22:
2098:
606:. When near a planet, low-thrust propulsion may not offset the gravitational force. An electric rocket engine cannot provide enough thrust to lift the vehicle from a planet's surface, but a low thrust applied for a long interval can allow a spacecraft to manoeuvre near a planet.
198:(Space Electric Rocket Test) spacecraft. It launched on 20 July 1964 and operated for 31 minutes. A follow-up mission launched on 3 February 1970, SERT-2. It carried two ion thrusters, one operated for more than five months and the other for almost three months.
596:
because of the limited electrical power available in a spacecraft. A chemical rocket imparts energy to the combustion products directly, whereas an electrical system requires several steps. However, the high velocity and lower
601:
expended for the same thrust allows electric rockets to run on less fuel. This differs from the typical chemical-powered spacecraft, where the engines require more fuel, requiring the spacecraft to mostly follow an
631:
188:(PPT) that served as actuators of the attitude control system. The PPT propulsion system was tested for 70 minutes on the 14 December 1964 when the spacecraft was 4.2 million kilometers from Earth.
730:
Lev, Dan; Myers, Roger M.; Lemmer, Kristina M.; Kolbeck, Jonathan; Koizumi, Hiroyuki; Polzin, Kurt (June 2019). "The technological and commercial expansion of electric propulsion".
534:, converting electric energy to kinetic energy. Electric potential is generated across a conductive tether by its motion through the Earth's magnetic field. The choice of the metal
854:
126:
On a journey to Mars, an electrically powered ship might be able to carry 70% of its initial mass to the destination, while a chemical rocket could carry only a few percent.
76:) than chemical rockets. Due to limited electric power the thrust is much weaker compared to chemical rockets, but electric propulsion can provide thrust for a longer time.
361:
An electrothermal engine uses a nozzle to convert heat into linear motion, so it is a true rocket even though the energy producing the heat comes from an external source.
574:
Electric propulsion systems can be characterized as either steady (continuous firing for a prescribed duration) or unsteady (pulsed firings accumulating to a desired
358:
of either solid material or magnetic fields. Low molecular weight gases (e.g. hydrogen, helium, ammonia) are preferred propellants for this kind of system.
1386:
274:
Electric propulsion thrusters for spacecraft may be grouped into three families based on the type of force used to accelerate the ions of the plasma:
1432:
354:
to increase the temperature of the bulk propellant. The thermal energy imparted to the propellant gas is then converted into kinetic energy by a
1828:
423:
1366:
1946:
1285:
474:
1392:
787:
1567:
862:
828:
625:
305:
88:
1216:"PROJECT DAEDALUS: THE PROPULSION SYSTEM Part 1; Theoretical considerations and calculations. 2. REVIEW OF ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS"
1844:
227:
By the early 2010s, many satellite manufacturers were offering electric propulsion options on their satellites—mostly for on-orbit
161:
rocket engine. This early work by GDL has been steadily carried on and electric rocket engines were used in the 1960s on board the
1360:
1215:
339:
1307:
1179:
655:
1407:
Aerospace
America, AIAA publication, December 2005, Propulsion and Energy section, pp. 54–55, written by Mitchell Walker.
1397:
1323:
1425:
807:
683:
712:
445:
or by the effect of electromagnetic fields where the electric field is not in the direction of the acceleration. Types:
1749:
1306:, edited by M.L. Cosmo and E.C. Lorenzini, Third Edition December 1997 (accessed 20 October 2010); see also version at
1198:
334:
364:
Performance of electrothermal systems in terms of specific impulse (Isp) is 500 to ~1000 seconds, but exceeds that of
123:. However, electric propulsion is not suitable for launches from the Earth's surface, as it offers too little thrust.
79:
Electric propulsion was first demonstrated in the 1960s and is now a mature and widely used technology on spacecraft.
1823:
103:
of 100 km/s (62 mi/s), which is enough to take a spacecraft to the outer planets of the Solar System (with
99:, orbit raising, or primary propulsion. In the future, the most advanced electric thrusters may be able to impart a
1303:
1034:
53:
technique that uses electrostatic or electromagnetic fields to accelerate mass to high speed and thus generating
2132:
1849:
1418:
311:
418:
1953:
1808:
1777:
1772:
1234:
1154:
Cybulski, Ronald J.; Shellhammer, Daniel M.; Lovell, Robert R.; Domino, Edward J.; Kotnik, Joseph T. (1965).
