455:. Around the year 650, starting roughly with the latter half of his reign, general opinion turned against Uthman. He was accused of nepotism and of appointing people who are too young to important posts. Uthman's interference in the provincial affairs, that consisted of his declaration of the crown lands of Iraq as the state assets, and his demand that provincial surplus be forwarded to the caliph in Medina, brought about widespread opposition to his rule, especially from Iraq and Egypt, where majority of the conquest armies had settled. The old settlers also saw their status threatened by the land grants in conquered territories to prominent Quraysh like al-Zubayr and Talha and the Caliph allowing late arriving tribal chiefs, such as
637:
attacker, the rebels started preparations to attack. The next day, Friday 17 June, they attacked his house setting the doors on fire. Uthman ordered his defenders to lay down their arms and not fight as he did not want bloodshed. Nevertheless, some of them, including Marwan and Sa'id ibn al-As, refused and counter-attacked the rebels repelling them from one of the doors. A few of the defenders were killed in the skirmishes whereas Marwan and Sa'id were wounded. Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr and Hasan ibn Ali are also reported to have been wounded, although other reports indicate that the two had laid down their arms on Uthman's earlier orders.
648:, after that, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr seized Uthman's beard and shook it. Uthman implored him to let it go, stressing that his father, Abu Bakr, would never have done anything like that. Muhammad retorted that Abu Bakr would have surely condemned Uthman if he had seen the deeds Uthman had committed. Then, as Uthman sought God's protection from Muhammad, Muhammad pierced Uthman’s head with a blade. An alternative version transmitted from an eyewitness Rayta reports that Muhammad pulled back after grabbing Uthman's beard and tried to stop the other rebels. Madelung considers this version to be unreliable.
187:
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rebels amounted to only the resignation or abdication of Uthman and selection of another caliph. As turmoil broke out, Ali left. He seems to have broken with Uthman. Ali intervened only after being informed that the rebels were preventing the delivery of water to the besieged caliph. He tried to mitigate the severity of the siege by his insistence that Uthman should be allowed to have water. He also sent his two sons to protect Uthman's house when he was in danger of being attacked.
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534:") which urged the provincials to rise up against Uthman. Ibn Abi Bakr and Ibn Abi Hudhayfa are reported to have deserted a Muslim campaign against the Byzantines, claiming that jihad against the internal enemy (i.e. Uthman) was more important than against the external one, after receiving such a letter. Talha is also reported to have sent such letters to Kufans and Basrans.
369:
property. The revenue was distributed among the conquering armies. Umar also left the provincial administration to the respective governors, who ruled with considerable autonomy, and provincial surplus was spent on the settlers of the conquered territories instead of being sent to the capital. In some matters, such as military pay (
422:, was made to choose a new caliph among Uthman and Ali. The assembly chose Ali unanimously but his refusal to follow previous caliphs ultimately resulted in Uthman being the new caliph. Although Uthman had been an early companion of Muhammad from the time of Mecca and had been devoted to the cause of Islam, he belonged to the
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overtaken by a courier from Medina. They discovered that the courier was carrying a letter which allegedly bore Caliph Uthman's official seal. The letter instructed the
Egyptian governor to kill the rebel party once it arrived back home. Historians now consider the letter to have been issued not by Uthman, but his secretary,
627:
When
Egyptian rebels returned to Medina, outraged by the official letter ordering the capital punishment of their leaders, Ali, as the guarantor of Uthman's promises, asked Uthman to speak with the rebels directly. Uthman denied any knowledge of the letter. But by this time the choices offered by the
651:
Kinana ibn Bishr al-Tujibi then joined in by piercing under Uthman’s ear from behind with arrows and sword blows. According to a variant account, Kinana hit him with a metal rod and he fell on the ground. Sudan ibn Humran then killed him. In both accounts, Amr ibn al-Hamiq then sat on his chest and
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The assassination of Uthman had a polarizing effect in the Muslim world at the time. Questions were raised not only regarding his character and policies but also the relationship between
Muslims and the state, religious beliefs regarding rebellion and governance, and the qualifications of rulership
368:
The conquests brought
Muslims bounteous revenue and lands. Particularly in Iraq, the former crown-lands and the lands of the Persian aristocracy were now in Muslim hands. These became communal property administered by the state, although the soldiers protested as they considered these lands their
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met them and persuaded them to return. The delegates promised the rebels, in the name of the caliph, redress for all their grievances and agreed to act as guarantors. Due to this mediation and Uthman's commitment, the rebels backed down. As the rebel party was then departing for Egypt, they were
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The situation worsened on
Thursday, 16 June. As Uthman stood in his balcony, Niyar ibn Iyad al-Aslami, a companion of Muhammad, lectured him from outside and demanded his abdication. In response, one of Marwan's servants threw a stone killing Niyar. Outraged by Uthman's refusal to hand over the
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in his stead. As Sa'id ibn al-As was to do in Kufa, Ibn Sa'd started taking control of the financial system of the province, forwarding surplus to the capital. The settlers were dissatisfied with this arrangement. Around 654 tension spilled into opposition and some resentful elements under the
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from 644 to 656, was assassinated at the end of a siege upon his house in 656. Initially a protest, the siege escalated following the death of a protester. The protesters-turned-rebels had demanded a new caliph, but Uthman refused and on 17 June 656 (35 AH), as his house was set alight, some
502:, who was the adopted son of Ali, refused to pray behind the governor (the custom was that the government representative would lead the prayers). In January 655, Ibn Sa'd was ejected from Egypt by the discontented group, who took over the administration of the province in their own hands.
