10035:
10031:
10028:
10027:
10026:
10023:
10019:
10016:
10014:
10011:
10009:
10006:
10004:
10001:
9999:
9996:
9994:
9991:
9990:
9989:
9986:
9984:
9981:
9979:
9976:
9972:
9969:
9967:
9964:
9962:
9959:
9957:
9954:
9953:
9952:
9949:
9945:
9942:
9940:
9937:
9936:
9935:
9932:
9930:
9927:
9923:
9920:
9918:
9915:
9913:
9910:
9908:
9905:
9903:
9900:
9899:
9898:
9895:
9893:
9890:
9888:
9885:
9881:
9878:
9876:
9873:
9871:
9868:
9867:
9866:
9863:
9861:
9858:
9854:
9851:
9849:
9846:
9844:
9841:
9840:
9839:
9836:
9832:
9829:
9827:
9824:
9822:
9819:
9818:
9817:
9814:
9810:
9807:
9805:
9802:
9801:
9800:
9797:
9795:
9792:
9790:
9787:
9786:
9784:
9781:
9776:
9772:
9768:
9761:
9756:
9754:
9749:
9747:
9742:
9741:
9738:
9726:
9718:
9716:
9706:
9705:
9702:
9688:
9685:
9683:
9680:
9678:
9675:
9673:
9670:
9668:
9665:
9663:
9660:
9658:
9655:
9653:
9650:
9646:
9643:
9642:
9641:
9638:
9634:
9631:
9629:
9628:Post-Islamism
9626:
9624:
9621:
9620:
9619:
9616:
9614:
9611:
9607:
9604:
9602:
9599:
9598:
9597:
9594:
9593:
9591:
9587:
9581:
9578:
9576:
9573:
9571:
9568:
9566:
9563:
9562:
9560:
9558:
9554:
9548:
9545:
9543:
9540:
9538:
9535:
9533:
9530:
9526:
9525:Protestantism
9523:
9521:
9518:
9517:
9516:
9513:
9512:
9510:
9508:
9504:
9500:
9490:
9486:
9472:
9469:
9467:
9466:
9462:
9460:
9457:
9453:
9450:
9449:
9448:
9445:
9443:
9440:
9438:
9435:
9433:
9430:
9428:
9425:
9423:
9420:
9419:
9417:
9413:
9407:
9404:
9402:
9399:
9397:
9394:
9392:
9389:
9388:
9386:
9384:
9380:
9374:
9371:
9369:
9368:Ophthalmology
9366:
9364:
9361:
9359:
9356:
9354:
9351:
9349:
9346:
9344:
9341:
9339:
9336:
9335:
9333:
9331:
9327:
9321:
9318:
9316:
9313:
9311:
9308:
9306:
9303:
9301:
9298:
9296:
9293:
9291:
9288:
9286:
9283:
9282:
9280:
9278:
9274:
9270:
9266:
9258:
9254:
9240:
9237:
9233:
9232:
9228:
9227:
9226:
9223:
9221:
9218:
9216:
9213:
9209:
9206:
9205:
9204:
9201:
9199:
9198:
9194:
9192:
9189:
9187:
9186:
9182:
9180:
9177:
9175:
9174:
9170:
9168:
9165:
9163:
9160:
9158:
9155:
9153:
9150:
9148:
9145:
9143:
9140:
9138:
9135:
9133:
9132:
9128:
9126:
9125:
9121:
9117:
9116:Death penalty
9114:
9112:
9109:
9107:
9104:
9103:
9102:
9099:
9097:
9094:
9092:
9091:
9087:
9086:
9084:
9082:Other aspects
9080:
9074:
9073:
9069:
9067:
9066:
9062:
9060:
9059:
9055:
9053:
9052:
9048:
9046:
9045:
9041:
9039:
9038:
9034:
9032:
9031:
9027:
9026:
9024:
9019:
9016:
9014:
9011:
9009:
9006:
9005:
9002:
8996:
8995:
8991:
8989:
8986:
8984:
8983:
8979:
8977:
8976:
8972:
8970:
8969:
8965:
8963:
8962:
8958:
8957:
8955:
8953:
8949:
8943:
8942:
8938:
8936:
8935:
8931:
8929:
8928:
8924:
8922:
8921:
8917:
8915:
8912:
8910:
8907:
8906:
8904:
8902:
8898:
8894:
8887:
8886:Jurisprudence
8884:
8882:
8879:
8878:
8874:
8870:
8860:
8857:
8855:
8852:
8850:
8847:
8845:
8842:
8840:
8837:
8835:
8834:
8830:
8828:
8825:
8823:
8820:
8818:
8815:
8813:
8810:
8808:
8805:
8803:
8800:
8798:
8795:
8793:
8790:
8788:
8785:
8783:
8780:
8778:
8775:
8773:
8770:
8768:
8765:
8763:
8760:
8759:
8757:
8752:
8749:
8747:
8744:
8743:
8740:
8734:
8731:
8729:
8726:
8722:
8719:
8718:
8717:
8714:
8712:
8709:
8707:
8704:
8700:
8697:
8693:
8690:
8689:
8688:
8685:
8683:
8680:
8678:
8675:
8673:
8670:
8669:
8668:
8665:
8663:
8660:
8658:
8655:
8651:
8647:
8643:
8639:
8636:
8635:
8634:
8631:
8630:
8628:
8626:
8625:Denominations
8622:
8616:
8615:
8611:
8609:
8606:
8604:
8601:
8599:
8596:
8594:
8591:
8590:
8588:
8586:
8582:
8574:
8571:
8569:
8566:
8564:
8561:
8559:
8556:
8554:
8551:
8549:
8546:
8544:
8541:
8539:
8538:
8534:
8533:
8532:
8529:
8527:
8524:
8522:
8521:
8517:
8515:
8514:
8510:
8508:
8505:
8503:
8500:
8498:
8495:
8493:
8490:
8488:
8485:
8484:
8482:
8477:
8474:
8472:
8469:
8468:
8465:
8459:
8458:
8454:
8452:
8451:
8447:
8445:
8444:
8440:
8438:
8437:
8433:
8431:
8430:
8426:
8425:
8423:
8421:
8417:
8411:
8410:Holiest sites
8408:
8406:
8405:Judgement Day
8403:
8401:
8400:
8396:
8394:
8391:
8389:
8386:
8384:
8381:
8377:
8374:
8373:
8372:
8369:
8367:
8366:
8362:
8358:
8355:
8354:
8353:
8350:
8349:
8347:
8345:
8341:
8337:
8333:
8332:
8326:
8321:
8314:
8309:
8307:
8302:
8300:
8295:
8294:
8291:
8279:
8276:
8274:
8271:
8269:
8266:
8264:
8261:
8260:
8257:
8253:
8246:
8241:
8239:
8234:
8232:
8227:
8226:
8223:
8215:
8209:
8205:
8201:
8197:
8193:
8189:
8188:
8182:
8180:90-411-0241-8
8176:
8172:
8168:
8163:
8159:
8155:
8151:
8150:Marius Canard
8147:
8143:
8139:
8135:
8131:
8125:
8121:
8120:
8115:
8111:
8107:
8105:9780522857283
8101:
8097:
8096:
8090:
8086:
8084:9780199806003
8080:
8076:
8071:
8067:
8061:
8058:. Routledge.
