576:. But without the normative, there is no "justification, rational acceptability warranted assertibility". Ultimately, there is no "true" since any method for arriving at the truth was abandoned with the normative. Notions which explain truth are intelligible only when the normative is presupposed. Moreover, for there to be "thinkers", there "must be some kind of truth"; otherwise, "our thoughts aren't really about anything there is no sense in which any thought is right or wrong". Without the normative to dictate how one should proceed or which methods should be employed, naturalized epistemology cannot determine the "right" criteria by which empirical evidence should be evaluated. But these are precisely the issues traditional epistemology has been tasked with. If naturalized epistemology cannot provide the means for addressing these issues, it cannot succeed in replacing traditional epistemology.
594:
As Kim puts it, "If justification drops out of epistemology, knowledge itself drops out of epistemology." Justification is what makes knowledge valuable and normative; without it what can rightly be called true or false? We are left with only descriptions of the processes by which we arrive at a belief. Quine is moving epistemology into the realm of psychology, where Quine's main interest is based on the sensory input–output relationship of an individual. On Kim's view, this account cannot establish an affirmable statement that leads us to truth, since all statements without the normative are purely descriptive and so cannot amount to knowledge. The vulgar allowance of any statements as scientifically valid, but not "true", makes Quine's theory difficult to accept on any epistemic theory that requires truth as the object of knowledge.
512:. The failures in the reduction of mathematics to pure logic imply that scientific knowledge can at best be defined with the aid of less certain set-theoretic notions. Even if set theory's lacking the certainty of pure logic is deemed acceptable, the usefulness of constructing an encoding of scientific knowledge as logic and set theory is undermined by the inability to construct a useful translation from logic and set-theory back to scientific knowledge. If no translation between scientific knowledge and the logical structures can be constructed that works both ways, then the properties of the purely logical and
590:. Kim argues that epistemology and knowledge are nearly eliminated in their common sense meanings without normative concepts such as these. These concepts are meant to engender the question "What conditions must a belief meet if we are justified in accepting it as true?". That is to say, what are the necessary criteria by which a particular belief can be declared as "true" (or, should it fail to meet these criteria, can we rightly infer its falsity)? This notion of truth rests solely on the conception and application of the criteria which are set forth in traditional and modern theories of epistemology.
552:
tasked with validating the natural sciences by means of those very sciences. That is, an empirical investigation into the criteria which are used to scientifically evaluate evidence must presuppose those very same criteria. However, Quine points out that these concerns with validation are merely a byproduct of traditional epistemology. Instead, the naturalized epistemologist should only be concerned with understanding the link between observation and science, even if that understanding makes use of the very science under investigation.
560:, which requires that a belief be the product of some reliable method if it is to be considered knowledge. Since naturalized epistemology relies on empirical evidence, all epistemic facts which comprise this reliable method must be reducible to natural facts. That is, all facts related to the process of understanding must be expressible in terms of natural facts. If there are facts which cannot be expressed as natural facts, science would have no means of investigating them. In this vein,
479:
science. This objection from circularity has been aimed specifically at strict replacement naturalism. There are similar challenges to substance naturalism that maintain that the substance naturalists' thesis that all facts of knowledge are natural facts is not only circular but fails to accommodate certain facts. Several other objectors have found fault in the inability of naturalized methods to adequately address questions about what value forms of potential knowledge have or lack.
520:
holistic nature of our beliefs. Since traditional philosophic analysis of knowledge fails, those wishing to study knowledge ought to employ natural scientific methods. Scientific study of knowledge differs from philosophic study by focusing on how humans acquire knowledge rather than speculative analysis of knowledge. According to Quine, this appeal to science to ground the project of studying knowledge, which itself underlies science, should not be dismissed for its
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epistemology. One product of these objections is cooperative naturalism, which holds that empirical results are essential and useful to epistemology. That is, while traditional epistemology cannot be eliminated, neither can it succeed in its investigation of knowledge without empirical results from the natural sciences. In any case, Quinean
Replacement Naturalism finds relatively few supporters.
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Cooperative naturalism is a version of naturalized epistemology which states that while there are evaluative questions to pursue, the empirical results from psychology concerning how individuals actually think and reason are essential and useful for making progress in these evaluative questions. This
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On Quine's account, attempts to pursue the traditional project of finding the meanings and truths of science philosophically have failed on their own terms and failed to offer any advantage over the more direct methods of psychology. Quine rejects the analytic-synthetic distinction and emphasizes the
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Kim further explains how the notion of "justification" (alongside "belief" and "truth") is the defining characteristic of an epistemological study. To remove this aspect is to alter the very meaning and goal of epistemology, whereby we are no longer discussing the study and acquisition of knowledge.
