31:
1016:), which required a count of the senators present. Like modern quorum calls, this was usually a delaying tactic. Senators could also demand that a motion be divided into smaller motions. Acts such as applause, booing, or heckling often played a major role in a debate, and, in part because all senators had an absolute right to free speech, any senator could respond at any point if he was attacked personally. Once debates were underway, they were usually difficult for the presiding magistrate to control. The presiding magistrate typically only regained some control once the debating had ended, and a vote was about to be taken.
1070:) if the Senate did not comply. If the Senate did not comply, he could physically prevent the Senate from acting, and any resistance could be criminally prosecuted as constituting a violation of his sacrosanctity. If the vetoed motion was proposed the next day, and the plebeian tribune who had vetoed it the day before was not present to interpose himself, the motion could be passed. In general, the plebeian tribune had to physically be present at the Senate meeting, otherwise his physical threat of interposing his person had no meaning. Ultimately, the plebeian tribune's veto was based in a promise of physical force.
811:
precedent, or the auspices. Senators who failed to obey various laws could also be punished. While punishment could include impeachment (expulsion) from the Senate, often a punishment was less severe than outright expulsion. While the standard was high for expelling a member from the Senate, it was easier to deny a citizen the right to join the Senate. Various moral failings could result in one not being allowed to join the Senate, including bankruptcy, prostitution, or a prior history of having been a gladiator. One law (the
734:
60:
827:
703:, who retained this power until the end of the Roman Republic. This law also required the censors to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the Senate. Thus, after this point in time, election to magisterial office resulted in automatic Senate membership. The appointment was for life, although the censor could impeach any senator.
878:
1049:
When it was time to call a vote, the presiding magistrate could bring up whatever proposals (in whatever order) he wished, and every vote was between a proposal and its negative. Quorums were required for votes to be held, and it is known that in 67 BC the size of a quorum was set at 200 senators (by
1106:
was transcribed into a final document by the presiding magistrate. This document included the name of the presiding magistrate, the place of the assembly, the dates involved, the number of senators who were present at time the motion was passed, the names of witnesses to the drafting of the motion,
1019:
In the later years of the
Republic, attempts were made by the aristocracy to limit the increasing level of chaos associated with the obstructive tendencies and democratic impulses of some of the senators. Laws were enacted to prevent the inclusion of extraneous material in bills before the Senate.
706:
The Senate directed the magistrates, especially the consuls, in their prosecution of military conflicts. The Senate also had an enormous degree of power over the civil government in Rome. This was especially the case with regard to its management of state finances, as only it could authorize the
810:
were the magistrates who enforced the ethical standards of the Senate. Whenever a censor punished a senator, they had to allege some specific failing. Possible reasons for punishing a member included corruption, abuse of capital punishment, or the disregard of a colleague's veto, constitutional
1082:
in 91 BC, although they had no legal power to do so, several
Consuls were known to have vetoed acts of the Senate. Ultimately, if there was no veto, and the matter was of minor importance, it could be voted on by a voice vote or by a show of hands. If there was no veto, and the matter was of a
671:
which had the ultimate authority over elections, legislation, and criminal trials. However, since the Senate controlled money, administration, and the details of foreign policy, it had the most control over day-to-day life. The power and authority of the Senate derived from precedent, the high
800:
The ethical requirements of senators were significant. Senators could not engage in banking or any form of public contract without legal approval. They could not own a ship that was large enough to participate in foreign commerce without legal approval, and they could not leave Italy without
946:), which was usually brief, but was sometimes a lengthy oration. The presiding magistrate would then begin a discussion by referring an issue to the senators, who would discuss the issue, one at a time, by order of seniority, with the first to speak, the most senior senator, known as the
975:
A senator could make a brief statement, discuss the matter in detail, or talk about an unrelated topic. All senators had to speak before a vote could be held, and since all meetings had to end by nightfall, a senator could talk a proposal to death (a
916:
for this very reason. The Senate meetings were technically public because the doors were usually left open, which allowed people to look in, but only senators could speak. The Senate was directed by a presiding magistrate, who was usually either a
713:, which were official "advice" from the Senate to a magistrate. While technically these decrees did not have to be obeyed, in practice, they usually were. During an emergency, the Senate (and only the Senate) could authorize the appointment of a
766:. Senate meetings might take place outside of the formal boundary of the city for several reasons. For example, the Senate might wish to meet with an individual, such as a foreign ambassador, whom they did not wish to allow inside the city.
817:
of 123 BC) made it illegal for a citizen to become a senator if they had been convicted of a criminal offense. Many of these laws were enacted in the last century of the
Republic, as public corruption began reaching unprecedented levels.
