Rationalism - Knowledge

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vast majority of its activities consist of unconscious appraisals and emotions. The significance of emotions in decision-making has generally been ignored by rationalism, according to these critics. Moreover, emotional choice theorists contend that the rationalist paradigm has difficulty incorporating emotions into its models, because it cannot account for the social nature of emotions. Even though emotions are felt by individuals, psychologists and sociologists have shown that emotions cannot be isolated from the social environment in which they arise. Emotions are inextricably intertwined with people's social norms and identities, which are typically outside the scope of standard rationalist accounts. Emotional choice theory seeks to capture not only the social but also the physiological and dynamic character of emotions. It represents a unitary action model to organize, explain, and predict the ways in which emotions shape decision-making.

71: 1039:. The two theses go their separate ways when describing how that knowledge is gained. As the name, and the rationale, suggests, the Innate Knowledge thesis claims knowledge is simply part of our rational nature. Experiences can trigger a process that allows this knowledge to come into our consciousness, but the experiences do not provide us with the knowledge itself. The knowledge has been with us since the beginning and the experience simply brought into focus, in the same way a photographer can bring the background of a picture into focus by changing the aperture of the lens. The background was always there, just not in focus. 2244:, free will, and the immortality of the human soul. Kant referred to these objects as "The Thing in Itself" and goes on to argue that their status as objects beyond all possible experience by definition means we cannot know them. To the empiricist, he argued that while it is correct that experience is fundamentally necessary for human knowledge, reason is necessary for processing that experience into coherent thought. He therefore concludes that both reason and experience are necessary for human knowledge. In the same way, Kant also argued that it was wrong to regard thought as mere analysis. "In Kant's views, 1162:

which marked out the figure of Hercules rather than other figures, this stone would be more determined thereto, and Hercules would be as it were in some manner innate in it, although labour would be needed to uncover the veins, and to clear them by polishing, and by cutting away what prevents them from appearing. It is in this way that ideas and truths are innate in us, like natural inclinations and dispositions, natural habits or potentialities, and not like activities, although these potentialities are always accompanied by some activities which correspond to them, though they are often imperceptible."

43: 1182:, argue that the two theses are distinct from one another. As with the other theses covered under the umbrella of rationalism, the more types and greater number of concepts a philosopher claims to be innate, the more controversial and radical their position; "the more a concept seems removed from experience and the mental operations we can perform on experience the more plausibly it may be claimed to be innate. Since we do not experience perfect triangles but do experience pains, our concept of the former is a more promising candidate for being innate than our concept of the latter. 1196: 1930: 1052:. Here, Plato asks about inquiry; how do we gain knowledge of a theorem in geometry? We inquire into the matter. Yet, knowledge by inquiry seems impossible. In other words, "If we already have the knowledge, there is no place for inquiry. If we lack the knowledge, we don't know what we are seeking and cannot recognize it when we find it. Either way we cannot gain knowledge of the theorem by inquiry. Yet, we do know some theorems." The Innate Knowledge thesis offers a solution to this 971:

are not sufficient to establish the universal necessity of this same truth, for it does not follow that what happened before will happen in the same way again. … From which it appears that necessary truths, such as we find in pure mathematics, and particularly in arithmetic and geometry, must have principles whose proof does not depend on instances, nor consequently on the testimony of the senses, although without the senses it would never have occurred to us to think of them…

9247: 5152: 9253: 7895: 9259: 9916: 3550:"Spinoza, "God-Intoxicated Man"; Three Books Which Mark the Three Hundredth Anniversary of the Philosopher's Birth 'Blessed Spinoza. A Biography'. By Lewis Browne. 319 pp. New York: Macmillan. 'Spinoza. Liberator of God and Man'. By Benjamin De Casseres, 145 pp. New York: E. Wickham Sweetland. 'Spinoza'. By Frederick Kettner. Introduction by Nicholas Roerich, New Era Library. 255 pp. New York: Roerich Museum Press. 'Spinoza'" 1270: 9928: 7882: 5140: 2205: 57: 1251:, which bears his name, and for discovering the mathematical relationship between the length of strings on lute and the pitches of the notes. Pythagoras "believed these harmonies reflected the ultimate nature of reality. He summed up the implied metaphysical rationalism in the words 'All is number'. It is probable that he had caught the rationalist's vision, later seen by 2227:, and set the terms by which all subsequent thinkers have had to grapple. He argued that human perception structures natural laws, and that reason is the source of morality. His thought continues to hold a major influence in contemporary thought, especially in fields such as metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, and aesthetics. 1712:, these dreams cannot provide persons with knowledge. Also, since conscious sense experience can be the cause of illusions, then sense experience itself can be doubtable. As a result, Descartes deduced that a rational pursuit of truth should doubt every belief about sensory reality. He elaborated these beliefs in such works as 1893:, because the rejection of their visions forced him to arrive at his own solution. Monads are the fundamental unit of reality, according to Leibniz, constituting both inanimate and animate objects. These units of reality represent the universe, though they are not subject to the laws of causality or space (which he called " 3638: 1878:; he is also considered to be one of the last "universal geniuses". He did not develop his system, however, independently of these advances. Leibniz rejected Cartesian dualism and denied the existence of a material world. In Leibniz's view there are infinitely many simple substances, which he called " 1699:

Descartes thought that only knowledge of eternal truths – including the truths of mathematics, and the epistemological and metaphysical foundations of the sciences – could be attained by reason alone; other knowledge, the knowledge of physics, required experience of the

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In the past, particularly in the 17th and 18th centuries, the term 'rationalist' was often used to refer to free thinkers of an anti-clerical and anti-religious outlook, and for a time the word acquired a distinctly pejorative force (thus in 1670 Sanderson spoke disparagingly of 'a mere rationalist,

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Even then, the distinction between rationalists and empiricists was drawn at a later period and would not have been recognized by the philosophers involved. Also, the distinction between the two philosophies is not as clear-cut as is sometimes suggested; for example, Descartes and Locke have similar

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Modern English textbooks and translations prefer "Theory of Forms" to "Theory of Ideas," but the latter has a long and respected tradition starting with Cicero and continuing in German philosophy until present, and some English philosophers prefer this in English too. See W. D. Ross, Plato's Theory

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i.e., prior to any kind of experience on the matter. The simple meaning is that doubting one's existence, in and of itself, proves that an "I" exists to do the thinking. In other words, doubting one's own doubting is absurd. This was, for Descartes, an irrefutable principle upon which to ground all

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Although the three great Greek philosophers disagreed with one another on specific points, they all agreed that rational thought could bring to light knowledge that was self-evident – information that humans otherwise could not know without the use of reason. After Aristotle's death,

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The senses, although they are necessary for all our actual knowledge, are not sufficient to give us the whole of it, since the senses never give anything but instances, that is to say particular or individual truths. Now all the instances which confirm a general truth, however numerous they may be,

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is a conscious and reflective process based on thoughts and beliefs. It presumes that people decide on the basis of calculation and deliberation. However, cumulative research in neuroscience suggests that only a small part of the brain's activities operate at the level of conscious reflection. The

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in the language of the philosophers. For if the soul were like those blank tablets, truths would be in us in the same way as the figure of Hercules is in a block of marble, when the marble is completely indifferent whether it receives this or some other figure. But if there were veins in the stone

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is knowable in this thesis. Naturally, the more subjects the rationalists claim to be knowable by the Intuition/Deduction thesis, the more certain they are of their warranted beliefs, and the more strictly they adhere to the infallibility of intuition, the more controversial their truths or claims

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At its core, rationalism consists of three basic claims. For people to consider themselves rationalists, they must adopt at least one of these three claims: the intuition/deduction thesis, the innate knowledge thesis, or the innate concept thesis. In addition, a rationalist can choose to adopt the

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While for Spinoza all is God and all is Nature, the active/passive dualism enables us to restore, if we wish, something more like the traditional terms. Natura Naturans is the most God-like side of God, eternal, unchanging, and invisible, while Natura Naturata is the most Nature-like side of God,

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that are so fundamentally true that denying them causes one to fall into contradiction. The rationalists had such a high confidence in reason that empirical proof and physical evidence were regarded as unnecessary to ascertain certain truths – in other words, "there are significant

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when he says, "Among my ideas, some appear to be innate, some to be adventitious, and others to have been invented by me. My understanding of what a thing is, what truth is, and what thought is, seems to derive simply from my own nature. But my hearing a noise, as I do now, or seeing the sun, or