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In response, Quine insists that critics are wrong to suggest that, given his naturalized epistemology, "the normative element, so characteristic of epistemology, goes by the board. Insofar as theoretical epistemology gets naturalized into a chapter of theoretical science, so normative epistemology
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Objections to naturalized epistemology have targeted features of the general project as well as characteristics of specific versions. Some objectors argue that natural scientific knowledge cannot be circularly grounded by the knowledge obtained through cognitive science, which is itself a natural
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Quine articulates the problem of circularity inherent to naturalized epistemology when it is treated as a replacement for traditional epistemology. If the goal of traditional epistemology is to validate or to provide the foundation for the natural sciences, then naturalized epistemology would be
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As a result of these objections and others like them, most contemporary philosophers agree that replacement naturalized epistemology may be too strong of a view (even Quine held more moderate views in later writings). However, these objections have helped shape rather than eliminate naturalized
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Substantive naturalism is a form of naturalized epistemology that emphasizes how all epistemic facts are natural facts. Natural facts can be based on two main ideas. The first is that all natural facts include all facts that science would verify. The second is to provide a list of examples that
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argues that there are epistemic principles (or facts) which are necessary to knowledge acquisition, but may not be, themselves, natural facts. If
Chisholm is correct, naturalized epistemology cannot account for these epistemic principles and, as a result, would be unable to wholly describe the
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version of naturalized epistemology considers reasons for serious doubt about the fruitfulness of traditional philosophic study of scientific knowledge. These concerns are raised in light of the long attested incapacity of philosophers to find a satisfactory answer to the problems of radical
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gets naturalized into a chapter of engineering: the technology of anticipating sensory stimulation." Thus, "he normative is naturalized, not dropped." There remains debate, however, about whether Quine's view can account for the normativity of epistemology.
534:
form of naturalism says that our psychological and biological limitations and abilities are relevant to the study of human knowledge. Empirical work is relevant to epistemology but only if epistemology is itself as broad as the study of human knowledge.
555:
In order to understand the link between observation and science, Quine's naturalized epistemology must be able to identify and describe the process by which scientific knowledge is acquired. One form of this investigation is
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that emphasize the role of natural scientific methods. This shared emphasis on scientific methods of studying knowledge shifts the focus of epistemology away from many traditional philosophical questions, and towards the
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and replace it with the methodologies of the natural sciences. The general thesis of cooperative naturalism is that traditional epistemology can benefit in its inquiry by using the knowledge we have gained from
524:
since it is the best option available after ruling out traditional philosophic methods for their more serious flaws. This identification and tolerance of circularity is reflected elsewhere in Quine's works.
582:, another critic of naturalized epistemology, further articulates the difficulty of removing the normative component. He notes that modern epistemology has been dominated by the concepts of
887:
Feldman, Richard (1999), "Methodological
Naturalism in Epistemology," in The Blackwell Guide to Epistemology, edited by John Greco and Ernest Sosa, Malden, Ma: Blackwell, pp. 170–186.
923:
Kornblith, Hilary (1999) "In
Defense of a Naturalized Epistemology" in The Blackwell Guide to Epistemology, edited by John Greco and Ernest Sosa, Malden, Ma: Blackwell, pp. 158–169.
500:'s criticism of induction. But also, because of the contemporaneous attempts and failures to reduce mathematics to pure logic by those in or philosophically sympathetic to
914:
Kim, Jaegwon (1988) "What is
Naturalized Epistemology?" Philosophical Perspectives 2 edited by James E. Tomberlin, Asascadero, CA: Ridgeview Publishing Co: 381–406.
902:
Goldman, Alvin (1979) "What is
Justified Belief?," in G. Pappas, ed., Justification and Knowledge: New Studies in Epistemology, Dordrecht, Reidel: 1-23.
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425:
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950:
Stich, Stephen and
Richard Nisbett (1980), "Justification and the Psychology of Human Reasoning," Philosophy of Science 47: 188–202.
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Almeder, Robert (1998) Harmless
Naturalism: The Limits of Science and the Nature of Philosophy, Peru, Illinois: Open Court.