8057:
8056:
8050:
8046:
8040:
8036:
8035:
8029:
8025:
8019:
8015:
8011:
8010:
8004:
8000:
7995:
7991:
7985:
7977:
7973:
7969:
7965:
7961:
7957:
7953:
7949:
7945:
7944:Hinds, Martin
7941:
7937:
7933:
7928:
7923:
7919:
7915:
7911:
7906:
7902:
7896:
7892:
7891:
7885:
7881:
7879:9780674050976
7875:
7871:
7867:
7866:
7861:
7857:
7853:
7851:9781889758879
7847:
7843:
7842:
7837:
7833:
7829:
7825:
7821:
7817:
7813:
7809:
7805:
7801:
7797:
7792:
7789:
7787:0-521-33767-4
7783:
7779:
7778:
7772:
7771:
7758:
7757:Madelung 1997
7753:
7746:
7745:Madelung 1997
7741:
7734:
7733:Madelung 1997
7729:
7722:
7717:
7710:
7705:
7698:
7697:Vasiliev 1935
7693:
7677:
7673:
7669:
7662:
7655:
7654:Frastuti 2020
7650:
7643:
7642:Bosworth 1996
7638:
7632:Augus Mcbride
7629:
7613:
7609:
7605:
7598:
7582:
7578:
7574:
7570:
7564:
7562:
7545:
7541:
7534:
7525:
7518:
7516:
7515:In God's Path
7509:
7502:
7500:
7499:In God's Path
7493:
7486:
7479:
7472:
7470:
7469:In God's Path
7463:
7454:
7445:
7443:
7433:
7427:
7423:
7419:
7413:
7409:
7402:
7395:
7389:
7385:
7381:
7374:
7368:
7361:
7346:
7345:
7340:
7333:
7326:
7320:
7312:
7310:9781847064783
7306:
7302:
7301:
7293:
7284:
7276:
7272:
7268:
7262:
7260:
7252:
7247:
7240:
7234:
7227:
7224:Cl. Cahen in
7221:
7213:
7207:
7203:
7202:
7194:
7185:
7177:
7173:
7169:
7163:
7155:
7151:
7147:
7141:
7133:
7129:
7125:
7119:
7111:
7107:
7103:
7097:
7081:
7077:
7073:
7067:
7051:
7047:
7043:
7036:
7034:
7026:
7020:
7002:
6998:
6994:
6982:
6978:
6974:
6962:
6959:. p. 1.
6958:
6954:
6942:
6939:. p. 1.
6938:
6934:
6922:
6918:
6914:
6902:
6898:
6894:
6882:
6879:. p. 1.
6878:
6874:
6870:
6866:
6862:
6861:
6858:
6851:
6843:
6839:
6835:
6834:
6829:
6825:
6819:
6812:
6807:
6800:
6795:
6788:
6783:
6775:
6769:
6765:
6761:
6754:
6747:
6741:
6737:
6736:
6731:
6725:
6717:
6711:
6707:
6706:
6698:
6691:
6690:Madelung 1997
6686:
6684:
6682:
6673:
6666:
6664:
6662:
6660:
6658:
6656:
6649:, p. 49.
6648:
6647:Madelung 1997
6643:
6636:
6632:
6627:
6620:
6616:
6611:
6604:
6600:
6595:
6593:
6583:
6576:
6570:
6568:
6566:
6564:
6554:
6545:
6538:
6533:
6526:
6521:
6514:
6509:
6502:
6496:
6490:
6488:(2014), p. 3
6487:
6481:
6475:, p. 32)
6474:
6469:
6462:
6458:
6457:Madelung 1997
6453:
6447:, p. 83.
6446:
6441:
6426:
6422:
6415:
6407:
6400:
6393:
6389:
6387:9781134081066
6383:
6379:
6372:
6364:
6362:9788173913358
6358:
6354:
6347:
6339:
6334:
6333:
6324:
6317:
6311:
6303:
6301:9780761421207
6297:
6293:
6288:
6287:
6278:
6270:
6268:9781412994224
6264:
6260:
6253:
6245:
6243:9780334040323
6239:
6235:
6228:
6220:
6218:9789799988812
6214:
6211:. p. 9.
6210:
6206:
6199:
6193:, p. 93.
6192:
6187:
6180:
6175:
6168:
6167:Melchert 2020
6163:
6155:
6151:
6147:
6143:
6139:
6135:
6134:Bianquis, Th.
