Reason - Knowledge

3197:] animal than is any bee or than any of those animals that live in herds. For nature, as we say, makes nothing in vain, and humans are the only animals who possess reasoned speech . Voice, of course, serves to indicate what is painful and pleasant; that is why it is also found in other animals, because their nature has reached the point where they can perceive what is painful and pleasant and express these to each other. But speech serves to make plain what is advantageous and harmful and so also what is just and unjust. For it is a peculiarity of humans, in contrast to the other animals, to have perception of good and bad, just and unjust, and the like; and the community in these things makes a household or city .... By nature, then, the drive for such a community exists in everyone, but the first to set one up is responsible for things of very great goodness. For as humans are the best of all animals when perfected, so they are the worst when divorced from law and right. The reason is that injustice is most difficult to deal with when furnished with weapons, and the weapons a human being has are meant by nature to go along with prudence and virtue, but it is only too possible to turn them to contrary uses. Consequently, if a human being lacks virtue, he is the most unholy and savage thing, and when it comes to sex and food, the worst. But justice is something political , for right is the arrangement of the political community, and right is discrimination of what is just. 2480:, by contrast, claimed most emotions were merely false judgements. According to the Stoics the only good is virtue, and the only evil is vice, therefore emotions that judged things other than vice to be bad (such as fear or distress), or things other than virtue to be good (such as greed) were simply false judgements and should be discarded (though positive emotions based on true judgements, such as kindness, were acceptable). After the critiques of reason in the early Enlightenment the appetites were rarely discussed or were conflated with the passions. Some Enlightenment camps took after the Stoics to say reason should oppose passion rather than order it, while others like the Romantics believed that passion displaces reason, as in the maxim "follow your heart". 2512:, that reason and political life is not natural and is possibly harmful to mankind. He asked what really can be said about what is natural to mankind. What, other than reason and civil society, "best suits his constitution"? Rousseau saw "two principles prior to reason" in human nature. First we hold an intense interest in our own well-being. Secondly we object to the suffering or death of any sentient being, especially one like ourselves. These two passions lead us to desire more than we could achieve. We become dependent upon each other, and on relationships of authority and obedience. This effectively puts the human race into slavery. Rousseau says that he almost dares to assert that nature does not destine men to be healthy. According to 6086:

different kind of universe from one without, and it would be a scientific difference. God could clinch the matter in his favour at any moment by staging a spectacular demonstration of his powers, one that would satisfy the exacting standards of science. Even the infamous Templeton Foundation recognized that God is a scientific hypothesis—by funding double-blind trials to test whether remote prayer would speed the recovery of heart patients. It didn't, of course, although a control group who knew they had been prayed for tended to get worse (how about a class action suit against the Templeton Foundation?) Despite such well-financed efforts, no evidence for God's existence has yet appeared.

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follow with certainty from its premises and concerns something unobserved. What distinguishes abduction from the other forms of reasoning is an attempt to favour one conclusion above others, by subjective judgement or by attempting to falsify alternative explanations or by demonstrating the likelihood of the favoured conclusion, given a set of more or less disputable assumptions. For example, when a patient displays certain symptoms, there might be various possible causes, but one of these is preferred above others as being more probable.

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unorthodox extremes by arguing, unlike his predecessors, that human reason is not qualitatively different from either simply conceiving individual ideas, or from judgments associating two ideas, and that "reason is nothing but a wonderful and unintelligible instinct in our souls, which carries us along a certain train of ideas, and endows them with particular qualities, according to their particular situations and relations." It followed from this that animals have reason, only much less complex than human reason.

3114: 7740: 8066: 2935: 1463:, characterizes the distinction in this way: Logic is done inside a system while reason is done outside the system by such methods as skipping steps, working backward, drawing diagrams, looking at examples, or seeing what happens if you change the rules of the system. Psychologists Mark H. Bickard and Robert L. Campbell argue that "rationality cannot be simply assimilated to logicality"; they note that "human knowledge of logic and 833: 1134:, who perceives the rest of the world and itself as a set of objects to be studied, and successfully mastered, by applying the knowledge accumulated through such study. Breaking with tradition and with many thinkers after him, Descartes explicitly did not divide the incorporeal soul into parts, such as reason and intellect, describing them instead as one indivisible incorporeal entity. 8496: 3294: 3308: 5504:[...what is called Wisdom is concerned with the primary causes and principles, so that, as has been already stated, the man of experience is held to be wiser than the mere possessors of any power of sensation, the artist than the man of experience, the master craftsman than the artisan; and the speculative sciences to be more learned than the productive.] 2588:" which states that emotions guide behavior and decision-making. Damasio argues that these somatic markers (known collectively as "gut feelings") are "intuitive signals" that direct our decision making processes in a certain way that cannot be solved with rationality alone. Damasio further argues that rationality requires emotional input in order to function. 1042:. In this doctrine, Thomas concludes that because humans have reason and because reason is a spark of the divine, every single human life is invaluable, all humans are equal, and every human is born with an intrinsic and permanent set of basic rights. On this foundation, the idea of human rights would later be constructed by Spanish theologians at the 1673:(a type of thinking that can judge and understand in some sense) also exist in some animals. According to him, both are related to the primary perceptive ability of animals, which gathers the perceptions of different senses and defines the order of the things that are perceived without distinguishing universals, and without deliberation or 1336:, and many other philosophers have contributed to a debate about what reason means, or ought to mean. Some, like Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Rorty, are skeptical about subject-centred, universal, or instrumental reason, and even skeptical toward reason as a whole. Others, including Hegel, believe that it has obscured the importance of 1543:", even to the extent of associating causes and effects. A dog once kicked, can learn how to recognize the warning signs and avoid being kicked in the future, but this does not mean the dog has reason in any strict sense of the word. It also does not mean that humans acting on the basis of experience or habit are using their reason. 1176:" self, or "I", was a necessary condition of all experience. Therefore, suggested Kant, on the basis of such a self, it is in fact possible to reason both about the conditions and limits of human knowledge. And so long as these limits are respected, reason can be the vehicle of morality, justice, aesthetics, theories of knowledge ( 582:, in which the reasoning process through intuition—however valid—may tend toward the personal and the subjectively opaque. In some social and political settings logical and intuitive modes of reasoning may clash, while in other contexts intuition and formal reason are seen as complementary rather than adversarial. For example, in 1266:, the "substantive unity" of reason has dissolved in modern times, such that it can no longer answer the question "How should I live?" Instead, the unity of reason has to be strictly formal, or "procedural". He thus described reason as a group of three autonomous spheres (on the model of Kant's three critiques): 3246:

In other words, according to Rousseau, reason, language, and rational community did not arise because of any conscious decision or plan by humans or gods, nor because of any pre-existing human nature. As a result, he claimed, living together in rationally organized communities like modern humans is a

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in his Second Discourse finally took the shocking step of claiming that this traditional account has things in reverse: with reason, language, and rationally organized communities all having developed over a long period of time merely as a result of the fact that some habits of cooperation were found

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It is the distinctive feature of human action, that whenever we choose what we do, we imagine an action for ourselves as though we were inspecting it from the outside. Intentions are nothing more than imagined actions, internalizings of the external. All action is therefore imitation of action; it is

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Human reason requires more than being able to associate two ideas—even if those two ideas might be described by a reasoning human as a cause and an effect—perceptions of smoke, for example, and memories of fire. For reason to be involved, the association of smoke and the fire would have to be thought

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described reason as a broader version of "addition and subtraction" which is not limited to numbers. This understanding of reason is sometimes termed "calculative" reason. Similar to Descartes, Hobbes asserted that "No discourse whatsoever, can end in absolute knowledge of fact, past, or to come" but

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was even said to have reason. Reason, by this account, is not just a characteristic that people happen to have. Reason was considered of higher stature than other characteristics of human nature, because it is something people share with nature itself, linking an apparently immortal part of the human

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A dog might perceive the "meaning" of a fight that was realistically play-acted by humans, but it could not reconstruct the message or distinguish the representation from its referent (a real fight).... Trained apes are able to make this distinction; young children make this distinction early—hence,

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To say it for all my colleagues and for the umpteenth millionth time (from college bull sessions to learned treatises): science simply cannot (by its legitimate methods) adjudicate the issue of God's possible superintendence of nature. We neither affirm nor deny it; we simply can't comment on it as

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The two competing theories concerning the origins of reason are relevant to political and ethical thought because, according to the Aristotelian theory, a best way of living together exists independently of historical circumstances. According to Rousseau, we should even doubt that reason, language,

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and making children is more common with the animals. In the other animals, community goes no further than this, but people live together not only for the sake of making children, but also for the things for life; for from the start the functions are divided, and are different for man and woman.

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to reach conclusions they think are true. Conclusions reached in this way are considered, according to Aristotle, more certain than sense perceptions on their own. On the other hand, if such reasoned conclusions are only built originally upon a foundation of sense perceptions, then our most logical

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Moral virtue is the only good an wickedness the only evil... Emotions are interpreted in intellectual terms; those such as distress, pity (which is a species of distress), and fear which reflect false judgements about what is evil, are to be avoided (as also are those which reflect false judgement

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Hume famously remarked that, "We speak not strictly and philosophically when we talk of the combat of passion and of reason. Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them." Hume also took his definition of reason to

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This sounds terrific, right up until you give it a moment's thought. You then realize that the presence of a creative deity in the universe is clearly a scientific hypothesis. Indeed, it is hard to imagine a more momentous hypothesis in all of science. A universe with a god would be a completely

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Abductive reasoning, or argument to the best explanation, is a form of reasoning that does not fit in either the deductive or inductive categories, since it starts with incomplete set of observations and proceeds with likely possible explanations. The conclusion in an abductive argument does not

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Moshman's... theory of the development of deductive reasoning considers changes in metacognition to be the essential story behind the development of deductive (and inductive) reasoning. In his view, reasoning involves explicit conceptual knowledge regarding inference (metalogical knowledge) and

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of reason, neglected but essential to modern life, and to our understanding of what it means to live a life according to reason. Others suggest that there is not just one reason or rationality, but multiple possible systems of reason or rationality which may conflict (in which case there is no

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Reason: A general faculty common to all or nearly all humans... this faculty has seemed to be of two sorts, a faculty of intuition by which one 'sees' truths or abstract things ('essences' or universals, etc.), and a faculty of reasoning, i.e. passing from premises to a conclusion (discursive

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argues that there need not be conflict between reason and religious belief because they are each authoritative in their own domain (or "magisterium"). If so, reason can work on those problems over which it has authority while other sources of knowledge or opinion can have authority on the big

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Philosophy is often characterized as a pursuit of rational understanding, entailing a more rigorous and dedicated application of human reasoning than commonly employed. Philosophers have long debated two fundamental questions regarding reason, essentially examining reasoning itself as a human

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The classical view of reason, like many important Neoplatonic and Stoic ideas, was readily adopted by the early Church as the Church Fathers saw Greek Philosophy as an indispensable instrument given to mankind so that we may understand revelation. For example, the greatest among the early

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The conclusions to be drawn from the discussions of Aristotle and Plato on this matter are amongst the most debated in the history of philosophy. But teleological accounts such as Aristotle's were highly influential for those who attempt to explain reason in a way that is consistent with

1748:, in the philosophy of Plato. This is the ability to perceive whether a perception is an image of something else, related somehow but not the same, and therefore allows humans to perceive that a dream or memory or a reflection in a mirror is not reality as such. What Klein refers to as 1081:

understanding of human beings. Scientists and philosophers began to question the teleological understanding of the world. Nature was no longer assumed to be human-like, with its own aims or reason, and human nature was no longer assumed to work according to anything other than the same

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development with many negative aspects compared to the original state of man as an ape. If anything is specifically human in this theory, it is the flexibility and adaptability of humans. This view of the animal origins of distinctive human characteristics later received support from

1061:, emphasised reason an intrinsic human ability to decode the created order and the structures that underlie our experienced physical reality. This interpretation of reason was instrumental to the development of the scientific method in the early Universities of the high Middle Ages. 1293:" by philosophers. In drawing such a picture of reason, Habermas hoped to demonstrate that the substantive unity of reason, which in pre-modern societies had been able to answer questions about the good life, could be made up for by the unity of reason's formalizable procedures. 1105:

explicitly rejected the traditional notion of humans as "rational animals", suggesting instead that they are nothing more than "thinking things" along the lines of other "things" in nature. Any grounds of knowledge outside that understanding was, therefore, subject to doubt.

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he exercise of independent practical reasoning is one essential constituent to full human flourishing. It is not—as I have already insisted—that one cannot flourish at all, if unable to reason. Nonetheless not to be able to reason soundly at the level of practice is a grave

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has developed" over time through reasoning, and logical systems "can't construct new logical systems more powerful than themselves", so reasoning and rationality must involve more than a system of logic. Psychologist David Moshman, citing Bickhard and Campbell, argues for a

5502:τὴν ὀνομαζομένην σοφίαν περὶ τὰ πρῶτα αἴτια καὶ τὰς ἀρχὰς ὑπολαμβάνουσι πάντες: ὥστε, καθάπερ εἴρηται πρότερον, ὁ μὲν ἔμπειρος τῶν ὁποιανοῦν ἐχόντων αἴσθησιν εἶναι δοκεῖ σοφώτερος, ὁ δὲ τεχνίτης τῶν ἐμπείρων, χειροτέχνου δὲ ἀρχιτέκτων, αἱ δὲ θεωρητικαὶ τῶν ποιητικῶν μᾶλλον. 5795:

Vice is founded on 'passions': these are at root false value judgements, in which we lose rational control by overvaluing things which are in fact indifferent. Virtue, a set of sciences governing moral choice, is the one thing of intrinsic worth and therefore genuinely

3142:. This could also help explain why humans, according to Sperber, are not optimized to reason effectively alone. Sperber's & Mercier's argumentative theory of reasoning claims that reason may have more to do with winning arguments than with the search for the truth. 2097:

Analogical reasoning is a weaker form of inductive reasoning from a single example, because inductive reasoning typically uses a large number of examples to reason from the particular to the general. Analogical reasoning often leads to wrong conclusions. For example:

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Enhanced with reason, cognition can secure better knowledge in all domains and adjust action to novel and ambitious goals, or so the story goes.... Understanding why only a few species have echolocation is easy. Understanding why only humans have reason is much more

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Inductive reasoning contrasts with deductive reasoning in that, even in the strongest cases of inductive reasoning, the truth of the premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion. Instead, the conclusion of an inductive argument follows with some degree of

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had not always existed and had to be invented or developed by humans themselves. The household came first, and the first villages and cities were just extensions of that, with the first cities being run as if they were still families with Kings acting like fathers.

597:, is one of the ways by which thinking moves from one idea to a related idea. For example, reasoning is the means by which rational individuals understand the significance of sensory information from their environments, or conceptualize abstract dichotomies such as 3125:

and Hugo Mercier argue that, aside from these benefits, there could have been other forces driving the evolution of reason. They point out that reasoning is very difficult for humans to do effectively, and that it is hard for individuals to doubt their own beliefs

1860:"...but nothing except man is able to recollect." Recollection is a deliberate effort to search for and recapture something once known. Klein writes that, "To become aware of our having forgotten something means to begin recollecting." Donald calls the same thing 3201:

If human nature is fixed in this way, we can define what type of community is always best for people. This argument has remained a central argument in all political, ethical, and moral thinking since then, and has become especially controversial since firstly

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are sometimes said to have argued that reason must be fixed and discoverable—perhaps by dialectic, analysis, or study. In the vision of these thinkers, reason is divine or at least has divine attributes. Such an approach allowed religious philosophers such as

2618:. Secular critics sometimes accuse all religious adherents of irrationality; they claim such adherents are guilty of ignoring, suppressing, or forbidding some kinds of reasoning concerning some subjects (such as religious dogmas, moral taboos, etc.). Though 5756:

about what is good, such as love of honours or riches)... They did however allow the wise man such 'good feelings' as 'watchfulness' or kindness the difference being that these are based on sound (Stoic) reasoning concerning what matters and what does not.

2359:, (associated with Plato and his school), claims that there is a "higher" reality, within which certain people can directly discover truth without needing to rely only upon the senses, and that this higher reality is therefore the primary source of truth. 1768:, and marks discussed above as definitive of reason. Explaining reason from this direction: human thinking is special in that we often understand visible things as if they were themselves images of our intelligible "objects of thought" as "foundations" ( 1438:, or sometimes logic is seen as the most pure or the defining form of reason: "Logic is about reasoning—about going from premises to a conclusion. ... When you do logic, you try to clarify reasoning and separate good from bad reasoning." In modern 1864:, which he explains as follows: "Mimetic acts are reproducible on the basis of internal, self-generated cues. This permits voluntary recall of mimetic representations, without the aid of external cues—probably the earliest form of representational 1936:

Deduction is a form of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the stated premises. A deduction is also the name for the conclusion reached by a deductive reasoning process. A classic example of deductive reasoning is evident in

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has one soul, which is the seat of all reason, and the souls of all people are part of this soul. Reason is for Plotinus both the provider of form to material things, and the light which brings people's souls back into line with their source.