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In addition to different subjects, rationalists sometimes vary the strength of their claims by adjusting their understanding of the warrant. Some rationalists understand warranted beliefs to be beyond even the slightest doubt; others are more conservative and understand the warrant to be belief

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Rationalists also have different understanding and claims involving the connection between intuition and truth. Some rationalists claim that intuition is infallible and that anything we intuit to be true is as such. More contemporary rationalists accept that intuition is not always a source of

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logic and its use in argument. Aristotle defines syllogism as "a discourse in which certain (specific) things having been supposed, something different from the things supposed results of necessity because these things are so." Despite this very general definition, Aristotle limits himself to

1734:) can be classified as knowledge. These truths are gained "without any sensory experience," according to Descartes. Truths that are attained by reason are broken down into elements that intuition can grasp, which, through a purely deductive process, will result in clear truths about reality. 3440:

Spinoza, a Dutch Jewish thinker of the 17th century, not only preached a philosophy of tolerance and benevolence but actually succeeded in living it. He was reviled in his own day and long afterward for his supposed atheism, yet even his enemies were forced to admit that he lived a saintly

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knowledge or experiential belief characterized by its immediacy; a form of rational insight. We simply "see" something in such a way as to give us a warranted belief. Beyond that, the nature of intuition is hotly debated. In the same way, generally speaking, deduction is the process of

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For example, when we combine both concepts, we can intuit that the number three is prime and that it is greater than two. We then deduce from this knowledge that there is a prime number greater than two. Thus, it can be said that intuition and deduction combined to provide us with

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Different degrees of emphasis on this method or theory lead to a range of rationalist standpoints, from the moderate position "that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge" to the more extreme position that reason is "the unique path to knowledge". Given a

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Forms (usually given a capital F) were properties or essences of things, treated as non-material abstract, but substantial, entities. They were eternal, changeless, supremely real, and independent of ordinary objects that had their being and properties by 'participating' in

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s next move would normally be to provide justification for the claim. The precise method one uses to provide justification is where the lines are drawn between rationalism and empiricism (among other philosophical views). Much of the debate in these fields are focused on

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Although rationalism in its modern form post-dates antiquity, philosophers from this time laid down the foundations of rationalism. In particular, the understanding that we may be aware of knowledge available only through the use of rational thought.

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Adventitious ideas are those concepts that we gain through sense experiences, ideas such as the sensation of heat, because they originate from outside sources; transmitting their own likeness rather than something else and something you simply cannot

3669:"Tribute to Spinoza Paid by Educators; Dr. Robinson Extols Character of Philosopher, 'True to the Eternal Light Within Him.' Hailed as 'Great Rebel'; De Casseres Stresses Individualism of Man Whose Tercentenary Is Celebrated at Meeting" 3506:

Spinoza's Ethics is a recent addition to Cambridge's Introductions to Key Philosophical Texts, a series developed for the purpose of helping readers with no specific background knowledge to begin the study of important works of Western

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certain knowledge – thus allowing for the possibility of a deceiver who might cause the rationalist to intuit a false proposition in the same way a third party could cause the rationalist to have perceptions of

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that is to say in plain English an atheist of the late edition...'). The use of the label 'rationalist' to characterize a world outlook which has no place for the supernatural is becoming less popular today; terms like '

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have been willing to accept this thesis for describing the relationships among our own concepts. In this sense, empiricists argue that we are allowed to intuit and deduce truths from knowledge that has been obtained

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once wrote, "you can see that it is true just lying on your couch. You don't have to get up off your couch and go outside and examine the way things are in the physical world. You don't have to do any science."

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Between both philosophies, the issue at hand is the fundamental source of human knowledge and the proper techniques for verifying what we think we know. Whereas both philosophies are under the umbrella of

3520:"Einstein Believes in "Spinoza's God"; Scientist Defines His Faith in Reply, to Cablegram From Rabbi Here. Sees a Divine Order But Says Its Ruler Is Not Concerned "Wit Fates and Actions of Human Beings."" 674:, whose attempts to grapple with the epistemological and metaphysical problems raised by Descartes led to a development of the fundamental approach of rationalism. Both Spinoza and Leibniz asserted that, 903:. When you claim some truths are innately known to us, one must reject skepticism in relation to those truths. Especially for rationalists who adopt the Intuition/Deduction thesis, the idea of epistemic 831:. Of these four terms, the term that has been most widely used and discussed by the early 21st century is "warrant". Loosely speaking, justification is the reason that someone (probably) holds a belief. 3579:"Spinoza's First Biography Is Recovered; The Oldest Biography of Spinoza Edited with Translations, Introduction, Annotations, &c., by A. Wolf. 196 pp. New York: Lincoln Macveagh. The Dial Press" 894:

by intuition and deduction or have innately is superior to any knowledge gained by sense experience". In other words, this thesis claims reason is superior to experience as a source for knowledge.

3609:"The Unique and Powerful Vision of Baruch Spinoza; Professor Wolfson's Long-Awaited Book Is a Work of Illuminating Scholarship. (Book review) 'The Philosophy of Spinoza. By Henry Austryn Wolfson" 778:. Taken very broadly, these views are not mutually exclusive, since a philosopher can be both rationalist and empiricist. Taken to extremes, the empiricist view holds that all ideas come to us 1400:

viewed Rationalists as a threat, labeling them as those who "while admitting revelation, reject from the word of God whatever, in their private judgment, is inconsistent with human reason."

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for being out of touch with reality. James also criticized rationalism for representing the universe as a closed system, which contrasts with his view that the universe is an open system.

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Descartes therefore argued, as a result of his method, that reason alone determined knowledge, and that this could be done independently of the senses. For instance, his famous dictum,

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as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification", often in contrast to other possible sources of knowledge such as

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tends to crop up. This is the view that we know some truths without basing our belief in them on any others and that we then use this foundational knowledge to know more truths.

559:. On the one hand, the rationalists emphasized that knowledge is primarily innate and the intellect, the inner faculty of the human mind, can therefore directly grasp or derive 1145:

defends the idea of innate concepts by suggesting the mind plays a role in determining the nature of concepts, to explain this, he likens the mind to a block of marble in the

1255:(1564–1642), of a world governed throughout by mathematically formulable laws". It has been said that he was the first man to call himself a philosopher, or lover of wisdom. 620:

domains of knowledge such as mathematics, combined with the emphasis of obtaining knowledge through the use of rational faculties (commonly rejecting, for example, direct

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that are innate to us, could not have been gained by us through sense experience." In short, this thesis claims that experience cannot provide what we gain from reason.

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The name of this aspect of Plato's thought is not modern and has not been extracted from certain dialogues by modern scholars. The term was used at least as early as

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was later softened by the adoption of pluralistic reasoning methods practicable regardless of religious or irreligious ideology. In this regard, the philosopher

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Rationalists often adopt similar stances on other aspects of philosophy. Most rationalists reject skepticism for the areas of knowledge they claim are knowable

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This is why I have taken as an illustration a block of veined marble, rather than a wholly uniform block or blank tablets, that is to say what is called

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Similar to the Innate Knowledge thesis, the Innate Concept thesis suggests that some concepts are simply part of our rational nature. These concepts are

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in nature and sense experience is irrelevant to determining the nature of these concepts (though, sense experience can help bring the concepts to our

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Rationalism – as an appeal to human reason as a way of obtaining knowledge – has a philosophical history dating from

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Rationalism has become a rarer label of philosophers today; rather many different kinds of specialised rationalisms are identified. For example,

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claim of Indispensability of Reason and or the claim of Superiority of Reason, although one can be a rationalist without adopting either thesis.

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Since the Enlightenment, rationalism is usually associated with the introduction of mathematical methods into philosophy as seen in the works of

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Dutch Cartesianism and the Birth of Philosophy of Science: A Reappraisal of the Function of Philosophy from Regius to 's Gravesande, 1640–1750

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By injecting different subjects into the Intuition/Deduction thesis, we are able to generate different arguments. Most rationalists agree

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Heidegger (2002) p. 76 "Descartes... that which he himself founded... modern (and that means, at the same time, Western) metaphysics."

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concepts do exist, but if they are to lead to the amplification of knowledge, they must be brought into relation with empirical data".

