638:
influence the burning rate and hence the rate at which pressure builds during combustion. Smokeless powder burns only on the surfaces of the pieces. Larger pieces burn more slowly, and the burn rate is further controlled by flame-deterrent coatings that retard burning slightly. The intent is to regulate the burn rate so that a more or less constant pressure is exerted on the propelled projectile as long as it is in the barrel so as to obtain the highest velocity. The perforations stabilize the burn rate because as the outside burns inward (thus shrinking the burning surface area) the inside is burning outward (thus increasing the burning surface area, but faster, so as to fill up the increasing volume of barrel presented by the departing projectile). Fast-burning
964:, the light emitted in the vicinity of the muzzle by the hot propellant gases and the chemical reactions that follow as the gases mix with the surrounding air. Before projectiles exit, a slight pre-flash may occur from gases leaking past the projectiles. Following muzzle exit, the heat of gases is usually sufficient to emit visible radiation: the primary flash. The gases expand but as they pass through the Mach disc, they are re-compressed to produce an intermediate flash. Hot, combustible gases (e.g. hydrogen and carbon-monoxide) may follow when they mix with oxygen in the surrounding air to produce the secondary flash, the brightest. The secondary flash does not usually occur with small arms.
630:
617:. By that time Laflin & Rand had taken over the American Powder Company to protect their investment, and Laflin & Rand had been purchased by DuPont in 1902. Upon securing a 99-year lease of the Explosives Company in 1903, DuPont enjoyed use of all significant smokeless powder patents in the United States, and was able to optimize production of smokeless powder. When government anti-trust action forced divestiture in 1912, DuPont retained the nitrocellulose smokeless powder formulations used by the United States military and released the double-base formulations used in sporting ammunition to the reorganized
470:
731:(detonation velocity 8,200 m/s (26,900 ft/s), RE factor 0.95) as explosive propellant ingredients was developed. These "cold propellant" mixtures have reduced flash and flame temperature without sacrificing chamber pressure compared to single- and double-base propellants, albeit at the cost of more smoke. In practice, triple base propellants are reserved mainly for large caliber ammunition such as used in (naval)
1018:
22:
308:
598:, Laflin & Rand financed Leonard's reorganization as the American Smokeless Powder Company. United States Army Lieutenant Whistler assisted American Smokeless Powder Company factory superintendent Aspinwall in formulating an improved powder named W.A. for their efforts. W.A. smokeless powder was the standard for United States military service rifles from 1897 until 1908.
681:
higher amounts tend to degrade its ballistic properties. The amount of the stabilizer is depleted with time with substantial changes of ballistic properties. Propellants in storage should be periodically tested for the amount of stabilizer remaining, as its depletion may lead to auto-ignition of the propellant. Moisture changes the stabilizers consumption over time.
1073:. Nitrocellulose still resembles fibrous cotton at this point in the manufacturing process, and was typically identified as pyrocellulose because it would spontaneously ignite in air until unreacted acid was removed. The term guncotton was also used; although some references identify guncotton as a more extensively nitrated and refined product used in
1103:
graphite to minimize generation of static electricity during subsequent blending. "Lots" containing more than ten tonnes of powder grains were mixed through a tower arrangement of blending hoppers to minimize ballistic differences. Each blended lot was then subjected to testing to determine the correct loading charge for the desired performance.
401:
and is less volatile. A particularly good feature of the propellant is that it will not detonate unless it is compressed, making it very safe to handle under normal conditions. Vieille's powder revolutionized the effectiveness of small guns because it gave off almost no smoke and was three times more
1102:
Alcohol and ether were then evaporated from "green" powder grains to a remaining solvent concentration between 3 percent for rifle powders and 7 percent for large artillery powder grains. Burning rate is inversely proportional to solvent concentration. Grains were coated with electrically conductive
502:
and 3% mineral jelly. A modified version, Cordite MD, entered service in 1901, with the guncotton percentage increased to 65% and nitroglycerine reduced to 30%. This change reduced the combustion temperature and hence erosion and barrel wear. Cordite's advantages over gunpowder were reduced maximum
266:
built two guncotton plants producing artillery propellent, but it too was dangerous under field conditions, and guns that could fire thousands of rounds using black powder would reach the end of their service life after only a few hundred shots with the more powerful guncotton. Small arms could not
290:
leading to a manufacturing process that eliminated the impurities in nitrocellulose making it safer to produce and a stable product safer to handle. Abel patented this process in 1865 when the second
Austrian guncotton factory exploded. After the Stowmarket factory exploded in 1871, Waltham Abbey
1126:
of small spherical globules of the desired size. Ethyl acetate distills off as pressure is slowly reduced to leave small spheres of nitrocellulose and additives. The spheres can be subsequently modified by adding nitroglycerine to increase energy, flattening between rollers to a uniform minimum
967:
Nitrocellulose contains insufficient oxygen to completely oxidize its carbon and hydrogen. The oxygen deficit is increased by addition of graphite and organic stabilizers. Products of combustion within the gun barrel include flammable gasses like hydrogen and carbon monoxide. At high temperature,
795:
into the unreacted solid. Reaction rates vary with pressure; because the foam allows less effective heat transfer at low pressure, with greater heat transfer as higher pressures compress the gas volume of that foam. Propellants designed for a minimum heat transfer pressure may fail to sustain the
414:
could be made smaller and lighter. This allowed troops to carry more ammunition for the same weight. Also, it would burn even when wet. Black powder ammunition had to be kept dry and was almost always stored and transported in watertight cartridges. Other
European countries swiftly followed and
680:
are added. Diphenylamine is one of the most common stabilizers used. Nitrated analogs of diphenylamine formed in the process of stabilizing decomposing powder are sometimes used as stabilizers themselves. The stabilizers are added in the amount of 0.5–2% of the total amount of the formulation;
968:
these flammable gasses will ignite when turbulently mixed with atmospheric oxygen beyond the muzzle of the gun. During night engagements, the flash produced by ignition can reveal the location of the gun to enemy forces and cause temporary night-blindness among the gun crew by photo-bleaching
637:
The properties of the propellant are greatly influenced by the size and shape of its pieces. The specific surface area of the propellant influences the speed of burning, and the size and shape of the particles determine the specific surface area. By manipulation of the shape it is possible to
749:
Detonation velocities are of limited value in assessing the reaction rates of nitrocellulose propellants formulated to avoid detonation. Although the slower reaction is often described as burning because of similar gaseous end products at elevated temperatures, the decomposition differs from
668:
Nitrocellulose deteriorates with time, yielding acidic byproducts. Those byproducts catalyze the further deterioration, increasing its rate. The released heat, in case of bulk storage of the powder, or too large blocks of solid propellant, can cause self-ignition of the material. Single-base
978:
are commonly used on small arms to reduce the flash signature, but this approach is not practical for artillery. Artillery muzzle flash up to 150 feet (46 m) from the muzzle has been observed, and can be reflected off clouds and be visible for distances up to 30 miles (48 km). For
739:, which suffer from bore erosion the most. During World War II, it had some use by British artillery. After that war it became the standard propellant in all British large caliber ammunition designs except small-arms. Most western nations, except the United States, followed a similar path.