6131:
6127:
6121:
6113:
6111:9781317423683
6107:
6103:
6102:
6094:
6086:
6082:
6078:
6074:
6070:
6066:
6065:
6060:
6056:
6050:
6042:
6036:
6032:
6031:
6023:
6019:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5991:
5989:
5986:
5985:
5977:
5972:
5970:
5965:
5963:
5958:
5957:
5955:
5954:
5944:
5941:
5937:
5934:
5933:
5929:
5926:
5922:
5919:
5918:
5914:
5911:
5907:
5904:
5903:
5899:
5896:
5892:
5889:
5888:
5884:
5881:
5877:
5874:
5873:
5869:
5866:
5862:
5859:
5858:
5854:
5851:
5850:Umm al-Quwain
5847:
5844:
5843:
5839:
5836:
5832:
5829:
5828:
5824:
5821:
5817:
5814:
5813:
5809:
5806:
5802:
5799:
5798:
5794:
5791:
5787:
5784:
5783:
5779:
5776:
5772:
5769:
5768:
5764:
5761:
5757:
5754:
5753:
5749:
5746:
5742:
5739:
5738:
5730:
5729:
5719:
5717:
5714:
5713:
5709:
5706:
5702:
5699:
5698:
5694:
5692:
5689:
5688:
5684:
5681:
5677:
5674:
5673:
5669:
5666:
5662:
5659:
5658:
5654:
5651:
5647:
5644:
5643:
5639:
5636:
5632:
5629:
5628:
5620:
5619:
5609:
5607:
5604:
5603:
5599:
5597:
5594:
5593:
5589:
5587:
5584:
5583:
5579:
5577:
5574:
5573:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5563:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5553:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5543:
5539:
5537:
5534:
5533:
5529:
5527:
5524:
5523:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5513:
5509:
5507:
5504:
5503:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5493:
5489:
5487:
5484:
5483:
5479:
5477:
5474:
5473:
5469:
5467:
5464:
5463:
5459:
5457:
5454:
5453:
5449:
5447:
5444:
5443:
5439:
5437:
5434:
5433:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5423:
5419:
5417:
5414:
5413:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5403:
5399:
5397:
5394:
5393:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5383:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5373:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5363:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5353:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5343:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5333:
5329:
5327:
5324:
5323:
5315:
5314:
5304:
5302:
5299:
5298:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5288:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5278:
5274:
5272:
5269:
5268:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5258:
5254:
5252:
5249:
5248:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5238:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5228:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5218:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5208:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5198:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5188:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5178:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5168:
5164:
5162:
5159:
5158:
5154:
5152:
5151:Muslim Sicily
5149:
5148:
5144:
5142:
5139:
5138:
5134:
5132:
5129:
5128:
5124:
5122:
5119:
5118:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5108:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5098:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5088:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5078:
5070:
5069:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5053:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5043:
5039:
5037:
5034:
5033:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5023:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5013:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5003:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4993:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4983:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4973:
4969:
4967:
4964:
4963:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4953:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4943:
4939:
4937:
4934:
4933:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4923:
4919:
4917:
4914:
4913:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4903:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4893:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4883:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4873:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4863:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4853:
4845:
4844:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4828:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4818:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4808:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4798:
4790:
4789:
4780:450 AD–550 AD
4779:
4777:
4774:
4773:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4763:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4753:
4749:
4747:
4744:
4743:
4739:
4737:
4734:
4733:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4723:
4720:64 BC–300s AD
4719:
4717:
4714:
4713:
4710:132 BC–244 AD
4709:
4707:
4704:
4703:
4700:400 BC–106 AD
4699:
4697:
4694:
4693:
4690:600 BC–100 BC
4689:
4687:
4684:
4683:
4680:800 BC–300 BC
4679:
4677:
4674:
4673:
4665:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4655:
4651:
4650:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4626:
4622:
4621:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4602:
4601:
4596:
4592:
4589:
4585:
4582:
4581:
4580:
4577:
4573:
4571:
4570:
4568:
4563:
4562:
4557:
4548:
4547:
4543:
4540:
4539:
4533:
4532:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4513:
4512:
4507:
4503:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4491:
4490:
4487:
4483:
4481:
4479:
4473:
4464:
4463:
4459:
4456:
4455:
4449:
4448:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4429:
4428:
4423:
4419:
4418:
4417:
4414:
4410:
4408:
4407:
4405:
4398:
4389:
4388:
4384:
4381:
4380:
4374:
4373:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4354:
4353:
4348:
4344:
4343:
4342:
4339:
4335:
4333:
4331:
4325:
4316:
4315:
4311:
4308:
4307:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4289:
4287:Calligraphic
4286:
4283:
4280:
4279:
4271:
4270:in later era
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4246:, the famous
4245:
4239:
4232:Rashidun navy
4229:
4225:
4221:
4219:
4213:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4186:
4184:
4183:light cavalry
4180:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4153:Rashidun Army
4147:Rashidun army
4144:
4142:
4141:Rashidun navy
4132:
4129:
4126:
4121:
4120:Shi'ite views
4116:
4114:
4109:
4107:
4103:
4098:
4094:
4088:
4078:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4063:Mediterranean
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4030:
4024:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4005:Dar-ul-Amarat
4001:
3999:
3995:
3994:Friday mosque
3991:
3987:
3983:
3978:
3976:
3972:
3961:
3959:
3949:
3946:
3942:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3923:
3922:Apostasy wars
3919:
3916:
3912:
3909:
3905:
3902:
3898:
3895:
3891:
3890:Hasan ibn Ali
3887:
3884:
3881:
3878:
3875:
3874:
3873:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3859:
3854:
3850:
3847:
3843:
3828:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3796:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3762:
3757:
3747:
3745:
3741:
3736:
3726:
3724:
3720:
3711:
3708:
3705:
3701:
3691:
3687:
3682:
3672:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3644:
3639:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3598:
3597:
3589:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3524:
3523:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3501:
3497:
3495:
3490:
3487:
3482:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3466:
3456:
3454:
3450:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3435:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3401:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3385:
3378:
3376:
3371:
3367:
3361:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3345:
3341:
3331:
3329:
3322:
3317:
3315:
3311:
3310:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3287:
3285:
3275:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3243:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3197:
3192:
3191:
3185:
3181:
3171:
3169:
3164:
3160:
3159:
3155:Accordingly,
3153:
3151:
3140:
3138:
3134:
3128:
3125:
3117:
3114:
3111:
3108:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3096:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3074:
3072:
3064:
3061:
3058:
3054:
3051:
3048:
3044:
3041:
3038:
3034:
3031:
3028:
3025:
3021:
3018:
3015:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3006:
3004:
3003:
2998:
2994:
2989:
2987:
2983:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2906:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2883:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2869:
2866:
2862:
2859:
2856:
2853:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2839:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2825:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2802:
2794:
2787:
2783:
2778:
2771:
2768:(present-day
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2742:
2740:
2736:
2731:
2729:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2714:
2712:
2708:
2702:
2692:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2618:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2581:, Sudan, 2013
2580:
2575:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2519:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2497:
2492:
2483:
2481:
2477:
2474:, who killed
2473:
2472:Amr ibn al-As
2469:
2463:
2461:
2456:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2437:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2414:Amr ibn al-As
2411:
2407:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2379:
2374:
2364:
2362:
2357:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2278:
2274:
2267:
2263:
2258:
2249:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2231:
2226:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2212:
2208:
2202:
2194:
2190:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2160:
2156:
2154:
2145:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2117:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2091:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2069:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2029:
2028:Syrian Desert
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2008:Amr ibn al-As
2005:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1973:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1887:Qasr-e Shirin
1884:
1880:
1875:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1808:
1806:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1742:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1719:
1713:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1689:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1650:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1636:
1629:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1614:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1579:
1577:
1576:Hasan ibn Ali
1573:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1526:
1518:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1479:
1477:
1470:
1460:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1425:Rashidun army
1421:
1419:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1395:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1319:, north into
1318:
1314:
1309:
1308:
1295:
1285:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1253:
1251:
1246:
1242:
1233:
1229:
1227:
1217:
1216:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1106:
1103:resulting in
1101:
1097:
1091:
1089:
1085:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1041:
1030:
1026:
1011:
1009:
1005:
1001:
996:
992:
990:
978:
977:
972:
968:
963:
961:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
924:
920:
916:
908:
903:
892:
888:
884:
872:
868:
866:
861:
860:
854:
844:
838:
837:
825:
803:
798:
797:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
766:Transcaucasus
763:
759:
755:
754:Rashidun Army
751:
747:
742:
740:
736:
732:
728:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
692:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
644:
642:
638:
634:
630:
625:
619:
610:
606:
594:
589:
587:
582:
580:
575:
574:
572:
571:
568:
558:
557:
550:
547:
545:
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
526:
520:
519:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
493:
487:
486:
482:
478:
477:
465:
462:
461:
441:
439:
436:
435:
432:
426:
423:
416:
415:
412:
409:
402:
401:
398:
395:
388:
387:
384:
381:
374:
373:
370:
369:
366:
363:
361:
358:
357:
353:
347:
344:
343:
341:
337:
333:
329:
324:
320:
316:
312:
306:
302:
299:
293:
289:
285:
279:
275:
271:
265:
261:
255:
251:
248:
242:
238:
235:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
207:
204:
198:
195:
192:
186:
183:
180:
174:
168:
165:
159:
155:
151:
149:
145:
142:
139:
135:
132:
129:
125:
121:
117:
114:
111:
107:
103:
98:
95:
91:
88:
85:
81:
70:
64:
59:
54:
47:
38:
22:
19:
10968:Contemporary
10818:Indo-Persian
10806:Nazi Germany
10750:Contemporary
10652:Vijayanagara
10551:Great Seljuk
10462:Thessalonica
10390:Golden Horde
10155:
10030:Carthaginian
9809:Neo-Assyrian
9794:Neo-Sumerian
9640:Islamophobia
9515:Christianity
9463:
9396:Contemporary
9290:Architecture
9229:
9195:
9183:
9171:
9129:
9122:
9088:
9070:
9065:Nikah mut'ah
9063:
9056:
9049:
9042:
9035:
9028:
8992:
8980:
8973:
8966:
8959:
8939:
8932:
8925:
8918:
8831:
8612:
8536:
8535:
8518:
8511:
8455:
8448:
8441:
8434:
8427:
8420:Five Pillars
8397:
8363:
8352:God in Islam
8329:
8251:
8199:
8166:
8141:
8118:
8094:
8074:
8054:
8033:
8008:
7998:
7984:cite journal
7951:
7947:
7917:
7916:(in Malay).
7913:
7893:. ABC-CLIO.
7889:
7864:
7840:
7803:
7799:
7776:
7752:
7740:
7728:
7716:
7704:
7692:
7680:. Retrieved
7676:the original
7671:
7661:
7649:
7637:
7628:
7618:10 September
7616:. Retrieved
7612:the original
7607:
7597:
7587:10 September
7585:. Retrieved
7581:the original
7576:
7569:Hugh Kennedy
7548:. Retrieved
7533:
7524:
7514:
7508:
7498:
7492:
7484:
7478:
7468:
7462:
7453:
7432:
7411:
7407:
7401:
7379:
7373:
7360:
7348:. Retrieved
7342:
7332:
7319:
7299:
7292:
7283:
7275:the original
7270:
7246:
7233:
7220:
7200:
7193:
7184:
7176:the original
7171:
7162:
7154:the original
7149:
7140:
7132:the original
7127:
7118:
7110:the original
7105:
7096:
7084:. Retrieved
7080:the original
7075:
7066:
7054:. Retrieved
7050:the original
7045:
7040:A.I. Akram.
7024:
7023:D. Nicolle,
7019:
7005:. Retrieved
7001:the original
6985:. Retrieved
6981:the original
6965:. Retrieved
6945:. Retrieved
6925:. Retrieved
6921:the original
6905:. Retrieved
6901:the original
6885:. Retrieved
6869:the original
6856:
6850:
6842:the original
6831:
6818:
6806:
6794:
6782:
6763:
6753:
6734:
6724:
6704:
6697:
6671:
6642:
6634:
6630:
6626:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6602:
6598:
6582:
6574:
6553:
6544:
6539:, p. 4)
6532:
6520:
6508:
6503:(2012), p. 6
6500:
6495:
6485:
6480:
6468:
6452:
6440:
6428:. Retrieved
6424:
6414:
6405:
6399:
6391:
6377:
6371:
6352:
6346:
6331:
6323:
6315:
6310:
6285:
6277:
6258:
6252:
6233:
6227:
6204:
6198:
6186:
6181:, p. 5.
6174:
6162:
6145:
6120:
6100:
6093:
6068:
6062:
6049:
6029:
6022:
5945:1921–present
5930:1900–present
5915:1868–present
5900:1833–present
5885:1810–present
5870:1783–present
5855:1775–present
5840:1761–present
5825:1752–present
5810:1749–present
5795:1744–present
5790:Saudi Arabia
5780:1727–present
5765:1727–present
5750:1631–present
4800:
4760:300s–500s AD
4564:
4560:
4559:
4551:
4544:
4504:Grandson of
4475:
4467:
4460:
4401:
4400:
4392:
4385:
4327:
4319:
4312:
4264:Sack of Rome
4241:
4226:
4222:
4217:
4214:
4193:
4187:
4176:
4138:
4130:
4117:
4110:
4090:
4033:
4028:
4025:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4002:
3997:
3979:
3967:
3964:Public works
3958:bait al maal
3957:
3955:
3938:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3855:
3851:
3839:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3802:
3788:
3780:
3776:
3767:
3765:
3760:
3759:
3743:
3739:
3738:
3718:
3717:
3689:
3685:
3684:
3664:
3660:
3652:
3642:
3641:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3561:
3557:
3545:
3544:as forms of
3532:
3528:
3521:
3494:bait ul maal
3493:
3491:
3483:
3468:
3451:
3442:
3439:Bait-ul-Maal
3438:
3437:
3428:Bait-ul-Maal
3413:codification
3402:
3388:
3380:
3370:Bani Makhzum
3363:
3347:
3324:
3319:
3307:
3288:
3281:
3255:
3249:
3246:Sunni belief
3234:
3225:
3220:
3213:consultation
3177:
3167:
3162:
3156:
3154:
3146:
3129:
3121:
3103:
3092:
3087:
3083:
3075:
3068:
3062:
3052:
3047:Police Chief
3042:
3032:
3019:
3012:, the Chief
3009:
3000:
2990:
2979:
2914:
2910:North Africa
2902:
2803:
2800:
2791:
2770:Saudi Arabia
2738:
2734:
2732:
2725:
2721:
2716:
2715:
2710:
2707:Zoroastrians
2704:
2630:
2584:
2555:vassal state
2551:North Africa
2547:North Africa
2520:
2501:
2464:
2457:
2438:
2408:(616 to 629
2403:
2358:
2328:and sacking
2298:Ararat plain
2270:
2235:
2227:
2215:
2207:mobile guard
2203:
2199:
2165:
2150:
2094:
2067:
2051:al-Qaryatayn
2032:
2001:
1916:
1876:
1836:
1809:
1788:was defeated
1781:
1746:
1739:
1688:to recover.