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Fumerton, Richard (1994) "Skepticism and
Naturalistic Epistemology," Midwest Studies in Philosophy, XIX: 321–340.
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708:
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Mafffie, James (1990) "Recent Work on
Naturalizing Epistemology," American Philosophical Quarterly 27: 281–293.
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504:. Quine concludes that studies of scientific knowledge concerned with meaning or truth fail to achieve the
217:
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Goldman, Alvin (1992), Liaisons: Philosophy Meets the Cognitive and Social Sciences, Cambridge: MIT Press.
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875:
BonJour, Laurence (1994) "Against Naturalized Epistemology," Midwest Studies in Philosophy, XIX: 283–300.
890:
Foley, Richard (1994) "Quine and Naturalized Epistemology," Midwest Studies in Philosophy, XIX: 243–260.
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Lehrer, Keith (1997) Self-Trust: A study of Reason, Knowledge and Autonomy, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
908:
Haack, Susan (1993) Evidence and Inquiry: Towards Reconstruction in Epistemology, Oxford: Blackwell.
747:
475:. Substantive naturalism focuses on an asserted equality of facts of knowledge and natural facts.
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944:
Quine, W.V.O. (1990) "Norms and Aims" in The Pursuit of Truth, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
668:
392:
136:
941:
Quine, W.V.O. (1969) Ontological Relativity and Other Essays, New York: Columbia University Press.
857:(Robert Barrett and Roger Gibson (eds.) ed.). Cambridge, MA: Bradford MIT. 1990. p. 229.
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1989:
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Chisholm, Roderick (1982) The Foundations of Knowing, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
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argues that replacing traditional epistemology with naturalized epistemology would eliminate the
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van Cleve, James (1985) "Epistemic Supervenience and the Circle of Belief" Monist 68: 90–104.
896:
Fumerton, Richard (1995) Metaepistemology and Skepticism, Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
568:
Beyond Quine's own concerns and potential discrepancies between epistemic and natural facts,
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42:
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Pollock, John (1986) Contemporary Theories of Knowledge, Totawa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield.
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Chisholm, Roderick (1989)Theory of Knowledge, 3rd ed., Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
815:
810:
Kim, Jaegwon (2004). "What is 'Naturalized Epistemology'?". In E. Sosa & J. Kim (ed.).
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Lycan, William (1988) Judgement and Justification, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Putnam, Hilary (2004). "Why Reason Can't Be Naturalized". In E. Sosa & J. Kim (ed.).
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Gibbard, Allan (1990) Wise Feelings, Apt Choices, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
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Kornblith, Hilary (1994) Naturalizing Epistemology 2nd Edition, Cambridge: MIT Press.
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Steup, Matthias, An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology, Prentice-Hall, 1996.
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Kitcher, Philip (1992) "The Naturalists Return," Philosophical Review, 101: 53–114.
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327:
292:
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Chisholm, Roderick (1966)Theory of Knowledge, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
630:
Quine, Willard (2004). "Epistemology Naturalized". In E. Sosa & J. Kim (ed.).
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consists of natural items. This will help in deducing what else can be included.
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Stich, Stephen (1990) The Fragmentation of Reason, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
926:
Kornblith, Hilary (1988) "How Internal Can You Get?," Synthese, 74: 313–327.
516:
constructions do not usefully inform understanding of scientific knowledge.
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956:
Strawson, Peter (1952) Introduction to Logical Theory, New York: Wiley.
497:
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131:
121:
106:
81:
911:
Harman, Gilbert (1977) Thought, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
466:. Replacement naturalism maintains that we should abandon traditional
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Giere, Ronald (1985). "Philosophy of Science Naturalized".
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462:. There are noteworthy distinctions within naturalized
1021:
The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Epistemology
659:Quine, Willard (1994). "Two Dogmas of Empiricism".
843:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 19.
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537:
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565:process by which knowledge is obtained.