1073:
Once a vote occurred, and a measure passed, he could do nothing, since his promise to physically interpose his person against the senators was now meaningless. In addition, during a couple of instances between the end of the
793:) was taken. The auspices were taken in order to determine whether that particular Senate meeting held favor with the gods. The Senate was only allowed to meet in a building of religious significance, such as the
903:
Meetings usually began at dawn, although occasionally certain events (such as festivals) might delay the beginning of a meeting. A magistrate who wished to summon the Senate had to issue a compulsory order (a
1004:
Senators had several ways in which they could influence (or frustrate) a presiding magistrate. When a presiding magistrate was proposing a motion, for example, the senators could call "consult" (
942:
While in session, the Senate had the power to act on its own, and even against the will of the presiding magistrate if it wished. The presiding magistrate began each meeting with a speech (the
789:. In addition, the Senate operated while under various religious restrictions. For example, before any meeting could begin, a sacrifice to the gods was made, and a search for divine omens (the
1052:
1056:). At any point before a motion passed, the proposed motion could be vetoed. Usually, vetoes were handed down by plebeian tribunes. If the Senate proposed a bill that the
750:
were both complex and ancient. Many of these rules and procedures originated in the early years of the
Republic, and were upheld over the centuries under the principle of
1703:
2119:
1918:
1102:
801:
permission from the Senate. In addition, since they were not paid, individuals usually sought to become a senator only if they were independently wealthy.
672:
caliber and prestige of the senators, and the Senate's unbroken lineage, which dated back to the founding of the
Republic in 509 BC. It developed from the
1027:
Laws were also enacted to strengthen the requirement that three days pass between the proposal of a bill, and the vote on that bill. During his term as
960:). This continued, until the most junior senators had spoken. Senators who had held magisterial office always spoke before those who had not, and if a
610:
1858:
1513:. Vol. 1 (Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes By Francis Barham, Esq ed.). London: Edmund Spettigue.
1820:
1913:
1083:
significant nature, there was usually a physical division of the house, where senators voted by taking a place on either side of the chamber.
2006:
2548:
1890:
1735:
2590:
2578:
1895:
1835:
2637:
1938:
1037:, or "daily proceedings", was meant to increase transparency and minimize the potential for abuse. This publication was posted in the
756:("customs of the ancestors"). While Senate meetings could take place either inside or outside of the formal boundary of the city (the
3953:
2553:
3925:
2563:
1873:
719:. The last ordinary dictator, however, was appointed in 202 BC. After 202 BC, the Senate responded to emergencies by passing the
3870:
2558:
2292:
1653:
Orations and
Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index
603:
207:
647:
served his term in office, it usually was followed with automatic appointment to the Senate. According to the Greek historian
583:
3840:
2665:
2192:
1928:
197:
3930:
3805:
2958:
689:, appointed all new senators. They also had the power to remove individuals from the Senate. Around the year 318 BC, the "
2511:
368:
2182:
1878:
1863:
1511:
The
Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws
652:
190:
173:
3850:
2610:
2177:
2172:
2148:
1999:
1971:
1825:
1760:
1578:
1548:
1529:
1499:
1480:
770:
725:("Ultimate Decree of the Senate"), which suspended civil government and declared something analogous to martial law.
665:(the highest-ranking of the regular magistrates) who led the armies and the civil government in Rome, and it was the
596:
168:
3958:
3865:
2538:
2187:
2114:
1923:
1840:
1728:
185:
908:), and senators could be punished if they failed to appear without reasonable cause. In 44 BC for example, consul
891:
30:
2131:
2064:
1943:
1868:
178:
2885:
2810:
2568:
1111:, a capital letter "C" was stamped on the document, to verify that the motion had been approved by the Senate.
1031:, Julius Caesar enacted laws that required the publication of Senate resolutions. This publication, called the
1024:, which are bills, usually enacted by a single vote, that contain a large volume of often unrelated material.
3381:
899:) of deceased ancestors in his hands; marble, late 1st century BC; head (not belonging): mid 1st century BC.
3221:
2825:
2277:
1992:
1588:
Taylor, Lily Ross; Scott, Russell T (1969). "Seating Space in the Roman Senate and the
Senatores Pedarii".