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Audi, Robert, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1995. 2nd edition, 1999, p. 771.

2561: 1998: 1301:(or the Theory of Ideas) which asserts that the highest and most fundamental kind of reality is not the material world of change 9752: 3791: 2640: 8380: 5188: 1970: 790: – through the use of logic – and is thus independent of sensory experience. In other words, as 7594: 1139:, are those ideas we have as a result of mental processes that are beyond what experience can directly or indirectly provide. 8958: 5803: 4769: 3210: 2260:

has appropriated the terms "rationalist expressivism" and "rationalist pragmatism" as labels for aspects of his programme in

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Descartes was the first of the modern rationalists and has been dubbed the 'Father of Modern Philosophy.' Much subsequent

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tradition. Many of Spinoza's ideas continue to vex thinkers today and many of his principles, particularly regarding the

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sect also incorporated rationalism into their movement. One notable event in the Western timeline was the philosophy of

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Proponents of some varieties of rationalism argue that, starting with foundational basic principles, like the axioms of

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See, for example, David D. Franks (2014), "Emotions and Neurosociology," in Jan E. Stets and Jonathan H. Turner, eds.,

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Leibniz was the last major figure of seventeenth-century rationalism who contributed heavily to other fields such as

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Pythagoras was one of the first Western philosophers to stress rationalist insight. He is often revered as a great

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Western rationalistic thought was generally characterized by its application to theology, such as in the works of

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The Rationalist's Guide to the Galaxy: Superintelligent AI and the Geeks Who Are Trying to Save Humanity's Future

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The Innate Knowledge thesis is similar to the Intuition/Deduction thesis in the regard that both theses claim

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who attempted to merge Greek rationalism and Christian revelation in the thirteenth-century. Generally, the

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into the category of things knowable by intuition and deduction. Furthermore, some rationalists also claim

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have described themselves as "rationalists." The term has also been used in this way by critics such as

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feeling the fire, comes from things which are located outside me, or so I have hitherto judged. Lastly,

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derive the rest of all possible knowledge. Notable philosophers who held this view most clearly were

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First published August 19, 2004; substantive revision March 31, 2013 cited on May 20, 2013.

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First published August 19, 2004; substantive revision March 31, 2013 cited on May 20, 2013.

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Outside of academic philosophy, some participants in the internet communities surrounding

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From Descartes to Hume: Continental Metaphysics and the Development of Modern Philosophy

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ways in which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense experience".

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58. Burkert attempted to discredit this ancient tradition, but it has been defended by

2440: 2370: 1766:"). This crucial distinction would be left unresolved and lead to what is known as the 1709: 1693: 1659: 1645: 1490: 1370: 1199:

Detail of Pythagoras with a tablet of ratios, numbers sacred to the Pythagoreans, from

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knowledge – we gained this knowledge independently of sense experience.

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History of Rationalism Embracing a Survey of the Present State of Protestant Theology

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Plato held rational insight to a very high standard, as is seen in his works such as

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This thesis targets a problem with the nature of inquiry originally postulated by

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is knowable by applying the intuition and deduction. Some go further to include

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Meditations on First Philosophy With Selections from the Objections and Replies

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is a systematic, logical, rational philosophy developed in seventeenth-century

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Descartes and the Dutch: Early Reactions to Cartesian Philosophy, 1637–1650

2307: 2280: 1855: 1540: 1448: 1214: 863: 820: 812: 808: 800: 513: 93: 3889:"The Wide Angle: Understanding TESCREAL — Silicon Valley's Rightward Turn" 3717: 2867:"rationalism | Definition, Types, History, Examples, & Descartes" 2302:

criticize rationalism by drawing on new findings from emotion research in

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Leibniz developed his theory of monads in response to both Descartes and

1863: 1851: 1822: 1553: 1389: 1346: 1157: 998: 990: 828: 824: 765:' seem largely to have taken its place. But the old usage still survives. 762: 741: 683: 576: 568: 529: 303: 278: 152: 132: 27: 4291: 3494: 854:

the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as

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is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day.

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The Secret Societies of All Ages & Countries (Two Volumes in One)

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nature of much of philosophical enquiry, the awareness of apparently

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This article is about the philosophical concept. For other uses, see

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The Rationalists: Critical Essays on Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz

4137:. (Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005) 3955:

Emotional Choices: How the Logic of Affect Shapes Coercive Diplomacy

9915: 9812: 9782: 9476: 9335: 9302: 9013: 8709: 8530: 8358: 8273: 8212: 8175: 7225: 7132: 7097: 7055: 7043: 6831: 6625: 6525: 6468: 6272: 6226: 6110: 5523: 4784: 4502: 2486: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2089: 1809: 1381: 1377: 1361: 1310: 1269: 948: 705: 693: 659: 593: 552: 4251: 9516: 9297: 9292: 8928: 8783: 8695: 6852: 6826: 6821: 6763: 6758: 6590: 6478: 6473: 6432: 6254: 6100: 5982: 5503: 4482: 3357: 3022:

Plato uses many different words for what is traditionally called

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Fraenkel, Carlos; Perinetti, Dario; Smith, Justin E. H. (eds.):

9839: 9446: 8948: 7117: 7038: 6768: 6427: 6417: 6115: 6017: 5617: 5166: 4549: 3488: 3335:. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2930: 1793: 1789: 1731: 1170:(who is considered one of the most influential thinkers of the 1128: 994: 859: 816: 712:, historically emphasized a "politics of reason" centered upon 572: 533: 517: 318: 308: 253: 2737: 2735: 2694: 1190: 9667: 8913: 8903: 8898: 8370: 8365: 6933: 6595: 5881: 5814: 5717: 5363: 3056: 3001: 1859: 1705: 1306: 1273: 1264: 1043: 855: 564: 537: 313: 4074:, Oxford, 1994. Paperback edition with new Chronology, 1996. 2769: 2767: 2571: 2569: 1754:, distinguishing between the substances of the human body (" 1330:'s main contribution to rationalist thinking was the use of 9043: 4428: 3270: 2732: 1759: 1750:

forms of other knowledge. Descartes posited a metaphysical

1290: 1103: 1048: 268: 811:, this theory attempts to understand the justification of 6778: 3690: 3030:

in German and Latin translations (Cicero). These include

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Bourke, Vernon J., "Rationalism," p. 263 in Runes (1962).

1804:. But his work was in many respects a departure from the 4203:. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1992) 2234:", and he first laid out these views in his famous work 1056:. By claiming that knowledge is already with us, either 9028: 4085:

Spinoza and Dutch Cartesianism: Philosophy and Theology

3192: 1743:

or "I think, therefore I am", is a conclusion reached

3942:

The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling

3718:"Immanuel Kant (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)" 3491:"Spinoza's Ethics: An Introduction, by Steven Nadler" 3358:

Lisa Montanarelli (book reviewer) (January 8, 2006).

947:

to reach a logically certain conclusion. Using valid

624:) have made rationalist themes very prevalent in the 588:

understanding of reason, rationalism is identical to

4158:. (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1981) 4044: 3111:"Plato FAQ: "Let no one ignorant of geometry enter"" 2291:

Rationalism was criticized by American psychologist

1897:"). Leibniz, therefore, introduced his principle of 4080:(1962), "Rationalism," p. 263 in Runes (1962). 3944:, 3rd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1820:admitted that he found this concept confusing. His 1123:away. Ideas invented by us, such as those found in 4128:The Rationalists: Between Tradition and Innovation 2795: 686:. On the other hand, Leibniz admitted in his book 682:for human beings except in specific areas such as 4049:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. 3666: 9945: 4177:The Rationalists: Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz 3457: 3422: 2802:(revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. 1901:to account for apparent causality in the world. 1839: 4123:. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012) 4189:, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ. 4172:. (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999) 4140:Huenemann, Charles; Gennaro, Rocco J. (eds.): 3489:Michael LeBuffe (book reviewer) (2006-11-05). 3484: 3482: 3480: 3418: 3416: 3414: 3387: 2611:Oakeshott, Michael,"Rationalism in Politics," 1335:categorical syllogisms which consist of three 9155: 7940: 7926: 5830: 5182: 4307: 4116:Förster, Eckart; Melamed, Yitzhak Y. (eds.): 3000:, who called it (Plato's) "Theory of Forms:" 2964:Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching, And Influence 2223:Kant is one of the central figures of modern 1812:, have implications for modern approaches to 1773: 1667: 1408: 1305:, but rather the abstract, non-material (but 910: 528:. More formally, rationalism is defined as a 485: 2544: 2542: 1904: 4144:. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) 4045:Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). 3606: 3477: 3411: 3381: 2528: 2526: 2251: 1224: 1191:Rationalist philosophy in Western antiquity 551:, rationalism (sometimes here equated with 547:In a major philosophical debate during the 9162: 9148: 7933: 7919: 5837: 5823: 5189: 5175: 4314: 4300: 3906: 3493:. University of Notre Dame. Archived from 3317: 3265: 3198: 2793: 2638:, May 2006, vol. 43 (no. 5–6), pp. 863–878 2597: 2595: 1928: 1674: 1660: 1316: 1017: 890:: '"The knowledge we gain in subject area 876:: "The knowledge we gain in subject area, 492: 478: 4970: 4933:Relationship between religion and science 4321: 4087:. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015) 3547: 3453: 3451: 3449: 2634:Boyd, Richard, "The Value of Civility?," 2539: 1992:Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason 1102:postulates three classifications for our 3636: 2523: 1964: Question: What Is Enlightenment? 1403: 1384:, and Jewish philosopher and theologian 1356: 1268: 1194: 1067: 1002:and the more radical their rationalism. 966:, a prominent German philosopher, says, 951:, we can deduce from intuited premises. 9169: 4090: 3667:Social News Books (November 25, 1932). 3660: 3630: 3600: 3571: 3541: 3512: 3351: 2827:René Descartes AT VII 37–38; CSM II 26. 2592: 2562:An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 655:views about the nature of human ideas. 16:Epistemological view centered on reason 9946: 4035:The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy 3548:Hutchison, Percy (November 20, 1932). 3446: 3323: 2230:Kant named his brand of epistemology " 1971:Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals 1258: 769: 732: – the latter aspect's 9143: 7914: 7576: 6318: 5856: 5818: 5170: 4295: 4264: 4041:, Cambridge, 1995. 2nd edition, 1999. 3940:See Arlie Russell Hochschild (2012), 3931:, vol. 2. New York: Springer, p. 267. 3929:Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions 3912: 3696:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 3392:. History of Philosophy As I See It. 3185:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 3163:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 2773:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2741:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2705:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2013:On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from 874:The indispensability of reason thesis 774:Rationalism is often contrasted with 9964:Philosophical schools and traditions 3811: 3236: 3230: 3068:"in itself." See Christian Schäfer: 3003:Πλάτων ἐν τῇ περὶ τῶν ἰδεῶν ὑπολήψει 2962:(1966), pp. 97–102, and C. Riedweg, 2551: 1115:and the like are my own invention." 540:is not sensory but intellectual and 4276:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4257:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4245:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project 4224:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4068:The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy 3720:. Plato.stanford.edu. 20 May 2010. 3637:Cummings, M E (September 8, 1929). 3462:. The New York Times – Books. 3239:Andalucía : a cultural history 3108: 3060:. He also uses expressions such as 2960:Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism 2576:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 1573:Rules for the Direction of the Mind 13: 4179:. (Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2006) 3957:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3784:"Rationalist Movement – LessWrong" 3423:Anthony Gottlieb (July 18, 1999). 3090:Plato's theory of forms (or ideas) 3012:. Vol. Book III Paragraph 15. 1882:" (which he derived directly from 962:To argue in favor of this thesis, 699: 696:in three fourths of our actions." 14: 9980: 9124:Western European and Others Group 4953:Sociology of scientific knowledge 4948:Sociology of scientific ignorance 4901:History and philosophy of science 4265:Lennon, Thomas M.; Dea, Shannon. 4249: 4213: 4207: 3915:The Present Dilemma in Philosophy 3773:, 2000. Harvard University Press. 3406:transient, changing, and visible. 2838:New Essays on Human Understanding 2836:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, 1704, 2727:New Essays on Human Understanding 2725:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, 1704, 1836:and much intellectual attention. 1148:New Essays on Human Understanding 932:Generally speaking, intuition is 744:, became socially conflated with 596:life of inquiry, or the zetetic ( 9926: 9914: 9808:Stratification of emotional life 9257: 9251: 9245: 7894: 7893: 7880: 5196: 5150: 5138: 4163:Spinoza's Radical Cartesian Mind 3913:James, William (November 1906). 3869:from the original on 18 May 2023 3205:. Cosimo Classics. p. 139. 3167:Aristotle Non-Modal Syllogistic. 2912:from the original on 18 May 2015 2877:from the original on 18 May 2015 2511:from the original on 18 May 2015 2203: 1432: 888:The superiority of reason thesis 69: 55: 41: 3947: 3934: 3921: 3895:from the original on 2023-06-06 3881: 3843: 3832:from the original on 2021-04-20 3805: 3794:from the original on 2023-06-17 3776: 3764: 3735: 3724:from the original on 2012-01-12 3710: 3679:from the original on 2010-03-26 3619:from the original on 2010-03-26 3589:from the original on 2010-03-26 3560:from the original on 2010-03-26 3530:from the original on 2011-05-13 3466:from the original on 2009-04-17 3458:Anthony Gottlieb (2009-09-07). 3431:from the original on 2023-10-18 3396:from the original on 2012-01-04 3370:from the original on 2009-09-03 3339:from the original on 7 May 2015 3308: 3283: 3272:"Low Sunday: Rationalism" 3259: 3219:from the original on 2023-02-11 3170: 3148: 3132: 3121:from the original on 2013-05-19 3102: 3079: 3016: 2990: 2969: 2924: 2843: 2830: 2821: 2814: – The original 2787: 2755: 2719: 2685: 2672: 2658:FactCheck.org Mission Statement 1721:Meditations on First Philosophy 1704:. He also argued that although 1598:Meditations on First Philosophy 1247:, but he is best known for the 1095:Meditations on First Philosophy 5844: 5613:Analytic–synthetic distinction 4342:Analytic–synthetic distinction 4142:New Essays on the Rationalists 2851:Concerning Human Understanding 2818:, translated, in its entirety. 2707:The Intuition/Deduction Thesis 2650: 2627: 2604: 2085:Analytic–synthetic distinction 1955: Any Future Metaphysics 1352: 238:Analytic–synthetic distinction 1: 7577: 4130:. (Dordrecht: Springer, 2011) 3814:"Silicon Valley's Safe Space" 3607:Irwin Edman (July 22, 1934). 3427:. The New York Times: Books. 3425:"God Exists, Philosophically" 3295:History of western philosophy 3010:Lives of Eminent Philosophers 2794:Cottingham, J., ed. (1996) . 2479: 1840:Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) 1345:. These included categorical 1303:known to us through sensation 603: 7366:Ordinary language philosophy 5857: 4219:"Rationalism vs. Empiricism" 4196:. (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2018) 4024: 3390:"Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677)" 3026:in English translations and 2580:"Rationalism vs. Empiricism" 2286: 1978:Critique of Practical Reason 21:Rationalism (disambiguation) 7: 9400:Theological intellectualism 7416:Contemporary utilitarianism 7331:Internalism and externalism 5658:Internalism and externalism 4675:Hypothetico-deductive model 4650:Deductive-nomological model 4635:Constructivist epistemology 3953:See Robin Markwica (2018), 3917:(Speech). Lowell Institute. 