469:
454:
449:
1155:
220:
profile, the weight of equipment needed to convert nuclear energy into electricity, and as a result a small
1355:
2122:
1050:
563:
228:
180:
spacecraft in April 1964, however they operated erratically possibly due to problems with the probe. The
2127:
1311:
139:
116:
1009:
1908:
1767:
1402:
1349:
554:
Some proposed propulsion methods apparently violate currently-understood laws of physics, including:
459:
36:
932:
2137:
1941:
1700:
1674:
1616:
1600:
1590:
436:
1873:
1997:
1970:
1925:
1913:
1893:
1659:
1621:
1595:
1100:
592:
Electrically powered rocket engines provide lower thrust compared to chemical rockets by several
558:
539:
232:
150:
96:
1376:
2048:
1898:
1798:
1540:
1371:
927:
773:
464:
185:
135:
1289:
964:. Washington, D.C.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA History Div. p. 6
546:. Secondary factors, depending on the application, include cost, strength, and melting point.
1633:
1626:
1441:
915:
509:
369:
326:, including its subtypes Stationary Plasma Thruster (SPT) and Thruster with Anode Layer (TAL)
50:
1403:
A Critical
History of Electric Propulsion：The First Fifty Years (1906–1956) - AIAA-2004-3334
587:
1744:
1739:
1643:
1557:
1136:
739:
603:
535:
323:
316:
300:
236:
29:
8:
1903:
1888:
1803:
1690:
1669:
1638:
659:
593:
373:
350:
The electrothermal category groups devices that use electromagnetic fields to generate a
210:
120:
108:
743:
16:
Type of space propulsion using electrostatic and electromagnetic fields for acceleration
2102:
2068:
2033:
1382:
Colorado State
University Electric Propulsion and Plasma Engineering (CEPPE) Laboratory
1260:
983:
755:
519:
385:
1363:, University Center for Atmospheric Research, University of Colorado at Boulder, 2000.
1219:
668:
2097:
2063:
2018:
1918:
1818:
1520:
1494:
1176:
759:
575:
408:
365:
296:
in the direction of the acceleration) the device is considered electrostatic. Types:
243:
62:
1014:(Volume 1 ed.). National Aeronautics and Space Administration. pp. 164–165
751:
72:
than chemical rockets because they have a higher exhaust speed (operate at a higher
2083:
2073:
2023:
1729:
1482:
937:
896:
829:"MSNW's plasma thruster just might fire up Congress at hearing on space propulsion"
747:
664:
515:
491:
351:
329:
213:
206:
154:
73:
1354:
The technological and commercial expansion of electric propulsion - D. Lev et al.
1695:
1499:
1465:
1202:
1183:
811:
713:"Electric Propulsion Research at Institute of Fundamental Technological Research"
527:
397:
264:
260:
240:
202:
1330:
1077:
2028:
1963:
1664:
1504:
1101:"Development of Electrojet Engines at the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy"
531:
523:
293:
889:"A Critical History of Electric Propulsion: The First Fifty Years (1906-1956)"
804:
514:
Electrodynamic tethers are long conducting wires, such as one deployed from a
2116:
2038:
1958:
1813:
1782:
1562:
1552:
1547:
1470:
1460:
815:
716:
615:
598:
495:
442:
413:
289:
104:
1195:
578:). These classifications can be applied to all types of propulsion engines.
2043:
2002:
1975:
1734:
1530:
1525:
916:"A Critical History of Electric Propulsion: The First 50 Years (1906–1956)"
381:
283:
221:
146:
92:
1381:
956:
111:. An electric rocket with an external power source (transmissible through
2058:
2053:
1859:
958:
Challenge to Apollo : the Soviet Union and the space race, 1945-1974
888:
134:
The idea of electric propulsion for spacecraft was introduced in 1911 by
1410:
900:
895:. Reston, Virigina: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
538:
to be used in an electrodynamic tether is determined by factors such as
2078:
1535:
628:, a list of past and proposed spacecraft which used electric propulsion
619:
268:
173:
69:
58:
392:"Elektro" satellite are equipped with them. Electrothermal systems by
21:
401:
162:
941:
26:
153:(GDL) commenced development of electric rocket engines. Headed by
87:
satellites have used electric propulsion for decades. As of 2019,
1854:
1487:
1356:
The technological and commercial expansion of electric propulsion
543:
393:
100:
80:
157:, in the early 1930s he created the world's first example of an
1477:
1455:
1153:
893:
40th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint
Propulsion Conference and Exhibit
389:
355:
217:
195:
181:
177:
166:
84:
54:
1324:"Why Shawyer's 'electromagnetic relativity drive' is a fraud"
112:
855:"Electric Propulsion for Future Space Missions (PowerPoint)"
1162:
377:
224:, which would take a century to achieve the desired speed.