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The provincial discontent was coupled with the dissatisfaction of the Ansar and the
Quraysh of Medina, including a number of senior companions of Muhammad, who had lost their influence and prestige to Umayyads under Uthman. Qurayshi clans like
530:(innovation in religion). Amr is said to have incited Quraysh against Uthman and urged senior companions to confront him. Letters were sent to Kufa and Egypt by the wives of Muhammad led by A'isha (they were deeply respected as "
447:, Medinese helpers of Muhammad, who had already lost some importance after his death. Uthman appointed his kinsmen to all of the provincial governorships, and made a number of land and monetary grants to his relatives including
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provoked outrage among some groups of people. Overt resistance arose in 650–651 throughout most of the Empire. The dissatisfaction with his rule and the governments appointed by him was not restricted to the provinces outside
430:
tribe—a grouping of Meccan clans to which
Muhammad and most of his prominent Meccan companions belonged. Umayyads had been staunch opponents of Muhammad during his ministry, and had converted to Islam only after the
683:
According to one version, the trigger of the attack was the news that Uthman's governors in Iraq, Syria, and Egypt had sent him reinforcements. The rebels then hastened to finish him before the arrival of the
443:
Uthman began centralizing the power by reliance on his
Umayyad relatives, to the exclusion of other Quraysh, who had enjoyed significant authority during the reign of his two predecessors, and the
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in 629 near the end of
Muhammad's career. Muhammad, and later Abu Bakr and Umar, tried to win the Umayyads over to and incorporate them in the new order by awarding them gifts and important posts.
381:) in Islam and kept the late comers to the movement at bay, which to some extent resulted in social stratification and dissatisfaction among the holders of power and prestige in the old order.
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protestors were able to jump to the back of his house, where they found him reading the Qur'an. They gave him a blow over the head and pierced him through his stomach.
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570:, turned against him or at least withdrew their support, putting pressure on the caliph to mend his ways and reduce the influence of his assertive kin.
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began opposing Uthman's policies. Events came to a head when Uthman's governor of Kufa, his relative Sa'id ibn al-As, was expelled from the city by the
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was founded in Egypt. Due to significant Arab population in Syria, Muslim conquerors of the region settled in the already existing towns.
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pierced his body a number of times. The house was then looted. Uthman's body was buried at night in the Jewish cemetery named
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482:, who had earlier been deposed from the governorship of Basra by Uthman and at that time resided in Kufa, their governor.
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While Uthman and his wife Na'ila bint al-Furafisa were alone in their room around the time of midday prayers, reading the
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545:, who seemed to dominate him, and his supposed arrogant mistreatment toward several of the earliest companions such as
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The
History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XV: The Crisis of the Early Caliphate: The Reign of ʿUthmān, A.D. 644–656/A.H. 24–35
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as the rebels (or Ansar according to Wellhausen) did not allow him be buried in the Muslim cemetery.
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had withdrawn their support of Uthman, whereas companions Amr ibn al-As, Talha and Muhammad's widow
489:, the conqueror of the province who was popular among the Egyptian troops, in 645–646 and appointed
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The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century
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353:. The armies of the conquest were settled in the conquered areas. In Iraq, the garrison towns of
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644:, some of the rebels climbed the surrounding homes and leaped into Uthman's. According to the
1398:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
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1289:(1971). "Kufan Political Alignments and their Background in the Mid-Seventh Century A.D.".