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and politics are a good thing, as opposed to being simply the best option given the particular course of events that led to today. Rousseau's theory, that human nature is malleable rather than fixed, is often taken to imply (for example by

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If reason is symbolic thinking, and peculiarly human, then this implies that humans have a special ability to maintain a clear consciousness of the distinctness of "icons" or images and the real things they represent. Merlin Donald writes:

5324:): "Human action is imitation of action because thinking is always rethinking. Aristotle can define human beings as at once rational animals, political animals, and imitative animals because in the end the three are the same." 1807:

Imitation is found especially in monkeys and apes Mimesis is fundamentally different from imitation and mimicry in that it involves the invention of intentional representations.... Mimesis is not absolutely tied to external

872:, starting with classical Greece. Philosophy can be described as a way of life based upon reason, while reason has been among the major subjects of philosophical discussion since ancient times. Reason is often said to be 2733:, usually translated as "In the beginning was the Word (Logos)." Thus, he said that the Christian faith is "open to all that is truly rational", and that the rationality of Western Enlightenment "is of Christian origin". 5669:, which is literally translated by 'understanding' or 'intellect,' and which we can perhaps translate a little bit more cautiously by 'awareness,' an awareness of the mind's eye as distinguished from sensible awareness. 5529:[Thus it is uncertain which of these impressions are true or false; for one kind is no more true than another, but equally so. And hence Democritus says that either there is no truth or we cannot discover it.] 3007:. This includes research into the structure and function of normally functioning brains, and of damaged or otherwise unusual brains. In addition to carrying out research into reasoning, some psychologists—for example 1234:

According to Kant, in a free society each individual must be able to pursue their goals however they see fit, as long as their actions conform to principles given by reason. He formulated such a principle, called the

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wrote in his essay "On Fairy Stories" that the terms "fantasy" and "enchantment" are connected to not only "the satisfaction of certain primordial human desires" but also "the origin of language and of the mind".

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the reason used "when one is reasoning as a reasonable being (and not as a cog in a machine), when one is reasoning as a member of reasonable humanity"; in these circumstances, "the use of reason must be free and

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At this time I admit nothing that is not necessarily true. I am therefore precisely nothing but a thinking thing; that is a mind, or intellect, or understanding, or reason—words of whose meanings I was previously

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proposed a widely encompassing view of reason as "that ensemble of practices that contributes to the opening and preserving of openness" in human affairs, and a focus on reason's possibilities for social change.

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The words are connected in this way: Using reason, or reasoning, means providing good reasons. For example, when evaluating a moral decision, "morality is, at the very least, the effort to guide one's conduct by

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1009b, cited above, he criticizes people who think knowledge might not be possible because, "They say that the impression given through sense-perception is necessarily true; for it is on these grounds that both

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were as much Neoplatonic philosophers as they were Christian theologians, and they adopted the Neoplatonic view of human reason and its implications for our relationship to creation, to ourselves, and to God.

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the reason that is used when an individual is "a cog in a machine" or when one "has a role to play in society and jobs to do: to be a soldier, to have taxes to pay, to be in charge of a parish, to be a civil

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or freedom of people depends on their ability, by the proper exercise of that reason, to behave according to laws that are given to them. This contrasted with earlier forms of morality, which depended on

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argues that there is no real conflict between reason and classical theism because classical theism explains (among other things) why the universe is intelligible and why reason can successfully grasp it.

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in Greek). According to Strauss the beginning of philosophy involved the "discovery or invention of nature" and the "pre-philosophical equivalent of nature" was supplied by "such notions as 'custom' or

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involves the attempt to describe a system of formal rules or norms of appropriate reasoning. The oldest surviving writing to explicitly consider the rules by which reason operates are the works of the

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to solve certain types of problems, and that once such cooperation became more important, it forced people to develop increasingly complex cooperation—often only to defend themselves from each other.

2559:, remain preoccupied with problems coming from the metaphysical demands or urges of reason. Rousseau and these later writers also exerted a large influence on art and politics. Many writers (such as 4239:

We must not therefore think that computation, that is, ratiocination, has place only in numbers, as if man were distinguished from other living creatures (which is said to have been the opinion of

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Religious adherents sometimes respond by arguing that faith and reason can be reconciled, or have different non-overlapping domains, or that critics engage in a similar kind of irrationalism:

1196:) is that it is able to exercise a kind of universal law-making. Kant was able therefore to reformulate the basis of moral-practical, theoretical, and aesthetic reasoning on "universal" laws. 4829:

The central assumption of the rational choice approach is that decision-makers have logically consistent goals (whatever they are), and, given these goals, choose the best available option.

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Gächter, Simon (2013). "Rationality, social preferences, and strategic decision-making from a behavioral economics perspective". In Wittek, Rafael; Snijders, T. A. B.; Nee, Victor (eds.).

1259:", which unlike normal logic is not just an instrument that can be used indifferently, as it was for Aristotle, but a theoretical science in its own right and the basis of all the others. 2204:, a decision or action which falls outside the range of actions or decision available when acting in good faith can be described as "unreasonable". Use of the term is considered in the 2351:) asserts that sensory impressions are the only available starting points for reasoning and attempting to attain truth. This approach always leads to the controversial conclusion that 2241:

more effectively than alternative methods. The second question explores whether a life guided by reason, a life that aims to be guided by reason, can be expected to lead to greater

2216: 2528:. All the same, Rousseau understands such corrections to be only ameliorations of an essentially unsatisfactory condition, that of socially and intellectually corrupted humanity." 4883: 2018:. For this reason also, the conclusion of an inductive argument contains more information than is already contained in the premises. Thus, this method of reasoning is ampliative. 3101:

is reasoning about reasoning. In computer science, a system performs meta-reasoning when it is reasoning about its own operation. This requires a programming language capable of

1255:) could be used to find solutions to metaphysical problems, especially the discovery of the foundations of morality. Kant claimed that these solutions could be found with his " 7424: 1351:

In the last several decades, a number of proposals have been made to "re-orient" this critique of reason, or to recognize the "other voices" or "new departments" of reason:

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Experimental cognitive psychologists carry out research on reasoning behaviour. Such research may focus, for example, on how people perform on tests of reasoning such as

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Thus they supply each other, putting their own into the common . It is for these reasons that both utility and pleasure seem to be found in this kind of friendship.

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the kind of reason employed by the sciences; used to observe events, to predict and control outcomes, and to intervene in the world on the basis of its hypotheses

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Scientists... see the fight for evolution as only one battle in a larger war: a looming war between supernaturalism on the one side and rationality on the other.

2411:, is the simple conception of reason; that reason is the Sovereign of the World; that the history of the world, therefore, presents us with a rational process." 1279:

what we use to deliberate and discuss issues in the moral and political realm, according to universalizable procedures (similar to Kant's categorical imperative)

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The Neoplatonic conception of the rational aspect of the human soul was widely adopted by medieval Islamic philosophers and continues to hold significance in

1570:, the symbols having only a nominal, though habitual, connection to either (for example) smoke or fire. One example of such a system of symbols and signs is 6190: 892:, meaning that every type of thing had a definitive purpose that fit within a natural order that was itself understood to have aims. Perhaps starting with 663:. Reasons justify decisions, reasons support explanations of natural phenomena, and reasons can be given to explain the actions (conduct) of individuals. 7777: 5527:ποῖα οὖν τούτων ἀληθῆ ἢ ψευδῆ, ἄδηλον: οὐθὲν γὰρ μᾶλλον τάδε ἢ τάδε ἀληθῆ, ἀλλ᾽ ὁμοίως. διὸ Δημόκριτός γέ φησιν ἤτοι οὐθὲν εἶναι ἀληθὲς ἢ ἡμῖν γ᾽ ἄδηλον. 4188: 2706:

are also sometimes guilty of ignoring, suppressing, and forbidding some kinds of reasoning about subjects. Similarly, philosophers of science such as

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is a concept, now popular again in academic discussion, that was particularly prevalent in Plato's works. In Aristotle, it is discussed mainly in the

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conception of rationality" in which a person's development of reason "involves increasing consciousness and control of logical and other inferences".

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In the essay "What is Enlightenment?", Michel Foucault proposed a critique based on Kant's distinction between "private" and "public" uses of reason:

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typically found in works of art and literature, and encompasses the novel ways of seeing the world and interpreting things that those practices embody

709:, "reason", and related words, represent words which have always been used to translate Latin and classical Greek terms in their philosophical sense. 1597:

so that speech did not need to be communicated. When communicated, such speech becomes language, and the marks or notes or remembrance are called "

2454:) that are the conditions of experience. Kant made his argument in opposition to Hume, who denied that reason had any role to play in experience. 3121:

A species could benefit greatly from better abilities to reason about, predict, and understand the world. French social and cognitive scientists

2918: 9940: 6804: 6542: 671:—that is, doing what there are the best reasons for doing—while giving equal weight to the interests of all those affected by what one does." 443: 6915: 5060: 2233:

endeavor, or philosophizing about philosophizing. The first question delves into whether we can place our trust in reason's ability to attain

1607:), he does mention that animals with imagination, for whom sense perceptions can persist, come closest to having something like reasoning and 8553: 2535:'s new way of justifying reason as freedom to create good and evil. These therefore are not to be blamed on nature or God. In various ways, 1034:

Among the Scholastics who relied on the classical concept of reason for the development of their doctrines, none were more influential than

6103: 5522: 808:" and "reason" as interchangeable. The meaning of the word "reason" in senses such as "human reason" also overlaps to a large extent with " 5633: 5547: 5497: 3138:

pressures at play. Any group that managed to find ways of reasoning effectively would reap benefits for all its members, increasing their

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Formal fallacies occur when there is a problem with the form, or structure, of the argument. The word "formal" refers to this link to the

9935: 2815:(first principles of knowledge) brought about a peculiar tension between reasoning on the one hand, and tradition or faith on the other. 2809:", which appear to be really universal in all times and places. The philosophical concept of nature or natures as a way of understanding 8931: 8743: 1780:) is "...an activity which consists in making the vast and diffuse jungle of the visible world depend on a plurality of more 'precise' 685:, e.g. which cognitive and neural processes are engaged, and how cultural factors affect the inferences that people draw. The field of 3073: 2724:, asserted that "Christianity has understood itself as the religion of the Logos, as the religion according to reason," referring to 1188:

In the formulation of Kant, who wrote some of the most influential modern treatises on the subject, the great achievement of reason (

6024: 5600: 7557: 2842:. Psychologists attempt to determine whether or not people are capable of rational thought in a number of different circumstances. 8978: 7770: 6577: 3935: 3274:, his own conclusions about the best forms of community seem to have been remarkably classical, in favor of city-states such as 2917:

was the first complete theory of reasoning development. Subsequently, several alternative theories were proposed, including the

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conclusions can never be said to be certain because they are built upon the very same fallible perceptions they seek to better.

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parts of the soul. Therefore their respective virtues are those dispositions that will best qualify them to attain truth.]

3969: 3366:– Topic tree that identifies many types of thoughts/thinking, types of reasoning, aspects of thought, related fields, and more 2901:. Experiments investigate how people make inferences about factual situations, hypothetical possibilities, probabilities, and 2483:

Reason has been seen as cold, an "enemy of mystery and ambiguity", a slave, or judge, of the passions, notably in the work of

5701: 841: 164: 3228:; for people are by nature pairing more than political , in as much as the household is prior and more necessary than the 3171:, because of which it is best for humans to live "politically" meaning in communities of about the size and type of a small 4881:

Bickhard, Mark H.; Campbell, Robert L. (July 1996). "Developmental aspects of expertise: rationality and generalization".

1838:), emphasizes the peculiarity in humans of voluntary initiation of a search through one's mental world. The ancient Greek 8963: 8152: 7968: 7963: 7879: 6740: 7035: 3947: 3266:

However, while Rousseau's initial impact encouraged bloody revolutions against traditional politics, including both the

1850:

or "memory". Memory, shared with some animals, requires a consciousness not only of what happened in the past, but also

861:

The proposal that reason gives humanity a special position in nature has been argued to be a defining characteristic of

8281: 7763: 6535: 6512: 6432: 6364: 6216: 6170: 6151: 6078: 5998: 5980: 5930: 5740: 5426: 5161:, for both speech and reason; not that they thought there was no speech without reason, but no reasoning without speech 4979: 4806: 4761: 4706: 4519: 3709: 3629: 3537: 3496: 3442: 3411: 1161:

relationships of cause and effect, and therefore no knowledge is based on reasoning alone, even if it seems otherwise.

436: 189: 1515:) identified logic clearly for the first time as a distinct field of study. When Aristotle referred to "the logical" ( 9925: 8831: 8546: 8430: 7833: 7562: 2982: 2964: 1539:

As pointed out by philosophers such as Hobbes, Locke, and Hume, some animals are also clearly capable of a type of "

8514: 8031: 7988: 7973: 7823: 7091: 2496: 9975: 9273: 8106: 8051: 8004: 7635: 6960: 4216: 2914: 2516:, "Rousseau outlines certain programs of rational self-correction, most notably the political legislation of the 2407:

are compatible. According to Hegel, "...the only thought which Philosophy brings with it to the contemplation of

1453:

However, reason and logic can be thought of as distinct—although logic is one important aspect of reason. Author

7393: 4113: 2845:

Assessing how well someone engages in reasoning is the project of determining the extent to which the person is

8916: 8435: 7508: 6750: 5780: 5712: 5110: 5020: 4857: 3747: 3667: 3427:

reason). The verb 'reason' is confined to this latter sense, which is now anyway the commonest for the noun too

3130:). Reasoning is most effective when it is done as a collective—as demonstrated by the success of projects like 2960: 1501:. Although the Ancient Greeks had no separate word for logic as distinct from language and reason, Aristotle's 1243:

Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.

65: 6940: 2311:, "starting points", and the faculty used to perceive them is sometimes referred to in Aristotle and Plato as 8069: 8039: 7837: 7789: 7743: 7172: 6819: 6528: 6053: 4192: 3369: 3102: 2299:, or starting points of reasoning, are available for someone seeking to come to true conclusions. In Greek, " 2062:

Analogical reasoning is a form of inductive reasoning from a particular to a particular. It is often used in

1313: 429: 184: 7081: 9970: 9965: 9955: 8539: 8043: 8019: 7610: 7567: 4468: 3372:– Topic tree presenting the traits, capacities, models, and research fields of human intelligence, and more 2696: 1373: 734:" but also a word that could mean for example "speech" or "explanation" or an "account" (of money handled). 235: 5950: 5083: 4335: 1601:" by Hobbes. Going further back, although Aristotle is a source of the idea that only humans have reason ( 755:. This was originally not just a translation used for philosophy, but was also commonly a translation for 8510: 7978: 7137: 6985: 6332:

Demetriou, A. (1998). "Cognitive development". In Demetriou, A.; Doise, W.; van Lieshout, K.F.M. (eds.).

5146: 5127: 4311: 4299: 1551:, for example, reason requires the mental use of a third idea in order to make this comparison by use of 1289:

For Habermas, these three spheres are the domain of experts, and therefore need to be mediated with the "

873: 5037: 3877:

Kompridis, Nikolas (2006). "The Idea of a New Beginning: A Romantic Source of Normativity and Freedom".

3117:

Dan Sperber believes that reasoning in groups is more effective and promotes their evolutionary fitness.

9945: 9930: 9780: 9298: 9086: 8461: 8023: 7572: 7182: 7107: 7045: 6910: 3777: 2913:

Developmental psychologists investigate the development of reasoning from birth to adulthood. Piaget's

1012: 7020: 6970: 1384:, which is tied to the way we make sense of things in everyday life, as a new "department" of reason. 869: 529:

to extrapolate from one's existing knowledge to generate new knowledge, and involves the use of one's

9014: 8440: 8365: 8147: 7127: 6834: 6755: 4790: 4255:]. Now such things as we add or substract, that is, which we put into an account, we are said to 3375: 3271: 3069: 2585: 2435: 1355: 295: 194: 17: 5640:[Consorting with reality really, he would beget intelligence and truth, attain to knowledge] 1789:

Both Merlin Donald and the Socratic authors such as Plato and Aristotle emphasize the importance of

1577:

The connection of reason to symbolic thinking has been expressed in different ways by philosophers.