1675:
1656:
1639:
1632:
1625:
1607:North Africa
1580:
1552:
1522:
1516:Siyer-i Nebi
1514:
1472:
1457:
1429:North Africa
1422:
1415:
1400:
1397:
1370:
1358:
1353:
1347:
1341:
1291:
1259:
1238:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1182:South Arabia
1143:
1092:
1080:
1059:
1037:
986:
974:
964:
949:
912:
885:) holding a
865:Shia Muslims
831:
819:consultation
786:Central Asia
784:to parts of
770:North Africa
743:
693:
645:
604:
602:
495:
365:Succeeded by
364:
359:
18:
10556:Khwarezmian
10489:Carolingian
10294:Rashtrakuta
9998:Shaishunaga
9897:Hellenistic
9880:New Kingdom
9870:Old Kingdom
9415:Other areas
9406:Theological
9401:Eschatology
9358:Mathematics
9295:Calligraphy
9225:Theological
9179:Inheritance
9096:Cleanliness
8526:Shi'a Imams
8520:Ahl al-Bayt
8204:I.B. Tauris
7550:29 November
6811:Netton 2013
6799:Donner 2010
6191:McHugo 2017
6130:Bearman, P.
5650:Pate Island
5623:East Africa
5416:Sulaymanids
5356:Ukhaidhirds
5141:Sulaymanids
5111:Muhallabids
5016:Munqidhites
4916:Shirvanshah
4770:300s–602 AD
4740:196–1100 AD
4730:100s–241 AD
4617:Banu Hashim
4593:Husband of
4586:Husband of
4528:Banu Umayya
4499:Umm Kulthum
4493:Husband of
4113:First Fitna
4029:Bait-ul-Mal
4013:Bait-ul-Mal
3556:(including
3542:Islamic law
3513:fire temple
3471:Abu Huraira
3465:Bayt al-mal
3434:Bayt al-mal
3409:rule of law
3354:rule of law
3334:Rule of law
3222:Fred Donner
2879:Lower Egypt
2875:Upper Egypt
2677:Constans II
2559:First Fitna
2460:Constans II
2453:monothelism
2346:Constans II
2187:siege to it
2024:Mesopotamia
1942:Balochistan
1938:Transoxania
1934:Afghanistan
1883:brief siege
1840:Mesopotamia
1814:, then the
1771:), and the
1749:Mesopotamia
1729:type. BYS (
1665:, parts of
1659:Mesopotamia
1493:First Fitna
1329:Mesopotamia
1162:Banu Thaqif
1082:tribe, the
1064:Banu Sa'ida
971:Sunni Islam
883:Constans II
853:Sunni Islam
840:(singular:
708:First Fitna
700:Banu Hashim
688:Banu Umayya
360:Preceded by
311:First Fitna
11245:Caliphates
11234:Categories
11126:Portuguese
11007:Revival Le
10997:Vietnamese
10640:Later Tran
10610:Vietnamese
10506:Singhasari
10494:Holy Roman
10118:Bulgarian
10054:Satavahana
10025:Phoenician
9961:Achaemenid
9922:Indo-Greek
9902:Macedonian
9816:Babylonian
9570:Ex-Muslims
9465:Shu'ubiyya
9459:Psychology
9447:Literature
9437:Inventions
9383:Philosophy
9191:Leadership
9167:Honorifics
8822:Philosophy
8677:Isma'ilism
8642:Maturidism
8531:Caliphates
8502:Golden Age
8393:Revelation
8023:0521646960
7682:31 October
7150:New Advent
6787:Hinds 1972
6425:Aqidah.Com
6071:(3): 495.
6014:References
5936:Hashemites
5891:Al Maktoum
5861:Al Khalifa
5546:Upper Yafa
5536:Ya'arubids
5376:Qarmatians
5261:Sumadihids
4750:220–638 AD
4746:Ghassanids
4497:and later
4420:Father of
4357:Abu Quhafa
4345:Father of
4262:, and the
4202:wickerwork
4102:Muawiyah I
4085:See also:
4071:Suez Canal
3952:Evaluation
3840:After the
3725:reserves.
3704:per capita
3574:Al-Ghazali
3570:government
3517:Khosrau II
3364:Narrated ‘
3338:See also:
3328:revolution
3296:oppression
3292:Al-Juwayni
3039:Collector.
2982:Muawiyah I
2955:Azerbaijan
2893:Azerbaijan
2699:See also:
2645:Constantia
2633:Muawiyah I
2498:(Sufetula)
2468:Caliph Ali
2430:Alexandria
2422:Nile Delta
2406:Khosrau II
2326:Cappadocia
2075:Ghassanids
1970:Oxus River
1956:(Russia),
1950:Azerbaijan
1906:in modern
1828:Byzantines
1753:Ridda wars
1751:after the
1735:Khosrau II
1727:Khosrau II
1640:Ali's son
1635:Ibn Muljam
1599:Kharijites
1433:Byzantines
1427:conquered
1226:Ridda wars
1202:al-Bahrayn
1190:Musaylimah
1178:Aswad Ansi
1140:Ridda wars
926:companions
790:South Asia
727:Kharijites
712:suzerainty
425:Ghassanids
137:Government
76: 654
11119:Couronian
10757:Ethiopian
10745:Manchukuo
10700:Brazilian
10546:Ghaznavid
10516:Srivijaya
10467:Trebizond
10452:Byzantine
10434:North Sea
10429:Norwegian
10417:Almoravid
10400:Ilkhanate
10370:Majapahit
10343:Muromachi
10252:Solomonic
10237:Ethiopian
10151:Caliphate
10084:Aragonese
9912:Ptolemaic
9687:Symbolism
9645:Incidents
9623:Criticism
9520:Mormonism
9422:Astrology
9348:Cosmology
9343:Astronomy
9285:Arabesque
9152:Etiquette
9111:Blasphemy
8901:Economics
8716:Ahmadiyya
8650:Mu'tazili
8638:Ash'arism
8158:181731396
7976:159763369
7936:234578454
7838:(2007) .