327:. Prentice received an 1866 patent for a sporting powder of nitrated paper manufactured at Stowmarket, but ballistic uniformity suffered as the paper absorbed atmospheric moisture. In 1871, Frederick Volkmann received an Austrian patent for a colloided version of Schultze powder called
720:(detonation velocity 6,610 m/s (21,690 ft/s), RE factor 1.17) can be used as a nitroglycerin replacement when reduced flame temperatures without sacrificing chamber pressure are of importance. Reduction of flame temperature significantly reduces barrel erosion and hence wear.
146:
Smokeless powder made autoloading firearms with many moving parts feasible (which would otherwise jam or seize under heavy black powder fouling). Smokeless powder allowed the development of modern semi- and fully automatic firearms and lighter breeches and barrels for artillery.
1037:
into cylinders or strips with many cross-sectional shapes (strips with various rectangular proportions, single or multi-hole cylinders, slotted cylinders) using solvents such as ether. These extrusions can be cut into short ("flakes") or long pieces ("cords" many inches long).
669:
nitrocellulose propellants are hygroscopic and most susceptible to degradation; double-base and triple-base propellants tend to deteriorate more slowly. To neutralize the decomposition products, which could otherwise cause corrosion of metals of the cartridges and gun barrels,
331:, which he manufactured near Vienna for use in sporting firearms. Austrian patents were not published at the time, and the Austrian Empire considered the operation a violation of the government monopoly on explosives manufacture and closed the Volkmann factory in 1875.
979:
artillery, the most effective method is a propellant that produces a large proportion of inert nitrogen at relatively low temperatures that dilutes the combustible gases. Triple based propellants are used for this because of the nitrogen in the nitroguanidine.
503:
pressure in the chamber (hence lighter breeches, etc.) but longer high pressure. Cordite could be made in any desired shape or size. The creation of cordite led to a lengthy court battle between Nobel, Maxim, and another inventor over alleged
British
190:, meaning it attracts moisture from the air and making cleaning mandatory after every use to prevent water accumulation in the barrel that can lead to corrosion and premature failure. These solids are also behind gunpowder's tendency to produce severe
167:
used by the guns. Unless there was a strong wind, after a few shots, soldiers using gunpowder ammunition would have their view obscured by a huge cloud of smoke, and this problem became worse with increasing rate of fire. In 1884 during the
1099:. Pressurized alcohol removed remaining water from drained pyrocellulose prior to mixing with ether and diphenylamine. The mixture was then fed through a press extruding a long tubular cord form to be cut into grains of the desired length.
998:(potassium hydrogen tartrate: a byproduct of wine production formerly used by French artillery). Before the use of triple based propellants, the usual method of flash reduction was to add inorganic salts like potassium chloride so their
642:
powders are made by extruding shapes with more area such as flakes or by flattening the spherical granules. Drying is usually performed under a vacuum. The solvents are condensed and recycled. The granules are also coated with
239:
smoothly at subsonic speeds, making it more liable to shatter a gun barrel rather than propel a projectile out of it. Nitroglycerine is also highly shock-sensitive, making it unfit to be carried in battlefield conditions.
415:
started using their own versions of Poudre B, the first being
Germany and Austria, which introduced new weapons in 1888. Subsequently, Poudre B was modified several times with various compounds being added and removed.
770:
across a series of zones or phases as the reaction proceeds from the surface into the solid. The deepest portion of the solid experiencing heat transfer melts and begins phase transition from solid to gas in a
489:
and Dr W Kellner patented (Nos 5614 and 11,664 in the names of Abel and Dewar) a new formulation that was manufactured at the Royal
Gunpowder Factory at Waltham Abbey. It entered British service in 1891 as
255:. Guncotton was more powerful than gunpowder, but at the same time was once again somewhat more unstable. John Taylor obtained an English patent for guncotton; and John Hall & Sons began manufacture in
1118:
by 1933. Reworked powder or washed pyrocellulose can be dissolved in ethyl acetate containing small quantities of desired stabilizers and other additives. The resultant syrup, combined with water and
481:
Britain conducted trials on all the various types of propellant brought to their attention, but were dissatisfied with them all and sought something superior to all existing types. In 1889, Sir
1317:
758:
atmosphere. Conversion of nitrocellulose propellants to high-pressure gas proceeds from the exposed surface to the interior of each solid particle in accordance with
155:
Before the widespread introduction of smokeless powder the use of gunpowder or black powder caused many problems on the battlefield. Military commanders since the
1461:
183:
Gunpowder burns in a relatively inefficient process that produces lower pressures, making it about one third as powerful as the same amount of smokeless powder.