9797: 9365: 8973: 8898: 8338: 7884: 7167: 7132: 6701: 6104:"The Meaning of Life as Narrative: A New Proposal for Interpreting Philosophy's 'Primary' Question" 4247:

magnitude, body, motion, time, degrees of quality, action, conception, proportion, speech and names

3484: 2945: 2858: 2741:

can be almost defined by its serious testing of the limits of tension between "unaided" reason and

1540: 1173: 410: 154: 129: 5228:, is a technical word, which is not necessarily exactly the same in meaning as the original Greek. 4249:(in which all the kinds of philosophy consist) are capable of addition and substraction [ 3659: 8763: 8422: 8027: 7818: 7813: 7803: 7388: 7365: 7330: 7112: 7076: 7000: 6935: 5542: 5517: 5492: 4552: 4454: 3739: 3057: 2956: 2949: 2902: 2850: 2829: 2524: 2508: 1305: 790:

also routinely wrote in Latin and French, and compared their terms to Greek, treating the words "

682: 380: 375: 305: 55: 31: 5809: 1109:

In his search for a foundation of all possible knowledge, Descartes decided to throw into doubt

953:) as a life which is lived consistently, excellently, and completely in accordance with reason. 9707: 9445: 9231: 9136: 8854: 8583: 8035: 7808: 7680: 7582: 7539: 7398: 7279: 6686: 6631: 6504: 5665:

This quest for the beginnings proceeds through sense perception, reasoning, and what they call

5300:

Davis uses "poetic" in an unusual sense, questioning the contrast in Aristotle between action (

3378: – generalization of attributes from specific examples of a category to the whole category 3000: 2889:. They test whether people can make valid deductions about spatial and temporal relations like 2271:

a question has remained constant in philosophical debate (sometimes seen as a conflict between

1559: 1547:

through in a way that can be explained, for example as cause and effect. In the explanation of

1443: 1340:, or "spirit" in human life, and they attempt to reconstruct a model of what reason should be. 1236: 1093: 690: 579: 2725: 1459: 876:, or "self-correcting", and the critique of reason has been a persistent theme in philosophy. 9380: 8824: 8798: 8476: 8047: 7897: 7465: 7251: 7190: 7086: 6597: 4511: 3693: 3685: 3529: 3357: 3008: 2784:

might have partaken of these important tensions, Strauss thought it best to consider whether

1760:

concerned specifically with thinking and mental images, such as those mental symbols, icons,

988: 649: 626: 415: 405: 60: 9600: 7378: 7373: 5859:

Velkley, Richard (2002), "Speech. Imagination, Origins: Rousseau and the Political Animal",

5689:

and Democritus and practically all the rest have become obsessed by such opinions as these."

4596: 3488: 2877:

tests, or on how well people's reasoning matches ideals set by logic (see, for example, the

1464: 9980: 8395: 8241: 7983: 7730: 7590: 7552: 7503: 7147: 7117: 6945: 6660: 6551: 6459: 6235: 4963: 3831:

Foucault, Michel (2003). "What is Enlightenment?". In Rabinow, Paul; Rose, Nikolas (eds.).

3327: 3151: 3081: 3077: 3043: 2765:" that included all areas under the influence of the tension between Greek rationalism and 2063: 2057: 1256: 1035: 925:

as being the natural monarch which should rule over the other parts, such as spiritedness (

774:

is derived directly from Latin, and this is the direct source of the English word "reason".

290: 250: 240: 7524: 7403: 5609:μορίων ἀλήθεια τὸ ἔργον. καθ᾽ ἃς οὖν μάλιστα ἕξεις ἀληθεύσει ἑκάτερον, αὗται ἀρεταὶ ἀμφοῖν 1976:

because there is no way in which both premises could be true and the conclusion be false.

1317: 1086:" which affect inanimate things. This new understanding eventually displaced the previous 1073:

was marked by a number of significant changes in the understanding of reason, starting in

8: 9435: 9375: 9236: 8968: 8871: 8735: 8562: 8350: 8333: 8313: 8276: 8225: 8220: 8162: 8099: 7828: 7473: 7157: 6925: 6894: 6498: 5285: 5175: 3252: 3207: 3065: 3051: 3033: 3029: 2793: 2576: 2518: 2288: 2284: 2268: 2138: 1985: 1931: 1903: 1899: 1819: 1321: 1301: 1158: 1043: 916: 706: 686: 614: 565: 561: 557: 468: 400: 320: 315: 300: 7030: 7005: 6239: 4414: 4389: 4370: 4348: 4232: 4001: 1721:. In contrast, modern proponents of a genetic predisposition to language itself include 1031:

view of reason, which laid the foundation for our modern understanding of this concept.

9950: 9920: 9400: 9029: 8936: 8865: 8626: 8286: 8215: 8172: 8073: 8009: 7786: 7483: 7345: 7335: 7320: 7310: 7264: 7152: 6975: 6696: 6411: 6251: 6247: 5595: 5451: 5353: 5009: 4936: 4841: 4820: 4676: 4612: 4607: 4397: 4169: 3865: 3813: 3519: 3363: 2870: 2781: 2774: 2692: 2473: 2352: 1999: 1995: 1690: 1598: 1562:, reason in the strict sense requires the ability to create and manipulate a system of 1454: 1354:

For example, in opposition to subject-centred reason, Habermas has proposed a model of

1008: 992: 642: 30:

This article is about the human faculty of reason and rationality. For other uses, see

7455: 6624: 4971: 4570: 4025: 3989: 1914:. The study of inductive reasoning is generally carried out within the field known as 1621:" in one place to describe the distinctions which animals can perceive in such cases. 1524: 1263: 617:, is also closely identified with the ability to self-consciously change, in terms of 586:, intuition is often necessary for the creative processes involved with arriving at a 9960: 9741: 9735: 9493: 9486: 9355: 9196: 9054: 8658: 8643: 8570: 8500: 8471: 8466: 8456: 8390: 8318: 8203: 7864: 7688: 7493: 7488: 7450: 7440: 7289: 7205: 7200: 7142: 6990: 6980: 6745: 6602: 6508: 6428: 6403: 6360: 6212: 6166: 6147: 6074: 6047: 6020: 5994: 5976: 5926: 5786: 5776: 5746: 5736: 5708: 5432: 5422: 5398: 5106: 5016: 4985: 4975: 4955: 4863: 4853: 4824: 4812: 4802: 4767: 4757: 4702: 4680: 4515: 4505: 3869: 3857: 3753: 3743: 3715: 3705: 3673: 3663: 3635: 3625: 3543: 3533: 3502: 3492: 3457:

reason. The general human 'faculty' or capacity for truth-seeking and problem solving

3448: 3438: 3417: 3407: 3351: 3339: 3313: 3299: 3267: 3139: 3127: 3047: 3004: 2996: 2839: 2710:

argue that scientists sometimes ignore or suppress evidence contrary to the dominant

2675: 2560: 2467: 1991: 1919: 1885: 1365: 1359: 1358:

that sees it as an essentially cooperative activity, based on the fact of linguistic

1337: 1204: 996: 836: 678: 653: 553: 9664: 7529: 6950: 6255: 4940: 3898: 2400: 2185:

of the argument. An argument that contains a formal fallacy will always be invalid.

1102: 360: 9501: 9395: 9248: 8948: 8921: 8911: 8817: 8788: 8680: 8405: 8131: 8126: 7693: 7325: 7305: 7274: 6965: 6930: 6874: 6415: 6395: 6352: 6243: 6116: 5876:

Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality Among Men or Second Discourse

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often treated reason as being the faculty that trained the passions and appetites.

2300: 2296: 2188:

An informal fallacy is an error in reasoning that occurs due to a problem with the

2175: 2161: 1973: 1652: 1381: 1377: 1325: 1200: 1153:

developed Descartes's line of thought still further. Hume took it in an especially

1070: 1000: 702: 542: 345: 310: 7408: 6319:

The Rational Imagination: How People Create Counterfactual Alternatives to Reality

6067: 6062: 5920: 5195:

The Rational Imagination: How People Create Counterfactual Alternatives to Reality

2494:

Reasoning that claims the object of a desire is demanded by logic alone is called

9862: 9575: 9509: 9430: 8859: 8773: 8622: 8251: 8193: 7917: 7498: 7383: 7259: 7221: 7040: 6884: 6879: 6681: 6587: 6494: 5840:(January 2017). "The Edge of Reason: A Rational Skeptic in an Irrational World". 5410: 5190: 4722: 3735: 3523: 3135: 2738: 2707: 2665: 2581: 2568: 2536: 2513: 2276: 2258: 2003: 1682: 1329: 1189: 1127: 1054: 938: 862: 764: 114: 7547: 5418: 3732:

Rationality: A Philosophical Inquiry into the Nature and the Rationale of Reason

210: 9621: 8999: 8575: 8505: 8198: 8177: 8092: 7670: 7620: 7478: 7355: 7350: 7340: 7236: 7162: 7071: 7066: 6889: 6864: 6844: 6829: 6814: 6799: 5680:

However, the empiricism of Aristotle must certainly be doubted. For example in

5225: 4672: 3853: 3774: 3605: 3248: 2396: 2171: 2157: 1915: 1872: 1742:

In classical descriptions, an equivalent description of this mental faculty is

1484: 1083: 984: 714: 350: 6399: 6144:

Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry: Encyclopaedia, Genealogy, and Tradition

5735:. Ted Honderich (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 896. 4932: 4798: 4150: 4131: 4095: 3437:. Ted Honderich (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 791. 3263:) a wider range of possible ways of living together than traditionally known. 2642:

on the one hand, and reason on the other, as potentially competing sources of

1738:

their effortless distinction between play-acting an event and the event itself

9914: 9806: 9420: 9405: 9385: 9186: 9171: 9156: 9069: 9064: 8958: 8942: 8881: 8355: 8296: 8014: 7947: 7942: 7869: 7698: 7655: 7625: 7605: 7269: 7195: 7122: 7025: 6955: 6869: 6824: 6809: 6706: 6655: 6383: 6356: 6209:

When Athens Met Jerusalem: An Introduction to Classical and Christian Thought

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The Theory of Communicative Action: Reason and the Rationalization of Society

4591: 4547: 4501: 4463: 4449: 3861: 3719: 3639: 3506: 3421: 3093: 2762: 2631: 2532: 2443: 2336: 2325: 1726: 1710: 1686: 1578: 1469: 1333: 1309: 1169: 1138: 1028: 910: 817: 783: 779: 610: 606: 460: 370: 355: 134: 119: 89: 9748: 9672: 7755: 6351:, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 2408/2002, pp. 253–288, 5889:

Velkley, Richard (2002), "Freedom, Teleology, and Justification of Reason",

5790: 5750: 4896: 4867: 3757: 3677: 3547: 3452: 1250: 750: 725: 9642: 9478: 9440: 9390: 9360: 9328: 9318: 9313: 9226: 9206: 9126: 8926: 8905: 8876: 8768: 8753: 8345: 8167: 7708: 7703: 7650: 7640: 7615: 7595: 7315: 7284: 7231: 7226: 7010: 6920: 6859: 6839: 6726: 6650: 6500:

How We Know What Isn't So: The Fallibility of Human Reason in Everyday Life

6407: 4659:

Kompridis, Nikolas (2000). "So We Need Something Else for Reason to Mean".

3840:

Kompridis, Nikolas (2000). "So We Need Something Else for Reason to Mean".

3333: 3168: 3113: 2721: 2419: 2115: 1722: 1642: 1348:

super-rational system one can appeal to in order to resolve the conflict).

1177: 962: 942: 885: 674: 659:

is a consideration that either explains or justifies events, phenomena, or

587: 549: 45: 6477: 6120: 5402: 4753: 3701: 3621: 3015:—work to alter people's reasoning habits when those habits are unhelpful. 9460: 9350: 9268: 9191: 9141: 9044: 8748: 8638: 8608: 8380: 8375: 8328: 7936: 7660: 7445: 7241: 7015: 6854: 6733: 6716: 6711: 5656: 4849: 3647: 3612:. Philosophische Analyse / Philosophical Analysis. Vol. 48. Berlin: 3476: 3122: 2881:). Experiments examine how people make inferences from conditionals like 2854: 2846: 2758: 2615: 2564: 2552: 2439: 2423: 2415: 2205: 2201: 2015: 1714: 1648: 1630: 1487: 1447: 1212: 1078: 1050: 1039: 813: 809: 634: 583: 512: 507:, and is normally considered to be a distinguishing ability possessed by 500: 472: 255: 230: 144: 104: 84: 6675: 2335:(sometimes associated with Aristotle but more correctly associated with 2248: 961:

and the immortality and divinity of the human soul. For example, in the

769: 693:

considers the question of whether animals other than humans can reason.

9773: 9582: 9550: 9415: 9340: 9308: 9288: 9161: 9151: 9111: 9091: 9049: 8793: 8783: 8690: 8665: 8618: 8323: 8291: 8256: 7874: 7665: 7645: 7630: 7600: 6849: 6760: 6617: 6592: 6582: 6520: 6481: 5686: 4241: 4231:

Hobbes, Thomas (1839) , "Of Philosophy", in Molesworth, William (ed.),

3613: 3345: 3221: 3172: 2878: 2835: 2834:

Scientific research into reasoning is carried out within the fields of

2746: 2703: 2700: 2627: 2484: 2404: 2383: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2332: 2242: 2025: 2022: 1891: 1548: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1087: 958: 948: 897: 893: 865: 812:" and the adjective of "reason" in philosophical contexts is normally " 787: 484: 365: 225: 149: 139: 124: 99: 8531: 4047:(second ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 204 & 235. 3652:

The Architecture of Reason: The Structure and Substance of Rationality

2699:

argue that those critics of traditional religion who are adherents of

1679:. But this is not yet reason, because human imagination is different. 1077:. One of the most important of these changes involved a change in the 9821: 9567: 9565: 9558: 9556: 9533: 9410: 9243: 9221: 9211: 9166: 9146: 9116: 9106: 9081: 9004: 8953: 8725: 8705: 8613: 8588: 8385: 8246: 8157: 7902: 7892: 7859: 7848: 6691: 6612: 6454: 5816:(Spring 2019 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 5336: 5319: 5313: 5307: 5301: 5156: 4745: 4510:. Translated by Ellington, James W. (3rd ed.). Hackett. p. 3808: 3324: – Attempt to persuade or to determine the truth of a conclusion 3260: 3229: 3211: 3192: 3186: 3176: 3164: 3105:, the ability to observe and modify its own structure and behaviour. 2810: 2797: 2766: 2754: 2684: 2639: 2605: 2556: 2540: 2427: 2371: 2367: 2312: 2304: 2272: 2234: 2007: 1938: 1855: 1845: 1839: 1834: 1812: 1790: 1781: 1775: 1769: 1755: 1749: 1743: 1674: 1668: 1662: 1656: 1616: 1608: 1602: 1590: 1552: 1530: 1516: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1490: 1439: 1290: 1016: 946: 934: 926: 914: 889: 791: 756: 738: 723: 630: 598: 594: 571: 530: 526: 340: 245: 215: 159: 94: 9693: 5991:

Natural Signs and Knowledge of God: A New Look at Theistic Arguments

5470:"Braganza v BP Shipping Ltd [2015] UKSC 17 (18 March 2015)}" 2934: 1239:", which would justify an action only if it could be universalized: 1064: 9814: 9635: 9543: 9425: 9345: 9303: 9278: 9253: 9201: 9131: 9076: 9039: 9034: 9024: 9019: 9009: 8778: 8758: 8710: 8695: 8633: 8593: 8306: 7907: 7050: 6645: 6638: 5210: 5044:(Fall 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 4214:

Descartes, René (1641). "Concerning the Nature of the Human Mind".

3321: 3239: 3203: 3159: 2711: 2623: 2619: 2601: 2503: 2379: 2375: 2356: 1702: 1694: 1655:. Imagination is not only found in humans. Aristotle asserted that 1571: 1525:

Reason compared to cause-and-effect thinking, and symbolic thinking

1224: 1219: 1203:

is the self-legislating or self-governing formulation of universal

1024: 1020: 966: 660: 545: 496: 488: 9893: 9755: 5904:

Plattner, Marc (1997), "Rousseau and the Origins of Nationalism",

5661:

An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss

4962:. Vol. 2. Cognitive Processes (7th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: 2610:

There are many religious traditions, some of which are explicitly

1854:

something happened in the past, which is in other words a kind of

832: 9869: 9855: 9788: 9721: 9686: 9614: 9370: 9293: 9263: 9216: 9176: 9101: 9059: 8685: 8675: 8670: 8653: 8370: 8301: 7932: 5973:

Where the Conflict Really Lies: Science, Religion, and Naturalism

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Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence

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On Reason: Rationality in a World of Cultural Conflict and Racism

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Associated Provincial Picture Houses Ltd v Wednesbury Corporation

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studies how reasoning may or may not be modeled computationally.