3920:
3845:
3604:
2660:
2543:
2089:
1830:
1721:
673:
3880:
3544:
3436:
3206:
2978:
2800:
2708:
2573:
2516:
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677:
381:
3900:
2993:
2948:
2875:
2795:
2743:
2733:
2685:
2032:
1219:
1079:
1008:), which required the magistrate to ask for the opinions of the senators. Any senator could demand a
782:
721:
446:
148:
3501:
3411:
2920:
2900:
2895:
2880:
2833:
2773:
2728:
2530:
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786:
50:
984:) if they could keep the debate going until nightfall. It is known, for example, that the senator
3910:
3890:
3830:
3820:
3810:
3216:
2905:
2805:
2785:
2700:
2690:
2395:
2335:
2315:
2027:
813:
484:
17:
1124:(vetoed Senate motion) had no legal value, it did serve to show the opinion of the Senate. If a
1062:(the magistrate who was the chief representative of the people) did not agree with, he issued a
3915:
3905:
3855:
3835:
3649:
3624:
3589:
3471:
3196:
2843:
2605:
2136:
1961:
1066:, which was backed by the promise to literally "interpose the sacrosanctity of his person" (or
3963:
3885:
3815:
3639:
3391:
3191:
3186:
2983:
2890:
2815:
2778:
2763:
2738:
2718:
2620:
1086:
Any motion that had the support of the Senate but was vetoed was recorded in the annals as a
847:
707:
disbursal of public monies from the treasury. In addition, the Senate passed decrees called
3895:
3860:
3549:
3416:
3316:
3241:
3106:
3069:
2445:
2109:
126:
3539:
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3825:
3674:
3476:
3346:
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2615:
2212:
1785:
640:
261:
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3406:
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3201:
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3064:
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2164:
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1765:
1744:
1605:
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3514:
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3509:
3361:
3116:
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3054:
2262:
1802:
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1568:
1544:
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1495:
1476:
1096:
882:
871:
778:
774:
709:
438:
431:
234:
1641:
Gruen, E. S. "The Last
Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974)
3574:
3534:
3466:
3401:
3326:
3321:
3093:
3016:
2963:
2758:
2753:
2642:
2501:
2450:
2410:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2360:
2282:
2229:
2222:
2207:
2202:
2126:
2054:
1795:
1780:
1775:
1709:
Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An
Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius
1597:
1204:
1194:
1158:
1133:
1075:
1058:
985:
948:
935:
855:
843:
667:
644:
560:
554:
547:
533:
362:
341:
286:
271:
266:
251:
135:
3669:
3481:
3461:
3421:
3356:
3306:
3301:
3176:
3126:
3034:
2868:
2848:
2768:
2217:
2042:
1790:
1163:
840:
276:
769:
At the beginning of the year, the first Senate meeting always took place at the
3724:
3366:
3101:
3049:
3021:
2968:
2953:
2933:
2748:
2723:
2680:
2670:
2496:
2470:
2400:
2385:
2350:
2310:
2071:
1850:
1199:
1028:
860:
794:
737:
Chart showing the checks and balances of the Constitution of the Roman Republic
715:
628:
565:
512:
356:
331:
240:
88:
1570:
Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar
1317:(Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World), Blackwell Publishing, 2016, p. 33
3947:
3256:
3226:
3141:
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2652:
2465:
2320:
2305:
2252:
2059:
1812:
989:
930:
886:
461:
311:
79:
1382:
Cato, the Younger Biography | Encyclopedia of World Biography Biography
1114:
The document was then deposited in the temple that housed the Treasury (the
781:, or, if the meeting was outside of the formal boundary of the city, at the
3734:
3594:
3039:
2988:
2943:
2938:
2790:
2600:
2486:
2430:
2425:
2197:
2081:
2015:
1905:
1770:
1752:
1224:
1209:
1033:
1021:
919:
836:
806:
747:
699:
685:
661:
656:
636:
632:
374:
326:
296:
222:
97:
631:. It was not an elected body, but one whose members were appointed by the
627:
was the governing and advisory assembly of the aristocracy in the ancient
3529:
3151:
2973:
2863:
2257:
1038:
1009:
909:
877:
752:
659:
was the predominant branch of government. Polybius noted that it was the
417:
3754:
3694:
3659:
3451:
3386:
3376:
3271:
3156:
3044:
2627:
2595:
2340:
2267:
2099:
2094:
1609:
977:
831:
733:
498:
228:
108:
1984:
923:(the highest-ranking magistrate) or, if the consul was unavailable, a
3784:
3779:
3739:
3664:
3634:
3614:
3491:
3431:
3341:
3291:
3286:
3211:
3171:
3059:
3029:
2838:
2713:
2506:
2390:
2365:
2244:
1966:
1713:
1590:
Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association
1169:
570:
540:
406:
388:
351:
1601:
1090:, while any motion that was passed and not vetoed was recorded as a
988:
once filibustered in an attempt to prevent the Senate from granting
59:
3744:
3729:
3719:
3704:
3619:
3609:
3579:
3569:
3564:
3554:
3456:
3371:
3251:
3236:
3166:
3146:
3136:
3131:
3111:
2910:
2491:
2455:
2345:
2272:
2104:
1672:
1214:
1184:
1174:
1116:
968:
896:
851:
758:
648:
505:
395:
306:
217:
115:
39:
826:
3764:
3759:
3749:
3714:
3709:
3699:
3644:
3629:
3446:
3441:
3426:
3396:
3351:
3331:
3311:
3266:
2998:
2853:
2632:
2440:
2435:
2325:
925:
491:
470:
321:
301:
762:), no meeting could take place more than a mile outside of the
3774:
3654:
3584:
3524:
3519:
3486:
3246:
3231:
3181:
3161:
2583:
2460:
2355:
1189:
1107:
and the substance of the act. In addition, if the motion was a
993:
913:
526:
316:
35:
952:(leader of the Senate), who was then followed by ex-consuls (
3559:
3281:
3008:
2300:
1562:. Vol. 2 (Fifth ed.). Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter.