7828:163550092
7513:Hoyland,
7497:Hoyland,
7467:Hoyland,
7350:5 October
7239:Cambridge
7007:21 August
6987:21 August
6967:21 August
6947:21 August
6927:21 August
6907:21 August
6887:21 August
6445:Rane 2010
6430:16 August
5921:Al Sharqi
5876:Al Nuaimi
5846:Al Mualla
5835:Abu Dhabi
5831:Al Nahyan
5771:Al Qasimi
5756:Al Qasimi
5720:1860–1887
5710:1858–1895
5695:1856–1964
5685:1746–1828
5670:1277–1495
5655:1203–1894
5610:1926–1970
5600:1906–1934
5590:1903–1967
5580:1858–1967
5576:Qu'aitids
5570:1836–1921
5566:Rashidids
5560:1820–1970
5550:1800–1967
5540:1624–1742
5530:1597–1872
5520:1463–1521
5510:1454–1526
5500:1395–1967
5496:Kathirids
5490:1305–1487
5486:Jarwanids
5480:1253–1320
5470:1229–1454
5460:1159–1174
5450:1154–1624
5446:Nabhanids
5440:1083–1174
5430:1076–1253
5420:1063–1174
5410:1047–1138
5406:Sulayhids
5305:1837–1969
5301:Senussids
5295:1554–1659
5285:1230–1492
5275:1049–1078
5265:1041–1091
5255:1039–1110
5245:1031–1091
5241:Jawharids
5235:1027–1063
5231:Muzaynids
5225:1026–1057
5221:Hammudids
5215:1023–1062
5211:Yahsubids
5205:1023–1091
5195:1020–1086
5185:1013–1039
5175:1012–1051
5165:1004–1412
5131:Aghlabids
5060:1697–1842
5050:1517–1865
5040:1480–1677
5030:1517–1697
5020:1025–1157
5010:1024–1080
5006:Mirdasids
4996:Numayrids
4976:Jarrahids
4966:Mazyadids
4946:Hamdanids
4936:Hashimids
4896:Habbarids
4886:Dulafids
4736:Tanukhids
4567:Al-Haydar
4369:Banu Taym
4362:Umm Khayr
4330:Al-Siddiq
4268:Aghlabids
4190:chainmail
4031:animals.
3969:west. Al-
3858:allowance
3831:Allowance
3522:bismillah
3507:symbols (
3505:Sassanids
3321:curse"...
3304:rebellion
3264:Mujtahids
3178:The four
3027:Secretary
3014:Secretary
2993:districts
2905:testament
2861:Palestine
2849:Euphrates
2806:provinces
2667:and then
2649:Salt Lake
2615:Qalidurut
2603:cathedral
2591:Makurians
2527:Cyrenaica
2223:Jerusalem
2133:Jerusalem
2020:Ctesiphon
1918:Yazdegerd
1912:Sasanians
1891:Khuzestan
1879:Ctesiphon
1805:Christian
1740:bismillah
1431:from the
1418:Rashiduns
1337:Palestine
1321:Byzantine
1186:al-Yamama
1117:622–750:
1072:Muhajirun
828:Etymology
656:Banu Taym
654:, of the
637:West Asia
629:caliphate
618:romanized
464:Caliphate
141:Caliphate
127:Religion
104:(656–661)
99:(632–656)
87:Caliphate
11099:Japanese
11062:Scottish
11042:American
11034:Colonial
10963:Imperial
10931:Moroccan
10867:Japanese
10845:Afsharid
10704:Burmese
10690:Austrian
10645:Later Le
10620:Early Le
10605:Venetian
10531:Tiwanaku
10444:Hellenic
10407:Moroccan
10338:Kamakura
10328:Japanese
10311:Saffarid
10264:Georgian
10178:Chalukya
10156:Rashidun
10146:Calakmul
10114:Bruneian
9993:Haryanka
9971:Sasanian
9966:Parthian
9917:Bactrian
9907:Seleucid
9887:Goguryeo
9865:Egyptian
9799:Assyrian
9789:Akkadian
9780:Colonies
9725:Category
9618:Islamism
9601:Muhammad
9557:Apostasy
9532:Hinduism
9432:Feminism
9363:Medicine
9203:Military
9157:Gambling
9106:Apostasy
9101:Criminal
9013:Marriage
8982:Tayammum
8934:Murabaha
8807:Madrasas
8797:Holidays
8787:Clothing
8782:Children
8777:Calendar
8728:Quranism
8682:Alawites
8646:Atharism
8537:Rashidun
8376:In Islam
8371:Muhammad
8263:Abu Bakr
8194:(2020).
8140:(1935).
8116:(1988).
7862:(2010).
7820:25183178
7571:(2001).
7544:Archived
7519:: p. 227
7503:: p. 134
7422:Archived
6961:Archived
6941:Archived
6881:Archived
6826:(2003).
6762:(2004).
6144:(eds.).
5925:Fujairah
5906:Al Thani
5816:Al Sabah
5705:Wituland
5640:896–1279
5596:Idrisids
5526:Qasimids
5506:Tahirids
5476:Usfurids
5466:Rasulids
5436:Zurayids
5400:968–1925
5386:Wajihids
5380:899–1077
5370:897–1962
5360:865–1066
5346:Yufirids
5340:819–1138
5336:Ziyadids
5330:751–1970
5271:Tahirids
5201:Abbadids
5181:Tujibids
5155:831–1091
5121:Idrisids
5105:756–1031
5085:710–1019
5081:Salihids
5046:Harfushs
5036:Turabays
5000:990–1081
4990:990–1096
4986:Uqaylids
4980:970–1107
4970:961–1150
4960:955–1071
4956:Rawadids
4950:890–1004
4940:869–1075
4920:861–1538
4906:Kaysites
4900:854–1011
4870:736–1122
4835:909–1171
4831:Fatimids
4825:750–1258
4821:Abbasids
4811:Umayyads
4801:Rashidun
4766:Lakhmids
4756:Salihids
4645:See also
4635:Mu'awiya
4631:Al-Hasan
4478:Al-Ghani
4444:Banu Adi
4404:Al-Faruq
4314:Abu Bakr
4296:Parents
4292:Muhammad
4198:Hauberks
4179:infantry
4167:lamellar
4135:Military
3998:Al-Zawar
3931:and the
3785:poll tax
3740:Ghanimah
3578:disaster
3566:treasury
3538:pensions
3453:Abu Bakr
3447:treasury
3358:nepotism
3302:obliged
3200:شُـوْرَى
3180:Rashidun
3059:Officer.