122:
446:. Ballistite was patented in the United States in 1891. The Germans adopted ballistite for naval use in 1898, calling it WPC/98. The Italians adopted it as
1662:
1110:
worked at
Picatinny Arsenal experimenting with ways to salvage tons of single-base cannon powder manufactured for World War I. Olsen was employed by
52:. Because of their similar use, both the original black powder formulation and the smokeless propellant which replaced it are commonly described as
1951:
815:, DINA (bis-nitroxyethylnitramine; diethanolamine dinitrate, DEADN; DHE), Fivonite (2,2,5,5-tetramethylol-cyclopentanone tetranitrate, CyP), DGN (
410:
and less wind drift and bullet drop, making 1,000 m (1,094 yd) shots practicable. Since less powder was needed to propel a bullet, the
334:
In 1882, the
Explosives Company at Stowmarket patented an improved formulation of nitrated cotton gelatinised by ether-alcohol with nitrates of
2065:
2074:
610:
1313:
1559:"Nitrocellulose-based propellants: elucidation of the mechanisms of the diphenylamine stabilizer employing density functional theory"
742:
In the late 20th century new propellant formulations started to appear. These are based on nitroguanidine and high explosives of the
662:
compounds can leave hygroscopic salts that have a similar effect; non-corrosive primer compounds were introduced in the 1920s).)
1002:
might reduce the temperature of combustion gasses and their finely divided particulate smoke might block visible wavelengths of
1091:
Unreacted acid was removed from pyrocellulose pulp by a multistage draining and water washing process similar to that used in
665:
Faster-burning propellants generate higher temperatures and higher pressures, however they also increase wear on gun barrels.
2110:
1297:
1202:
1833:
701:
1.10) (typically an ether-alcohol colloid of nitrocellulose) as the sole explosive propellant ingredient are described as
712:(detonation velocity 7,700 m/s (25,260 ft/s), RE factor 1.54) as explosive propellant ingredients are known as
605:
patented a nitrocellulose powder colloided with ether-alcohol. The Navy licensed or sold patents for this formulation to
385:. It was passed through rollers to form paper thin sheets, which were cut into flakes of the desired size. The resulting
287:
1625:"Effect of relative humidity and absorbed water on the ethyl centralite consumption in nitrocellulose-based propellants"
1557:
do
Nascimento Mossri, JoĂŁo LuĂs; Rodrigues, Rodrigo Leonard Barboza; Nichele, Jakler; Borges, Itamar (1 February 2023).
906:); the bismuth compounds are favored as copper dissolves in molten bismuth, forming brittle and easily removable alloy.
1703:
1465:
519:
87:; while there may be little noticeable smoke from small-arms ammunition, smoke from artillery fire can be substantial.
613:
constructed in 1900. The United States Army adopted the Navy single-base formulation in 1908 and began manufacture at
450:, in cord instead of flake form, but realising its drawbacks changed to a formulation with nitroglycerine they called
2049:
1926:
1882:
1863:
1789:
1210:
535:
1488:
1106:
Military quantities of old smokeless powder were sometimes reworked into new lots of propellants. Through the 1920s
1623:
Teixeira, Filipe
Poletto; Anastacio, Aline Cardoso; de Mendonça-Filho, Letivan Gonçalves; Nichele, Jakler (2023).
248:
559:
2285:
458:
with finding a suitable propellant. He created nitrocellulose gelatinised by ether-alcohol, which produced more
132:
2159:
1054:
319:
artillery captain Johann F. E. Schultze patented a small-arms propellant of nitrated hardwood impregnated with
834:(toxic and carcinogenic), akardite (asymmetrical diphenyl urea), ortho-Tolyl urethane, and polyester adipate.
1669:
2324:
1131:
deterrents to slow ignition, and/or glazing with graphite to improve flow characteristics during blending.
271:
2293:
1065:
to remove vegetable waxes, and then dried before conversion to nitrocellulose by mixing with concentrated
816:
717:
762:. Studies of solid single- and double-base propellant reactions suggest reaction rate is controlled by
727:
containing nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin or diethylene glycol dinitrate, and a substantial quantity of
263:
262:
English interest languished after an explosion destroyed the
Faversham factory in 1847. Austrian Baron
1518:
Mendonça-Filho, L. G.; Rodrigues, R. L. B.; Rosato, R.; Galante, E. B. F.; Nichele, J. (3 July 2019).
462:
and more uniform colloidal structure than the French use of nitro-cottons in Poudre B. He called it
227:," but even then it was unsuitable as a propellant: despite its energetic and smokeless qualities, it
2103:
2082:
1558:
1519:
1314:"Black Powder vs. Smokeless Powder | Comparing Gunpowder Types, Bob Shell, Tuesday, October 13, 2015"
1111:
621:. These newer and more powerful propellants were more stable and thus safer to handle than Poudre B.
2085:. Collection includes material relating to Maxim's patent on the process of making smokeless powder.
1592:
Defanti, Bianca Figueirôa de Souza; Mendonça-Filho, Letivan Gonçalves de; Nichele, Jakler (2020).
1593:
618:
539:
114:
oxidizers during the late 19th century, before the advantages of nitrocellulose became evident.