1179:
870:) Republican type. The statue features an inscription in the
3769:
3336:
3276:
2858:
2234:
1313:
Ceccarelli, L., in Bell, S., and Carpino, A., A, (Editors)
1063:
1560:
The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek
2330:
1473:
A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions
477:
424:
1494:. US Government Printing Office Senate Document 103–23.
1144:
had its authority based in precedent, and not in law. A
1041:, and then sent by messengers throughout the provinces.
1508:
933:. By the late Republic, another type of magistrate, a
912:
threatened to demolish the house of the former consul
1646:
Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution
929:(the second-highest ranking magistrate), usually the
992:
a law that would have given land to the veterans of
1470:
999:
697:) gave this power to another Roman magistrate, the
846:depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an
27:Governing and advisory assembly of the aristocracy
1690:The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity
1566:
34:Representation of a sitting of the Roman Senate:
3945:
1020:Other laws were enacted to outlaw the so-called
1596:. The Johns Hopkins University Press: 529–582.
1538:
1044:
1436:
1434:
741:
2000:
1729:
1521:Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic
1345:
1343:
1341:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1277:
1275:
1273:
604:
1692:. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975.
1517:
1489:
1424:
1422:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1452:
1443:
1431:
1396:
1366:
1364:
1352:
1148:, however, could serve to interpret a law.
865:
639:, which were appointed by the aristocratic
2007:
1993:
1736:
1722:
1338:
1320:
1293:
1270:
1261:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1240:
972:, the patrician would always speak first.
956:), and then the praetors and ex-praetors (
850:man of Roman senatorial rank, engaging in
611:
597:
1683:The Development of the Roman Constitution
1419:
1405:
1624:Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13.
1557:
1361:
876:
825:
732:
29:
2014:
1329:
1284:
1237:
14:
3946:
1743:
1541:The Constitution of the Roman Republic
683:Originally the chief magistrates, the
1988:
1717:
1655:. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891.
1573:. The University of Michigan Press.
1078:in 201 BC and the beginning of the
24:
1617:
653:Constitution of the Roman Republic
25:
3975:
1697:
773:. Other venues could include the
3954:Government of the Roman Republic
1704:Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two
1492:The Senate of the Roman Republic
1000:Delaying and obstructive tactics
746:The rules and procedures of the
58:
1509:Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841).
1373:
1660:The Emperor in the Roman World
1307:
728:
651:, the principal source on the
13:
1:
1464:
785:or (if a war meeting) at the
771:Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus
2579:Frontiers and fortifications
1651:Johnston, Harold Whetstone.
1471:Abbott, Frank Frost (1901).
1315:A Companion to the Etruscans
1045:Votes and the Tribune's vote
966:was of equal seniority as a
42:, from a 19th-century fresco
7:
2638:Decorations and punishments
1587:
1543:. Oxford University Press.
1151:
1053:lex Cornelia de privilegiis
939:, would sometimes preside.
742:Venue and ethical standards
674:Senate of the Roman Kingdom
10:
3980:
3545:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
2120:historiography of the fall
1685:. D. Apple & Co. 1886.
1662:, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992).
1648:. William Pickering. 1853.
1567:Taylor, Lily Ross (1966).
821:
678:Senate of the Roman Empire
3926:External wars and battles
3793:
3687:
3500:
3092:
3085:
3007:
2919:
2824:
2699:
2651:
2529:
2479:
2418:
2409:
2291:
2243:
2163:
2080:
2050:
2041:
2023:
1952:
1904:
1849:
1811:
1751:
1220:Procurator (ancient Rome)
722:senatus consultum ultimum
447:Senatus consultum ultimum
342:Extraordinary magistrates
1667:Roman Constitutional Law
1638:, (Fontana Press, 1978).
1631:, (Fontana Press, 1993).
1539:Lintott, Andrew (1999).
1231:
885:", a statue depicting a
51:Politics of ancient Rome
3959:Historical legislatures
3921:Roman–Iranian relations
2396:Optimates and populares
1136:, the law overrode the
1132:) that was passed by a
1128:conflicted with a law (
1094:. After the vote, each
3931:Civil wars and revolts
3197:Sextus Pompeius Festus
2844:Conflict of the Orders
2203:Legislative assemblies
1962:Conflict of the Orders
1629:The Later Roman Empire
1524:. Random House Books.
900:
874:
866:
738:
208:Political institutions
43:
3640:Simplicius of Cilicia
3392:Quintus Curtius Rufus
2621:Siege in Ancient Rome
2230:Executive magistrates
1518:Holland, Tom (2005).
1490:Byrd, Robert (1995).
880:
829:
736:
33:
3650:Stephanus Byzantinus
3555:Eusebius of Caesaria
3417:Sidonius Apollinaris
3107:Ammianus Marcellinus
2446:Tribune of the plebs
1475:. Elibron Classics.