3057:Treasury
3024:Military
2997:governor
2960:Khorasan
2889:Khorasan
2847:and the
2681:Phoinike
2661:Ottomans
2593:won the
2579:Khartoum
2535:Sufetula
2418:pharaohs
2322:Muawiyah
2302:Anatolia
2273:Anatolia
2211:skirmish
2137:Ash-Sham
2129:Old City
2106:Damascus
2063:Damascus
2061:via the
1954:Dagestan
1731:Bishapur
1678:Persians
1667:Anatolia
1611:Anatolia
1583:Mu'awiya
1264:and the
1206:al-Yaman
1146:Apostasy
976:Rashidun
942:Abu Bakr
915:Muhammad
836:rāshidūn
672:Banu Adi
652:Abu Bakr
633:Muhammad
339:Currency
167:Abu Bakr
11166:largest
11161:Empires
11141:Swedish
11136:Spanish
11131:Russian
11094:Italian
11069:Chinese
11057:English
11052:British
11047:Belgian
11022:Vietnam
11012:Tay son
10958:Tsarist
10953:Russian
10948:Ottoman
10914:Dzungar
10909:Khoshut
10882:Mexican
10877:Maratha
10860:Pahlavi
10840:Safavid
10835:Iranian
10762:Haitian
10725:Chinese
10685:Ashanti
10657:Wagadou
10583:Eastern
10578:Western
10561:Timurid
10521:Tibetan
10511:Songhai
10501:Serbian
10422:Almohad
10412:Idrisid
10316:Samanid
10306:Tahirid
10301:Iranian
10279:Kannauj
10259:Genoese
10195:Chinese
10188:Eastern
10183:Western
10171:Fatimid
10166:Abbasid
10161:Umayyad
10134:Burmese
10094:Ayyubid
10089:Angevin
10059:Xianbei
10047:Eastern
10042:Western
9988:Magadha
9951:Iranian
9944:Xiongnu
9929:Hittite
9838:Chinese
9826:Kassite
9775:Ancient
9767:Empires
9672:Nursing
9633:Qutbism
9547:Sikhism
9542:Judaism
9537:Jainism
9373:Physics
9320:Pottery
9305:Gardens
9300:Carpets
9215:Slavery
9137:Divorce
9124:Dhabiĥa
8952:Hygiene
8927:Takaful
8909:Banking
8839:Science
8833:Qurbani
8802:Mosques
8762:Animals
8751:Culture
8699:Zaydism
8687:Alevism
8573:Ottoman
8563:Almohad
8558:Fatimid
8553:Córdoba
8548:Abbasid
8543:Umayyad
8476:Leaders
8471:History
8429:Shahada
8344:Beliefs
7767:Sources
7473:: p. 98
7228:– Jizya
7086:16 July
7056:16 July
6085:2600793
5865:Bahrain
5801:Al Said
5786:Al Saud
5775:Sharjah
5745:Morocco
5741:'Alawis
5680:Mombasa
5516:Jabrids
5456:Mahdids
5426:Uyunids
5390:926–965
5366:Rassids
5350:847–997
5291:Saadids
5281:Nasrids
5191:Amirids
5171:Bakrids
5161:Kanzids
5145:814–922
5135:800–909
5125:788–974
5115:771–793
5095:745-757
5056:Shihabs
5026:Ma'nids
4930:864–928
4926:Alavids
4910:860–964
4890:840–897
4880:824–961
4860:654–884
4815:661–750
4805:632–661
4588:Fatimah
4495:Ruqayya
4322:أبو بكر
4284:Caliph
4281:Period
4266:by the
4252:Umayyad
4206:baldric
4194:dir’ayn
4171:baldric
4163:hauberk
4067:Red Sea
4065:to the
4051:Red Sea
4049:to the
3817:dhimmis
3773:dhimmis
3723:mineral
3475:Bahrain
3441:(lit.,
3423:Economy
3284:impeach
3252:Saqifah
3207:
3186:called
3184:Quraysh
3137:dirhams
3102:horse (
3037:Revenue
2975:Maghreb
2903:In his
2772:), 2008
2758:Medinah
2739:dhimmis
2735:dhimmis
2722:Dhimmis
2717:Dhimmis
2711:dhimmis
2653:Larnaca
2599:Dongola
2531:Tripoli
2512:Morocco
2496:Sbeitla
2434:Thebaid
2350:Armenia
2342:Isauria
2338:Cilicia
2334:Phrygia
2314:Malatya
2286:Antioch
2266:Armenia
2182:Chalcis
2055:Hawarin
2047:Sukhnah
1962:Georgia
1958:Armenia
1904:Hamadan
1858:at the
1737:right;
1509:in the
1411:Umayyad
1221:أُمَّـة
1084:Quraysh
1060:Saqifah
1053:Helpers
1047:
1029:Saqifah
1014:History
973:as the
946:Quraysh
930:Muslims
923:Medinan
921:), his
887:scepter
813:
778:Tunisia
764:to the
710:as his
620::
472:
309:•
296:•
282:•
268:•
252:633–654
245:•
232:•
219:History
170:(first)
93:Capital
56:632–661
11104:Mongol
11089:German
11084:French
11074:Danish
11017:Dainam
10992:Tongan
10980:Somali
10975:Sokoto
10941:'Alawi
10919:Kalmyk
10899:Mongol
10892:Second
10872:Korean
10823:Mughal
10813:Indian
10796:German
10789:Second
10779:French
10772:Second
10708:Second
10680:Afghan
10672:Modern
10598:Kyrgyz
10593:Uighur
10588:Second
10568:Turkic
10536:Toltec
10472:Epirus
10457:Nicaea
10380:Mongol
10333:Yamato
10269:Huetar
10127:Second
10064:Rouran
10013:Shunga
10008:Maurya
9983:Kushan
9956:Median
9934:Hunnic
9892:Harsha
9494:
9452:poetry
9262:
9147:Ethics
9131:Dhimmi
9090:Baligh
9051:Mahram
9008:Family
8988:Toilet
8968:Miswak
8721:Lahori
8662:Salafi
8608:Seerah
8603:Tafsir
8598:Hadith
8568:Sokoto
8513:Sahaba
8388:Angels
8365:Tawhid
8322:topics
8273:Uthman
8210:
8177:
8156:
8126:
8102:
8081:
8062:
8041:
8020:
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7968:162492
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7784:
7517:, 2015
7501:, 2015
7471:, 2015
7418:online
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5820:Kuwait
5251:Hudids
4462:Uthman
4244:Cyprus
4075:Jeddah
4035:Canals
4009:Diwans
3990:Fustat
3988:, and
3781:jizyah
3777:kharaj
3768:kharaj
3761:Kharaj
3756:Kharaj
3750:Kharaj
3690:jizyah
3626:Kharaj
3582:famine
3398:colour
3375:Fatima
3350:hadith
3340:Sharia
3309:haraam
3272:sunnah
3196:Arabic
3124:Uthman
3100:Turkic
3079:mosque
3055:, the
3045:, the
3035:, the
3022:, the
2945:Jazira
2920:Medina
2895:, and
2885:Persia
2865:Ramlah