1520:"Combined evaluation of nitrocellulose-based propellants: toxicity, performance, and erosivity"
999:
841:
677:
60:
products of smokeless powder are mainly gaseous, compared to around 55% solid products (mostly
1287:
783:
where the simpler gas molecules react to form conventional combustion products like steam and
2169:
1046:
527:
523:
2071:
579:
2329:
2189:
2096:
1194:
995:
895:
878:
additives hinder the buildup of copper residues from the gun barrel rifling. These include
767:
434:. In this propellant the fibrous structure of cotton (nitro-cellulose) was destroyed by a
411:
251:
in 1846. He promoted its use as a blasting explosive and sold manufacturing rights to the
186:
A significant portion of the combustion products from gunpowder are solids, that are also
8:
2319:
2144:
1030:
511:
159:
reported difficulty with giving orders on a battlefield obscured by the smoke of firing.
61:
1049:, beginning in 1900. Similar procedures were used for United States Army production at
180:
firing from concealed positions risked revealing their locations with a cloud of smoke.
2184:
2164:
1945:
1624:
1609:
983:
949:
903:
861:
694:
567:
1045:
The United States Navy manufactured single-base tubular powder for naval artillery at
586:
was preferred, because tin-plating was required to protect brass cartridge cases from
2148:
2045:
2010:
1989:
1968:
1922:
1901:
1878:
1859:
1785:
1739:
1699:
1644:
1574:
1539:
1293:
1206:
1050:
991:
987:
853:
827:
670:
658:
material associated with black powder that causes rusting of the barrel (though some
629:
614:
198:
173:
69:
65:
438:
solution instead of a solvent. In England in 1889, a similar powder was patented by
2334:
2314:
2237:
2179:
2154:
2140:
1636:
1605:
1566:
1531:
1156:
1139:
1135:
1062:
975:
922:
891:
759:
659:
547:
232:
1570:
1535:
382:
72:) for black powder. In addition, smokeless powder does not leave the thick, heavy
2275:
2078:
1837:
1122:, can be heated and agitated in a pressurized container until the syrup forms an
1115:
1085:
899:
857:
849:
784:
554:, Leonard Smokeless Powder Company began producing nitroglycerine–nitrocellulose
403:
252:
216:
169:
156:
2066:
The Manufacture of Smokeless Powders and their Forensic Analysis: A Brief Review
1915:
1830:
822:
Deterrents (or moderants) are used to slow the burning rate. Deterrents include
732:
510:
The Anglo-American Explosives Company began manufacturing its shotgun powder in
117:
Smokeless powders are typically classified as division 1.3 explosives under the
1640:
1151:
1003:
831:
812:
804:
728:
690:
543:
495:
482:
435:
370:
324:
283:
209:
160:
95:
948:
to cover the grains and prevent them from sticking together, and to dissipate
746:
type (detonation velocity 8,750 m/s (28,710 ft/s), RE factor 1.60).
2308:
2269:
2209:
2174:
2014:
1993:
1972:
1905:
1648:
1578:
1543:
1439:
1070:
933:
845:
808:
763:
709:
609:
and the California Powder Works while retaining manufacturing rights for the
602:
534:, in 1891. Several United States firms began producing smokeless powder when
463:
420:
374:
172:
Sudanese troops were able to break the square of British infantry armed with
775:. The gaseous propellant decomposes into simpler molecules in a surrounding
538:
started loading sporting cartridges with Explosives Company powder in 1893.
346:
results in resistance to a smooth expansion of the gas, which is reduced in
2242:
961:
926:
865:
474:
469:
443:
427:
354:
236:
220:
195:
177:
136:
128:
91:
1556:
2135:
2119:
1777:
1622:
1496:
1161:
1066:
1022:
883:
875:
655:
587:
486:
439:
378:
80:
material associated with black powder that causes rusting of the barrel.
77:
530:
patented a formulation of guncotton colloided with nitrobenzene, called
342:. These propellants were suitable for shotguns but not rifles, because
2252:
2194:
1119:
1107:
1078:
823:
751:
647:
to prevent static electricity sparks from causing undesired ignitions.
431:
407:
386:
347:
296:
279:
275:
228:
187:
140:
111:
57:
33:
2260:
2232:
2227:
2199:
1128:
1034:
969:
945:
925:
are added to lower the wear of the gun barrel liners. Large guns use
698:
499:
455:
398:
366:
335:
320:
256:
244:
164:
49:
41:
1517:
2222:
2217:
1980:
Grobmeier, A. H. (2006). "Question 27/05: "Flashless" Propellant".
1123:
1096:
941:
736:
644:
459:
394:
358:
224:
107:
1081:
1074:
1017:
1009:
All flash reducers have a disadvantage: the production of smoke.
887:
869:
835:
651:
491:
343:
316:
292:
213:
191:
103:
99:
73:
45:
37:
2001:
Grulich, Fred (2006). "Question 27/05: "Flashless" Propellant".
1892:
Dallman, John (2006). "Question 27/05: "Flashless" Propellant".
791:
acts as an insulator slowing the rate of heat transfer from the
2127:
1594:"Effect of ageing on the combustion of single base propellants"
1058:
1039:
940:(a surfactant to hold the grain shape of spherical powder) and
803:
The energetic components used in smokeless propellants include
755:
639:
606:
515:
504:
430:
obtained an English patent for a smokeless gunpowder he called
339:
2088:
910:
foil and lead compounds have been phased out due to toxicity.
864:, and beta-Naphthol methyl ether Obsolete stabilizers include
1959:
Gibbs, Jay (2010). "Question 27/05: "Flashless" Propellant".
1092:
937:
566:, and DuPont started producing smokeless shotgun powder. The
416:
84:
83:
Despite its name, smokeless powder is not completely free of
21:
1591:
1134:
Modern smokeless powder is produced in the United States by
918:
907:
826:(symmetrical diphenyl urea—primarily diethyl or dimethyl),
307:
219:
in 1847. It was subsequently developed and manufactured by
2021:
1935:
1053:
beginning in 1907 and for manufacture of smaller grained
914:
879:
743:
570:
evaluated 25 varieties of smokeless powder and selected
844:
prevent or slow down self-decomposition. These include
118:
1877:(Angriff Press ed.). John Wiley & Sons Inc.