287:Ordinary magistrates
3826:Distinguished women
3477:Velleius Paterculus
3317:Nicolaus Damascenus
3297:Marcellus Empiricus
2686:Republican currency
1879:reforms of Augustus
695:plebiscitum Ovinium
641:Centuriate Assembly
635:, and later by the
3600:Phlegon of Tralles
3407:Seneca the Younger
2881:Naming conventions
2611:Personal equipment
2144:Later Roman Empire
1745:Roman Constitution
1665:Mommsen, Theodor.
1636:The Roman Republic
1122:senatus auctoritas
1103:senatus auctoritas
1088:senatus auctoritas
901:
875:
739:
691:Ovinian Plebiscite
520:Triumvir monetalis
454:Titles and honours
44:
3939:
3938:
3901:Pontifices maximi
3683:
3682:
3540:Diogenes Laërtius
3362:Pliny the Younger
3117:Asconius Pedianus
3077:Romance languages
2949:Civil engineering
2691:Imperial currency
2564:Political control
2525:
2524:
2159:
2158:
1982:
1981:
1929:(post Diocletian)
1919:(post Diocletian)
1874:reforms of Caesar
1688:Von Fritz, Kurt.
1558:Polybius (1823).
1146:senatus consultum
1142:senatus consultum
1138:senatus consultum
1126:senatus consultum
1109:senatus consultum
1097:senatus consultum
1092:senatus consultum
1012:(with the cry of
883:Togatus Barberini
872:Etruscan alphabet
864:of the "skimpy" (
787:Temple of Bellona
779:Temple of Concord
676:, and became the
621:
620:
439:Quaestio perpetua
432:Senatus consultum
235:Roman citizenship
16:(Redirected from
3971:
3891:Magistri equitum
3806:Cities and towns
3799:
3725:Constantinopolis
3535:Diodorus Siculus
3467:Valerius Maximus
3402:Seneca the Elder
3322:Nonius Marcellus
3090:
3089:
2643:Hippika gymnasia
2606:Infantry tactics
2512:Consular tribune
2502:Magister equitum
2451:Military tribune
2416:
2415:
2376:Pontifex maximus
2371:Princeps senatus
2361:Magister militum
2127:Byzantine Empire
2048:
2047:
2009:
2002:
1995:
1986:
1985:
1869:reforms of Sulla
1738:
1731:
1724:
1715:
1714:
1681:Tighe, Ambrose.
1613:
1584:
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1535:
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1305:
1302:
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1279:
1268:
1265:
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1256:
1205:Pontifex Maximus
1195:Plebeian Council
1159:Byzantine Senate
1076:Second Punic War
1059:plebeian tribune
986:Cato the Younger
949:princeps senatus
936:plebeian tribune
869:
856:senatorial shoes
844:bronze sculpture
835:, c. 100 BC, an
814:Lex repetundarum
783:Temple of Apollo
710:senatus consulta
668:Roman assemblies
645:Roman magistrate
613:
606:
599:
555:Pontifex maximus
548:Princeps senatus
534:Magister militum
369:Consular tribune
363:Magister equitum
191:Augustan reforms
62:
46:
45:
21:
3979:
3978:
3974:
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3972:
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3968:
3944:
3943:
3940:
3935:
3797:
3795:
3789:
3679:
3515:Aëtius of Amida
3496:
3482:Verrius Flaccus
3462:Valerius Antias
3422:Silius Italicus
3357:Pliny the Elder
3302:Marcus Aurelius
3177:Cornelius Nepos
3127:Aurelius Victor
3081:
3003:
2915:
2849:Secessio plebis
2820:
2695:
2647:
2521:
2475:
2405:
2287:
2239:
2155:
2076:
2037:
2019:
2013:
1983:
1978:
1948:
1900:
1845:
1807:
1747:
1742:
1700:
1695:
1644:Ihne, Wilhelm.
1620:
1618:Further reading
1602:10.2307/2935928
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1551:
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1229:
1164:Commune of Rome
1154:
1047:
1002:
881:The so-called "
824:
775:Temple of Fides
744:
731:
617:
588:
584:Other countries
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401:
336:
281:
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179:Sullan republic
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3367:Pomponius Mela
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3102:Aelius Donatus
3098:
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3074:
3073:
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3070:Ecclesiastical
3067:
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2811:Toys and games
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2353:
2351:Vigintisexviri
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2311:Cursus honorum
2308:
2303:
2297:
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2110:Western Empire
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1851:Roman Republic
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1706:
1699:
1698:External links
1696:
1694:
1693:
1686:
1679:
1670:
1663:
1656:
1649:
1642:
1639:
1634:Crawford, M.