192:
33:
172:
The first test of electric propulsion was an experimental
1377:
Robert G. Jahn and Edgar Y. Choueiri. Electric
Propulsion
1036:
Developments of
Rocketry and Space Technology in the USSR
691:
388:", "Meteor-Priroda", "Resurs-O" satellite series and the
1288:(in Russian). Novosti Kosmonavtiki. 1999. Archived from
816:
Geoffrey A. Landis: Science. papers available on the web
774:"Choueiri, Edgar Y. (2009). New dawn of electric rocket"
441:
Electromagnetic thrusters accelerate ions either by the
191:
The first successful demonstration of an ion engine was
142:
had noted such a possibility in his personal notebook.
1372:
Choueiri, Edgar Y. (2009). New dawn of electric rocket
1367:
216:
in 1973, but the approach was rejected because of its
729:
518:, which can operate on electromagnetic principles as
805:
380:, electrothermal engines entered use in 1971; the
1235:"Electric-propulsion Satellites Are All the Rage"
61:in orbit. The propulsion system is controlled by
2114:
632:Rocket propulsion technologies (disambiguation)
500:A photonic drive interacts only with photons.
424:Variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket
1426:
1135:Administrator, NASA Content (14 April 2015).
1134:
859:Electric Propulsion for Future Space Missions
475:Magnetic field oscillating amplified thruster
1156:"Results from SERT I Ion Rocket Flight Test"
1098:
1092:
1001:
861:. NASA Glenn Research Center. Archived from
678:
676:
288:If the acceleration is caused mainly by the
1130:
1128:
1126:
1039:. Novosti Press Pub. House. pp. 12–13.
626:List of spacecraft with electric propulsion
306:NASA Solar Technology Application Readiness
68:Electric thrusters typically use much less
1433:
1419:
1286:"Native Electric Propulsion Engines Today"
1232:
1226:
1205:page at Astronautix (Accessed 1 July 2010)
1055:NASA Space Science Data Coodinated Archive
650:
648:
646:
1440:
1177:"SPACE ELECTRIC ROCKET TEST II (SERT II)"
931:
673:
235:operators were beginning to use them for
1845:Atmosphere-breathing electric propulsion
1296:
1258:
1147:
1123:
913:
907:
886:
503:
254:
20:
1032:
1026:
1007:
954:
948:
852:
643:
340:Nano-particle field extraction thruster
201:Electrically powered propulsion with a
2115:
1075:
988:History of Russian Soviet Cosmonautics
569:
1414:
1233:de Selding, Peter B. (20 June 2013).
1137:"Glenn Contributions to Deep Space 1"
1099:Shchepetilov, V. A. (December 2018).
984:"Gas Dynamic Laboratory (in Russian)"
826:
684:"Electric versus Chemical Propulsion"
581:
1033:Glushko, Valentin (1 January 1973).
976:
119:) has a theoretical possibility for
13:
1750:Field-emission electric propulsion
1398:Public Lessons Learned Entry: 0736
1259:DeFelice, David (18 August 2015).
1008:Chertok, Boris (31 January 2005).
430:
335:Field-emission electric propulsion
239:insertion in place of traditional
14:
2149:
1824:Microwave electrothermal thruster
1343:
669:10.1038/scientificamerican0209-58
588:Reaction engine § Energy use
480:
345:
2096:
1076:LePage, Andrew (28 April 2014).
887:Choueiri, Edgar (26 June 2004).
715:. 16 August 2011. Archived from
549:
277:
1316:
1278:
1252:
1208:
1189:
1169:
1069:
1043:
920:Journal of Propulsion and Power
880:
752:10.1016/j.actaastro.2019.03.058
618:, a proposed system powered by
396:(MR-510) are currently used on
1954:Pulsed nuclear thermal rocket‎
1850:High Power Electric Propulsion
1350:NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
846:
820:
798:
780:
766:
723:
705:
688:Electric Spacecraft Propulsion
292:(i.e. application of a static
43:Spacecraft electric propulsion
1:
1809:Helicon double-layer thruster
1778:Electrodeless plasma thruster
1773:Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster
637:
470:Helicon Double Layer Thruster
455:Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster
450:Electrodeless plasma thruster
827:Boyle, Alan (29 June 2017).
184:spacecraft also carried six
176:carried on board the Soviet
95:use electric propulsion for
57:to modify the velocity of a
7:
1387:Stationary plasma thrusters
914:Choueiri, Edgar Y. (2004).