131:) and national regulations. However, they are used as
1912:
1668:. Nevada Aerospace Science Associates. Archived from
270:
After one of the Austrian factories blew up in 1862,
247:, a nitrocellulose-based material, by German chemist
1289:
A Cultural History of Firearms in the Age of Empire
708:Propellants mixtures containing nitrocellulose and
163:could not be seen through the thick smoke from the
123:
Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods
1914:
1114:in 1929 and developed a process for manufacturing
676:To prevent buildup of the deterioration products,
936:(a solvent for manufacture of spherical powder),
650:Smokeless powder does not leave the thick, heavy
98:, but the term was also used to describe various
2306:
1872:
1445:
594:. Rather than paying the required royalties for
542:began producing a mixture of nitroglycerine and
373:, 29.8% soluble nitrocellulose gelatinized with
267:withstand the pressures generated by guncotton.
223:as an industrial explosive under the trademark "
1831:General Dynamics Commercial Powder Applications
204:
2030:
1853:
2104:
1821:Wolfe Publishing Company (1982) pages 136–137
1759:
1757:
1432:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1950:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1776:
1407:National Rifle Association of America (1981)
1375:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1355:
94:, the most common formulations are based on
2039:
2033:Winchester-Western Ball Powder Loading Data
1806:Winchester-Western Ball Powder Loading Data
1721:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1335:
611:Naval Powder Factory, Indian Head, Maryland
2111:
2097:
2022:Hatcher, Julian S. & Barr, Al (1951).
1811:
1754:
1698:. Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 45.
1386:
454:. In 1891 the Russians tasked the chemist
377:and 2% paraffin. This was adopted for the
243:A major step forward was the invention of
1979:
1921:. National Rifle Association of America.
1427:Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline
779:. Energy is released in a luminous outer
201:to jam and can make reloading difficult.
1875:The Chemistry of Powder & Explosives
1763:Moss G. M., Leeming D. W., Farrar C. L.
1732:
1712:
1655:
1410:
1381:The Chemistry of Powder & Explosives
1332:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1016:
628:
468:
306:
20:
2000:
1891:
1824:
1693:
1687:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1222:
838:was formerly used but is now obsolete.
601:In 1897, United States Navy Lieutenant
2307:
1770:
1454:
1276:3rd Edition (1953) Funk & Wagnalls
1184:Hennage Lithograph Company (1951) p.34
1057:(IMR) powders after 1914. Short-fiber
477:rifle cartridge (manufactured in 1964)
442:, and in the United States in 1890 by
365:, white powder, as distinguished from
2092:
1958:
1784:. Naval Institute Press. p. 68.
1440:Manufacture of explosive, H. S. Maxim
1320:from the original on 26 November 2022
1285:
1249:
1203:National Rifle Association of America
1193:
494:Mark 1. Its main composition was 58%
1798:
1306:
1219:
1095:mills during production of chemical
633:Hodgdon H110 smokeless pistol powder
578:as the most suitable for use in the
2068:. Robert M. Heramb, Bruce R. McCord
1486:
1480:
1174:
1061:linter was boiled in a solution of
913:Wear reduction materials including
697:7,300 m/s (23,950 ft/s),
473:Close-up of Cordite filaments in a
402:powerful than black powder. Higher
357:invented a smokeless powder called
288:Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills
13:
1936:Fairfield, A. P., CDR USN (1921).
1610:10.1016/j.combustflame.2020.07.029
1489:"The Great Propellant Controversy"
1462:"Laflin & Rand Powder Company"
955:
624:
522:in 1891. Charles E. Munroe of the
520:Carneys Point Township, New Jersey
291:began production of guncotton for
44:that produces less smoke and less
14:
2346:
2059:
536:Winchester Repeating Arms Company
274:began manufacturing guncotton in
1180:Hatcher, Julian S. and Barr, Al
1012:
562:negotiated a license to produce
127:, regional regulations (such as
2118:
1847:
1616:
1585:
1550:
1511:
1042:powder has the largest pieces.
673:is added to some formulations.
302:
212:was synthesized by the Italian
1913:Davis, William C. Jr. (1981).
1856:Naval Weapons of World War Two
1727:Naval Weapons of World War Two
1563:Journal of Energetic Materials
1524:Journal of Energetic Materials
1286:Jones, Karen (16 March 2016).
1279:
1187:
1033:into small spherical balls or
929:jackets over the powder bags.
684:
135:; in normal use, they undergo
1:
2026:. Hennage Lithograph Company.
1740:"USA 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7"
1571:10.1080/07370652.2023.2168312
1536:10.1080/07370652.2019.1606867
1274:Complete Guide to Handloading
1167:
518:began producing guncotton at
272:Thomas Prentice & Company
249:Christian Friedrich Schönbein
2044:. Wolfe Publishing Company.
2042:Propellant Profiles Volume 1
1819:Propellant Profiles Volume 1
1694:Russell, Michael S. (2009).
369:) made from 68.2% insoluble
205:Nitroglycerine and guncotton
7:
1808:Olin Corporation (1978) p.3
1742:. NavWeaps. 3 November 2008
1246:Lord Baltimore Press (1921)
1145:
890:metal and compounds (e.g.,
882:metal and compounds (e.g.,
817:diethylene glycol dinitrate
718:diethylene glycol dinitrate
286:began thorough research at
10:
2351:
1696:The Chemistry of Fireworks
1641:10.1007/s10570-022-04999-4
1242:Fairfield, A. P., CDR USN
1116:spherical smokeless powder
264:Wilhelm Lenk von Wolfsberg
150:
2284:
2251:
2208:
2126:
2083:Hagley Museum and Library
1873:Davis, Tenney L. (1943).