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1395:
1385:. Bookrags.com
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1202:
1200:Cursus honorum
1197:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1167:
1161:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1140:, because the
1134:Roman Assembly
1046:
1043:
1001:
998:
982:diem consumere
861:toga praetexta
823:
820:
795:Curia Hostilia
743:
740:
730:
727:
629:Roman Republic
619:
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513:Vigintisexviri
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112:27 BC – AD 284
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102:27 BC – AD 395
94:
89:Roman Republic
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3258:
3257:Julius Paulus
3255:
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3192:Fabius Pictor
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2929:Amphitheatres
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2666:Deforestation
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2616:Siege engines
2614:
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2549:Establishment
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2488:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2480:Extraordinary
2478:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2466:Promagistrate
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2408:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2290:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2253:Twelve Tables
2251:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2242:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2205:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2166:
2162:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2142:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2129:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2085:
2083:
2079:
2073:
2070:
2066:
2063:
2062:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2025:
2022:
2017:
2010:
2005:
2003:
1998:
1996:
1991:
1990:
1987:
1973:
1970:
1969:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1954:Miscellaneous
1951:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1848:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1813:Roman Kingdom
1810:
1804:
1801:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1778:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1734:
1732:
1727:
1725:
1720:
1719:
1716:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1701:
1691:
1687:
1684:
1680:
1678:
1677:The Histories
1674:
1671:
1668:
1664:
1661:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1647:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1633:
1630:
1626:
1623:
1622:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1582:
1580:0-472-08125-X
1576:
1572:
1571:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1550:0-19-926108-3
1546:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1531:1-4000-7897-0
1527:
1523:
1522:
1516:
1512:
1507:
1503:
1501:0-16-058996-7
1497:
1493:
1488:
1484:
1482:0-543-92749-0
1478:
1474:
1469:
1468:
1455:
1446:
1437:
1435:
1425:
1423:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1399:
1384:
1383:
1376:
1367:
1365:
1355:
1346:
1344:
1342:
1332:
1323:
1316:
1310:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1287:
1278:
1276:
1274:
1264:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1236:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1166:(1144 onward)
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1118:
1112:
1110:
1105:
1104:
1099:
1098:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1081:
1077:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1060:
1055:
1054:
1042:
1040:
1036:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1023:
1022:omnibus bills
1017:
1015:
1011:
1007:
997:
995:
991:
990:Julius Caesar
987:
983:
979:
973:
971:
970:
965:
964:
959:
955:
951:
950:
945:
940:
938:
937:
932:
931:urban praetor
928:
927:
922:
921:
915:
911:
907:
898:
894:
893:
888:
887:Roman senator
884:
879:
873:
868:
863:
862:
857:
853:
849:
845:
842:
838:
834:
833:
828:
819:
816:
815:
809:
808:
802:
798:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
767:
765:
761:
760:
755:
754:
749:
735:
726:
724:
723:
718:
717:
712:
711:
704:
702:
701:
696:
692:
688:
687:
681:
679:
675:
670:
669:
664:
663:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
614:
609:
607:
602:
600:
595:
594:
592:
591:
585:
582:
581:
579:
578:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
556:
552:
550:
549:
545:
543:
542:
538:
536:
535:
531:
529:
528:
524:
522:
521:
517:
515:
514:
510:
508:
507:
503:
501:
500:
496:
494:
493:
489:
487:
486:
482:
480:
479:
475:
473:
472:
468:
467:
463:
460:
459:
458:
457:
453:
452:
449:
448:
441:
440:
436:
434:
433:
429:
427:
426:
422:
420:
419:
415:
414:
412:
411:
408:
405:
404:
398:
397:
393:
391:
390:
386:
384:
383:
379:
377:
376:
372:
370:
367:
365:
364:
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
349:
347:
346:
343:
340:
339:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
312:Promagistrate
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
294:
292:
291:
288:
285:
284:
278:
275:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
259:
257:
256:
253:
250:
249:
243:
242:
238:
236:
233:
231:
230:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
215:
213:
212:
209:
206:
205:
199:
196:
192:
189:
188:
187:
184:
180:
177:
176:
175:
172:
170:
167:
166:
164:
163:
160:
157:
156:
151:
150:
146:
145:
139:
138:
134:
130:
129:
125:
124:
117:
114:
110:
107:
106:
100:
99:
95:
91:
90:
86:
82:
81:
80:Roman Kingdom
77:
76:
75:
74:
70:
69:
66:
65:
61:
57:
56:
52:
48:
47:
41:
37:
32:
19:
3964:Roman Senate
3941:
3871:Institutions
3735:Leptis Magna
3688:Major cities
3595:Philostratus
3382:Quadrigarius
3202:Rufus Festus
3065:Contemporary
2786:Romanization
2709:Architecture
2316:Collegiality
2165:Constitution
2016:Ancient Rome
1924:Constitution
1906:Roman Empire
1885:
1864:Constitution
1826:Constitution
1766:Constitution
1753:Ancient Rome
1689:
1682:
1676:
1666:
1659:
1658:Millar, F.
1652:
1645:
1635:
1628:
1627:Cameron, A.