3790:Epistemological schools and traditions
3782:
780:
496:scepticism and, more particularly, to
482:
3445:
2187:
1725:
1687:
1039:
1025:The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy
838:
732:
711:. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
658:
629:
1013:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1002:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
981:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
809:
706:
13:
14:
3811:
970:
964:
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3749:
1065:
865:
16:Collection of philosophic views
1713:
1482:Analytic–synthetic distinction
847:
832:
172:Analytic–synthetic distinction
1:
3446:
605:
3235:Ordinary language philosophy
1726:
976:"Naturalism in Epistemology"
663:From a Logical Point of View
546:
7:
3285:Contemporary utilitarianism
3200:Internalism and externalism
1527:Internalism and externalism
10:
3816:
2549:Svatantrika and Prasangika
2188:
1008:"Naturalized epistemology"
812:Epistemology: An Anthology
783:Epistemology: An Anthology
709:"Naturalized Epistemology"
632:Epistemology: An Anthology
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1771:Philosophy of mathematics
1761:Philosophy of information
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1732:
1721:
1653:
1602:
1451:
1358:Evolutionary epistemology
1328:
1073:
278:Evolutionary epistemology
1630:Philosophy of perception
1433:Representational realism
1403:Naturalized epistemology
998:Naturalized epistemology
989:Naturalized epistemology
669:Harvard University Press
439:Naturalized epistemology
393:Philosophy of perception
3800:Willard Van Orman Quine
3795:Naturalism (philosophy)
3240:Postanalytic philosophy
3181:Experimental philosophy
1610:Outline of epistemology
1443:Transcendental idealism
288:Historical epistemology
3373:Social constructionism
2385:Hellenistic philosophy
1801:Theoretical philosophy
1776:Philosophy of religion
1766:Philosophy of language
1557:Problem of other minds
839:Quine, W.V.O. (1990).
538:Substantive naturalism
529:Cooperative naturalism
488:Replacement naturalism
3756:Philosophy portal
3275:Scientific skepticism
3255:Reformed epistemology
1781:Philosophy of science
1635:Philosophy of science
1615:Faith and rationality
1497:Descriptive knowledge
1368:Feminist epistemology
1308:Nicholas Wolterstorff
855:Perspectives on Quine
735:Philosophy of Science
460:knowledge acquisition
445:) is a collection of
398:Philosophy of science
3176:Critical rationalism
2883:Edo neo-Confucianism
2727:Acintya bheda abheda
2706:Renaissance humanism
2417:School of the Sextii
1791:Practical philosophy
1786:Political philosophy
1567:Procedural knowledge
1552:Problem of induction
818:. pp. 301–313.
816:Blackwell Publishing
789:. pp. 314–324.
787:Blackwell Publishing
638:. pp. 292–300.
636:Blackwell Publishing
273:Applied epistemology
2747:Nimbarka Sampradaya
2658:Korean Confucianism
2405:Academic Skepticism
1645:Virtue epistemology
1640:Social epistemology
1620:Formal epistemology
1507:Epistemic injustice
1502:Exploratory thought
1303:Ludwig Wittgenstein
483:Forms of naturalism
451:theory of knowledge
383:Epistemic cognition
303:Virtue epistemology
298:Social epistemology
283:Formal epistemology
22:Part of a series on
3368:Post-structuralism
3270:Scientific realism
3225:Quinean naturalism
3205:Logical positivism
3161:Analytical Marxism
2380:Peripatetic school
2292:Chinese naturalism
1819:Aesthetic response
1746:Applied philosophy
1298:Timothy Williamson
1088:Augustine of Hippo
707:Feldman, Richard.
473:cognitive sciences
441:(a term coined by
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3156:Analytic feminism
3128:
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3090:Kierkegaardianism
3052:Transcendentalism
3012:Neo-scholasticism
2858:Classical Realism
2835:
2834:
2607:
2606:
2422:Neopythagoreanism
2179:
2178:
2175:
2174:
1796:Social philosophy
1681:
1680:
1547:Privileged access
1183:Søren Kierkegaard
667:. Cambridge, MA:
562:Roderick Chisholm
502:The Vienna Circle
436:
435:
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3333:Frankfurt School
3280:Transactionalism
3230:Normative ethics
3210:Legal positivism
3186:Falsificationism
3171:Consequentialism
3166:Communitarianism
3139:
3138:
3007:New Confucianism
2846:
2845:
2653:Neo-Confucianism
2618:
2617:
2427:Second Sophistic
2412:Middle Platonism
2255:
2254:
2196:
2195:
2185:
2184:
2028:Epiphenomenalism
1895:Consequentialism
1829:Institutionalism
1734:
1733:
1723:
1722:
1708:
1701:
1694:
1685:
1684:
1625:Metaepistemology
1603:Related articles
1577:Regress argument
1512:Epistemic virtue
1263:Bertrand Russell
1238:Duncan Pritchard
1198:Hilary Kornblith
1113:Laurence BonJour
1060:
1053:
1046:
1037:
1036:
1017:
985:
972:Zalta, Edward N.