1858:. Naval Institute Press.
1112:Western Cartridge Company
819:), and acetyl cellulose.
423:as a stabilizer in 1888.
393:, contains somewhat less
125: – Model Regulations
1836:16 November 2017 at the
1464:. DuPont. Archived from
1127:dimension, coating with
1029:Smokeless powder may be
932:Other additives include
311:An extruded stick powder
25:Finnish smokeless powder
2031:Matunas, E. A. (1978).
1940:. Lord Baltimore Press.
1854:Campbell, John (1985).
1663:"Propellant Properties"
1403:Davis, William C., Jr.
1055:Improved Military Rifle
982:Flash reducers include
619:Hercules Powder Company
540:California Powder Works
48:when fired compared to
1026:
1000:specific heat capacity
725:triple-base propellant
634:
478:
312:
26:
2003:Warship International
1982:Warship International
1961:Warship International
1894:Warship International
1047:Indian Head, Maryland
1020:
632:
528:Newport, Rhode Island
524:Naval Torpedo Station
472:
310:
278:in 1863; and British
24:
2077:9 March 2018 at the
2040:Wolfe, Dave (1982).
1598:Combustion and Flame
996:potassium bitartrate
896:bismuth subcarbonate
800:at lower pressures.
768:temperature gradient
426:Meanwhile, in 1887,
90:Invented in 1884 by
2325:Firearm propellants
2072:Hudson Maxim papers
2035:. Olin Corporation.
1765:Military Ballistics
1487:Watters, Daniel E.
1468:on 29 February 2012
1425:Hogg, Oliver F. G.
960:Flash reducers dim
807:(the most common),
695:detonation velocity
512:Oakland, New Jersey
62:potassium carbonate
2185:Total metal jacket
1782:North Atlantic Run
1272:Sharpe, Philip B.
1027:
984:potassium chloride
950:static electricity
904:bismuth antimonide
862:sodium bicarbonate
723:During the 1930s,
714:double-base powder
703:single-base powder
689:Propellants using
635:
568:United States Army
479:
313:
27:
16:Type of propellant
2302:
2301:
2160:Full metal jacket
1299:978-1-317-18850-6
1051:Picatinny Arsenal
992:potassium sulfate
988:potassium nitrate
976:Flash suppressors
854:calcium carbonate
828:dibutyl phthalate
671:calcium carbonate
615:Picatinny Arsenal
560:Laflin & Rand
176:because of that.
133:solid propellants
70:potassium sulfide
66:potassium sulfate
2342:
2266:Smokeless powder
2113:
2106:
2099:
2090:
2089:
2055:
2036:
2027:
2018:
1997:
1976:
1955:
1949:
1941:
1932:
1920:
1909:
1888:
1869:
1841:
1828:
1822:
1815:
1809:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1774:
1768:
1761:
1752:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1736:
1730:
1723:
1710:
1709:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1674:
1667:
1659:
1653:
1652:
1635:(3): 1411–1420.
1620:
1614:
1613:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1554:
1548:
1547:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1495:. Archived from
1484:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1458:
1452:
1451:smokeless powder
1449:
1443:
1442:
1436:
1430:
1423:
1408:
1401:
1384:
1379:Davis, Tenny L.
1377:
1330:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1283:
1277:
1270:
1247:
1240:
1217:
1216:
1191:
1185:
1178:
1157:Antique firearms
1140:General Dynamics
1138:, Inc. owned by
1136:St. Marks Powder
1084:prior to use of
1063:sodium hydroxide
923:titanium dioxide
892:bismuth trioxide
716:. Alternatively
548:ammonium picrate
406:meant a flatter
235:, as opposed to
233:supersonic speed
30:Smokeless powder
2350:
2349:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2341:
2340:
2339:
2305:
2304:
2303:
2298:
2280:
2276:Ball propellant
2247:
2204:
2122:
2117:
2081:(1851–1925) at
2079:Wayback Machine
2062:
2052:
1943:
1942:
1929:
1885:
1866:
1850:
1845:
1844:
1838:Wayback Machine
1829:
1825:
1816:
1812:
1804:Matunas, E. A.
1803:
1799:
1792:
1775:
1771:
1762:
1755:
1745:
1743:
1738:
1737:
1733:
1725:Campbell, John
1724:
1713:
1706:
1692:
1688:
1678:
1676:
1675:on 26 July 2014
1672:
1665:
1661:
1660:
1656:
1621:
1617:
1590:
1586:
1555:
1551:
1516:
1512:
1502:
1500:
1499:on 22 July 2013
1485:
1481:
1471:
1469:
1460:
1459:
1455:
1450:
1446:
1438:
1437:
1433:
1424:
1411:
1402:
1387:
1378:
1333:
1323:
1321:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1300:
1284:
1280:
1271:
1250:
1241:
1220:
1213:
1192:
1188:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1148:
1015:
1006:of combustion.
958:
956:Flash reduction
900:bismuth nitrate
858:magnesium oxide
850:petroleum jelly
785:carbon monoxide
687:
627:
625:Characteristics
582:service rifle.
404:muzzle velocity
305:
253:Austrian Empire
217:Ascanio Sobrero
207:
174:Martini–Henries
170:Battle of Tamai
157:Napoleonic Wars
153:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2348:
2338:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2296:
2290:
2288:
2282:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2273:
2263:
2257:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2214:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2170:Plastic-tipped
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2138:
2132:
2130:
2124:
2123:
2116:
2115:
2108:
2101:
2093:
2087:
2086:
2069:
2061:
2060:External links
2058:
2057:
2056:
2050:
2037:
2028:
2019:
2009:(3): 245–246.