1593:
1589:
1569:
1559:
1540:
1520:
1510:
1491:
1472:
1454:
1445:
1398:
1387:. Retrieved
1381:
1375:
1354:
1331:
1322:
1314:
1309:
1286:
1263:
1225:Acta Senatus
1210:Roman senate
1145:
1141:
1137:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1115:
1113:
1108:
1101:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1085:
1072:
1067:
1057:
1051:
1048:
1032:
1026:
1018:
1013:
1005:
1003:
981:
974:
967:
961:
957:
953:
947:
943:
941:
934:
924:
918:
905:
902:
890:
889:holding the
859:
830:
812:
805:
803:
799:
790:
768:
763:
757:
751:
748:Roman Senate
745:
720:
714:
708:
705:
698:
694:
684:
682:
666:
660:
657:Roman Senate
624:
622:
553:
546:
539:
532:
525:
518:
511:
504:
497:
490:
483:
476:
469:
445:
437:
430:
423:
416:
394:
387:
380:
373:
361:
239:
227:
223:Collegiality
159:Constitution
147:
136:
127:
98:Roman Empire
96:
87:
78:
3866:Geographers
3550:Dioscorides
3530:Cassius Dio
3152:Cassiodorus
3055:Renaissance
2661:Agriculture
2633:Auxiliaries
2574:Engineering
2411:Magistrates
2263:Citizenship
2258:Mos maiorum
2193:Late Empire
1944:Magistrates
1896:Magistrates
1841:Magistrates
1803:Magistrates
1669:. 1871–1888
1458:Abbott, 233
1449:Lintott, 85
1440:Lintott, 83
1402:Lintott, 82
1358:Abbott, 228
1349:Lintott, 78
1326:Lintott, 75
1304:Lintott, 70
1281:Lintott, 72
1267:Lintott, 73
1120:). While a
1068:intercessio
1039:Roman Forum
1034:acta diurna
1010:quorum call
944:verba fecit
910:Mark Antony
854:. He wears
753:mos maiorum
729:Institution
418:Mos maiorum
198:Late Empire
141:AD 395–1453
3948:Categories
3755:Mediolanum
3695:Alexandria
3660:Themistius
3625:Porphyrius
3452:Tertullian
3387:Quintilian
3377:Propertius
3272:Lactantius
3222:Fulgentius
3157:Censorinus
2979:Sanitation
2964:Metallurgy
2921:Technology
2886:Demography
2834:Patricians
2801:Spectacles
2759:Literature
2754:Hairstyles
2591:Technology
2341:Praefectus
2293:Government
2283:Litigation
2268:Auctoritas
2213:Centuriate
2100:Principate
2095:Pax Romana
2055:Foundation
1972:Obligation
1939:Assemblies
1891:Assemblies
1836:Assemblies
1786:Centuriate
1776:Assemblies
1465:References
1389:2008-09-19
1080:Social War
978:filibuster
954:consulares
832:The Orator
643:. After a
499:Praefectus
407:Public law
262:Centuriate
252:Assemblies
229:Auctoritas
132:AD 395–476
119:AD 284–641
109:Principate
84:753–509 BC
3911:Quaestors
3841:Empresses
3831:Dynasties
3821:Dictators
3796:and other
3785:Volubilis
3780:Vindobona
3740:Londinium
3665:Theodoret
3635:Procopius
3615:Polyaenus
3590:Pausanias
3492:Vitruvius
3437:Symmachus
3432:Suetonius
3342:Petronius
3327:Obsequens
3292:Macrobius
3287:Lucretius
3212:Frontinus
3187:Eutropius
3172:Columella
3122:Augustine
3112:Appuleius
3060:Neo-Latin
3035:Classical
3026:Versions
2934:Aqueducts
2876:Patronage
2796:Sexuality
2769:Mythology
2744:Education
2734:Cosmetics
2559:Campaigns
2554:Structure
2507:Decemviri
2366:Imperator
2065:overthrow
1967:Roman law
1428:Byrd, 133
1416:Byrd, 112
1170:Roman Law
1100:and each
963:patrician
958:praetorii
541:Imperator
389:Decemviri
382:Triumviri
352:Corrector
93:509–27 BC
3916:Tribunes
3906:Praetors
3856:Generals
3836:Emperors
3745:Lugdunum
3730:Eboracum
3720:Carthage
3705:Aquileia
3620:Polybius
3610:Plutarch
3580:Libanius
3570:Josephus
3565:Herodian
3457:Tibullus
3372:Priscian
3347:Phaedrus
3307:Manilius
3252:Jordanes
3237:Hydatius
3167:Claudian
3147:Catullus
3137:Boëthius
3132:Ausonius
3050:Medieval
3022:Alphabet
2994:Theatres
2969:Numerals
2954:Concrete
2944:Circuses
2911:Bagaudae
2901:Adoption