656:New dawn of electric rocket
609:
485:
317:Radiofrequency ion thruster
259:These types of rocket-like
107:), but is insufficient for
10:
2154:
654:Choueiri, Edgar Y. (2009)
585:
507:
489:
434:
281:
158:
129:
2094:
2011:
1990:
1934:
1881:
1872:
1837:
1791:
1768:Pulsed inductive thruster
1760:
1722:
1713:
1683:
1652:
1609:
1583:
1576:
1513:
1448:
1393:electric space propulsion
1361:Electric (Ion) Propulsion
1304:Tethers In Space Handbook
1182:27 September 2011 at the
460:Pulsed inductive thruster
37:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
1942:Nuclear pulse propulsion
1701:Electric-pump-fed engine
1601:Hybrid-propellant rocket
1591:Liquid-propellant rocket
1105:Physics of Atomic Nuclei
622:from the Sun or any star
564:EM Drive or Cannae Drive
437:Plasma propulsion engine
249:
91:operated throughout the
1998:Beam-powered propulsion
1971:Fission-fragment rocket
1926:Nuclear photonic rocket
1894:Nuclear electric rocket
1660:Staged combustion cycle
1596:Solid-propellant rocket
1201:25 October 2010 at the
559:Quantum Vacuum Thruster
540:electrical conductivity
400:A2100 satellites using
233:communication satellite
231:—while some commercial
186:Pulsed Plasma Thrusters
151:Gas Dynamics Laboratory
2049:Non-rocket spacelaunch
1899:Nuclear thermal rocket
1799:Pulsed plasma thruster
1186:(Accessed 1 July 2010)
955:Siddiqi, Asif (2000).
522:, by converting their
465:Pulsed plasma thruster
370:monopropellant rockets
267:to obtain thrust from
136:Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
39:
2133:Spacecraft propulsion
1715:Electrical propulsion
1442:Spacecraft propulsion
586:Further information:
510:Electrodynamic tether
504:Electrodynamic tether
255:Ion and plasma drives
51:spacecraft propulsion
24:
1947:Antimatter-catalyzed
1745:Hall-effect thruster
1558:Solar thermal rocket
853:Palaszewski, Bryan.
810:22 July 2012 at the
374:bipropellant rockets
330:Colloid ion thruster
324:Hall-effect thruster
301:Gridded ion thruster
237:geosynchronous orbit
149:research laboratory
145:On 15 May 1929, the
32:in operation at the
1889:Direct Fusion Drive
1804:Vacuum arc thruster
1691:Pressure-fed engine
1670:Gas-generator cycle
1577:Chemical propulsion
1514:Physical propulsion
901:10.2514/6.2004-3334
868:on 23 November 2021
744:2019AcAau.159..213L
660:Scientific American
604:inertial trajectory
594:orders of magnitude
570:Steady vs. unsteady
121:interstellar flight
117:photovoltaic panels
109:interstellar travel
89:over 500 spacecraft
47:electric propulsion
2123:Russian inventions
2103:Spaceflight portal
2069:Reactionless drive
2034:Aerogravity assist
1874:Nuclear propulsion
1336:on 25 August 2014.
1080:. The Space Review
1011:Rockets and People
792:scholar.google.com
719:on 16 August 2011.
582:Dynamic properties
366:cold gas thrusters
205:was considered by
40:
2128:Soviet inventions
2110:
2109:
2064:Atmospheric entry
2019:Orbital mechanics
1986:
1985:
1868:
1867:
1819:Resistojet rocket
1709:
1708:
1684:Intake mechanisms
1617:Liquid propellant
1521:Cold gas thruster
1165:. NASA-TN-D-2718.
1078:"…Try, try again"
732:Acta Astronautica
404:as a propellant.
63:power electronics
2145:
2100:
2084:Alcubierre drive
2074:Field propulsion
2024:Orbital maneuver
2012:Related concepts
1879:
1878:
1730:Colloid thruster
1720:
1719:
1581:
1580:
1483:Specific impulse
1435:
1428:
1421:
1412:
1411:
1338:
1337:
1335:
1329:. Archived from
1328:
1320:
1314:
1300:
1294:
1293:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1261:"Ion Propulsion"
1256:
1250:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1222:on 28 June 2013.
1218:. Archived from
1212:
1206:
1193:
1187:
1173:
1167:
1166:
1160:
1151:
1145:
1144:
1132:
1121:
1120:
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1021:
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1005:
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994:
980:
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935:
911:
905:
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884:
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875:
873:
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850:
844:
843:
841:
839:
824:
818:
802:
796:
795:
788:"Google Scholar"
784:
778:
777:
770:
764:
763:
727:
721:
720:
709:
703:
702:
700:
698:
680:
671:
652:
516:tether satellite
492:Laser propulsion
372:, and even most
261:reaction engines
229:attitude control
214:Project Daedalus
155:Valentin Glushko
74:specific impulse
2153:
2152:
2148:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2143:
2142:
2138:Electric motors
2113:
2112:
2111:
2106:
2090:
2007:
1982:
1930:
1864:
1833:
1787:
1761:Electromagnetic
1756:
1705:
1696:Pump-fed engine
1679:
1648:
1605:
1572:
1509:
1500:Rocket equation
1466:Reaction engine
1444:
1439:
1346:
1341:
1333:
1326:
1322:
1321:
1317:
1310:; available on
1301:
1297:
1292:on 6 June 2011.