1998:
1977:
1956:
1938:Naval Ordnance
1933:
1927:
1910:
1889:
1883:
1870:
1864:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1842:
1823:
1810:
1797:
1790:
1769:
1753:
1731:
1711:
1705:978-0854041275
1704:
1686:
1654:
1615:
1584:
1549:
1530:(3): 293–308.
1510:
1479:
1453:
1444:
1431:
1409:
1385:
1331:
1305:
1298:
1278:
1248:
1244:Naval Ordnance
1218:
1211:
1205:. p. 26.
1195:Davis, William
1186:
1172:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1152:Shimose powder
1147:
1144:
1071:sulfuric acids
1014:
1011:
1004:radiant energy
957:
954:
832:dinitrotoluene
813:nitroguanidine
805:nitrocellulose
729:nitroguanidine
691:nitrocellulose
686:
683:
626:
623:
580:Krag–Jørgensen
576:Peyton Powders
544:nitrocellulose
507:infringement.
496:nitroglycerine
483:Frederick Abel
436:nitroglycerine
371:nitrocellulose
363:poudre blanche
325:barium nitrate
304:
301:
284:Frederick Abel
210:Nitroglycerine
206:
203:
196:breech-loading
161:Visual signals
152:
149:
102:mixtures with
96:nitrocellulose
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2347:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2270:Pyrocollodion
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2254:
2250:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2211:
2210:Shotgun shell
2207:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2190:Very-low-drag
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2175:Semiwadcutter
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2114:
2109:
2107:
2102:
2100:
2095:
2094:
2091:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2053:
2051:0-935632-10-7
2047:
2043:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2025:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1947:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1928:0-935998-34-9
1924:
1919:
1918:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1886:
1884:0-913022-00-4
1880:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1865:0-87021-459-4
1861:
1857:
1852:
1851:
1839:
1835:
1832:
1827:
1820:
1814:
1807:
1801:
1793:
1791:0-87021-450-0
1787:
1783:
1779:
1773:
1766:
1760:
1758:
1741:
1735:
1728:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1707:
1701:
1697:
1690:
1671:
1664:
1658:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1619:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1588:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1553:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1514:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1483:
1467:
1463:
1457:
1448:
1441:
1435:
1428:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1406:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1382:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1319:
1315:
1309:
1301:
1295:
1292:. Routledge.
1291:
1290:
1282:
1275:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1245:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1214:
1212:0-935998-34-9
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1190:
1183:
1177:
1173:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1149:
1143:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1130:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1043:
1041:
1036:
1032:
1024:
1019:
1013:Manufacturing
1010:
1007:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
980:
977:
973:
971:
970:visual purple
965:
963:
953:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
934:ethyl acetate
930:
928:
924:
920:
916:
911:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
846:diphenylamine
843:
839:
837:
833:
829:
825:
820:
818:
814:
810:
809:nitroglycerin
806:
801:
799:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
769:
765:
764:heat transfer
761:
760:Piobert's law
757:
753:
747:
745:
740:
738:
734:
730:
726:
721:
719:
715:
711:
710:nitroglycerin
706:
704:
700:
696:
692:
682:
679:
674:
672:
666:
663:
661:
657:
653:
648:
646:
641:
631:
622:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
603:John Bernadou
599:
597:
593:
592:Peyton Powder
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
552:Peyton Powder
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
508:
506:
501:
497:
493:
488:
484:
476:
471:
467:
465:
464:pyrocollodion
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
424:
422:
421:diphenylamine
419:began adding
418:
413:
409:
405:
400:
396:
392:
391:pyrocellulose
388:
384:
383:8Ă—50mmR Lebel
381:chambered in
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
351:
349:
345:
341:
337:
332:
330:
326:
322:
318:
309:
300:
298:
294:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
268:
265:
260:
258:
254:
250:
246:
241:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
215:
211:
202:
200:
197:
193:
189:
184:
181:
179:
178:Sharpshooters
175:
171:
166:
162:
158:
148:
144:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
124:
120:
115:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
88:
86:
81:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
32:is a type of
31:
23:
19:
2294:Boxer primer
2265:
2145:Hollow point
2041:
2032:
2023:
2006:
2002:
1985:
1981:
1964:
1960:
1937:
1916:
1897:
1893:
1874:
1855:
1848:Bibliography
1826:
1818:
1817:Wolfe, Dave
1813:
1805:
1800:
1781:
1778:Milner, Marc
1772:
1764:
1744:. Retrieved
1734:
1726:
1695:
1689:
1677:. Retrieved
1670:the original
1657:
1632:
1628:
1618:
1601:
1597:
1587:
1562:
1552:
1527:
1523:
1513:
1501:. Retrieved
1497:the original
1493:The Gun Zone
1492:
1482:
1470:. Retrieved
1466:the original
1456:
1447:
1434:
1426:
1404:
1380:
1322:. Retrieved
1308:
1288:
1281:
1273:
1243:
1198:
1189:
1181:
1176:
1133:
1105:
1101:
1090:
1044:
1028:
1008:
981:
974:
966:
962:muzzle flash
959:
931:
927:polyurethane
912:
874:
866:amyl alcohol
840:
821:
802:
797:
792:
788:
780:
776:
772:
766:through the
748:
741:
724:
722:
713:
707:
702:
688:
675:
667:
664:
649:
636:
600:
595:
591:
583:
575:
571:
563:
555:
551:
531:
509:
480:
475:.303 British
451:
447:
444:Hudson Maxim
428:Alfred Nobel
425:
390:
367:black powder
362:
355:Paul Vieille
352:
333:
328:
314:
303:Improvements
282:chemist Sir
269:
261:
242:
237:deflagrating
221:Alfred Nobel
208:
194:that causes
185:
182:
154:
145:
139:rather than
137:deflagration
121:
116:
92:Paul Vieille
89:
82:
53:
50:black powder
29:
28:
18:
2330:Solid fuels
2165:Hollow-base
2120:Handloading
2024:Handloading
1917:Handloading
1604:: 212–218.