859:
858:
851:
845:
844:
841:Pursuit of Truth
836:
830:
829:
807:
801:
800:
778:
769:
768:
750:
730:
721:
720:
718:
716:
704:
687:
686:
666:
656:
650:
649:
627:
493:W. V. O. Quine's
449:views about the
428:
421:
414:
328:Sextus Empiricus
293:Metaepistemology
19:
18:
3815:
3814:
3810:
3809:
3808:
3806:
3805:
3804:
3780:
3779:
3778:
3773:
3750:
3748:
3727:
3691:
3591:
3553:
3500:
3454:
3453:
3425:
3414:Russian cosmism
3387:
3383:Western Marxism
3348:New Historicism
3313:Critical theory
3299:
3295:Wittgensteinian
3191:Foundationalism
3124:
3061:
3042:Social contract
2898:Foundationalism
2831:
2813:
2797:Illuminationism
2782:Aristotelianism
2768:
2757:Vishishtadvaita
2710:
2662:
2603:
2570:
2441:
2370:Megarian school
2365:Eretrian school
2306:
2267:Agriculturalism
2244:
2190:
2171:
2118:
2090:
2047:
1999:
1956:
1940:Incompatibilism
1909:
1881:
1833:
1805:
1728:
1717:
1712:
1682:
1677:
1649:
1598:
1517:Gettier problem
1447:
1378:Foundationalism
1324:
1273:Wilfrid Sellars
1228:Alvin Plantinga
1108:George Berkeley
1075:Epistemologists
1069:
1064:
1006:
967:
962:
868:
863:
862:
853:
852:
848:
837:
833:
826:
808:
804:
797:
779:
772:
748:10.1.1.411.1923
731:
724:
714:
712:
705:
690:
683:
657:
653:
646:
628:
613:
608:
549:
540:
531:
490:
485:
432:
403:
402:
388:Epistemic logic
378:
377:
368:
367:
318:
317:
316:Epistemologists
308:
307:
268:
267:
258:
257:
162:
161:
152:
151:
97:Foundationalism
62:
61:
52:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3813:
3803:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3775:
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3759:
3744:
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3599:
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3579:
3574:
3569:
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3561:
3559:Middle Eastern
3555:
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3541:
3536:
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3526:
3521:
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3355:
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3323:Existentialism
3320:
3318:Deconstruction
3315:
3309:
3307:
3301:
3300:
3298:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
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3267:
3262:
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3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3188:
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3178:
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3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3151:Applied ethics
3147:
3145:
3136:
3130:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3122:
3117:
3115:Nietzscheanism
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3086:
3085:
3075:
3069:
3067:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3059:
3057:Utilitarianism
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
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2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2958:
2957:
2955:Transcendental
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2922:
2921:
2920:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2893:Existentialism
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2849:
2843:
2837:
2836:
2833:
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2718:
2716:
2712:
2711:
2709:
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2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2681:Augustinianism
2678:
2672:
2670:
2664:
2663:
2661:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2624:
2622:
2615:
2609:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2601:
2596:
2594:Zoroastrianism
2591:
2586:
2580:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
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2451:
2449:
2443:
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2437:Church Fathers
2434:
2429:
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2409:
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2397:
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2240:
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2192:
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2181:
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2177:
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2170:
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2159:
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2149:
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2139:
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2128:
2126:
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2119:
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2100:
2098:
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2063:
2057:
2055:
2049:
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2046:
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2025:
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2015:
2009:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1998:
1997:
1992:
1987:
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1966:
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1958:
1957:
1955:
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1952:Libertarianism
1949:
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1756:Metaphilosophy
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1395:
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1355:
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1345:
1343:Constructivism
1340:
1334:
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1326:
1325:
1323:
1322:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1293:Baruch Spinoza
1290:
1288:P. F. Strawson
1285:
1280:
1278:Susanna Siegel
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1253:W. V. O. Quine
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1175:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1153:Nelson Goodman
1150:
1145:
1143:Edmund Gettier
1140:
1135:
1130:
1128:René Descartes
1125:
1120:
1118:Gilles Deleuze
1115:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1093:William Alston
1090:
1085:
1083:Thomas Aquinas
1079:
1077:
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1063:
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965:External links
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814:. Malden, MA:
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785:. Malden, MA:
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3397:
3396:
3394:
3392:Miscellaneous
3390:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3378:Structuralism
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3363:Postmodernism
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3353:Phenomenology
3351:
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3290:Vienna Circle
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3228:
3226:
3223:
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3220:Moral realism
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3206:
3203:
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3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3022:Phenomenology
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
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2993:
2990:
2988:
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2962:Individualism
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2827:Judeo-Islamic
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2816:
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2803:ʿIlm al-Kalām
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570:Hilary Putnam
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147:Structuralism
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117:Perspectivism
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102:Infallibilism
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20:
3761:
3747:
3418:
3409:Postcritique
3399:Kyoto School
3358:Posthumanism
3338:Hermeneutics
3224:
3193: /
3134:Contemporary
3110:Newtonianism
3073:Cartesianism
3032:Reductionism
2868:Conservatism
2863:Collectivism
2801:
2529:Sarvāstivadā
2507:Anekantavada
2432:Neoplatonism
2400:Epicureanism
2333:Pythagoreans
2272:Confucianism
2238:Contemporary
2228:Early modern
2132:Anti-realism
2086:Universalism
2043:Subjectivism
1856:
1839:Epistemology
1591:
1492:Common sense
1470:A posteriori
1469:
1461:
1423:Reductionism
1402:
1317:
1268:Gilbert Ryle
1138:Fred Dretske
1123:Keith DeRose
1067:Epistemology
1011:
979:
866:Bibliography
854:
849:
840:
834:
811:
805:
782:
738:
734:
713:. Retrieved
662:
654:
631:
600:
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578:
567:
554:
550:
541:
532:
518:
491:
477:
468:epistemology
464:epistemology
438:
437:
182:a posteriori
181:
177:
111:
28:Epistemology
3404:Objectivism
3343:Neo-Marxism
3305:Continental
3215:Meta-ethics
3195:Coherentism
3100:Hegelianism
3037:Rationalism
2997:Natural law
2977:Materialism
2903:Historicism
2873:Determinism
2764:Navya-Nyāya
2539:Sautrāntika
2534:Pudgalavada
2470:Vaisheshika
2323:Presocratic
2223:Renaissance
2162:Physicalism
2147:Materialism