2853:, Book I, Ch. III, Par. 20. 2743:The Innate Knowledge Thesis 2318: 2237:The Critique of Pure Reason 1166:Some philosophers, such as 1006:beyond a reasonable doubt. 536:"in which the criterion of 10: 9985: 9778:Principle of double effect 6680:Svatantrika and Prasangika 6319: 4149:A Dictionary of Philosophy 4096:The Life of Mahatma Gandhi 4039:Cambridge University Press 3969: 3964: 3002: 2534:A Dictionary of Philosophy 2406:Phenomenology (philosophy) 2216: 2015: Benevolent Motives 1843: 1777: 1774:Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) 1685: 1626:Christina, Queen of Sweden 1409:René Descartes (1596–1650) 1320: 1262: 1228: 1185: 914: 911:Intuition/deduction thesis 643:. This is commonly called 25: 18: 9909: 9848: 9645: 9422: 9392: 9354: 9311: 9273: 9266: 9243: 9177: 8894:Anglo-Portuguese Alliance 8874: 8792: 8629: 8464: 8335:Standard Average European 8203: 8032: 7952: 7874: 7826: 7726: 7688: 7635: 7602: 7593: 7589: 7572: 7522: 7434: 7272: 7263: 7196: 6979: 6970: 6948: 6903: 6845: 6797: 6751: 6742: 6705: 6576: 6441: 6388: 6379: 6329: 6325: 6314: 6253: 6225: 6182: 6134: 6091: 6044: 6016: 5968: 5940: 5902:Philosophy of mathematics 5892:Philosophy of information 5867: 5863: 5852: 5784: 5733: 5582: 5489:Evolutionary epistemology 5459: 5204: 5129: 4961: 4863: 4793: 4736:Semantic view of theories 4655:Epistemological anarchism 4607: 4592:dependent and independent 4329: 4267:"Continental Rationalism" 4252:"Continental Rationalism" 3812:Metz, Cade (2021-02-13). 3698:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 3199:Heckethorn, C.W. (2011). 3076:, Darmstadt 2007, p. 157. 2775:The Innate Concept Thesis 2451:Rationalist International 2006:The Metaphysics of Morals 1905:Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) 1641:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 1496:Causal adequacy principle 1143:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 964:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 943:from one or more general 740:noted how rationalism, a 708:, rationalism, since the 344:Evolutionary epistemology 9959:Epistemological theories 9034:Lancaster House Treaties 8524:Christian existentialism 8484:Ancient Roman philosophy 8474:Ancient Greek philosophy 5761:Philosophy of perception 5564:Representational realism 5534:Naturalized epistemology 4478:Intertheoretic reduction 4467:Ignoramus et ignorabimus 4444:Functional contextualism 4187:Dictionary of Philosophy 3639:"Roth Evaluates Spinoza" 2678:Cottingham, John. 1984. 2386:Objectivity (philosophy) 2252:Contemporary rationalism 1727:Principles of Philosophy 1603:Principles of Philosophy 1337:categorical propositions 1225:Pythagoras (570–495 BCE) 459:Philosophy of perception 26:Not to be confused with 9405:Theological voluntarism 8812:Equality before the law 8019:Romano-Germanic culture 7371:Postanalytic philosophy 7312:Experimental philosophy 5741:Outline of epistemology 5574:Transcendental idealism 4963:Philosophers of science 4741:Scientific essentialism 4690:Model-dependent realism 4625:Constructive empiricism 4518:Evidence-based practice 4083:Douglas, Alexander X.: 4072:Oxford University Press 4017:Critique of Pure Reason 3981:Discourse on the Method 3855:. Orion. 13 June 2019. 3388:Kelley L. Ross (1999). 3364:San Francisco Chronicle 3333:Encyclopædia Britannica 3277:Sermons from the Latins 3243:Oxford University Press 3070:Idee/Form/Gestalt/Wesen 2871:Encyclopædia Britannica 2729:, Preface, pp. 150–151. 2669:. Retrieved 2020-01-01. 2647:. Retrieved 2013-01-13. 2624:. Retrieved 2013-01-13. 2468:Pluralistic rationalism 2396:Pancritical rationalism 2336:Emotional choice theory 2326:17th-century philosophy 2300:emotional choice theory 2232:Transcendental Idealism 2105:Hypothetical imperative 2047:Transcendental idealism 1946:Critique of Pure Reason 1899:pre-established harmony 1715:Discourse on the Method 1588:Discourse on the Method 1364:Portrait on Silver Vase 1317:Aristotle (384–322 BCE) 1018:Innate knowledge thesis 838:makes a claim and then 805:theory of justification 645:continental rationalism 354:Historical epistemology 9921:Catholicism portal 8974:Eastern European Group 8563:Continental philosophy 8494:Judeo-Christian ethics 8479:Hellenistic philosophy 7960:Cradle of civilization 7504:Social constructionism 6516:Hellenistic philosophy 5932:Theoretical philosophy 5907:Philosophy of religion 5897:Philosophy of language 5688:Problem of other minds 5046:Alfred North Whitehead 5036:Charles Sanders Peirce 4283:John F. 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6909: 6907: 6901: 6900: 6898: 6897: 6892: 6891: 6890: 6885: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6849: 6847: 6843: 6842: 6840: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6812:Augustinianism 6809: 6803: 6801: 6795: 6794: 6792: 6791: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6755: 6753: 6746: 6740: 6739: 6736: 6735: 6733: 6732: 6727: 6725:Zoroastrianism 6722: 6717: 6711: 6709: 6703: 6702: 6700: 6699: 6698: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6647: 6646: 6645: 6640: 6630: 6629: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6582: 6580: 6574: 6573: 6571: 6570: 6568:Church Fathers 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6539: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6482: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6461: 6450: 6448: 6439: 6438: 6436: 6435: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6394: 6392: 6383: 6377: 6376: 6374: 6373: 6372: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6341: 6335: 6333: 6323: 6322: 6312: 6311: 6308: 6307: 6304: 6303: 6301: 6300: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6259: 6257: 6251: 6250: 6248: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6231: 6229: 6223: 6222: 6220: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6188: 6186: 6180: 6179: 6177: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6140: 6138: 6132: 6131: 6129: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6097: 6095: 6089: 6088: 6086: 6085: 6083:Libertarianism 6080: 6079: 6078: 6068: 6067: 6066: 6056: 6050: 6048: 6042: 6041: 6039: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6022: 6020: 6014: 6013: 6011: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5974: 5972: 5966: 5965: 5963: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5946: 5944: 5938: 5937: 5935: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5887:Metaphilosophy 5884: 5879: 5873: 5871: 5861: 5860: 5850: 5849: 5842: 5841: 5834: 5827: 5819: 5810: 5809: 5807: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5785: 5782: 5781: 5779: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5737: 5735: 5731: 5730: 5728: 5727: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5597: 5588: 5586: 5580: 5579: 5577: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5474:Constructivism 5471: 5465: 5463: 5457: 5456: 5454: 5453: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5431: 5426: 5424:Baruch Spinoza 5421: 5419:P. F. Strawson 5416: 5411: 5409:Susanna Siegel 5406: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5384:W. V. O. Quine 5381: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5316: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5284:Nelson Goodman 5281: 5276: 5274:Edmund Gettier 5271: 5266: 5261: 5259:René Descartes 5256: 5251: 5249:Gilles Deleuze 5246: 5241: 5236: 5231: 5226: 5224:William Alston 5221: 5216: 5214:Thomas Aquinas 5210: 5208: 5202: 5201: 5194: 5193: 5186: 5179: 5171: 5162: 5161: 5159: 5147: 5135: 5130: 5127: 5126: 5124: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5091:W. V. O. Quine 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5026:Rudolf Steiner 5023: 5018: 5016:Henri Poincaré 5013: 5007: 5004: 5003: 5001: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4974: 4972: 4965: 4959: 4958: 4956: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4915: 4914: 4913: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4886:Exact sciences 4883: 4878: 4873: 4867: 4865: 4864:Related topics 4861: 4860: 4858: 4857: 4856: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4823:Social science 4820: 4819: 4818: 4816:Space and time 4808: 4803: 4797: 4795: 4791: 4790: 4788: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4729: 4720: 4715: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4611: 4609: 4605: 4604: 4602: 4601: 4596: 4595: 4594: 4589: 4579: 4574: 4569: 4568: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4525:Scientific law 4522: 4521: 4520: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4463: 4462: 4461: 4456: 4446: 4441: 4436: 4434:Falsifiability 4431: 4426: 4421: 4420: 4419: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4393: 4392: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4366: 4365: 4363:Mill's Methods 4355: 4344: 4339: 4333: 4331: 4327: 4326: 4319: 4318: 4311: 4304: 4296: 4290: 4289: 4281: 4262: 4247: 4238: 4229: 4209: 4208:External links 4206: 4205: 4204: 4197: 4190: 4180: 4173: 4166: 4159: 4152: 4145: 4138: 4131: 4124: 4114: 4108: 4092:Fischer, Louis 4088: 4081: 4075: 4061: 4056:978-0131585911 4055: 4042: 4026: 4023: 4022: 4021: 4012:Kant, Immanuel 4009: 3997: 3985: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3960: 3959: 3946: 3933: 3920: 3905: 3880: 3861: 3842: 3804: 3775: 3763: 3734: 3709: 3689: 3659: 3629: 3599: 3570: 3540: 3511: 3476: 3445: 3410: 3380: 3350: 3316: 3307: 3282: 3258: 3252:978-0195376104 3251: 3229: 3211: 3191: 3169: 3147: 3131: 3101: 3078: 3074:Platon-Lexikon 3015: 2989: 2968: 2966:(2005), p. 92. 