1472:24 February
1405:Handloading
1199:Handloading
1182:Handloading
1162:Brown-brown
1120:surfactants
1023:handloading
1021:Ammunition
884:tin dioxide
876:Decoppering
842:Stabilizers
824:centralites
685:Composition
678:stabilizers
656:hygroscopic
588:picric acid
487:James Dewar
440:Hiram Maxim
389:, known as
379:Lebel rifle
361:(short for
188:hygroscopic
78:hygroscopic
2320:Explosives
2309:Categories
2253:Propellant
2149:Soft point
1988:(3): 245.
1967:(3): 217.
1900:(3): 246.
1746:5 December
1679:19 January
1168:References
1108:Fred Olsen
798:flame zone
793:flame zone
781:flame zone
752:combustion
596:Ballistite
564:Ballistite
432:Ballistite
408:trajectory
387:propellant
350:shotguns.
348:smoothbore
299:warheads.
280:War Office
276:Stowmarket
141:detonation
112:dichromate
58:combustion
34:propellant
2261:Gunpowder
2233:Rock salt
2228:Flechette
2200:Wadcutter
2155:Frangible
2141:Expanding
2015:0043-0374
1994:0043-0374
1973:0043-0374
1946:cite book
1906:0043-0374
1649:0969-0239
1629:Cellulose
1579:0737-0652
1544:0737-0652
1324:10 August
1129:phthalate
946:lubricant
789:foam zone
777:fizz zone
773:foam zone
737:tank guns
733:artillery
699:RE factor
558:powders,
514:in 1890.
500:guncotton
456:Mendeleev
412:cartridge
399:guncotton
353:In 1884,
336:potassium
321:saltpeter
315:In 1863,
257:Faversham
245:guncotton
229:detonates
165:gunpowder
54:gunpowder
42:artillery
2223:Buckshot
2218:Birdshot
2075:Archived
1834:Archived
1780:(1985).
1565:: 1–19.
1318:Archived
1197:(1981).
1146:See also
1124:emulsion
1097:woodpulp
1082:warheads
1035:extruded
942:graphite
645:graphite
532:Indurite
460:nitrogen
452:solenite
395:nitrogen
359:Poudre B
329:Collodin
317:Prussian
225:Dynamite
108:chlorate
38:firearms
36:used in
2335:Powders
2315:Cordite
2180:Spitzer
1503:29 June
1075:torpedo
1025:powders
888:bismuth
886:), and
870:aniline
836:Camphor
652:fouling
590:in the
492:Cordite
344:rifling
293:torpedo
214:chemist
199:actions
192:fouling
151:History
104:nitrate
100:picrate
74:fouling
56:. The
46:fouling
2286:Primer
2272:, etc)
2128:Bullet
2048:
2013:
1992:
1971:
1925:
1904:
1881:
1862:
1788:
1767:(1969)
1702:
1647:
1577:
1542:
1429:(1969)
1383:(1943)
1296:
1209:
1067:nitric
1059:cotton
1040:Cannon
1031:corned
994:, and
787:. The
756:oxygen
754:in an
660:primer
640:pistol
607:DuPont
516:DuPont
505:patent
498:, 37%
448:filite
340:barium
68:, and
2238:Sabot
2007:XLIII
1986:XLIII
1965:XLVII
1898:XLIII
1729:(1985
1673:(PDF)
1666:(PDF)
1093:paper
938:rosin
546:with
417:Krupp
397:than
375:ether
110:, or
85:smoke
2243:Slug
2136:Cast
2046:ISBN
2011:ISSN
1990:ISSN
1969:ISSN
1952:link
1923:ISBN
1902:ISSN
1879:ISBN
1860:ISBN
1786:ISBN
1748:2008
1700:ISBN
1681:2017
1645:ISSN
1575:ISSN
1540:ISSN
1505:2013
1474:2012
1326:2018
1294:ISBN
1207:ISBN
1079:mine
1077:and
1069:and
921:and
919:talc
908:Lead
868:and
735:and
584:Ruby
574:and
572:Ruby
556:Ruby
338:and
297:mine
295:and
40:and
2195:Wax
1637:doi
1606:doi
1602:221
1567:doi
1532:doi
1086:TNT
952:).
944:(a
915:wax
880:tin
744:RDX
654:of
550:as
526:in
323:or
231:at
129:ADR
76:of
2311::
2147:,
2005:.
1984:.
1963:.
1948:}}
1944:{{
1896:.
1756:^
1714:^
1643:.
1633:30
1631:.
1627:.
1600:.
1596:.
1573:.
1561:.
1538:.
1528:37
1526:.
1522:.
1491:.
1412:^
1388:^
1334:^
1316:.
1251:^
1221:^
1201:.
1142:.
1088:.
990:,
986:,
972:.
917:,
902:,
898:,
894:,
872:.
860:,
856:,
852:,
848:,
830:,
811:,
705:.
485:,
466:.
259:.
143:.
119:UN
106:,
64:,
2268:(
2151:)
2143:(
2112:e
2105:t
2098:v
2054:.
2017:.
1996:.
1975:.
1954:)
1931:.
1908:.
1887:.
1868:.
1840:.
1794:.
1750:.
1708:.
1683:.
1651:.
1639::
1612:.
1608::
1581:.
1569::
1546:.
1534::
1507:.
1476:.
1328:.
1302:.
1215:.
693:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