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At the head of the old settlers of Kufa, who subsequently became known as
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initiated by Abu Bakr, he brought about the almost complete collapse of
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had been severely criticizing the Caliph accusing him of nepotism and
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Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History: The Rashidun Caliphs
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The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate
1422:(Third ed.). Abingdon, Oxon and New York: Routledge.
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Concerning the events which led to siege of Uthman,
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1271:(Second ed.). London and New York: Routledge.
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Muhammad and the Believers, at the Origins of Islam
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1523:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
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16:656 murder of the third Rashidun caliph in Medina
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674:A'isha later denied having written any letters.
485:Uthman deposed from the governorship of Egypt
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1596:Assassinations in the medieval Islamic world
1331:International Journal of Middle East Studies
1329:(1972). "The Murder of the Caliph 'Uthman".
1291:International Journal of Middle East Studies
578:Dissatisfaction finally led to rebellion in
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1467:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
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333:) became the new caliph. Continuing the
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1499:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
494:leadership of Uthman's adopted son
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361:were established for the purpose.
37:, Rashidun Caliphate, present-day
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562:. When Uthman's kin, especially
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439:Opposition to Uthman's policies
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322:) in 632 and 634 respectively,
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1374:. Cambridge University Press.
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478:. They declared the companion
1:
1560:The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall
737:The Essentials of Ibadi Islam
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1440:& Khoury, R. G. (2000).
1226:. Harvard University Press.
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1543:"'Alī b. Abī Ṭāleb I. Life"
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307:Following the deaths of
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179:The Generous (al-Ghani)
22:Assassination of Uthman
778:, pp. 58, 56, 53.
623:Beginning of the siege
404:al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam
1547:Encyclopaedia Iranica
1442:"ʿUt̲h̲mān b. ʿAffān"
1390:Humphreys, R. Stephen
892:, pp. 11, 22–23.
841:, pp. 49–50, 59.
735:Valerie Jon Hoffman,
416:Talha ibn Ubayd Allah
400:Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf
386:assassination of Umar
311:and the first caliph
230:Samarkand Kufic Quran
153:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr
87:17 June 656
68:24.47000°N 39.61000°E
1141:, pp. 107, 134.
608:Muhammad ibn Maslama
551:Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud
547:Abu Dharr al-Ghifari
1438:Levi Della Vida, G.
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1021:, pp. 453–456.
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613:Marwan ibn al-Hakam
498:and Abu Bakr's son
480:Abu Musa al-Ash'ari
470:Malik ibn al-Harith
468:(Qur'an reciters),
457:al-Ash'ath ibn Qays
449:Marwan ibn al-Hakam
412:Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas
345:were restricted to
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1555:Wellhausen, Julius
1549:(Online ed.).
1263:Hawting, Gerald R.
1093:, pp. 92–107.
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1057:, pp. 90–103.
726:, p. 190-191.
491:Abd Allah ibn Sa'd
73:24.47000; 39.61000
1611:History of Medina
1515:Madelung, Wilferd
1482:978-90-04-11211-7
1429:978-1-138-78761-2
1405:978-0-7914-0154-5
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1474:
1470:
1468:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1450:Bianquis, Th.
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1425:
1421:
1420:
1415:
1414:Kennedy, Hugh
1411:
1407:
1401:
1397:
1396:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1381:0-521-29136-4
1377:
1373:
1369:
1368:Bernard Lewis
1366:Holt, P. M.;
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1327:Hinds, Martin
1324:
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1288:
1287:Hinds, Martin
1284:
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1278:0-415-24072-7
1274:
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1254:9780231150828
1250:
1246:
1245:
1239:
1235:
1229:
1225:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1214:
1204:, p. 50.
1203:
1198:
1191:
1190:Madelung 1997
1186:
1179:
1178:Madelung 1997
1174:
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1164:
1163:Madelung 1997
1159:
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1135:
1128:
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1116:
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1111:
1104:
1103:Madelung 1997
1099:
1092:
1091:Madelung 1997
1087:
1081:, p. 90.
1080:
1079:Madelung 1997
1075:
1068:
1067:Madelung 1997
1063:
1056:
1055:Madelung 1997
1051:
1044:
1043:Madelung 1997
1039:
1032:
1027:
1020:
1015:
1009:, p. 64.
1008:
1003:
997:, p. 63.
996:
991:
989:
981:
976:
969:
964:
957:
952:
945:
944:Madelung 1997
940:
933:
928:
922:, p. 59.