2923: 2888: 2855: 2842: 2829: 2820: 2809:978-0521558181 2808: 2786: 2763: 2754: 2731: 2718: 2693: 2684: 2671: 2660:, January 2020 2649: 2626: 2603: 2591: 2565: 2550: 2538: 2522: 2505:Britannica.com 2484: 2483: 2481: 2478: 2476: 2475: 2470: 2465: 2460: 2453: 2448: 2443: 2438: 2433: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2413: 2408: 2403: 2401:Panrationalism 2398: 2393: 2388: 2383: 2378: 2373: 2368: 2363: 2358: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2333: 2328: 2322: 2320: 2317: 2298:Proponents of 2288: 2285: 2258:Robert Brandom 2253: 2250: 2217:Main article: 2213: 2212: 2195: 2194: 2191: 2190: 2188:Neo-Kantianism 2185: 2179: 2177:Related topics 2176: 2175: 2172: 2171: 2168: 2167: 2165:Baruch Spinoza 2162: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2145:G. W. F. Hegel 2142: 2136: 2133: 2132: 2129: 2128: 2125: 2124: 2119: 2114: 2107: 2102: 2097: 2092: 2087: 2082: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2054: 2049: 2043: 2040:Kantian ethics 2034: 2033: 2030: 2029: 2026: 2025: 2018: 2009: 2002: 1995: 1988: 1981: 1974: 1967: 1958: 1953:Prolegomena to 1949: 1941: 1938: 1937: 1934: 1933: 1925: 1924: 1918: 1917: 1906: 1903: 1844:Main article: 1841: 1838: 1786:Baruch Spinoza 1778:Main article: 1775: 1772: 1688:René Descartes 1686:Main article: 1682: 1681: 1679: 1678: 1671: 1664: 1656: 1653: 1652: 1649: 1648: 1643: 1638: 1636:Baruch Spinoza 1633: 1628: 1622: 1619: 1618: 1615: 1614: 1611: 1610: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1569: 1566: 1565: 1562: 1561: 1558: 1557: 1550: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1513: 1508: 1503: 1498: 1493: 1488: 1483: 1476: 1474:Dream argument 1471: 1466: 1461: 1456: 1451: 1445: 1442: 1441: 1438: 1437: 1429: 1428: 1426:René Descartes 1422: 1421: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1394:Thomas Aquinas 1354: 1351: 1321:Main article: 1318: 1315: 1263:Main article: 1260: 1257: 1229:Main article: 1226: 1223: 1211:Vatican Palace 1192: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1100:René Descartes 1087:conscious mind 1069: 1066: 1019: 1016: 995:ethical truths 912: 909: 792:Galen Strawson 771: 768: 722:utilitarianism 701: 698: 668:Baruch Spinoza 605: 602: 561:logical truths 500: 499: 497: 496: 489: 482: 474: 471: 470: 467: 466: 461: 456: 451: 445: 442:Related fields 441: 440: 439: 436: 435: 432: 431: 426: 424:W. V. O. Quine 421: 416: 411: 409:René Descartes 406: 401: 399:Edmund Gettier 396: 391: 385: 381: 380: 379: 376: 375: 372: 371: 366: 361: 356: 351: 346: 341: 335: 331: 330: 329: 326: 325: 322: 321: 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 276: 271: 266: 261: 256: 251: 240: 235: 229: 225: 224: 223: 220: 219: 216: 215: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 150: 145: 140: 135: 129: 125: 124: 123: 120: 119: 117: 116: 111: 106: 100: 97: 96: 90: 89: 75: 68: 67: 63:Baruch Spinoza 61: 54: 53: 49:René Descartes 47: 40: 39: 38: 37: 36: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9981: 9970: 9967: 9965: 9962: 9960: 9957: 9955: 9952: 9951: 9949: 9934: 9924: 9922: 9917: 9912: 9911: 9908: 9902: 9901:Phenomenology 9899: 9897: 9894: 9892: 9889: 9887: 9884: 9882: 9879: 9877: 9874: 9872: 9869: 9867: 9864: 9862: 9859: 9857: 9854: 9853: 9851: 9847: 9841: 9838: 9836: 9833: 9831: 9828: 9824: 9821: 9819: 9816: 9815: 9814: 9811: 9809: 9806: 9804: 9801: 9799: 9798:Rota Fortunae 9796: 9794: 9791: 9789: 9786: 9784: 9781: 9779: 9776: 9774: 9771: 9769: 9766: 9764: 9761: 9759: 9758:Occam's razor 9756: 9754: 9751: 9749: 9746: 9744: 9741: 9739: 9738:Head of a pin 9736: 9734: 9731: 9729: 9726: 9724: 9721: 9719: 9716: 9714: 9711: 9709: 9706: 9704: 9701: 9699: 9696: 9694: 9691: 9689: 9686: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9676: 9674: 9671: 9669: 9666: 9664: 9661: 9659: 9656: 9654: 9653:Actus Essendi 9651: 9650: 9648: 9644: 9638: 9635: 9633: 9630: 9628: 9625: 9623: 9620: 9618: 9615: 9613: 9610: 9608: 9605: 9603: 9600: 9598: 9595: 9593: 9590: 9588: 9585: 9583: 9580: 9578: 9575: 9573: 9570: 9568: 9565: 9563: 9560: 9558: 9555: 9553: 9550: 9548: 9545: 9543: 9540: 9538: 9535: 9533: 9530: 9528: 9525: 9523: 9520: 9518: 9515: 9513: 9510: 9508: 9505: 9503: 9500: 9498: 9495: 9493: 9490: 9488: 9487:Chateaubriand 9485: 9483: 9480: 9478: 9475: 9473: 9470: 9468: 9465: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9453: 9450: 9448: 9445: 9443: 9440: 9438: 9435: 9433: 9430: 9429: 9427: 9425: 9421: 9411: 9408: 9406: 9403: 9401: 9398: 9397: 9395: 9391: 9385: 9382: 9380: 9377: 9375: 9374:Conceptualism 9372: 9370: 9367: 9365: 9362: 9361: 9359: 9357: 9353: 9347: 9344: 9342: 9339: 9337: 9334: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9318: 9316: 9314: 9310: 9304: 9301: 9299: 9296: 9294: 9291: 9289: 9288:Scholasticism 9286: 9284: 9281: 9280: 9278: 9276: 9272: 9269: 9265: 9238: 9237:Virtue ethics 9235: 9233: 9230: 9228: 9225: 9223: 9222:Seven virtues 9220: 9218: 9215: 9213: 9210: 9208: 9205: 9203: 9200: 9198: 9195: 9193: 9190: 9188: 9185: 9184: 9182: 9180: 9176: 9172: 9165: 9160: 9158: 9153: 9151: 9146: 9145: 9142: 9130: 9127: 9125: 9122: 9120: 9117: 9115: 9112: 9110: 9107: 9105: 9102: 9100: 9097: 9095: 9092: 9090: 9087: 9085: 9082: 9080: 9077: 9075: 9074:PROSUR/PROSUL 9072: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9062: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9032: 9030: 9027: 9025: 9022: 9020: 9017: 9015: 9012: 9010: 9007: 9005: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8987: 8985: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8975: 8972: 8970: 8969:Craiova Group 8967: 8965: 8962: 8960: 8957: 8955: 8952: 8950: 8947: 8945: 8942: 8940: 8937: 8935: 8932: 8930: 8927: 8925: 8922: 8920: 8917: 8915: 8912: 8910: 8907: 8905: 8902: 8900: 8897: 8895: 8892: 8890: 8887: 8885: 8884:ABCANZ Armies 8882: 8881: 8879: 8873: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8855: 8852: 8850: 8847: 8845: 8842: 8840: 8837: 8835: 8832: 8830: 8827: 8826: 8825: 8822: 8820: 8817: 8813: 8810: 8809: 8808: 8805: 8803: 8800: 8799: 8797: 8795: 8791: 8785: 8782: 8780: 8777: 8773: 8770: 8768: 8765: 8763: 8760: 8758: 8755: 8751: 8748: 8746: 8743: 8741: 8738: 8736: 8733: 8732: 8731: 8728: 8726: 8723: 8721: 8718: 8716: 8713: 8712: 8711: 8708: 8702: 8699: 8698: 8697: 8694: 8690: 8689:Protestantism 8687: 8683: 8680: 8679: 8678: 8675: 8671: 8668: 8667: 8666: 8663: 8659: 8655: 8652: 8651: 8650: 8647: 8646: 8645: 8642: 8641: 8640: 8637: 8636: 8634: 8632: 8628: 8620: 8617: 8616: 8615: 8612: 8610: 8609:Sovereigntism 8607: 8605: 8602: 8598: 8597: 8593: 8592: 8591: 8588: 8584: 8581: 8580: 8579: 8576: 8574: 8571: 8569: 8566: 8564: 8561: 8559: 8556: 8554: 8551: 8549: 8546: 8542: 8539: 8537: 8534: 8533: 8532: 8529: 8525: 8522: 8521: 8520: 8517: 8515: 8512: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8504:Scholasticism 8502: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8471: 8469: 8467: 8463: 8455: 8452: 8450: 8447: 8445: 8442: 8440: 8437: 8436: 8435: 8432: 8428: 8425: 8424: 8423: 8420: 8416: 8413: 8411: 8408: 8407: 8406: 8403: 8399: 8396: 8395: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8382: 8379: 8377: 8374: 8372: 8369: 8368: 8367: 8364: 8360: 8357: 8356: 8355: 8352: 8348: 8345: 8344: 8343: 8340: 8336: 8333: 8331: 8328: 8327: 8326: 8323: 8321: 8318: 8316: 8313: 8311: 8308: 8304: 8301: 8300: 8299: 8296: 8294: 8291: 8287: 8284: 8283: 8282: 8279: 8275: 8272: 8271: 8270: 8267: 8263: 8260: 8259: 8258: 8255: 8253: 8250: 8246: 8243: 8242: 8241: 8238: 8236: 8233: 8229: 8226: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8216: 8215: 8214: 8211: 8210: 8208: 8206: 8202: 8194: 8193:War on terror 8191: 8189: 8186: 8185: 8184: 8181: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8139: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8129: 8127: 8124: 8122: 8119: 8117: 8114: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8088: 8087: 8086:Modern period 8084: 8082: 8079: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8065: 8062: 8061: 8060: 8057: 