638: 522: 492: 109: 9728: 9649: 5874:

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1997) , "Preface", in Gourevitch (ed.),

5103:

The Symbolic Species: The Co-Evolution of Language and the Brain

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Critique and Disclosure: Critical Theory between Past and Future

4077: 3575: 2908: 2227: 1823:. In Michael Davis's account of the theory of man in that work: 9837: 9829: 9700: 9679: 9628: 9607: 9450: 9181: 8840: 8720: 8715: 8598: 7912: 6165:(1st ed.). The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 3734:. Clarendon Library of Logic and Philosophy. Oxford; New York: 3275: 3225: 3155: 2799: 2785: 2777: 2770: 2750: 2643: 1638: 1581:

described the creation of "Markes, or Notes of remembrance" as

1563: 1228: 1208: 1172:

attempted to show that Hume was wrong by demonstrating that a "

1074: 970: 928: 901: 778:

The earliest major philosophers to publish in English, such as

622: 508: 270: 205: 5611:[The attainment of truth is then the function of both the 4917:"From inference to reasoning: the construction of rationality" 3406:. A. R. Lacey (4th ed.). London: Routledge. p. 341. 1898:. The traditional main division made in philosophy is between 1879: 1247:

In contrast to Hume, Kant insisted that reason itself (German

1019:

tradition and the influence of esteemed Islamic scholars like

816:", rather than "reasoned" or "reasonable". Some philosophers, 9714: 9656: 9535: 9527: 9323: 9283: 9121: 8983: 8400: 8115: 7927: 6607: 6384:"Why Do Humans Reason? Arguments for an Argumentative Theory" 6274:

Reasoning and Thinking (Cognitive Psychology: Modular Course)

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Dependent Rational Animals: Why Human Beings Need the Virtues

3185:

It is clear, then, that a human being is more of a political

2742: 2651: 2635: 2597: 2488: 2451: 2391: 2363: 2306: 2280: 2254: 2238: 1907: 1895: 1592: 1480: 1417: 1090:

that derived from a spiritual understanding of the universe.

922: 744: 731: 718: 602: 480: 476: 464: 265: 5015:. Vol. 1. Princeton University Press. pp. 39–166. 4954:

Ricco, Robert B. (2015). "The development of reasoning". In

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causes, because it is when we think that we understand its

5268: 4432: 2447: 2314: 2262: 1624: 1610: 1157:

direction, proposing that there could be no possibility of

906: 905:

mind with the divine order of the cosmos. Within the human

618: 220: 8809: 6146:(60067th ed.). University of Notre Dame Press. 1991. 5826: 5061:

See this Perseus search, and compare English translations.

2170:. Bad reasoning within arguments can result from either a 2037:

The sun has risen in the east every morning up until now.

1871:

In a celebrated paper, the fantasy author and philologist

1762: 945:. He described the highest human happiness or well being ( 9455: 6347:

Costantini, Stefania (2002), "Meta-reasoning: A Survey",

4251: 2849:

or acts rationally. It is a key research question in the

2789: 2647: 2634:, there is often a perceived conflict or tension between 2563:) extol passion and disparage reason. In politics modern 590:, arguably the most difficult of formal reasoning tasks. 504: 8084: 5891:

Being after Rousseau: Philosophy and Culture in Question

5861:

Being after Rousseau: Philosophy and Culture in Question

5659:(1989) . "Progress or Return". In Gilden, Hilail (ed.). 4995:

metacognitive awareness of, and control over, inference.

4789:. Stanford, CA: Stanford Social Sciences, an imprint of 2446:

attempted to show that pure reason could form concepts (

2021:

A classic example of inductive reasoning comes from the

1130:

or "subject-centred" reason, because it is based on the

5638:μιγεὶς τῷ ὄντι ὄντως, γεννήσας νοῦν καὶ ἀλήθειαν, γνοίη 5409:. Argumentation library. Vol. 25. Cham; New York: 4636:. Translated by McCarthy, Thomas. Boston: Beacon Press. 4020: 4018: 3210:. Already in Aristotle there was an awareness that the 3167:

famously described reason (with language) as a part of

3134:. They suggest that there are not just individual, but 2874: 2818: 1844:, normally translated as "recollection" was opposed to 1380:, proposed that reason ought to include the faculty of 548:

and true conclusions. Reasoning may be subdivided into

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Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science

3348: – Matching opinions and behaviors to group norms 2995:

The biological functioning of the brain is studied by

2192:, rather than the form or structure, of the argument. 1521:), he was referring more broadly to rational thought. 1406: 1343:

Some thinkers, e.g. Foucault, believe there are other

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Pelikan, Jaroslav (2001). "Athens and/or Jerusalem".

3336: – Sound practical judgement in everyday matters 2885:

and how they make inferences about alternatives like

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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

3289: 1376:, influenced by the 20th century German philosopher 1117:

that of the mind itself in the process of thinking:

1057:, following the example of Islamic scholars such as 5951:"Of Faith and Reason, and their distinct provinces" 2823: 2591: 2457: 2200:In law relating to the actions of an employer or a 1145:In the late 17th century through the 18th century, 1011:. As European intellectual life reemerged from the 977: 6286: 6191:"Cardinal Ratzinger on Europe's Crisis of Culture" 6102: 6066: 5651: 5649: 5647: 5224:Mimesis in modern academic writing, starting with 5008: 4611: 4595: 4042: 2066:, especially legal reasoning. An example follows: 1430:are sometimes used as if they were identical with 521:involves using more-or-less rational processes of 6349:Computational Logic: Logic Programming and Beyond 6019: 5403:"Argumentation Schemes for Argument from Analogy" 5387:(3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 1. 5283:Davis, Michael; Benardete, Seth. "Introduction". 4138:, vol. 12, New York: Robert Appleton Company 4102:, vol. 12, New York: Robert Appleton Company 1832:Donald, like Plato (and Aristotle, especially in 1065:Subject-centred reason in early modern philosophy 9912: 6493: 5458:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 4880: 4538:Velkley, Richard (2002). "On Kant's Socratism". 4157:, vol. 9, New York: Robert Appleton Company 3603: 2571:brings man ever further from his natural state. 2567:comes from Rousseau's argument that rationalist 1183: 479:. It is associated with such characteristically 5644: 5238: 5236: 5234: 4787:The Handbook of Rational Choice Social Research 4245:) by nothing but the faculty of numbering; for 4176:, Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 3224:seems to prevail in man and woman according to 2919:neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development 2347:, as well as their ancient equivalents such as 1990:Induction is a form of inference that produces 1709:, and specific to humankind. Other results are 1142:that "sense and memory" is absolute knowledge. 743:was translated in its non-linguistic senses in 27:Capacity for consciously making sense of things 6422: 6381: 5832: 4910: 4908: 4906: 4661:International Journal of Philosophical Studies 4063:Alfarabi, Avicenna, and Averroes, on Intellect 3842:International Journal of Philosophical Studies 3474: 2279:) concerning the role of reason in confirming 1972:The reasoning in this argument is deductively 696: 9891: 9875: 8825: 8547: 8100: 7785: 7771: 6536: 6301: 5775:. Routledge. London: Routledge. p. 863. 4701:. Harvard University Press. pp. 12, 15. 3934:Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). 3654:. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. 2909:Developmental studies of children's reasoning 2773:lands. He was particularly influenced by the 2614:and others of which claim varying degrees of 2228:Traditional problems raised concerning reason 2045:The sun will also rise in the east tomorrow. 846: 437: 6665: 6636: 6622: 6449: 6447: 5773:Concise Routledge encyclopedia of philosophy 5407:Systematic Approaches to Argument by Analogy 5260: 5258: 5256: 5254: 5231: 4846:Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid 4575:Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action 4408: 4406: 3933: 3354: – Analysis of facts to form a judgment 3330: – Academic field of logic and rhetoric 2924: 2295:This leads to the question of what types of 1661:(imagination: that which can hold images or 1248: 1211:reasoning is the way humans posit universal 941:, emphasizing reason as a characteristic of 803: 767: 9827: 9804: 9795: 9786: 6731: 6287:Johnson-Laird, P.N.; Byrne, R.M.J. (1991). 4903: 4056: 4054: 2963:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2728: 2682: 2531:This quandary presented by Rousseau led to 2249:Reason versus truth, and "first principles" 2006:based on limited observations of recurring 2002:, or that formulates general statements or 1880:Logical reasoning methods and argumentation 1411: 1038:, who put this concept at the heart of his 937:, Plato's student, defined human beings as 797: 748: 8932:Four Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues 8832: 8818: 8554: 8540: 8107: 8093: 7778: 7764: 6543: 6529: 6346: 6228:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 6031:. Archived from the original on 2016-04-25 5560:(τότε γὰρ εἰδέναι φαμὲν ἕκαστον, ὅταν τὴν 5282: 4840: 4729:. New York: The New Press. pp. 43–57. 4300:"Of the ends, or resolutions of discourse" 3835:. New York: The New Press. pp. 43–57. 3360: – Fundamental concepts in philosophy 3342: – Bias confirming existing attitudes 2166:Flawed reasoning in arguments is known as 444: 430: 6444: 6331: 6271: 6188: 5970: 5663:. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 5449: 5251: 5006: 4658: 4649: 4606: 4494: 4403: 4213: 3876: 3839: 3660:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195158427.001.0001 3528:. The Paul Carus Lectures. Vol. 20. 3518: 3401: 3146:Reason in political philosophy and ethics 3074:formal semantics of programming languages 2983:Learn how and when to remove this message 2865:Behavioral experiments on human reasoning 2539:after Kant, and major later figures such 1296: 648:In contrast to the use of "reason" as an 537:studies the ways in which humans can use 6550: 6206: 6100: 5903: 5873: 5730: 4721: 4631: 4569: 4371:"Of the influencing motives of the will" 4189:"Telepistemology: Descartes' Last Stand" 4060: 4051: 4030:The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity 4024: 3830: 3112: 1625:Reason, imagination, mimesis, and memory 1589:as an English version of the Greek word 1092: 831: 827: 8979:Values in Action Inventory of Strengths 8561: 6427:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 6225: 6060: 5975:(1 ed.). Oxford University Press. 5955:An Essay concerning Human Understanding 5918: 5888: 5858: 5814:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5807: 5655: 5456:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5382: 5088:An Essay concerning Human Understanding 5042:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4914: 4848:(20th anniversary ed.). New York: 4784: 4739: 4537: 4507:Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals 4340:An Essay concerning Human Understanding 4191:. socrates.berkeley.edu. Archived from 4167: 4129: 3915: 3726: 3432: 3206:'s Second Discourse, and secondly, the 2897:, and about quantified assertions like 2147: 2051: 879: 730:, the root of the modern English word " 14: 9913: 6160: 5397: 5144: 5125: 5100: 4696: 4590: 4490:. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 4488:Justice: What's the Right Thing to Do? 4485: 4312:"Of the several subjects of knowledge" 4309: 4297: 4230: 4093: 3967: 3881:. New York: Routledge. pp. 32–59. 3404:The Routledge dictionary of philosophy 3108: 3023: 2859:theoretical and practical counterparts 2418:, reason has often been taken to be a 2245:compared to other approaches to life. 2132: 1979: 1925: 1701:. They describe the ability to create 1027:contributed to the development of the 848:El sueño de la razón produce monstruos 637:, and therefore with the capacity for 9941:Concepts in the philosophy of science 8813: 8535: 8088: 7759: 6781: 6562: 6524: 6486:Beer, Francis A., "Words of Reason", 6453: 6316: 6211:. Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP Academic. 5948: 5770: 5766: 5764: 5726: 5724: 5707:. Dover Publications Inc. p. 9. 5698: 5592: 5539: 5514: 5489: 5350: 5333: 5207: 5189: 5172: 5081: 5035: 4953: 4390:"Of the Nature of the Idea Or Belief" 4333: 4065:. Oxford University Press. p. 3. 3807: 2857:is often divided into its respective 842:The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters 511:. Reason is sometimes referred to as 6423:Mercier, Hugo; Sperber, Dan (2017). 6382:Mercier, Hugo; Sperber, Dan (2011). 5405:. In Ribeiro, Henrique Jales (ed.). 4546: 4500: 4462: 4448: 4412: 4387: 4368: 4346: 4234:Elements of Philosophy I: De Corpore 4174:Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy 3893: 3891: 3803: 3801: 3799: 3773: 3646: 2961:adding citations to reliable sources 2928: 2853:and cognitive science of reasoning. 2819:Reason in particular fields of study 2749:" truths—figuratively summarized as 2737:Some commentators have claimed that 2000:previous observations or experiences 761:in the sense of an account of money. 681:have attempted to study and explain 8964:Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers 8282:Analytic and synthetic propositions 8153:Formal semantics (natural language) 7969:Fluid and crystallized intelligence 7880:Fluid and crystallized intelligence 6073:(Reprint ed.). Mariner Books. 5925:(Reprint ed.). Mariner Books. 4186: 4148: 4082:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3684: 3580:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3573: 3068:for diverse applications including 3018: 2720:Theologian Joseph Ratzinger, later 1705:as part of an internal modeling of 1407:Reason compared to related concepts 574:drew a distinction between logical 534: 24: 9936:Concepts in the philosophy of mind 6471: 6336:. London: Wiley. pp. 179–269. 6334:Life-span developmental psychology 6306:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6248:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02124.x 6101:Seachris, Joshua W. (April 2009). 5761: 5733:The Oxford companion to philosophy 5721: 5385:Formal logic: its scope and limits 5367: 5242: 4725:(2003). "What is Enlightenment?". 3848:(3). Informa UK Limited: 271–295. 3435:The Oxford companion to philosophy 2196:Unreasonable decisions and actions 1774:in Ancient Greek). This thinking ( 1446:is assumed to equate to logically 1218:Under practical reason, the moral 1101:Accordingly, in the 17th century, 25: 9992: 6276:. Hove, Sussex: Psychology Press. 5625: 5264: 4972:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy213 4614:Whose Justice? Which Rationality? 4075: 3968:Lewis, Charlton; Short, Charles, 3888: 3796: 3087: 2422:, or rather the unaided ability ( 1763: 8494: 8064: 7739: 7738: 3918:The Elements of Moral Philosophy 3576:"Faith: Historical Perspectives" 3306: 3292: 2933: 2824:Psychology and cognitive science 2630:typically do not admit to being 2592:Reason versus faith or tradition 2458:Reason versus emotion or passion 1126:This eventually became known as 978:Christian and Islamic philosophy 820:for example, also used the word 8065: 8005:Evolution of human intelligence 6463:. Translated by Simpson, Peter. 6372: 6340: 6325: 6310: 6295: 6280: 6265: 6197: 6182: 6133: 6094: 6010: 5961: 5942: 5912: 5897: 5882: 5867: 5852: 5801: 5692: 5674: 5619: 5586: 5533: 5508: 5483: 5462: 5443: 5391: 5376: 5361: 5344: 5327: 5294: 5276: 5218: 5201: 5183: 5166: 5138: 5119: 5094: 5075: 5054: 5029: 5000: 4947: 4874: 4834: 4778: 4733: 4715: 4690: 4640: 4625: 4581: 4563: 4528: 4479: 4439: 4425: 4381: 4362: 4324: 4288: 4224: 4217:Meditations on First Philosophy 4207: 4180: 4161: 4142: 4123: 4106: 4087: 4069: 4043:Kirk; Raven; Schofield (1983). 4036: 3979: 3961: 3924: 2915:theory of cognitive development 2403:to try to show that reason and 8917:Catalogue of Vices and Virtues 6321:. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 5197:. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 5155:The Greeks have but one word, 4654:. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 4577:. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 4542:. University of Chicago Press. 4237:, London: J. Bohn, p. 5, 4032:. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 3909: 3821: 3784:. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc 3767: 3594: 3567: 3465: 3392: 2506:first proposed, in his second 2319:which was close in meaning to 2222:Braganza v BP Shipping Limited 2075:Socrates is human and mortal. 1894:and a variety of reasoning is 824:as a synonym for "reasoning". 475:, with the aim of seeking the 190:Analytic–synthetic distinction 13: 1: 8070:Outline of human intelligence 7974:Multiple-intelligences theory 6388:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5908:, University of Chicago Press 5893:, University of Chicago Press 5863:, University of Chicago Press 5812:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), 5105:. W.W. Norton & Company. 5040:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), 4433:"The critique of pure reason" 3385: 3370:Outline of human intelligence 2780:. To consider to what extent 1693:, connect reason not only to 1558:More generally, according to 1270:Cognitive–instrumental reason 1184:Substantive and formal reason 1137:A contemporary of Descartes, 852: 9566: 9557: 9534: 8020:Intelligence and environment 6782: 6668:Liberté, égalité, fraternité 6302:Johnson-Laird, P.N. (2006). 6207:Reynolds, John Mark (2009). 5878:, Cambridge University Press 5320: 5314: 5308: 5302: 5157: 4469:Critique of Practical Reason 4045:The Presocratic Philosophers 3920:(4th ed.). McGraw Hill. 3230: 3212: 3193: 3187: 3177: 2811: 2798: 2313: 2305: 2107:Socrates is human and male. 1994:about unobserved objects or 1856: 1846: 1840: 1813: 1791: 1782: 1776: 1770: 1756: 1750: 1744: 1675: 1669: 1663: 1657: 1617: 1609: 1603: 1591: 1517: 1511: 947: 927: 915: 792: 757: 739: 724: 7: 9663: 9500: 9477: 8839: 7964:Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory 6637: 6490:11 (Summer, 1994): 185–201. 6025:"Nonoverlapping Magisteria" 5582:each particular thing.] 5552:ἐπεὶ δὲ φανερὸν ὅτι τῶν ἐξ 5419:10.1007/978-3-319-06334-8_2 4915:Moshman, David (May 2004). 4650:Kompridis, Nikolas (2006). 4336:"Of Identity and Diversity" 3402:Proudfoot, Michael (2010). 3285: 3064:, scientists study and use 2522:and the moral education in 2472:After Plato and Aristotle, 2438:, this was associated with 1049:Other Scholastics, such as 921:), reason was described by 697:Etymology and related words 10: 9997: 6563: 6189:Ratzinger, Joseph (2005). 5452:"The Problem of Induction" 5245:Origins of the Modern Mind 5067: 4966:. pp. 519–570 (534). 4744:(2nd ed.). New York: 4740:Gensler, Harry J. (2010). 4673:10.1080/096725500750039282 4419:A Treatise of Human Nature 4415:"Of the reason of animals" 4394:A Treatise of Human Nature 4375:A Treatise of Human Nature 4353:A Treatise of Human Nature 4267: 4261: 4061:Davidson, Herbert (1992). 4006:Merriam Webster Dictionary 3994:Merriam Webster Dictionary 3952:Merriam Webster Dictionary 3942:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 3903:Merriam-Webster Dictionary 3854:10.1080/096725500750039282 3604:Amoretti, Maria Cristina; 3433:Rescher, Nicholas (2005). 3149: 3091: 3037: 3027: 2827: 2769:revelation, including the 2671:Non-overlapping magisteria 2595: 2461: 2252: 2151: 2136: 2055: 1983: 1929: 1883: 1835:On Memory and Recollection 1628: 1615:, and even uses the word " 1528: 1415: 1227:and interpretation, or on 719: 613:. Reasoning, as a part of 29: 9847: 9765: 9592: 9519: 9469: 8992: 8890: 8847: 8734: 8681:Parsimony (Occam's razor) 8569: 8489: 8449: 8421: 8414: 8366:Necessity and sufficiency 8269: 8234: 8186: 8140: 8122: 8114: 8060: 7997: 7956: 7847: 7796: 7725: 7679: 7581: 7538: 7517: 7464: 7433: 7417: 7364: 7298: 7250: 7214: 7181: 7100: 7059: 6903: 6792: 6788: 6777: 6682:Methodological skepticism 6573: 6569: 6558: 6400:10.1017/S0140525X10000968 6061:Dawkins, Richard (2008). 6052:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 5971:Plantinga, Alvin (2011). 5919:Dawkins, Richard (2008). 5703:The Philosophy of History 5383:Jeffrey, Richard (1991). 5101:Deacon, Terrence (1998). 5065:LSJ dictionary entry for 4933:10.1080/13546780442000024 4799:10.1515/9780804785501-004 4791:Stanford University Press 4632:Habermas, Jürgen (1984). 4598:The Nature of Rationality 4265:, in which language also 3879:Philosophical Romanticism 3376:Transduction (psychology) 3070:automated theorem proving 3001:cognitive neuroscientists 2925:Neuroscience of reasoning 2729: 2586:Somatic Marker Hypothesis 2211:Short v Poole Corporation 615:executive decision making 593:Reasoning, like habit or 469:drawing valid conclusions 296:Evolutionary epistemology 9926:Concepts in epistemology 6357:10.1007/3-540-45632-5_11 6272:Manktelow, K.I. (1999). 6161:Taylor, Charles (2007). 5771:Rufus, Musonius (2000). 5731:Sharples, R. W. (2005). 5450:Henderson, Leah (2022). 5290:. pp. xvii, xxviii. 4921:Thinking & Reasoning 4697:Taylor, Charles (1997). 4486:Sandel, Michael (2009). 4130:Rahilly, Alfred (1911), 4094:Turner, William (1911), 3485:Harvard University Press 3181:in Greek). For example: 2426:) to form concepts. For 1912:the science of deduction 1412:Reason compared to logic 888:, nature was understood 737:As a philosophical term 411:Philosophy of perception 6488:Political Communication 6029:www.stephenjaygould.org 5699:Hegel, G.W.F. (1956) . 5578:cause that we claim to 5145:Hobbes, Thomas (1651). 5126:Hobbes, Thomas (1651). 4897:10.1080/095281396147393 4793:. pp. 33–71 (33). 4699:Philosophical Arguments 4553:Critique of Pure Reason 4455:Critique of Pure Reason 4310:Hobbes, Thomas (1651), 4298:Hobbes, Thomas (1651), 4168:De Cruz, Helen (2022), 3940:A Greek–English Lexicon 3916:Rachels, James (2002). 3782:Encyclopædia Britannica 3740:Oxford University Press 3058:artificial intelligence 2851:psychology of reasoning 2830:Psychology of reasoning 2674:Evolutionary biologist 2487:, and more recently of 2414:Since the 17th century 1992:properties or relations 1950:All humans are mortal. 1231:, for their substance. 1225:religious understanding 306:Historical epistemology 32:Reason (disambiguation) 9976:Problem solving skills 9892: 9876: 9828: 9805: 9796: 9787: 6732: 6666: 6632:Enlightened absolutism 6623: 6317:Byrne, R.M.J. (2005). 