921:
916:
914:
907:, p. 41.
906:
901:
899:
891:
886:
884:
877:, p. 21.
876:
871:
865:, p. 41.
864:
859:
852:
851:Madelung 1997
847:
840:
835:
829:, p. 60.
828:
823:
816:
811:
805:, p. 59.
804:
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792:
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765:
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754:
753:9780815650843
750:
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709:Madelung 1997
705:
703:
701:
696:
680:
671:
667:
659:
656:
655:Hashsh Kawkab
649:
647:
643:
638:
632:Assassination
629:
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487:Amr ibn al-As
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225:Assassination
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113:Assassination
111:
105:
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82:
77:
49:
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43:
40:
36:
32:
29:
25:
20:
1559:
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1038:
1031:Kennedy 2016
1026:
1014:
1007:Kennedy 2016
1002:
995:Kennedy 2016
975:
968:Kennedy 2016
963:
951:
939:
927:
890:Hawting 2000
875:Hawting 2000
870:
858:
846:
839:Kennedy 2016
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827:Kennedy 2016
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803:Kennedy 2016
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776:Kennedy 2016
771:
759:
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577:
536:
504:
484:
461:
442:
424:Umayyad clan
383:
367:
351:North Africa
306:
297:
224:
163:, the third
159:
39:Saudi Arabia
980:Donner 2010
956:Donner 2010
863:Donner 2010
815:Donner 2010
791:Donner 2010
210:Family tree
149:Perpetrator
108:Attack type
71: /
46:Coordinates
1580:Categories
1019:Hinds 1972
920:Lewis 2002
764:Lewis 2002
692:References
388:in 644 by
384:After the
303:Background
299:in Islam.
235:Uthmaniyya
132:1 killed,
59:39°36′36″E
56:24°28′12″N
1569:752790641
1471:Volume X:
1359:159763369
1319:155455942
739:, pg. 8.
600:emigrants
220:Campaigns
134:1 injured
91:656-06-17
1557:(1927).
1541:(1982).
1517:(1997).
1493:(2002).
1464:(eds.).
1416:(2016).
1370:(1977).
1265:(2000).
1220:(2010).
747:, 2012.
741:Syracuse
500:Muhammad
347:Anatolia
313:Abu Bakr
309:Muhammad
248:Category
215:Election
202:Rashidun
27:Location
1211:Sources
606:led by
516:Makhzum
428:Quraysh
426:of the
89: (
1606:Uthman
1567:
1527:
1503:
1479:
1460:&
1426:
1402:
1378:
1357:
1351:162492
1349:
1317:
1311:162722
1309:
1275:
1251:
1230:
751:
642:Qur'an
592:Medina
564:Marwan
560:Arabia
520:A'isha
514:, and
512:Hashim
420:Uthman
378:sabiqa
363:Fustat
341:. The
205:Caliph
175:Uthman
165:caliph
161:Uthman
143:Uthman
139:Victim
129:Deaths
119:Weapon
102:Uthman
99:Target
35:Arabia
31:Medina
1444:. In
1355:S2CID
1347:JSTOR
1315:S2CID
1307:JSTOR
662:Notes
617:siege
604:Ansar
588:Basra
580:Egypt
526:bid'a
508:Zuhra
475:qurra
465:qurra
445:Ansar
395:shura
355:Basra
123:Sword
1565:OCLC
1525:ISBN
1501:ISBN
1477:ISBN
1424:ISBN
1400:ISBN
1376:ISBN
1273:ISBN
1249:ISBN
1228:ISBN
749:ISBN
586:and
584:Kufa
574:Riot
553:and
451:and
418:and
359:Kufa
357:and
324:Umar
84:Date
1601:656
1473:T–U
1339:doi
1299:doi
596:Ali
408:Ali
372:ata
1582::
1545:.
1469:.
1456:;
1452:;
1448:;
1353:.
1345:.
1333:.
1313:.
1305:.
1293:.
1170:^
987:^
912:^
897:^
882:^
783:^
743::
716:^
699:^
619:.
582:,
549:,
510:,
414:,
410:,
406:,
402:,
329:r.
318:r.
33:,
1571:.
1533:.
1509:.
1485:.
1432:.
1408:.
1384:.
1361:.
1341::
1335:3
1321:.
1301::
1295:2
1281:.
1257:.
1236:.
1129:.
326:(
315:(
287:e
280:t
273:v
93:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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