8053: 8050: 8049: 8048: 8045: 8043: 8040: 8039: 8037: 8035: 8031: 8025: 8022: 8020: 8017: 8015: 8012: 8010: 8007: 8001: 7998: 7996: 7993: 7992: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7972: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7958: 7957: 7955: 7951: 7947: 7943: 7942:Western world 7936: 7931: 7929: 7924: 7922: 7917: 7916: 7913: 7901: 7900: 7891: 7889: 7888: 7877: 7876: 7873: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7831: 7829: 7827:Miscellaneous 7825: 7819: 7816: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7759: 7756: 7752: 7749: 7748: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7733: 7731: 7729: 7725: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7695: 7693: 7691: 7687: 7681: 7678: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7642: 7640: 7638: 7634: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7609: 7607: 7605: 7601: 7598: 7596: 7592: 7588: 7580: 7579: 7575: 7571: 7553: 7552: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7527: 7525: 7523:Miscellaneous 7521: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7509:Structuralism 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7494:Postmodernism 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7484:Phenomenology 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7441: 7439: 7437: 7433: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7421:Vienna Circle 7419: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7351:Moral realism 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7279: 7277: 7275: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7262: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7215: 7212: 7211: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7201: 7199: 7195: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7153:Phenomenology 7151: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7093:Individualism 7091: 7087: 7084: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7058: 7057: 7054: 7050: 7047: 7046: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6981: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6969: 6959: 6958:Judeo-Islamic 6956: 6955: 6953: 6951: 6947: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6935: 6934:ʿIlm al-Kalām 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6910: 6908: 6906: 6902: 6896: 6893: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6883:Shuddhadvaita 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6855: 6854: 6851: 6850: 6848: 6844: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6817:Scholasticism 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6804: 6802: 6800: 6796: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6756: 6754: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6741: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6712: 6710: 6708: 6704: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6652: 6651: 6648: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6635: 6634: 6631: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6588: 6587: 6584: 6583: 6581: 6579: 6575: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6518: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6456: 6455: 6452: 6451: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6440: 6434: 6431: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6395: 6393: 6391: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6378: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6347: 6346: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6336: 6334: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6317: 6313: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6268:Conceptualism 6266: 6264: 6261: 6260: 6258: 6256: 6252: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6232: 6230: 6228: 6224: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6197:Particularism 6195: 6193: 6190: 6189: 6187: 6185: 6181: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6164:Functionalism 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6149:Eliminativism 6147: 6145: 6142: 6141: 6139: 6137: 6133: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6098: 6096: 6094: 6090: 6084: 6081: 6077: 6074: 6073: 6072: 6069: 6065: 6062: 6061: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6054:Compatibilism 6052: 6051: 6049: 6047: 6043: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6023: 6021: 6019: 6015: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5993:Particularism 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5975: 5973: 5971: 5967: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5947: 5945: 5943: 5939: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5874: 5872: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5840: 5835: 5833: 5828: 5826: 5821: 5820: 5817: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5786: 5783: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5738: 5736: 5732: 5726: 5725: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5663:Justification 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5602: 5598: 5596: 5594: 5590: 5589: 5587: 5585: 5581: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5539:Phenomenalism 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5529:Naïve realism 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5479:Contextualism 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5466: 5464: 5462: 5458: 5452: 5451: 5447: 5445: 5444:Vienna Circle 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5379:Hilary Putnam 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5354:Robert Nozick 5352: 5350: 5349:John McDowell 5347: 5345: 5342: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5309:Immanuel Kant 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5279:Alvin Goldman 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5211: 5209: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5192: 5187: 5185: 5180: 5178: 5173: 5172: 5169: 5158: 5153: 5148: 5146: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5128: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5076:Rudolf Carnap 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5011:Auguste Comte 5009: 5008: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4983:Francis Bacon 4981: 4979: 4976: 4975: 4973: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4960: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4912: 4911:Pseudoscience 4909: 4908: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4868: 4866: 4862: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4825: 4824: 4821: 4817: 4814: 4813: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4798: 4796: 4792: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4770:Structuralism 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4733: 4732:Received view 4730: 4728: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4693: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4640:Contextualism 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4612: 4610: 4606: 4600: 4597: 4593: 4590: 4588: 4585: 4584: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4570: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4552: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4519: 4516: 4515: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4452: 4451: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4437: 4435: 4432: 4430: 4427: 4425: 4422: 4418: 4415: 4414: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4391: 4388: 4387: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4364: 4361: 4360: 4359: 4356: 4354: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4334: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4317: 4312: 4310: 4305: 4303: 4298: 4297: 4294: 4288: 4287: 4282: 4278: 4277: 4272: 4268: 4263: 4259: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4246: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4233: 4230: 4226: 4225: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4211: 4202: 4198: 4195: 4191: 4188: 4185:(ed., 1962), 4184: 4181: 4178: 4174: 4171: 4167: 4164: 4160: 4157: 4153: 4150: 4146: 4143: 4139: 4136: 4132: 4129: 4125: 4122: 4121: 4115: 4111: 4105: 4101: 4100:HarperCollins 4097: 4093: 4089: 4086: 4082: 4079: 4076: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4062: 4058: 4052: 4048: 4043: 4040: 4036: 4033:(ed., 1999), 4032: 4029: 4028: 4019: 4018: 4014:(1781/1787), 4013: 4010: 4007: 4006: 4001: 3998: 3995: 3994: 3989: 3986: 3983: 3982: 3977: 3974: 3973: 3956: 3950: 3943: 3937: 3930: 3924: 3916: 3909: 3894: 3890: 3884: 3868: 3864: 3862:9781474608800 3858: 3854: 3853: 3846: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3808: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3779: 3772: 3767: 3753:on 2012-12-27 3752: 3748: 3744: 3743:"Rationalism" 3738: 3723: 3719: 3713: 3706: 3702: 3699: 3693: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3663: 3649:on 2010-03-24 3648: 3644: 3640: 3633: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3603: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3574: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3544: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3515: 3508: 3507:philosophy... 