5906:The Legacy of Rousseau 5808:Baltzly, Dirk (2018), 4842:Hofstadter, Douglas R. 4727:The Essential Foucault 4349:"Of Personal Identity" 4170:"Religion and Science" 3833:The Essential Foucault 3686:Eze, Emmanuel Chukwudi 3610:Reason and Rationality 3237: 3199: 3118: 3009:clinical psychologists 2683: 2126:Ada Lovelace is male. 1910:has been described as 1830: 1810: 1795:, often translated as 1740: 1560:Charles Sanders Peirce 1297:The critique of reason 1276:Moral–practical reason 1249: 1245: 1237:categorical imperative 1193: 1180:), and understanding. 1124: 1098: 858: 847: 804: 798: 768: 749: 9381:Righteous indignation 8736:Theories of deduction 8501:Philosophy portal 7898:Intelligence quotient 6598:Counter-Enlightenment 6291:. Hillsdale: Erlbaum. 6121:10.5840/philo20091211 5036:Smith, Robin (2017), 4964:John Wiley & Sons 4754:10.4324/9780203855003 4742:Introduction to Logic 4155:Catholic Encyclopedia 4136:Catholic Encyclopedia 4100:Catholic Encyclopedia 4096:"Plato and Platonism" 3948:"Word History: logic" 3778:"Philosophy of logic" 3702:10.1215/9780822388777 3694:Duke University Press 3622:10.1515/9783110325867 3582:. Duquesne University 3530:Open Court Publishing 3358:Logic and rationality 3219: 3183: 3116: 2891:A is to the left of B 2792:may be equivalent to 2362:Philosophers such as 2339:philosophers such as 1958:Socrates is a human. 1825: 1805: 1735: 1241: 1168:In the 18th century, 1119: 1096: 989:Doctors of the Church 835: 828:Philosophical history 578:(reason proper), and 471:from new or existing 416:Philosophy of science 8899:Bodhipakkhiyā dhammā 7984:Three-stratum theory 6552:Age of Enlightenment 6425:The Enigma of Reason 5949:Locke, John (1689). 5632:(in Ancient Greek). 5599:(in Ancient Greek). 5546:(in Ancient Greek). 5521:(in Ancient Greek). 5496:(in Ancient Greek). 5267:A Commentary on the 5082:Locke, John (1689). 4540:Being After Rousseau 4413:Hume, David (1740), 4388:Hume, David (1740), 4369:Hume, David (1740), 4347:Hume, David (1740). 4334:Locke, John (1689). 4008:. 12 September 2023. 3996:. 13 September 2023. 3954:. 14 September 2023. 3905:. 10 September 2023. 3481:The Enigma of Reason 3328:Argumentation theory 3152:Political Philosophy 3082:software engineering 3078:formal specification 3044:Case-based reasoning 2957:improve this section 2761:spoke of a "Greater 2739:Western civilization 2628:classical monotheism 2283:. People use logic, 2168:fallacious reasoning 2148:Fallacious reasoning 2064:case-based reasoning 2058:Analogical reasoning 2052:Analogical reasoning 1966:Socrates is mortal. 1941:like the following: 1689:, writing about the 1541:associative thinking 1475:Reason is a type of 1356:communicative reason 1257:transcendental logic 1036:Saint Thomas Aquinas 933:) and the passions. 880:Classical philosophy 679:cognitive scientists 576:discursive reasoning 291:Applied epistemology 9971:Philosophy of logic 9966:Philosophical logic 9956:Metaphysics of mind 8969:Theological virtues 8872:Positive psychology 8563:Philosophical logic 8163:Philosophy of logic 7957:Models and theories 7558:Feijóo y Montenegro 7509:Vorontsova-Dashkova 6240:2001NYASA.950...17P 5372:. pp. 140–141. 5176:Posterior Analytics 5038:"Aristotle's Logic" 4608:MacIntyre, Alasdair 4149:Fox, James (1910), 4118:Catholic Dictionary 3520:MacIntyre, Alasdair 3253:Theory of Evolution 3208:Theory of Evolution 3109:Evolution of reason 3066:automated reasoning 3052:Knowledge reasoning 3034:Computational logic 3030:Automated reasoning 3024:Automated reasoning 2355:is not attainable. 2269:classical antiquity 2139:Abductive reasoning 2133:Abductive reasoning 1986:Inductive reasoning 1980:Inductive reasoning 1932:Deductive reasoning 1926:Deductive reasoning 1904:inductive reasoning 1900:deductive reasoning 1585:. He used the word 1499:Posterior Analytics 1460:Gödel, Escher, Bach 1201:practical reasoning 1044:School of Salamanca 884:For many classical 687:automated reasoning 580:intuitive reasoning 566:abductive reasoning 562:inductive reasoning 558:deductive reasoning 459:is the capacity of 401:Epistemic cognition 321:Virtue epistemology 316:Social epistemology 301:Formal epistemology 40:Part of a series on 9401:Self-transcendence 8993:Individual virtues 8937:Nine Noble Virtues 8866:Nicomachean Ethics 8627:Unity of opposites 8462:Rules of inference 8431:Mathematical logic 8173:Semantics of logic 8010:Heritability of IQ 7787:Human intelligence 6697:Natural philosophy 5842:Skeptical Inquirer 5596:Nicomachean Ethics 5556:αἰτίων δεῖ λαβεῖν 5413:. pp. 23–40. 5399:Walton, Douglas N. 5354:History of Animals 5007:Aristotle (1984). 4956:Lerner, Richard M. 3974:A Latin Dictionary 3814:Nicomachean Ethics 3364:Outline of thought 3272:Russian Revolution 3119: 3005:neuropsychologists 2997:neurophysiologists 2782:Eastern philosophy 2775:Muslim philosopher 2730:Ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος 2693:Alasdair MacIntyre 2474:western literature 2420:subjective faculty 2353:absolute knowledge 1691:origin of language 1455:Douglas Hofstadter 1099: 1009:Iranian philosophy 993:Augustine of Hippo 868:and later western 859: 707:European languages 643:self-determination 9946:Critical thinking 9931:Concepts in logic 9908: 9907: 9904: 9903: 9055:Conscientiousness 8922:Epistemic virtues 8807: 8806: 8659:List of fallacies 8644:Explanatory power 8571:Critical thinking 8529: 8528: 8485: 8484: 8319:Deductive closure 8265: 8264: 8204:Critical thinking 8082: 8081: 7998:Areas of research 7948:Visual processing 7865:Cognitive liberty 7753: 7752: 7721: 7720: 7717: 7716: 6773: 6772: 6769: 6768: 6746:Scientific method 6603:Critical thinking 6021:Stephen Jay Gould 5838:Frazier, Kendrick 5834:Radford, Benjamin 5605:ἀμφοτέρων δὴ τῶν 5357:. I.1.488b.25–26. 5071:, section II.2.b. 4396:, vol. I.3, 4187:Dreyfus, Hubert. 3728:Rescher, Nicholas 3483:. Cambridge, MA: 3352:Critical thinking 3340:Confirmation bias 3314:Psychology portal 3300:Philosophy portal 3268:French Revolution 3128:confirmation bias 3048:Semantic reasoner 2993: 2992: 2985: 2895:A happens after B 2840:cognitive science 2676:Stephen Jay Gould 2561:Nikos Kazantzakis 2468:Passion (emotion) 2130: 2129: 2095: 2094: 2091:Plato is mortal. 2049: 2048: 1970: 1969: 1920:critical thinking 1890:A subdivision of 1886:Logical reasoning 1803:. Donald writes: 1751:dianoetic eikasia 1568:indices and icons 1503:newly coined word 1366:Nikolas Kompridis 1360:intersubjectivity 1338:intersubjectivity 997:Basil of Caesarea 837:Francisco de Goya 705:and other modern 691:Animal psychology 683:how people reason 554:logical reasoning 454: 453: 16:(Redirected from 9988: 9897: 9881: 9833: 9810: 9801: 9792: 9668: 9571: 9562: 9539: 9505: 9482: 9467: 9466: 9396:Self-cultivation 8949:Prussian virtues 8912:Cardinal virtues 8834: 8827: 8820: 8811: 8810: 8789:Platonic realism 8556: 8549: 8542: 8533: 8532: 8499: 8498: 8497: 8419: 8418: 8184: 8183: 8148:Computer science 8109: 8102: 8095: 8086: 8085: 8068: 8067: 7989:Triarchic theory 7780: 7773: 7766: 7757: 7756: 7742: 7741: 6790: 6789: 6779: 6778: 6737: 6671: 6642: 6628: 6571: 6570: 6560: 6559: 6545: 6538: 6531: 6522: 6521: 6517: 6503:, New York: The 6495:Gilovich, Thomas 6465: 6464: 6451: 6442: 6438: 6419: 6376: 6370: 6369: 6344: 6338: 6337: 6329: 6323: 6322: 6314: 6308: 6307: 6299: 6293: 6292: 6284: 6278: 6277: 6269: 6263: 6259: 6222: 6201: 6195: 6194: 6186: 6180: 6176: 6157: 6137: 6131: 6130: 6128: 6127: 6106: 6098: 6092: 6088: 6072: 6069:The God Delusion 6057: 6051: 6043: 6037: 6036: 6014: 6008: 6004: 5986: 5965: 5959: 5958: 5946: 5940: 5939: 5922:The God Delusion 5916: 5910: 5909: 5901: 5895: 5894: 5886: 5880: 5879: 5871: 5865: 5864: 5856: 5850: 5849: 5830: 5824: 5823: 5822: 5821: 5805: 5799: 5798: 5768: 5759: 5758: 5728: 5719: 5718: 5696: 5690: 5678: 5672: 5671: 5653: 5642: 5641: 5623: 5617: 5616: 5590: 5584: 5583: 5537: 5531: 5530: 5512: 5506: 5505: 5487: 5481: 5480: 5478: 5476: 5466: 5460: 5459: 5447: 5441: 5440: 5395: 5389: 5388: 5380: 5374: 5373: 5368:Donald, Merlin. 5365: 5359: 5358: 5348: 5342: 5341: 5331: 5325: 5323: 5317: 5311: 5305: 5298: 5292: 5291: 5280: 5274: 5273: 5262: 5249: 5248: 5243:Donald, Merlin. 5240: 5229: 5222: 5216: 5215: 5205: 5199: 5198: 5191:Byrne, Ruth M.J. 5187: 5181: 5180: 5170: 5164: 5163: 5160: 5142: 5136: 5135: 5123: 5117: 5116: 5098: 5092: 5091: 5079: 5073: 5070: 5069: 5058: 5052: 5051: 5050: 5049: 5033: 5027: 5026: 5014: 5004: 4998: 4997: 4951: 4945: 4944: 4912: 4901: 4900: 4891:(3–4): 399–417. 4878: 4872: 4871: 4838: 4832: 4831: 4782: 4776: 4775: 4737: 4731: 4730: 4723:Foucault, Michel 4719: 4713: 4712: 4694: 4688: 4684: 4655: 4644: 4638: 4637: 4629: 4623: 4619: 4617: 4603: 4601: 4585: 4579: 4578: 4571:Habermas, Jürgen 4567: 4561: 4557: 4543: 4532: 4526: 4525: 4498: 4492: 4491: 4483: 4477: 4473: 4459: 4443: 4437: 4436: 4429: 4423: 4422: 4410: 4401: 4400: 4385: 4379: 4378: 4377:, vol. II.3 4366: 4360: 4356: 4355:. Vol. I.4. 4343: 4328: 4322: 4318: 4306: 4292: 4286: 4285: 4270: 4269: 4264: 4263: 4228: 4222: 4221: 4211: 4205: 4204: 4202: 4200: 4184: 4178: 4177: 4165: 4159: 4158: 4146: 4140: 4139: 4127: 4121: 4120: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4091: 4085: 4084: 4073: 4067: 4066: 4058: 4049: 4048: 4040: 4034: 4033: 4026:Habermas, Jürgen 4022: 4013: 4009: 3997: 3983: 3977: 3976: 3965: 3959: 3955: 3943: 3928: 3922: 3921: 3913: 3907: 3906: 3895: 3886: 3882: 3873: 3836: 3825: 3819: 3818: 3805: 3794: 3793: 3791: 3789: 3771: 3765: 3761: 3723: 3681: 3643: 3598: 3592: 3591: 3589: 3587: 3574:Swindal, James. 3571: 3565: 3561: 3555: 3554: 3514: 3469: 3463: 3459: 3429: 3396: 3381: 3316: 3311: 3310: 3309: 3302: 3297: 3296: 3295: 3233: 3215: 3196: 3190: 3180: 3062:computer science 3040:Reasoning system 3019:Computer science 3013:psychotherapists 2988: 2981: 2977: 2974: 2968: 2937: 2929: 2814: 2808: 2803: 2757:, respectively. 2732: 2731: 2688: 2577:Descartes' Error 2478:Stoic philosophy 2318: 2310: 2301:first principles 2297:first principles 2176:informal fallacy 2162:Informal fallacy 2101: 2100: 2083:Plato is human. 2069: 2068: 2031: 2030: 1944: 1943: 1859: 1849: 1843: 1816: 1794: 1785: 1779: 1773: 1766: 1765: 1759: 1753: 1747: 1678: 1672: 1666: 1660: 1653:mental processes 1651:rely on similar 1620: 1614: 1606: 1596: 1520: 1514: 1378:Martin Heidegger 1372:The philosopher 1282:Aesthetic reason 1254: 1071:early modern era 1015:, the Christian 1001:Gregory of Nyssa 952: 939:rational animals 932: 920: 857: 854: 850: 807: 801: 795: 773: 760: 754: 742: 729: 722: 721: 703:English language 599:cause and effect 539:formal reasoning 536: 446: 439: 432: 346:Sextus Empiricus 311:Metaepistemology 37: 36: 21: 9996: 9995: 9991: 9990: 9989: 9987: 9986: 9985: 9911: 9910: 9909: 9900: 9843: 9761: 9588: 9515: 9465: 8988: 8974:Three Treasures 8891:Virtue families 8886: 8860:Moral character 8843: 8838: 8808: 8803: 8774:Logical atomism 8730: 8623:Socratic method 8574: 8565: 8560: 8530: 8525: 8495: 8493: 8481: 8445: 8436:Boolean algebra 8410: 8261: 8252:Metamathematics 8230: 8182: 8136: 8118: 8113: 8083: 8078: 8056: 7993: 7952: 7918:Problem solving 7852: 7843: 7792: 7784: 7754: 7749: 7748: 7735: 7713: 7675: 7577: 7534: 7513: 7460: 7429: 7425:Carvalho e Melo 7413: 7360: 7294: 7246: 7210: 7177: 7096: 7055: 6899: 6784: 6765: 6751:Spanish America 6625:Encyclopédistes 6588:Civil liberties 6565: 6554: 6549: 6515: 6474: 6472:Further reading 6469: 6468: 6452: 6445: 6441: 6435: 6377: 6373: 6367: 6345: 6341: 6330: 6326: 6315: 6311: 6300: 6296: 6285: 6281: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6219: 6202: 6198: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6173: 6154: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6125: 6123: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6081: 6045: 6044: 6034: 6032: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6001: 5989: 5983: 5966: 5962: 5957:. Vol. IV. 5947: 5943: 5933: 5917: 5913: 5902: 5898: 5887: 5883: 5872: 5868: 5857: 5853: 5831: 5827: 5819: 5817: 5806: 5802: 5783: 5769: 5762: 5743: 5729: 5722: 5715: 5697: 5693: 5679: 5675: 5654: 5645: 5624: 5620: 5591: 5587: 5564:αἰτίαν οἰώμεθα 5538: 5534: 5513: 5509: 5488: 5484: 5474: 5472: 5468: 5467: 5463: 5448: 5444: 5429: 5411:Springer Verlag 5396: 5392: 5381: 5377: 5366: 5362: 5349: 5345: 5332: 5328: 5299: 5295: 5281: 5277: 5263: 5252: 5241: 5232: 5223: 5219: 5206: 5202: 5188: 5184: 5171: 5167: 5143: 5139: 5124: 5120: 5113: 5099: 5095: 5090:. Vol. IV. 5080: 5076: 5059: 5055: 5047: 5045: 5034: 5030: 5023: 5005: 5001: 4982: 4952: 4948: 4913: 4904: 4879: 4875: 4860: 4839: 4835: 4809: 4783: 4779: 4764: 4738: 4734: 4720: 4716: 4709: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4645: 4641: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4586: 4582: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4533: 4529: 4522: 4499: 4495: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4444: 4440: 4431: 4430: 4426: 4421:, vol. I.3 4411: 4404: 4386: 4382: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4342:. Vol. II. 4329: 4325: 4321: 4293: 4289: 4229: 4225: 4212: 4208: 4198: 4196: 4185: 4181: 4166: 4162: 4147: 4143: 4128: 4124: 4112: 4111: 4107: 4092: 4088: 4076:Moore, Edward, 4074: 4070: 4059: 4052: 4041: 4037: 4023: 4016: 4012: 4000: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3946: 3929: 3925: 3914: 3910: 3897: 3896: 3889: 3885: 3826: 3822: 3806: 3797: 3787: 3785: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3750: 3736:Clarendon Press 3712: 3670: 3632: 3608:, eds. (2013). 3606:Vassallo, Nicla 3599: 3595: 3585: 3583: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3552: 3550: 3540: 3499: 3475:Mercier, Hugo; 3470: 3466: 3462: 3445: 3414: 3397: 3393: 3388: 3379: 3312: 3307: 3305: 3298: 3293: 3291: 3288: 3162: 3150:Main articles: 3148: 3136:group selection 3111: 3096: 3090: 3054: 3036: 3028:Main articles: 3026: 3021: 2989: 2978: 2972: 2969: 2954: 2938: 2927: 2911: 2899:all the A are B 2867: 2832: 2826: 2821: 2806: 2708:Paul Feyarabend 2666:Alvin Plantinga 2608: 2596:Main articles: 2594: 2582:Antonio Damasio 2569:cosmopolitanism 2537:German Idealism 2514:Richard Velkley 2497:rationalization 2470: 2460: 2277:Aristotelianism 2265: 2259:First principle 2251: 2230: 2198: 2164: 2152:Main articles: 2150: 2141: 2135: 2060: 2054: 1988: 1982: 1934: 1928: 1888: 1882: 1683:Terrence Deacon 1645: 1629:Main articles: 1627: 1537: 1529:Main articles: 1527: 1495:Prior Analytics 1465:logical systems 1444:rational choice 1420: 1414: 1409: 1299: 1264:Jürgen Habermas 1186: 1132:knowing subject 1128:epistemological 1067: 1055:Albertus Magnus 980: 882: 855: 830: 699: 543:logically valid 533:. The field of 450: 421: 420: 406:Epistemic logic 396: 395: 386: 385: 336: 335: 334:Epistemologists 326: 325: 286: 285: 276: 275: 180: 179: 170: 169: 115:Foundationalism 80: 79: 70: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9994: 9984: 9983: 9978: 9973: 9968: 9963: 9958: 9953: 9948: 9943: 9938: 9933: 9928: 9923: 9906: 9905: 9902: 9901: 9899: 9898: 9889: 9882: 9873: 9866: 9859: 9851: 9849: 9845: 9844: 9842: 9841: 9834: 9825: 9818: 9811: 9802: 9793: 9784: 9777: 9769: 9767: 9763: 9762: 9760: 9759: 9752: 9745: 9732: 9725: 9718: 9711: 9704: 9697: 9690: 9683: 9676: 9669: 9660: 9653: 9646: 9639: 9632: 9625: 9618: 9611: 9604: 9596: 9594: 9590: 9589: 9587: 9586: 9579: 9572: 9563: 9554: 9547: 9540: 9531: 9523: 9521: 9517: 9516: 9514: 9513: 9506: 9497: 9490: 9483: 9473: 9471: 9464: 9463: 9458: 9453: 9448: 9443: 9438: 9433: 9428: 9423: 9418: 9413: 9408: 9403: 9398: 9393: 9388: 9383: 9378: 9373: 9368: 9363: 9358: 9353: 9348: 9343: 9338: 9333: 9332: 9331: 9321: 9316: 9311: 9306: 9301: 9296: 9291: 9286: 9281: 9276: 9271: 9266: 9261: 9256: 9251: 9246: 9241: 9240: 9239: 9234: 9224: 9219: 9214: 9209: 9204: 9199: 9194: 9189: 9184: 9179: 9174: 9169: 9164: 9159: 9154: 9149: 9144: 9139: 9134: 9129: 9124: 9119: 9114: 9109: 9104: 9099: 9094: 9089: 9084: 9079: 9074: 9073: 9072: 9067: 9057: 9052: 9047: 9042: 9037: 9032: 9027: 9022: 9017: 9012: 9007: 9002: 9000:Accountability 8996: 8994: 8990: 8989: 8987: 8986: 8981: 8976: 8971: 8966: 8961: 8956: 8951: 8946: 8939: 8934: 8929: 8924: 8919: 8914: 8909: 8902: 8894: 8892: 8888: 8887: 8885: 8884: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8862: 8857: 8851: 8849: 8845: 8844: 8837: 8836: 8829: 8822: 8814: 8805: 8804: 8802: 8801: 8796: 8791: 8786: 8781: 8776: 8771: 8766: 8761: 8756: 8751: 8746: 8744:Constructivism 8740: 8738: 8732: 8731: 8729: 8728: 8723: 8718: 8713: 8708: 8703: 8698: 8693: 8688: 8683: 8678: 8673: 8668: 8663: 8662: 8661: 8651: 8646: 8641: 8636: 8631: 8630: 8629: 8611: 8606: 8601: 8596: 8591: 8586: 8580: 8578: 8576:informal logic 8567: 8566: 8559: 8558: 8551: 8544: 8536: 8527: 8526: 8524: 8523: 8518: 8508: 8503: 8490: 8487: 8486: 8483: 8482: 8480: 8479: 8474: 8469: 8464: 8459: 8453: 8451: 8447: 8446: 8444: 8443: 8438: 8433: 8427: 8425: 8416: 8412: 8411: 8409: 8408: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8388: 8383: 8378: 8373: 8368: 8363: 8358: 8353: 8348: 8343: 8342: 8341: 8331: 8326: 8321: 8316: 8311: 8310: 8309: 8304: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8273: 8271: 8267: 8266: 8263: 8262: 8260: 8259: 8254: 8249: 8244: 8238: 8236: 8232: 8231: 8229: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8212: 8211: 8206: 8196: 8190: 8188: 8181: 8180: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8160: 8155: 8150: 8144: 8142: 8138: 8137: 8135: 8134: 8129: 8123: 8120: 8119: 8112: 8111: 8104: 8097: 8089: 8080: 8079: 8077: 8076: 8061: 8058: 8057: 8055: 8054: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8001: 7999: 7995: 7994: 7992: 7991: 7986: 7981: 7976: 7971: 7966: 7960: 7958: 7954: 7953: 7951: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7910: 7905: 7900: 7895: 7890: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7856: 7854: 7853:and constructs 7845: 7844: 7842: 7841: 7831: 7826: 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7170: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7104: 7102: 7098: 7097: 7095: 7094: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7069: 7063: 7061: 7057: 7056: 7054: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7013: 7008: 7003: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6907: 6905: 6901: 6900: 6898: 6897: 6895:Wollstonecraft 6892: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6867: 6862: 6857: 6852: 6847: 6842: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6796: 6794: 6786: 6785: 6775: 6774: 6771: 6770: 6767: 6766: 6764: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6672: 6663: 6658: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6634: 6629: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6574: 6567: 6566: 6556: 6555: 6548: 6547: 6540: 6533: 6525: 6519: 6518: 6514:978-0029117057 6513: 6491: 6484: 6473: 6470: 6467: 6466: 6443: 6440: 6439: 6434:978-0674368309 6433: 6420: 6378: 6371: 6366:978-3540439608 6365: 6339: 6324: 6309: 6294: 6279: 6264: 6261: 6260: 6223: 6218:978-0830829231 6217: 6203: 6196: 6181: 6178: 6177: 6172:978-0674026766 6171: 6158: 6153:978-0268018771 6152: 6139: 6132: 6093: 6090: 6089: 6080:978-0618918249 6079: 6058: 6016: 6009: 6006: 6005: 6000:978-0199661077 5999: 5987: 5982:978-0199812097 5981: 5967: 5960: 5941: 5932:978-0618918249 5931: 5911: 5896: 5881: 5866: 5851: 5825: 5800: 5781: 5760: 5742:978-0191532658 5741: 5720: 5713: 5691: 5673: 5643: 5618: 5585: 5532: 5507: 5482: 5461: 5442: 5428:978-3319063331 5427: 5390: 5375: 5370:A Mind So Rare 5360: 5343: 5326: 5312:) and making ( 5293: 5275: 5265:Klein, Jacob. 