2053:Normativity
2038:Objectivism
2023:Emergentism
2013:Behaviorism
1962:Metaphysics
1928:Determinism
1867:Rationalism
1572:Proposition
1542:Objectivity
1428:Reliabilism
1418:Rationalism
1363:Fallibilism
1338:Coherentism
1283:Ernest Sosa
1258:Thomas Reid
1243:James Pryor
1213:G. E. Moore
1203:David Lewis
1193:Saul Kripke
1188:Peter Klein
1168:Susan Haack
1098:Robert Audi
715:February 2,
671:. pp.
588:reliability
580:Jaegwon Kim
558:reliabilism
522:circularity
447:philosophic
238:Rationality
213:Information
127:Rationalism
87:Fallibilism
67:Coherentism
3784:Categories
3703:Amerindian
3610:Australian
3549:Vietnamese
3529:Indonesian
3078:Kantianism
3027:Positivism
3017:Pragmatism
2992:Naturalism
2972:Liberalism
2950:Subjective
2888:Empiricism
2792:Avicennism
2737:Bhedabheda
2621:East Asian
2544:Madhyamaka
2524:Abhidharma
2390:Pyrrhonism
2157:Nominalism
2152:Naturalism
2081:Skepticism
2071:Relativism
2061:Absolutism
1990:Naturalism
1900:Deontology
1872:Skepticism
1857:Naturalism
1847:Empiricism
1811:Aesthetics
1715:Philosophy
1673:Discussion
1663:Task Force
1582:Simplicity
1562:Perception
1438:Skepticism
1413:Positivism
1388:Infinitism
1353:Empiricism
1208:John Locke
1173:David Hume
1163:Anil Gupta
1158:Paul Grice
1133:John Dewey
1103:A. J. Ayer
993:PhilPapers
606:References
498:David Hume
348:David Hume
208:Experience
137:Skepticism
132:Relativism
122:Pragmatism
112:Naturalism
107:Infinitism
82:Empiricism
3582:Pakistani
3544:Taiwanese
3491:Ethiopian
3464:By region
3450:By region
3265:Scientism
3260:Systemics
3120:Spinozism
3047:Socialism
2982:Modernism
2945:Objective
2853:Anarchism
2787:Averroism
2676:Christian
2628:Neotaoism
2599:Zurvanism
2589:Mithraism
2584:Mazdakism
2355:Cyrenaics
2282:Logicians
1915:Free will
1877:Solipsism
1824:Formalism
1537:Knowledge
1522:Induction
1472:knowledge
1464:knowledge
743:CiteSeerX
574:normative
547:Criticism
510:certainty
506:Cartesian
456:empirical
323:Aristotle
228:Knowledge
223:Induction
198:Certainty
142:Solipsism
77:Dogmatism
3768:Category
3723:Yugoslav
3713:Romanian
3620:Scottish
3605:American
3534:Japanese
3514:Buddhist
3496:Africana
3486:Egyptian
3328:Feminist
3250:Rawlsian
3245:Quietism
3143:Analytic
3095:Krausism
3002:Nihilism
2967:Kokugaku
2930:Absolute
2925:Idealism
2913:Humanism
2701:Occamism
2668:European
2613:Medieval
2559:Yogacara
2519:Buddhist
2512:Syādvāda
2395:Stoicism
2360:Cynicism
2348:Sophists
2343:Atomists
2338:Eleatics
2277:Legalism
2218:Medieval
2142:Idealism
2096:Ontology
2076:Nihilism
1980:Idealism
1738:Branches
1727:Branches
1658:Category
1477:Analysis
1462:A priori
1453:Concepts
1393:Innatism
1330:Theories
765:15389881
508:goal of
193:Credence
178:A priori
160:Concepts
43:Category
3718:Russian
3687:Spanish
3682:Slovene
3672:Maltese
3667:Italian
3647:Finland
3615:British
3597:Western
3587:Turkish
3572:Islamic
3567:Iranian
3519:Chinese
3506:Eastern
3473:African
3420:more...
3105:Marxism
2935:British
2878:Dualism
2774:Islamic
2732:Advaita
2722:Vedanta
2696:Scotism
2691:Thomism
2633:Tiantai
2576:Persian
2564:Tibetan
2554:Śūnyatā
2495:Cārvāka
2485:Ājīvika
2480:Mīmāṃsā
2460:Samkhya
2375:Academy
2328:Ionians
2302:Yangism
2259:Chinese
2250:Ancient
2213:Western
2208:Ancient
2167:Realism
2124:Reality
2114:Process
1995:Realism
1975:Dualism
1970:Atomism
1852:Fideism
1593:more...
1373:Fideism
1319:more...
1000:at the
974:(ed.).
363:more...
266:Domains
233:Meaning
92:Fideism
60:Schools
38:Outline
3677:Polish
3657:German
3652:French
3637:Danish
3627:Canada
3577:Jewish
3539:Korean
3524:Indian
3066:People
2987:Monism
2940:German
2908:Holism
2841:Modern
2819:Jewish
2742:Dvaita
2715:Indian
2638:Huayan
2490:Ajñana
2447:Indian
2312:Greco-
2297:Taoism
2287:Mohism
2233:Modern
2200:By era
2189:By era
2104:Action
1985:Monism
1905:Virtue
1887:Ethics
1487:Belief
1383:Holism
1029:
822:
793:
763:
745:
679:
642:
253:Wisdom
243:Reason
188:Belief
167:Action
3708:Aztec
3662:Greek
3642:Dutch
3632:Czech
3481:Bantu
2918:Anti-
2465:Nyaya
2455:Hindu
2315:Roman
2109:Event
1751:Logic
1668:Stubs
1587:Truth
1233:Plato
761:S2CID
675:–46.
248:Truth
48:Index
2809:Sufi
2643:Chan
2502:Jain
2475:Yoga
2005:Mind
1945:Hard
1933:Hard
1027:ISBN
820:ISBN
791:ISBN
717:2023
677:ISBN
640:ISBN
586:and
203:Data
180:and
3083:Neo
2648:Zen
991:at
753:doi
3786::
1010:.
978:.
773:^
759:.
751:.
739:52
737:.
725:^
691:^
673:20
614:^
1707:e
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1016:.
984:.
828:.
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767:.
755::
719:.
685:.
648:.
427:e
420:t
413:v
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