3497:on 2011-06-15 3496: 3492: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3465: 3461: 3454: 3452: 3450: 3442: 3430: 3426: 3419: 3417: 3415: 3407: 3395: 3391: 3384: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3354: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3320: 3311: 3304: 3300: 3297: 3296: 3291: 3286: 3278: 3273: 3268: 3262: 3254: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3233: 3218: 3214: 3208: 3204: 3203: 3195: 3188: 3187:Ancient Logic 3184: 3180: 3177: 3173: 3166: 3165:Ancient Logic 3162: 3158: 3155: 3151: 3144: 3140: 3135: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3105: 3098: 3094: 3091: 3088: 3082: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3058: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3019: 3011: 2999: 2993: 2986: 2982: 2979: 2972: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2956:C.J. de Vogel 2953: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2937: 2932: 2927: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2862: 2860: 2852: 2846: 2839: 2833: 2824: 2817: 2811: 2805: 2800: 2799: 2790: 2783: 2779: 2776: 2770: 2768: 2758: 2751: 2747: 2744: 2738: 2736: 2728: 2722: 2715: 2711: 2708: 2702: 2700: 2698: 2688: 2681: 2675: 2668: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2653: 2646: 2642: 2639: 2637: 2630: 2623: 2619: 2616: 2614: 2607: 2598: 2596: 2588: 2584: 2581: 2577: 2572: 2570: 2563: 2559: 2554: 2545: 2543: 2535: 2529: 2527: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2501:"Rationalism" 2496: 2494: 2492: 2490: 2485: 2474: 2471: 2469: 2466: 2464: 2461: 2459: 2458: 2454: 2452: 2449: 2447: 2444: 2442: 2439: 2437: 2434: 2432: 2429: 2427: 2424: 2422: 2419: 2417: 2414: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2402: 2399: 2397: 2394: 2392: 2389: 2387: 2384: 2382: 2379: 2377: 2374: 2372: 2369: 2367: 2366:Logical truth 2364: 2362: 2361:Irrationalism 2359: 2357: 2354: 2352: 2349: 2347: 2344: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2334: 2332: 2329: 2327: 2324: 2323: 2316: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2296: 2294: 2293:William James 2284: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2269: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2249: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2238: 2233: 2228: 2226: 2220: 2219:Immanuel Kant 2211: 2200: 2197: 2196: 2189: 2186: 2184: 2181: 2180: 2174: 2173: 2166: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2141: 2138: 2137: 2131: 2130: 2123: 2120: 2118: 2115: 2112: 2108: 2106: 2103: 2101: 2098: 2096: 2093: 2091: 2088: 2086: 2083: 2081: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2070: 2067: 2065: 2062: 2060: 2059: 2055: 2053: 2050: 2048: 2045: 2044: 2041: 2037: 2032: 2031: 2024: 2023: 2022:Opus Postumum 2019: 2016: 2010: 2008: 2007: 2003: 2001: 2000: 1996: 1994: 1993: 1989: 1987: 1986: 1982: 1980: 1979: 1975: 1973: 1972: 1968: 1965: 1962:Answering the 1959: 1957: 1956: 1950: 1948: 1947: 1943: 1942: 1936: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1926: 1923: 1922:Immanuel Kant 1920: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1910: 1902: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1887: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1872:jurisprudence 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1847: 1837: 1835: 1831: 1830: 1825: 1824: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1798:Thomas Hobbes 1795: 1791: 1787: 1781: 1771: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1748: 1747: 1742: 1741: 1735: 1733: 1729: 1728: 1723: 1722: 1717: 1716: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1697: 1695: 1689: 1677: 1672: 1670: 1665: 1663: 1658: 1657: 1655: 1654: 1647: 1644: 1642: 1639: 1637: 1634: 1632: 1629: 1627: 1624: 1623: 1617: 1616: 1609: 1606: 1604: 1601: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1570: 1564: 1563: 1556: 1555: 1551: 1549: 1548: 1544: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1527: 1526:Rule of signs 1524: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1504: 1502: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1492: 1489: 1487: 1484: 1482: 1481: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1470: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1446: 1440: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1430: 1427: 1424: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1414: 1401: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1376: 1372: 1363: 1359: 1350: 1348: 1344: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1329: 1324: 1314: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1285: 1281: 1280: 1275: 1271: 1266: 1256: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1237:mathematician 1232: 1222: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1203: 1197: 1183: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1172:Enlightenment 1169: 1163: 1160: 1159: 1152: 1150: 1149: 1144: 1140: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1096: 1090: 1088: 1084: 1083: 1076: 1075: 1065: 1063: 1062:unconsciously 1059: 1055: 1051: 1050: 1045: 1040: 1038: 1037: 1032: 1026: 1025: 1015: 1013: 1007: 1003: 1000: 996: 992: 987: 985: 984: 978: 972: 967: 965: 960: 958: 952: 950: 946: 942: 937: 936: 929: 928: 922: 918: 908: 906: 902: 901: 895: 893: 889: 885: 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 865: 864:justification 861: 857: 853: 845: 841: 837: 832: 830: 826: 822: 821:justification 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 796: 793: 789: 788: 783: 782: 777: 766: 764: 760: 753: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 711: 710:Enlightenment 707: 697: 695: 691: 690: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 656: 652: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 629: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 601: 599: 595: 591: 587: 581: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 549:Enlightenment 545: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 495: 490: 488: 483: 481: 476: 475: 473: 472: 465: 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 446: 438: 437: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 419:Immanuel Kant 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 404:Wang Yangming 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 386: 378: 377: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 355: 352: 350: 347: 345: 342: 340: 337: 336: 328: 327: 320: 317: 315: 312: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 284:Justification 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 249: 245: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 230: 222: 221: 214: 213:Structuralism 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 183:Perspectivism 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 168:Infallibilism 166: 164: 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 149: 146: 144: 141: 139: 138:Contextualism 136: 134: 131: 130: 122: 121: 115: 112: 110: 107: 105: 102: 101: 99: 98: 95: 92: 91: 87: 86: 78: 64: 50: 33: 29: 22: 9890: 9871:Neoplatonism 9793:Ressentiment 9788:Quinque viae 9753:Memento mori 9713:Double truth 9658:Actus primus 9424:Philosophers 9331:Cartesianism 9119:Western Bloc 8919:AUSCANNZUKUS 8875:Contemporary 8824:Human rights 8670:Latin Church 8644:Christianity 8594: 8553:Conservatism 8508: 8398:contemporary 8235:Architecture 8171:World War II 8131:Emancipation 8126:Abolitionism 8014:Romanization 8009:Roman legacy 7990:Roman Empire 7892: 7878: 7549: 7540:Postcritique 7530:Kyoto School 7489:Posthumanism 7469:Hermeneutics 7324: / 7265:Contemporary 7241:Newtonianism 7204:Cartesianism 7167: 7163:Reductionism 6999:Conservatism 6994:Collectivism 6932: 6660:Sarvāstivadā 6638:Anekantavada 6563:Neoplatonism 6531:Epicureanism 6464:Pythagoreans 6403:Confucianism 6369:Contemporary 6359:Early modern 6263:Anti-realism 6217:Universalism 6174:Subjectivism 5997: 5970:Epistemology 5722: 5623:Common sense 5601:A posteriori 5600: 5592: 5554:Reductionism 5548: 5448: 5399:Gilbert Ryle 5269:Fred Dretske 5254:Keith DeRose 5198:Epistemology 5121:Larry Laudan 5101:Imre Lakatos 5056:Otto Neurath 5031:Karl Pearson 5021:Pierre Duhem 4993:Isaac Newton 4923:Protoscience 4881:Epistemology 4755:Anti-realism 4753: / 4734: / 4725: / 4722: 4711: / 4709:Reductionism 4707: / 4680:Inductionism 4660:Evolutionism 4465: 4352:a posteriori 4351: 4347: 4284: 4274: 4255: 4222: 4200: 4193: 4186: 4176: 4169: 4162: 4155: 4148: 4141: 4134: 4127: 4118:Spinoza and 4117: 4095: 4084: 4067: 4046: 4034: 4031:Audi, Robert 4015: 4003: 3991: 3979: 3954: 3949: 3941: 3936: 3928: 3923: 3914: 3908: 3897:. 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