5250: 5230: 5226:Erich Auerbach 5217: 5200: 5182: 5165: 5137: 5118: 5111: 5093: 5074: 5053: 5028: 5021: 5011:Complete Works 4999: 4981:978-1118136850 4980: 4946: 4927:(2): 221–239. 4902: 4873: 4858: 4833: 4808:978-0804784184 4807: 4777: 4763:978-0415996501 4762: 4732: 4714: 4708:978-0674664777 4707: 4689: 4686: 4685: 4667:(3): 271–295. 4656: 4646: 4639: 4624: 4621: 4620: 4604: 4592:Nozick, Robert 4587: 4580: 4562: 4559: 4558: 4548:Kant, Immanuel 4544: 4534: 4527: 4521:978-0872201668 4520: 4502:Kant, Immanuel 4493: 4478: 4475: 4474: 4464:Kant, Immanuel 4460: 4450:Kant, Immanuel 4445: 4438: 4424: 4402: 4380: 4361: 4358: 4357: 4344: 4330: 4323: 4320: 4319: 4307: 4294: 4287: 4223: 4206: 4179: 4160: 4141: 4122: 4105: 4086: 4068: 4050: 4035: 4014: 4011: 4010: 3998: 3985: 3978: 3960: 3957: 3956: 3944: 3930: 3923: 3908: 3887: 3884: 3883: 3874: 3837: 3827: 3820: 3795: 3766: 3763: 3762: 3748: 3724: 3711:978-0822341789 3710: 3692:. Durham, NC: 3682: 3668: 3644: 3631:978-3868381634 3630: 3600: 3593: 3566: 3563: 3562: 3539:978-0812693973 3538: 3515: 3498:978-0674368309 3497: 3471: 3464: 3461: 3460: 3444:978-0191532658 3443: 3430: 3413:978-0203428467 3412: 3398: 3390: 3389: 3387: 3384: 3383: 3382: 3373: 3367: 3361: 3355: 3349: 3343: 3337: 3331: 3325: 3318: 3317: 3303: 3287: 3284: 3249:Charles Darwin 3147: 3144: 3110: 3107: 3099:Meta-reasoning 3089: 3088:Meta-reasoning 3086: 3025: 3022: 3020: 3017: 2991: 2990: 2973:September 2023 2941: 2939: 2932: 2926: 2923: 2910: 2907: 2903:counterfactual 2866: 2863: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2817: 2735: 2734: 2718: 2715: 2697:Charles Taylor 2689: 2680: 2672: 2669: 2662: 2661:Reconciliation 2593: 2590: 2584:presents the " 2519:Contrat Social 2459: 2456: 2401:Étienne Gilson 2397:Thomas Aquinas 2250: 2247: 2229: 2226: 2197: 2194: 2172:formal fallacy 2158:Formal fallacy 2149: 2146: 2137:Main article: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2127: 2124: 2120: 2119: 2113: 2109: 2108: 2105: 2093: 2092: 2089: 2085: 2084: 2081: 2077: 2076: 2073: 2056:Main article: 2053: 2050: 2047: 2046: 2043: 2039: 2038: 2035: 1984:Main article: 1981: 1978: 1968: 1967: 1964: 1960: 1959: 1956: 1952: 1951: 1948: 1930:Main article: 1927: 1924: 1916:informal logic 1884:Main article: 1881: 1878: 1873:J.R.R. Tolkien 1808:communication. 1801:representation 1626: 1623: 1526: 1523: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1405: 1404: 1403: 1399: 1396: 1392: 1391:Private reason 1374:Charles Taylor 1298: 1295: 1287: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1274: 1271: 1213:laws of nature 1185: 1182: 1174:transcendental 1103:René Descartes 1097:René Descartes 1084:laws of nature 1066: 1063: 985:Church Fathers 979: 976: 890:teleologically 881: 878: 829: 826: 776: 775: 762: 735: 698: 695: 483:activities as 452: 451: 449: 448: 441: 434: 426: 423: 422: 419: 418: 413: 408: 403: 397: 394:Related fields 393: 392: 391: 388: 387: 384: 383: 378: 376:W. V. O. Quine 373: 368: 363: 361:René Descartes 358: 353: 351:Edmund Gettier 348: 343: 337: 333: 332: 331: 328: 327: 324: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 293: 287: 283: 282: 281: 278: 277: 274: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 248: 243: 238: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 203: 192: 187: 181: 177: 176: 175: 172: 171: 168: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 137: 132: 127: 122: 117: 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 81: 77: 76: 75: 72: 71: 69: 68: 63: 58: 52: 49: 48: 42: 41: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9993: 9982: 9979: 9977: 9974: 9972: 9969: 9967: 9964: 9962: 9959: 9957: 9954: 9952: 9949: 9947: 9944: 9942: 9939: 9937: 9934: 9932: 9929: 9927: 9924: 9922: 9919: 9918: 9916: 9896: 9895: 9890: 9888: 9887: 9883: 9880: 9879: 9874: 9872: 9871: 9867: 9865: 9864: 9860: 9858: 9857: 9853: 9852: 9850: 9846: 9840: 9839: 9835: 9832: 9831: 9826: 9824: 9823: 9819: 9817: 9816: 9812: 9809: 9808: 9803: 9800: 9799: 9794: 9791: 9790: 9785: 9783: 9782: 9778: 9776: 9775: 9771: 9770: 9768: 9764: 9758: 9757: 9753: 9751: 9750: 9746: 9744: 9743: 9738: 9737: 9733: 9731: 9730: 9726: 9724: 9723: 9719: 9717: 9716: 9712: 9710: 9709: 9705: 9703: 9702: 9698: 9696: 9695: 9691: 9689: 9688: 9684: 9682: 9681: 9677: 9675: 9674: 9670: 9667: 9666: 9661: 9659: 9658: 9654: 9652: 9651: 9647: 9645: 9644: 9640: 9638: 9637: 9633: 9631: 9630: 9626: 9624: 9623: 9619: 9617: 9616: 9612: 9610: 9609: 9605: 9603: 9602: 9598: 9597: 9595: 9591: 9585: 9584: 9580: 9578: 9577: 9573: 9570: 9569: 9564: 9561: 9560: 9555: 9553: 9552: 9548: 9546: 9545: 9541: 9538: 9537: 9532: 9530: 9529: 9525: 9524: 9522: 9518: 9512: 9511: 9507: 9504: 9503: 9498: 9496: 9495: 9491: 9489: 9488: 9484: 9481: 9480: 9475: 9474: 9472: 9468: 9462: 9459: 9457: 9454: 9452: 9449: 9447: 9444: 9442: 9439: 9437: 9434: 9432: 9429: 9427: 9424: 9422: 9421:Sportsmanship 9419: 9417: 9414: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9399: 9397: 9394: 9392: 9389: 9387: 9386:Righteousness 9384: 9382: 9379: 9377: 9374: 9372: 9369: 9367: 9364: 9362: 9359: 9357: 9354: 9352: 9349: 9347: 9344: 9342: 9339: 9337: 9334: 9330: 9327: 9326: 9325: 9322: 9320: 9317: 9315: 9312: 9310: 9307: 9305: 9302: 9300: 9299:Nonattachment 9297: 9295: 9292: 9290: 9287: 9285: 9282: 9280: 9277: 9275: 9272: 9270: 9267: 9265: 9262: 9260: 9257: 9255: 9252: 9250: 9247: 9245: 9242: 9238: 9235: 9233: 9230: 9229: 9228: 9225: 9223: 9220: 9218: 9215: 9213: 9210: 9208: 9205: 9203: 9200: 9198: 9195: 9193: 9190: 9188: 9185: 9183: 9180: 9178: 9175: 9173: 9170: 9168: 9165: 9163: 9160: 9158: 9155: 9153: 9150: 9148: 9145: 9143: 9140: 9138: 9135: 9133: 9130: 9128: 9125: 9123: 9120: 9118: 9115: 9113: 9110: 9108: 9105: 9103: 9100: 9098: 9095: 9093: 9090: 9088: 9085: 9083: 9080: 9078: 9075: 9071: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9062: 9061: 9058: 9056: 9053: 9051: 9048: 9046: 9043: 9041: 9038: 9036: 9033: 9031: 9028: 9026: 9023: 9021: 9018: 9016: 9013: 9011: 9008: 9006: 9003: 9001: 8998: 8997: 8995: 8991: 8985: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8975: 8972: 8970: 8967: 8965: 8962: 8960: 8959:Seven virtues 8957: 8955: 8952: 8950: 8947: 8945: 8944: 8940: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8925: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8907: 8906:Brahmavihārās 8903: 8901: 8900: 8896: 8895: 8893: 8889: 8883: 8882:Virtue ethics 8880: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8867: 8863: 8861: 8858: 8856: 8853: 8852: 8850: 8848:About virtues 8846: 8842: 8835: 8830: 8828: 8823: 8821: 8816: 8815: 8812: 8800: 8797: 8795: 8792: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8782: 8780: 8777: 8775: 8772: 8770: 8767: 8765: 8762: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8747: 8745: 8742: 8741: 8739: 8737: 8733: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8714: 8712: 8709: 8707: 8704: 8702: 8699: 8697: 8694: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8682: 8679: 8677: 8674: 8672: 8669: 8667: 8664: 8660: 8657: 8656: 8655: 8652: 8650: 8647: 8645: 8642: 8640: 8637: 8635: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8617: 8616: 8615: 8612: 8610: 8607: 8605: 8602: 8600: 8597: 8595: 8592: 8590: 8587: 8585: 8582: 8581: 8579: 8577: 8572: 8568: 8564: 8557: 8552: 8550: 8545: 8543: 8538: 8537: 8534: 8522: 8519: 8516: 8512: 8509: 8507: 8504: 8502: 8492: 8491: 8488: 8478: 8477:Logic symbols 8475: 8473: 8470: 8468: 8465: 8463: 8460: 8458: 8455: 8454: 8452: 8448: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8434: 8432: 8429: 8428: 8426: 8424: 8420: 8417: 8413: 8407: 8404: 8402: 8399: 8397: 8394: 8392: 8389: 8387: 8384: 8382: 8379: 8377: 8374: 8372: 8369: 8367: 8364: 8362: 8359: 8357: 8356:Logical truth 8354: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8340: 8337: 8336: 8335: 8332: 8330: 8327: 8325: 8322: 8320: 8317: 8315: 8312: 8308: 8305: 8303: 8300: 8299: 8298: 8297:Contradiction 8295: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8274: 8272: 8268: 8258: 8255: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8245: 8243: 8242:Argumentation 8240: 8239: 8237: 8233: 8227: 8226:Philosophical 8224: 8222: 8221:Non-classical 8219: 8217: 8214: 8210: 8207: 8205: 8202: 8201: 8200: 8197: 8195: 8192: 8191: 8189: 8185: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8146: 8145: 8143: 8139: 8133: 8130: 8128: 8125: 8124: 8121: 8117: 8110: 8105: 8103: 8098: 8096: 8091: 8090: 8087: 8075: 8071: 8063: 8062: 8059: 8053: 8049: 8045: 8041: 8037: 8033: 8029: 8025: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8015:Psychometrics 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8002: 8000: 7996: 7990: 7987: 7985: 7982: 7980: 7977: 7975: 7972: 7970: 7967: 7965: 7962: 7961: 7959: 7955: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7943:Understanding 7941: 7938: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7904: 7901: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7889: 7887: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7870:Communication 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7857: 7855: 7850: 7846: 7839: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7801: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7788: 7781: 7776: 7774: 7769: 7767: 7762: 7761: 7758: 7745: 7737: 7736: 7734: 7732: 7724: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7686: 7684: 7682: 7681:United States 7678: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7612: 7609: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7588: 7586: 7584: 7580: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7546: 7545: 7543: 7541: 7537: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7522: 7520: 7516: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7471: 7469: 7467: 7463: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7449: 7447: 7444: 7442: 7441:Budai-Deleanu 7439: 7438: 7436: 7432: 7426: 7423: 7422: 7420: 7416: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7387: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7371: 7369: 7367: 7363: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7303: 7301: 7297: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7257: 7255: 7253: 7249: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7219: 7217: 7213: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7188: 7186: 7184: 7180: 7174: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7105: 7103: 7099: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7068: 7065: 7064: 7062: 7058: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6908: 6906: 6902: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6805:Ashley-Cooper 6803: 6801: 6798: 6797: 6795: 6791: 6787: 6780: 6776: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6736: 6735: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6707:Progressivism 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6677: 6673: 6670: 6669: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6656:Individualism 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6641: 6640: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6627: 6626: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6575: 6572: 6568: 6561: 6557: 6553: 6546: 6541: 6539: 6534: 6532: 6527: 6526: 6523: 6516: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6501: 6496: 6492: 6489: 6485: 6483: 6479: 6476: 6475: 6462: 6461: 6456: 6450: 6448: 6436: 6430: 6426: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6380: 6379: 6375: 6368: 6362: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6343: 6335: 6328: 6320: 6313: 6305: 6304:How we reason 6298: 6290: 6283: 6275: 6268: 6257: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6224: 6220: 6214: 6210: 6205: 6204: 6200: 6192: 6185: 6174: 6168: 6164: 6163:A Secular Age 6159: 6155: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6140: 6136: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6105: 6097: 6087: 6082: 6076: 6071: 6070: 6064: 6059: 6055: 6049: 6042: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6017: 6013: 6002: 5996: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5978: 5974: 5969: 5968: 5964: 5956: 5952: 5945: 5938: 5934: 5928: 5924: 5923: 5915: 5907: 5900: 5892: 5885: 5877: 5870: 5862: 5855: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5829: 5815: 5811: 5804: 5797: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5778: 5774: 5767: 5765: 5757: 5752: 5748: 5744: 5738: 5734: 5727: 5725: 5716: 5710: 5706: 5705: 5704: 5695: 5688: 5683: 5677: 5670: 5668: 5662: 5658: 5652: 5650: 5648: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5630: 5622: 5614: 5610: 5608: 5602: 5598: 5597: 5589: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5549: 5545: 5544: 5536: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5519: 5511: 5503: 5499: 5495: 5494: 5486: 5471: 5465: 5457: 5453: 5446: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5394: 5386: 5379: 5371: 5364: 5356: 5355: 5347: 5340:. 450a 15–16. 5339: 5338: 5330: 5322: 5316: 5310: 5304: 5297: 5289: 5287: 5279: 5271: 5270: 5261: 5259: 5257: 5255: 5246: 5239: 5237: 5235: 5227: 5221: 5213: 5212: 5204: 5196: 5192: 5186: 5178: 5177: 5169: 5162: 5159: 5152: 5148: 5141: 5133: 5129: 5122: 5114: 5108: 5104: 5097: 5089: 5085: 5078: 5072: 5062: 5057: 5043: 5039: 5032: 5024: 5018: 5013: 5012: 5003: 4996: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4950: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4911: 4909: 4907: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4885: 4877: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4837: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4781: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4748:. p. 1. 