2845:Tigris
2841:Jazira
2821:Medina
2813:Arabia
2788:, 2016
2701:Dhimmi
2689:battle
2673:Sicily
2669:Rhodes
2641:Cyprus
2607:battle
2400:, 2013
2312:, and
2310:Marash
2294:Edessa
2290:Jazira
2242:Aleppo
2139:, 1982
2123:in Al-
2043:Tadmur
1997:Levant
1946:Makran
1856:Levant
1725:ruler
1663:Levant
1661:, the
1603:Sicily
1555:Zubayr
1536:Medina
1476:Qur'an
1449:Sicily
1445:Cyprus
1441:Rhodes
1403:Uthman
1366:Medina
1160:, the
1158:Medina
1132:
1126:
1120:
995:hadith
913:After
897:Origin
859:sunnah
843:rāshid
806:شُورَى
802:Arabic
762:Levant
752:. The
684:Uthman
660:Medina
609:Arabic
470:خِلافة
346:Dirham
222:
209:(last)
194:Uthman
152:
148:Caliph
113:Arabic
97:Medina
83:Status
69:Uthman
37:Arabic
33:
11154:Lists
11109:Omani
11079:Dutch
10985:Isaaq
10936:Saadi
10904:Oirat
10887:First
10855:Qajar
10784:First
10767:First
10740:China
10713:Third
10573:First
10526:Tikal
10477:Morea
10447:Roman
10365:Latin
10360:Khmer
10355:Kanem
10321:Buyid
10247:Zagwe
10242:Aksum
10232:Chola
10139:First
10122:First
10109:Bornu
10104:Benin
10099:Aztec
10037:Roman
10018:Gupta
10003:Nanda
9939:White
9606:Quran
9496:Other
9391:Early
9315:Music
9231:Kalam
9185:Jizya
9173:Hudud
9058:Nikah
8975:Najis
8961:Ghusl
8920:Sukuk
8849:Women
8817:Music
8792:Flags
8706:Ibadi
8633:Sunni
8593:Quran
8450:Zakat
8436:Salah
8399:Qadar
8357:Allah
8320:Islam
7972:S2CID
7964:JSTOR
7932:S2CID
7824:S2CID
7816:JSTOR
7416:(see
6459:, p.
6286:Islam
6081:JSTOR
5998:Talut
5910:Qatar
5895:Dubai
5880:Ajman
5665:Kilwa
5635:Shewa
4470:عثمان
4422:Hafsa
4347:Aisha
4300:House
4210:Ansar
4093:Sunni
4017:Jails
3986:Basra
3825:zakāt
3821:zakāt
3793:tithe
3744:Khums
3735:Khums
3729:Khums
3695:جزْية
3686:Jizya
3681:Jizya
3675:Jizya
3665:Zakāt
3661:nisab
3657:nisab
3643:Zakāt
3638:Zakat
3632:Zakat
3621:Khums
3611:Jizya
3601:Zakāt
3562:jizya
3558:zakāt
3554:taxes
3546:zakāt
3366:Aisha
3314:ayahs
3268:Ulema
3230:shura
3190:shūrā
3168:Qadis
3163:Qadis
3158:Qadis
3010:Katib
2970:Egypt
2965:Syria
2940:Basra
2930:Yemen
2925:Mecca
2871:Egypt
2855:Syria
2831:Basra
2817:Mecca
2762:Hijaz
2727:jizya
2685:Lycia
2683:(off
2665:Crete
2587:Nubia
2523:Barqa
2441:Cyrus
2398:Egypt
2394:Cairo
2318:forts
2173:Emesa
2090:Syria
2059:Bosra
1784:Anbar
1682:Egypt
1642:Hasan
1567:Basra
1563:Aisha
1559:Talha
1503:Aisha
1344:Diwan
1333:Syria
1325:Egypt
1282:Syria
1215:ummah
1210:Mahra
1174:zakat
1166:Ta'if
1154:Mecca
1076:Mecca
1040:Ansar
960:merit
796:shūrā
774:Egypt
772:from
131:Islam
10924:Bogd
10850:Zand
10828:Sikh
10735:Qing
10730:Ming
10662:Wari
10630:Tran
10615:Dinh
10385:Yuan
10375:Mali
10284:Pala
10274:Inca
10225:Yuan
10215:Song
10210:Liao
10205:Tang
9978:Kush
9860:Dʿmt
9277:Arts
9208:POWs
9142:Diet
9072:Zina
9044:Mahr
9030:Haya
8994:Wudu
8941:Riba
8854:LGBT
8746:Life
8667:Shia
8657:Sufi
8648:and
8457:Hajj
8443:Sawm
8268:Umar
8208:ISBN
8175:ISBN
8154:OCLC
8124:ISBN
8100:ISBN
8079:ISBN
8060:ISBN
8039:ISBN
8018:ISBN
7990:link
7895:ISBN
7874:ISBN
7846:ISBN
7782:ISBN
7684:2021
7620:2017
7589:2017
7552:2014
7388:ISBN
7352:2008
7305:ISBN
7241:1970
7206:ISBN
7088:2010
7058:2010
7009:2007
6989:2007
6969:2007
6949:2007
6929:2007
6909:2007
6889:2007
6768:ISBN
6740:ISBN
6710:ISBN
6432:2014
6382:ISBN
6357:ISBN
6296:ISBN
6263:ISBN
6238:ISBN
6213:ISBN
6106:ISBN
6035:ISBN
5805:Oman
4387:Umar
4218:e.g.
4181:and
4165:and
4106:Umar
4047:Nile
3982:Kufa
3973:and
3892:and
3844:and
3812:ushr
3808:ushr
3804:Ushr
3799:Ushr
3789:ushr
3653:viz.
3648:زكاة
3606:Ushr
3560:and
3536:and
3394:Qadi
3342:and
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3204:lit.
3148:the
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3063:Qadi
3002:Wāli
2950:Fars
2935:Kufa
2897:Fars
2877:and
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2833:and
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2819:and
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2780:The
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2264:and
2053:and
2039:Arak
2035:Sawa
2014:and
1960:and
1944:and
1926:Iran
1908:Iran
1712:Iraq
1546:and
1540:Kufa
1443:and
1405:and
1354:amil
1349:amir
1335:and
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1170:Oman
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1027:and
1002:and
936:and
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889:and
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810:lit.
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668:Umar
639:and
603:The
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102:Kufa
11002:Mac
10439:Oyo
10348:Edo
10220:Jīn
10200:Sui
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9848:Han
9843:Qin
9018:Sex
8881:Law
8767:Art
8278:Ali
7956:doi
7922:doi
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7414:(8)
6150:doi
6073:doi
4554:علي
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4395:عمر
4258:by
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