2896:Marriage
2869:Assembly
2774:Religion
2749:Folklore
2729:Clothing
2724:Calendar
2681:Currency
2671:Commerce
2569:Strategy
2531:Military
2517:Triumvir
2497:Dictator
2492:Interrex
2471:Governor
2456:Quaestor
2419:Ordinary
2401:Province
2391:Tetrarch
2381:Augustus
2346:Vicarius
2336:Officium
2273:Imperium
2223:Plebeian
2183:Republic
2105:Dominate
2072:Republic
2033:Timeline
1796:Plebeian
1673:Polybius
1370:Byrd, 44
1335:Byrd, 42
1290:Byrd, 36
1258:Byrd, 34
1215:Interrex
1185:Quaestor
1175:Centuria
1152:See also
1117:aerarium
1029:dictator
969:plebeian
897:effigies
892:imagines
852:rhetoric
848:Etruscan
791:auspices
764:pomerium
759:pomerium
716:dictator
649:Polybius
571:Tetrarch
561:Augustus
506:Vicarius
485:Officium
396:Interrex
357:Dictator
332:Governor
307:Quaestor
272:Plebeian
218:Imperium
174:Republic
149:Timeline
116:Dominate
40:Catiline
38:attacks
3886:Legions
3846:Fiction
3816:Consuls
3811:Climate
3765:Ravenna
3760:Pompeii
3750:Lutetia
3715:Bononia
3710:Berytus
3700:Antioch
3675:Zosimus
3670:Zonaras
3645:Sozomen
3630:Priscus
3605:Photius
3447:Terence
3442:Tacitus
3427:Statius
3412:Servius
3397:Sallust
3352:Plautus
3332:Orosius
3312:Martial
3267:Juvenal
3242:Hyginus
3227:Gellius
3086:Writers
3017:History
2999:Thermae
2989:Temples
2939:Bridges
2906:Slavery
2854:Equites
2826:Society
2806:Theatre
2779:Deities
2739:Cuisine
2719:Bathing
2701:Culture
2676:Finance
2653:Economy
2544:Borders
2539:History
2441:Tribune
2436:Praetor
2326:Legatus
2321:Emperor
2208:Curiate
2178:Kingdom
2173:History
2149:History
2132:decline
2090:History
2060:Kingdom
2043:History
2028:Outline
1914:History
1859:History
1821:History
1781:Curiate
1761:History
1610:2935928
1006:consule
926:Praetor
837:Etrusco
822:Debates
807:censors
777:or the
686:consuls
662:consuls
637:censors
633:consuls
492:Praeses
471:Legatus
462:Emperor
322:Tribune
302:Praetor
267:Curiate
169:Kingdom
137:Eastern
128:Western
71:Periods
18:Senatus
3896:Nomina
3881:Legacy
3861:Gentes
3798:topics
3794:Lists
3775:Smyrna
3655:Strabo
3585:Lucian
3575:Julian
3525:Arrian
3520:Appian
3510:Aelian
3487:Vergil
3262:Justin
3247:Jerome
3232:Horace
3217:Fronto
3207:Florus
3182:Ennius
3162:Cicero
3142:Caesar
3040:Vulgar
2864:Tribes
2791:Romans
2601:Legion
2584:castra
2461:Aedile
2431:Censor
2426:Consul
2386:Caesar
2356:Lictor
2278:Status
2218:Tribal
2198:Senate
2188:Empire
2082:Empire
2018:topics
1934:Senate
1886:Senate
1831:Senate
1791:Tribal
1771:Senate
1608:
1577:
1547:
1528:
1498:
1479:
1190:Aedile
1014:numera
994:Pompey
920:consul
914:Cicero
906:cogere
867:exigua
858:and a
700:censor
655:, the
625:Senate
566:Caesar
527:Lictor
327:Censor
317:Aedile
297:Consul
277:Tribal
186:Empire
36:Cicero
3560:Galen
3502:Greek
3472:Varro
3282:Lucan
3094:Latin
3009:Latin
2984:Ships
2974:Roads
2959:Domes
2891:Women
2839:Plebs
2764:Music
2306:Forum
2301:Curia
1606:JSTOR
1232:Notes
1180:Curia
841:Roman
3876:Laws
3851:Film
3770:Roma
3337:Ovid
3277:Livy
3045:Late
2859:Gens
2816:Wine
2628:Navy
2596:Army
2235:SPQR
2137:fall
2115:fall
1575:ISBN
1545:ISBN
1526:ISBN
1496:ISBN
1477:ISBN
1064:veto
1050:the
804:The
623:The
3030:Old
2714:Art
2487:Rex
2331:Dux
2245:Law
1598:doi
1594:100
1130:lex
980:or
693:" (
478:Dux
425:Ius
375:Rex
3950::
1675:.
1604:.
1592:.
1433:^
1421:^
1407:^
1363:^
1340:^
1295:^
1272:^
1239:^
996:.
797:.
680:.
2008:e
2001:t
1994:v
1737:e
1730:t
1723:v
1612:.
1600::
1583:.
1553:.
1534:.
1504:.
1485:.
1392:.
895:(
839:-
612:e
605:t
598:v
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