4747: 4743: 4736: 4728: 4724: 4718: 4710: 4704: 4700: 4693: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4657: 4653: 4648: 4647: 4643: 4635: 4628: 4616: 4615: 4609: 4605: 4600: 4599: 4593: 4589: 4588: 4584: 4576: 4572: 4566: 4555: 4554: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4536: 4535: 4531: 4523: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4508: 4503: 4497: 4489: 4482: 4471: 4470: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4456: 4451: 4447: 4446: 4442: 4434: 4428: 4420: 4416: 4409: 4407: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4384: 4376: 4372: 4365: 4354: 4350: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4332: 4331: 4327: 4317: 4313: 4308: 4305: 4301: 4296: 4295: 4291: 4284: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4271:signifies to 4258: 4254: 4253: 4248: 4244: 4243: 4236: 4235: 4227: 4219: 4218: 4210: 4195:on 2011-05-21 4194: 4190: 4183: 4175: 4171: 4164: 4156: 4152: 4151:"Natural Law" 4145: 4137: 4133: 4126: 4119: 4115: 4109: 4101: 4097: 4090: 4083: 4079: 4072: 4064: 4057: 4055: 4046: 4039: 4031: 4027: 4021: 4019: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3986: 3982: 3975: 3971: 3964: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3932: 3931: 3927: 3919: 3912: 3904: 3900: 3894: 3892: 3880: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3838: 3834: 3829: 3828: 3824: 3816: 3815: 3810: 3804: 3802: 3800: 3783: 3779: 3776: 3770: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3602: 3601: 3597: 3581: 3577: 3570: 3560: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3473: 3472: 3468: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3440: 3436: 3431: 3428: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3409: 3405: 3400: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3368: 3365: 3362: 3359: 3356: 3353: 3350: 3347: 3344: 3341: 3338: 3335: 3332: 3329: 3326: 3323: 3320: 3319: 3315: 3304: 3301: 3290: 3283: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3262: 3256: 3254: 3250: 3244: 3241: 3236: 3232: 3227: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3205: 3198: 3195: 3189: 3182: 3179: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3143: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3124: 3115: 3106: 3104: 3100: 3095: 3094:Metacognition 3085: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3035: 3031: 3016: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2987: 2984: 2976: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2952: 2951: 2947: 2942:This section 2940: 2936: 2931: 2930: 2922: 2920: 2916: 2906: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2862: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2843: 2841: 2837: 2831: 2816: 2813: 2802: 2801: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2716: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2691:Philosophers 2690: 2687: 2686: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2670: 2667: 2663: 2660: 2659: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2589: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2578: 2572: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2529: 2527: 2526: 2521: 2520: 2515: 2511: 2510: 2505: 2501: 2499: 2498: 2492: 2490: 2486: 2481: 2479: 2475: 2469: 2465: 2455: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2412: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2360: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2328: 2327: 2326:consciousness 2322: 2317: 2316: 2309: 2308: 2302: 2298: 2293: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2246: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2225: 2223: 2219: 2218: 2213: 2212: 2207: 2203: 2193: 2191: 2186: 2184: 2179: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2145: 2140: 2125: 2122: 2121: 2117: 2114: 2111: 2110: 2106: 2103: 2102: 2099: 2090: 2087: 2086: 2082: 2079: 2078: 2074: 2071: 2070: 2067: 2065: 2059: 2044: 2041: 2040: 2036: 2033: 2032: 2029: 2027: 2024: 2019: 2017: 2011: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1987: 1977: 1975: 1965: 1962: 1961: 1957: 1954: 1953: 1949: 1946: 1945: 1942: 1940: 1933: 1923: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1887: 1877: 1874: 1869: 1867: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1842: 1837: 1836: 1829: 1824: 1822: 1821: 1815: 1809: 1804: 1802: 1798: 1793: 1787: 1784: 1778: 1772: 1767: 1758: 1752: 1746: 1739: 1734: 1730: 1728: 1727:Steven Pinker 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1711:consciousness 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1687:Merlin Donald 1684: 1680: 1677: 1671: 1665: 1659: 1654: 1650: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1622: 1619: 1613: 1612: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1594: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1579:Thomas Hobbes 1575: 1573: 1569: 1566:, as well as 1565: 1561: 1556: 1554: 1550: 1544: 1542: 1536: 1532: 1522: 1519: 1513: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1493:, especially 1492: 1489: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1471: 1470:metacognitive 1466: 1462: 1461: 1456: 1451: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1419: 1400: 1398:Public reason 1397: 1393: 1390: 1389: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1370: 1367: 1363: 1361: 1357: 1352: 1349: 1346: 1341: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1294: 1292: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1275: 1272: 1269: 1268: 1267: 1265: 1262:According to 1260: 1258: 1253: 1252: 1244: 1240: 1238: 1232: 1230: 1226: 1221: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1197: 1195: 1191: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1170:Immanuel Kant 1166: 1162: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1143: 1140: 1139:Thomas Hobbes 1135: 1133: 1129: 1123: 1118: 1116: 1112: 1107: 1104: 1095: 1091: 1089: 1085: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1062: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1047: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1032: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1005: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 975: 972: 968: 964: 960: 954: 951: 950: 944: 940: 936: 931: 930: 924: 919: 918: 912: 908: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 877: 875: 871: 867: 864: 849: 844: 843: 838: 834: 825: 823: 822:ratiocination 819: 818:Thomas Hobbes 815: 811: 806: 800: 794: 789: 785: 784:Thomas Hobbes 781: 780:Francis Bacon 772: 771: 766: 763: 759: 753: 752: 746: 741: 736: 733: 728: 727: 716: 713:The original 712: 711: 710: 708: 704: 694: 692: 688: 684: 680: 676: 675:Psychologists 672: 670: 664: 662: 658: 656: 651: 650:abstract noun 646: 644: 640: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 611:good and evil 608: 604: 600: 596: 591: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 544: 540: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 447: 442: 440: 435: 433: 428: 427: 425: 424: 417: 414: 412: 409: 407: 404: 402: 399: 398: 390: 389: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 371:Immanuel Kant 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 356:Wang Yangming 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 338: 330: 329: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 288: 280: 279: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 237: 236:Justification 234: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 212: 209: 207: 204: 202: 201: 197: 193: 191: 188: 186: 183: 182: 174: 173: 166: 165:Structuralism 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 146: 143: 141: 138: 136: 135:Perspectivism 133: 131: 128: 126: 123: 121: 120:Infallibilism 118: 116: 113: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 91: 90:Contextualism 88: 86: 83: 82: 74: 73: 67: 64: 62: 59: 57: 54: 53: 51: 50: 47: 44: 43: 39: 38: 33: 19: 9884: 9868: 9861: 9854: 9836: 9820: 9813: 9779: 9772: 9754: 9747: 9740: 9734: 9727: 9720: 9713: 9706: 9699: 9692: 9685: 9678: 9671: 9655: 9648: 9643:Brahmacharya 9641: 9634: 9627: 9620: 9613: 9606: 9599: 9581: 9574: 9549: 9542: 9526: 9508: 9492: 9485: 9441:Tranquillity 9391:Self-control 9361:Renunciation 9319:Philanthropy 9314:Perspicacity 9274:Magnificence 9227:Intelligence 9207:Impartiality 9127:Faithfulness 9015:Authenticity 8941: 8927:Five virtues 8904: 8897: 8877:Trait theory 8864: 8769:Intuitionism 8754:Fictionalism 8700: 8396:Substitution 8216:Mathematical 8208: 8141:Major fields 8072: / 8050: / 8046: / 8042: / 8040:neuroscience 8038: / 8034: / 8030: / 8026: / 8022: / 7922: 7885: 7838:visuospatial 7814:Intellectual 7729: 7474:Catherine II 6926:Beaumarchais 6756:Universality 6727:Reductionism 6721: 6674: 6651:Human rights 6499: 6487: 6458: 6424: 6394:(2): 57–74. 6391: 6387: 6374: 6348: 6342: 6333: 6327: 6318: 6312: 6303: 6297: 6288: 6282: 6273: 6267: 6231: 6227: 6208: 6199: 6184: 6162: 6143: 6135: 6124:. Retrieved 6112: 6108: 6096: 6084: 6068: 6039: 6033:. Retrieved 6028: 6012: 5990: 5972: 5963: 5954: 5944: 5936: 5921: 5914: 5905: 5899: 5890: 5884: 5875: 5869: 5860: 5854: 5845: 5841: 5828: 5818:, retrieved 5813: 5803: 5794: 5772: 5754: 5732: 5702: 5700: 5694: 5681: 5676: 5666: 5664: 5660: 5657:Strauss, Leo 5637: 5627: 5621: 5613:intellectual 5612: 5606: 5604: 5594: 5588: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5551: 5541: 5535: 5526: 5516: 5510: 5501: 5491: 5485: 5473:. Retrieved 5464: 5455: 5445: 5406: 5393: 5384: 5378: 5369: 5363: 5352: 5346: 5335: 5329: 5296: 5288:of Aristotle 5284: 5278: 5266: 5244: 5220: 5209: 5203: 5194: 5185: 5174: 5168: 5154: 5150: 5140: 5131: 5121: 5102: 5096: 5087: 5077: 5056: 5046:, retrieved 5041: 5031: 5010: 5002: 4993: 4959: 4949: 4924: 4920: 4888: 4882: 4876: 4845: 4836: 4828: 4786: 4780: 4741: 4735: 4726: 4717: 4698: 4692: 4664: 4660: 4651: 4642: 4633: 4627: 4613: 4597: 4583: 4574: 4565: 4551: 4539: 4530: 4506: 4496: 4487: 4481: 4467: 4453: 4441: 4427: 4418: 4393: 4383: 4374: 4364: 4352: 4339: 4326: 4315: 4303: 4290: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268:συλλογίζεσθι 4256: 4250: 4246: 4240: 4238: 4233: 4226: 4215: 4209: 4199:February 23, 4197:. Retrieved 4193:the original 4182: 4173: 4163: 4154: 4144: 4135: 4125: 4117: 4108: 4099: 4089: 4081: 4071: 4062: 4044: 4038: 4029: 4005: 4002:"reasonable" 3993: 3981: 3973: 3963: 3951: 3939: 3926: 3917: 3911: 3902: 3878: 3845: 3841: 3832: 3823: 3812: 3786:. Retrieved 3781: 3775:Hintikka, J. 3769: 3731: 3689: 3651: 3648:Audi, Robert 3609: 3596: 3586:December 18, 3584:. Retrieved 3579: 3569: 3557: 3551:. Retrieved 3524: 3512:challenging. 3510: 3480: 3477:Sperber, Dan 3467: 3456: 3434: 3425: 3403: 3394: 3334:Common sense 3280:rural living 3265: 3257: 3245: 3238: 3220: 3200: 3184: 3169:human nature 3163: 3120: 3098: 3097: 3055: 2994: 2979: 2970: 2955:Please help 2943: 2912: 2905:situations. 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2871:intelligence 2868: 2844: 2833: 2736: 2722:Benedict XVI 2664:Philosopher 2656: 2609: 2575: 2573: 2530: 2523: 2517: 2507: 2502: 2495: 2493: 2482: 2471: 2416:rationalists 2413: 2361: 2331: 2324: 2320: 2294: 2266: 2231: 2221: 2215: 2209: 2199: 2189: 2187: 2182: 2180: 2165: 2142: 2116:Ada Lovelace 2096: 2061: 2020: 2012: 1989: 1971: 1935: 1911: 1908:Formal logic 1889: 1870: 1865: 1861: 1851: 1833: 1831: 1826: 1818: 1811: 1806: 1800: 1796: 1788: 1761: 1741: 1736: 1731: 1723:Noam Chomsky 1681: 1646: 1643:Recollection 1586: 1582: 1576: 1557: 1545: 1538: 1498: 1494: 1474: 1458: 1452: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1421: 1386: 1371: 1364: 1353: 1350: 1344: 1342: 1300: 1288: 1261: 1246: 1242: 1233: 1217: 1198: 1187: 1178:epistemology 1167: 1163: 1144: 1136: 1131: 1125: 1120: 1114: 1110: 1108: 1100: 1079:metaphysical 1068: 1048: 1033: 1006: 981: 963:neoplatonist 955: 943:human nature 886:philosophers 883: 860: 840: 821: 777: 700: 673: 668: 665: 654: 647: 635:institutions 592: 588:formal proof 575: 570: 538: 518: 517: 456: 455: 260: 200:a posteriori 199: 195: 46:Epistemology 9981:Rationalism 9461:Workmanship 9351:Punctuality 9269:Magnanimity 9192:Hospitality 9142:Forgiveness 9087:Discernment 9045:Cleanliness 8749:Dialetheism 8639:Explanation 8609:Credibility 8511:WikiProject 8381:Proposition 8376:Probability 8329:Description 8270:Foundations 8044:personality 7979:PASS theory 7937:abstraction 7731:Romanticism 7553:Charles III 7394:Poniatowski 7331:Leeuwenhoek 7311:de la Court 7299:Netherlands 7143:Mendelssohn 7138:Lichtenberg 7016:Montesquieu 6734:Sapere aude 6717:Rationalism 6712:Rationality 6702:Objectivity 6115:(1): 5–23. 6041:scientists. 5682:Metaphysics 5593:Aristotle. 5543:Metaphysics 5540:Aristotle. 5518:Metaphysics 5515:Aristotle. 5493:Metaphysics 5490:Aristotle. 5351:Aristotle. 5334:Aristotle. 5208:Aristotle. 5173:Aristotle. 5147:"Of speech" 5128:"Of speech" 5084:"Of Reason" 4850:Basic Books 4259:, in Greek 4114:"Hellenism" 3788:12 November 3559:disability. 3123:Dan Sperber 2887:A or else B 2883:if A then B 2855:Rationality 2759:Leo Strauss 2717:Unification 2616:rationalism 2565:nationalism 2440:mathematics 2424:pure reason 2220:(1947) and 2206:English law 2202:public body 2123:Conclusion 2088:Conclusion 2042:Conclusion 2016:probability 1963:Conclusion 1715:imagination 1697:, but also 1664:phantasmata 1649:imagination 1647:Reason and 1631:Imagination 1512:syllogismos 1488:philosopher 1318:Kierkegaard 1209:theoretical 1051:Roger Bacon 1040:Natural Law 965:account of 856: 1797 810:rationality 584:mathematics 541:to produce 513:rationality 501:mathematics 473:information 461:consciously 256:Rationality 231:Information 145:Rationalism 105:Fallibilism 85:Coherentism 9915:Categories 9774:Auctoritas 9622:Aparigraha 9601:Adhiṭṭhāna 9583:Sophrosyne 9551:Eutrapelia 9436:Temperance 9416:Solidarity 9406:Simplicity 9366:Resilience 9341:Politeness 9309:Patriotism 9289:Moderation 9162:Good faith 9152:Generosity 9112:Equanimity 9092:Discipline 9050:Compassion 8794:Pragmatism 8784:Nominalism 8691:Propaganda 8666:Hypothesis 8619:Antithesis 8441:Set theory 8339:Linguistic 8334:Entailment 8324:Definition 8292:Consequent 8287:Antecedent 7875:Creativity 7819:Linguistic 7804:Collective 7573:Villarroel 7568:Jovellanos 7504:Radishchev 7451:Micu-Klein 7389:Niemcewicz 7356:Swammerdam 7346:Nieuwentyt 7336:Mandeville 7191:Farmakidis 7077:Burlamaqui 6986:La Mettrie 6961:Fontenelle 6916:d'Argenson 6911:d'Alembert 6835:Harrington 6761:Utopianism 6661:Liberalism 6618:Empiricism 6593:Classicism 6583:Capitalism 6505:Free Press 6482:PhilPapers 6126:2016-04-06 6035:2016-04-06 5820:2021-03-27 5810:"Stoicism" 5782:0203169948 5714:0486201120 5687:Empedocles 5214:. III.1–3. 5112:0393317544 5048:2022-06-08 5022:0691099502 4859:0394756827 4556:. Preface. 4398:footnote 1 4262:λογίζεσθαι 4242:Pythagoras 4078:"Plotinus" 3990:"rational" 3749:0198244355 3669:0195141121 3614:De Gruyter 3553:2014-12-01 3487:. p. 3386:References 3346:Conformity 3222:Friendship 3173:city state 3103:reflection 3092:See also: 3038:See also: 2879:Wason test 2836:psychology 2828:See also: 2704:liberalism 2679:questions. 2632:irrational 2620:theologies 2485:David Hume 2462:See also: 2405:revelation 2384:Maimonides 2349:Democritus 2345:David Hume 2341:John Locke 2333:Empiricism 2253:See also: 2118:is human. 2112:Premise 2 2104:Premise 1 2080:Premise 2 2072:Premise 1 2026:David Hume 2023:empiricist 2010:patterns. 2008:phenomenal 1955:Premise 2 1947:Premise 1 1939:syllogisms 1892:philosophy 1862:autocueing 1771:hypothēses 1448:consistent 1422:The terms 1416:See also: 1382:disclosure 1151:David Hume 1147:John Locke 1113:knowledge— 1088:world view 1029:Scholastic 959:monotheism 949:eudaimonia 898:Heraclitus 894:Pythagoras 866:philosophy 788:John Locke 631:traditions 556:, such as 485:philosophy 366:David Hume 226:Experience 155:Skepticism 150:Relativism 140:Pragmatism 130:Naturalism 125:Infinitism 100:Empiricism 9951:Knowledge 9921:Reasoning 9822:Humanitas 9568:Phronesis 9559:Philotimo 9411:Sincerity 9376:Reverence 9244:Judgement 9232:Emotional 9222:Integrity 9212:Innocence 9167:Gratitude 9147:Frugality 9137:Foresight 9117:Etiquette 9107:Endurance 9082:Diligence 9005:Alertness 8954:Scout Law 8855:Endowment 8764:Formalism 8726:Vagueness 8706:Relevance 8701:Reasoning 8614:Dialectic 8589:Ambiguity 8472:Fallacies 8467:Paradoxes 8457:Logicians 8391:Statement 8386:Reference 8351:Induction 8314:Deduction 8277:Abduction 8247:Metalogic 8194:Classical 8158:Inference 8036:longevity 8024:fertility 7923:Reasoning 7903:Knowledge 7893:Intellect 7860:Cognition 7851:, traits, 7849:Abilities 7809:Emotional 7694:Jefferson 7636:Hutcheson 7525:Obradović 7494:Lomonosov 7489:Kheraskov 7399:Śniadecki 7163:Weishaupt 7158:Thomasius 7148:Pufendorf 6991:Lavoisier 6976:d'Holbach 6971:Helvétius 6951:Descartes 6946:Condorcet 6941:Condillac 6875:Priestley 6692:Modernity 6613:Democracy 6455:Aristotle 6289:Deduction 6234:(1): 17. 5566:γνωρίζειν 5558:ἐπιστήμην 5437:884441074 5337:On Memory 5151:Leviathan 5132:Leviathan 4990:888024689 4844:(1999) . 4825:242795845 4817:807769289 4772:432990013 4746:Routledge 4681:171038942 4504:(1993) . 4316:Leviathan 4304:Leviathan 3870:171038942 3862:0967-2559 3809:Aristotle 3720:180989486 3640:807032616 3517:Compare: 3507:959650235 3422:503050369 3261:Karl Marx 3191:= of the 3188:politikon 3165:Aristotle 2944:does not 2778:Al-Farabi 2767:Abrahamic 2755:Jerusalem 2685:Tu quoque 2640:tradition 2624:religions 2606:Tradition 2557:Heidegger 2541:Nietzsche 2509:Discourse 2428:Descartes 2372:Al-Farabi 2368:Aristotle 2321:awareness 2289:induction 2285:deduction 2273:Platonism 2243:happiness 2235:knowledge 2208:cases of 1998:based on 1841:anamnēsis 1828:poetic... 1797:imitation 1658:phantasia 1553:syllogism 1531:Causality 1518:hē logikē 1507:syllogism 1491:Aristotle 1440:economics 1326:Heidegger 1322:Nietzsche 1291:lifeworld 1155:skeptical 1122:ignorant. 1017:Patristic 1013:Dark Ages 935:Aristotle 874:reflexive 717:term was 627:attitudes 607:falsehood 595:intuition 572:Aristotle 546:arguments 531:intellect 527:cognition 519:Reasoning 463:applying 341:Aristotle 246:Knowledge 241:Induction 216:Certainty 160:Solipsism 95:Dogmatism 18:Reasoning 9961:Ontology 9815:Gravitas 9798:Dignitas 9544:Ataraxia 9426:Sympathy 9356:Religion 9346:Prudence 9304:Patience 9279:Meekness 9254:Kindness 9202:Humility 9197:Humanity 9132:Fidelity 9077:Courtesy 9040:Chivalry 9035:Chastity 9025:Charisma 9020:Calmness 9010:Altruism 8779:Logicism 8759:Finitism 8711:Rhetoric 8696:Prudence 8634:Evidence 8594:Argument 8584:Analysis 8506:Category 8406:Validity 8307:Antinomy 8235:Theories 8199:Informal 7908:Learning 7824:Multiple 7744:Category 7689:Franklin 7656:Playfair 7626:Ferguson 7583:Scotland 7530:Mrazović 7484:Kantemir 7479:Fonvizin 7418:Portugal 7384:Krasicki 7379:Konarski 7374:Kołłątaj 7326:Koerbagh 7275:Genovesi 7260:Beccaria 7222:Berkeley 7153:Schiller 7118:Humboldt 7092:Saussure 7087:Rousseau 7051:Voltaire 7006:Maréchal 6981:Jaucourt 6936:Châtelet 6931:Chamfort 6880:Reynolds 6783:Thinkers 6687:Midlands 6676:Lumières 6646:Humanism 6639:Haskalah 6497:(1991), 6460:Politics 6408:21447233 6256:21347905 6048:cite web 6023:(1997). 5848:(1): 60. 5791:49569365 5751:62563098 5629:Republic 5607:νοητικῶν 5401:(2014). 5309:praktikē 5211:De Anima 5193:(2005). 5179:. II.19. 5063:and see 4941:43330718 4868:40724766 4610:(1988). 4594:(1993). 4573:(1995). 4550:(1781). 4466:(1788). 4452:(1781). 4257:consider 4132:"Reason" 4028:(1990). 3899:"reason" 3758:17954516 3730:(1988). 3688:(2008). 3678:44046914 3650:(2001). 3548:40632451 3522:(1999). 3479:(2017). 3453:62563098 3322:Argument 3286:See also 3270:and the 3240:Rousseau 3204:Rousseau 3160:The Good 2847:rational 2747:revealed 2712:paradigm 2626:such as 2602:Religion 2504:Rousseau 2380:Averroes 2376:Avicenna 2357:Idealism 2224:(2015). 2214:(1926), 2034:Premise 1866:thinking 1703:language 1695:language 1670:phronein 1572:language 1450:choice. 1436:rational 1395:servant" 1330:Foucault 1251:Vernunft 1220:autonomy 1194:Vernunft 1159:deducing 1025:Avicenna 1021:Averroes 991:such as 967:Plotinus 814:rational 661:behavior 523:thinking 497:language 489:religion 211:Credence 196:A priori 178:Concepts 61:Category 9870:Sadaqah 9856:Ganbaru 9789:Decorum 9781:Caritas 9736:Śraddhā 9722:Shaucha 9687:Kshanti 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