1284:
1283:
1279:
1269:
1267:
1257:
1253:
1243:
1241:
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1214:
1213:
1209:
1203:Wayback Machine
1194:
1190:
1184:Wayback Machine
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1170:
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1133:
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949:
933:10.1.1.573.8519
912:
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885:
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871:
869:
865:
851:
847:
837:
835:
825:
821:
812:Wayback Machine
803:
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584:
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528:electric energy
512:
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439:
433:
431:Electromagnetic
398:Lockheed Martin
348:
286:
280:
265:electric energy
257:
252:
241:chemical rocket
203:nuclear reactor
165:spacecraft and
132:
97:station keeping
49:) is a type of
17:
12:
11:
5:
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2029:Gravity assist
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2021:
2015:
2013:
2009:
2008:
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1994:
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1991:External power
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1964:Bussard ramjet
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1792:Electrothermal
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1665:Expander cycle
1662:
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1634:Monopropellant
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1505:Thermal rocket
1502:
1497:
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1976:Fission sail
1904:Radioisotope
1735:Ion thruster
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1653:Power cycles
1639:Bipropellant
1531:Steam rocket
1526:Water rocket
1331:the original
1318:
1298:
1290:the original
1280:
1268:. Retrieved
1264:
1254:
1242:. Retrieved
1238:
1228:
1220:the original
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1175:NASA Glenn,
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1113:. Retrieved
1111:(7): 988–999
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1059:. Retrieved
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863:the original
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284:Ion thruster
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93:Solar System
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67:
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18:
2059:Aerocapture
2054:Aerobraking
1935:Open system
1919:"Lightbulb"
1860:Mass driver
1610:Propellants
1541:Diffractive
1115:28 February
1084:28 February
1061:28 February
872:31 December
738:: 213–227.
697:17 February
663:300, 58–65
207:Tony Martin
138:. Earlier,
2117:Categories
2079:Warp drive
1909:Salt-water
1627:Hypergolic
1536:Solar sail
1270:31 January
1244:6 February
638:References
620:solar wind
520:generators
490:See also:
409:Resistojet
269:propellant
174:ion engine
70:propellant
59:spacecraft
1622:Cryogenic
1308:NASA MSFC
1239:SpaceNews
928:CiteSeerX
838:15 August
760:115682651
536:conductor
419:Microwave
402:hydrazine
376:. In the
163:Voskhod 1
45:(or just
1914:Gas core
1449:Concepts
1199:Archived
1180:Archived
1051:"Zond 1"
833:GeekWire
808:Archived
610:See also
530:, or as
486:Photonic
426:(VASIMR)
386:Meteor-3
81:American
2003:Tethers
1855:MagBeam
1740:Gridded
1495:Staging
1488:Delta-v
993:10 June
968:11 June
814:on the
740:Bibcode
576:impulse
544:density
394:Aerojet
390:Russian
308:(NSTAR)
244:engines
130:History
115:on the
101:delta-v
85:Russian
1829:VASIMR
1478:Thrust
1456:Rocket
1312:scribd
1302:NASA,
1057:. NASA
1018:29 May
930:
758:
542:, and
532:motors
414:Arcjet
382:Soviet
356:nozzle
352:plasma
218:thrust
196:SERT-1
182:Zond 2
178:Zond 1
167:Zond-2
147:Soviet
55:thrust
1838:Other
1584:State
1389:(PDF)
1334:(PDF)
1327:(PDF)
1159:(PDF)
962:(PDF)
866:(PPT)
756:S2CID
312:HiPEP
250:Types
113:laser
1568:WINE
1272:2023
1265:NASA
1246:2015
1196:SERT
1163:NASA
1141:NASA
1117:2024
1086:2024
1063:2024
1020:2022
995:2022
970:2022
874:2011
840:2021
699:2007
494:and
378:USSR
263:use
209:for
193:NASA
83:and
34:NASA
938:doi
897:doi
748:doi
736:159
692:ESA
665:doi
526:to
2119::
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1139:.
1125:^
1109:81
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675:^
645:^
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27:kW
25:6
1434:e
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384:"
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