Pre-Islamic Arabia

3446: 3506: 3546: 3466: 3558: 3494: 3570: 3238: 2440: 2293: 3527: 3594: 8926: 3606: 3989: 2085: 1073: 1813: 2703: 62: 282: 3025: 2158: 2567: 520: 1515: 98: 1422: 2285: 1289: 3505: 3172:"Perishing Arabs": These are the ancients of whose history little is known. They include ʿĀd, Thamud, Tasm, Jadis, Imlaq and others. Jadis and Tasm perished because of genocide. ʿĀd and Thamud perished because of their decadence. Some people in the past doubted their existence, but Imlaq is the singular form of 'Amaleeq and is probably synonymous to the biblical 6506:. Contemporary historiography unveiled the lack of inner coherence of this genealogical system and demonstrated that it finds insufficient matching evidence; the distinction between Qahtanites and Adnanites is even believed to be a product of the Umayyad Age, when the war of factions (al-niza al-hizbi) was raging in the young Islamic Empire." 4308: 1388:. Al Janbi's theory is the most widely accepted one by modern scholars, although there are some difficulties with this argument given that Al Ahsa is 60 km inland and thus less likely to be the starting point for a trader's route, making the location within the archipelago of islands comprising the modern 946:. There was a dam in this city, however one year there was so much rain that the dam was carried away by the ensuing flood. Thus the people there had to leave. The inhabitants emigrated seeking to live in less arid lands and became scattered far and wide. The proverb "They were scattered like the people of 4024:

By the time the last Byzantine-Sassanid war came to an end in 628, Arabia had started to unite under Muhammad's politico-religious leadership. The Muslims were able to launch attacks against both empires, which resulted in destruction of the Sassanid Empire and the conquest of Byzantium's territories

2141:

was able to capture the Himyarite capital of Thifar in the first quarter of the 3rd century. However, the alliances did not last, and Sha`ir Awtar of Saba unexpectedly turned on Hadramaut, allying again with Aksum and taking its capital in 225. Himyar then allied with Saba and invaded the newly taken

1828: 309:(6th century BCE) and other writings of pre-Islamic Arabia. Thus, studies are no longer limited to the written traditions, which are not local due to the lack of surviving Arab historians' accounts of that era; the paucity of material is compensated for by written sources from other cultures (such as 1678:

as governor of Eastern Arabia. Shapur constructed a new city there and named it Batan Ardashir after his father. At this time, Eastern Arabia incorporated the southern Sassanid province covering the Persian Gulf's southern shore plus the archipelago of Bahrain. The southern province of the Sassanids

1490:

has been proposed as a Seleucid base in the Persian Gulf. Alexander had planned to settle the eastern shores of the Persian Gulf with Greek empires, and although it is not clear that this happened on the scale he envisaged, Tylos was very much part of the Hellenised world: the language of the upper

1462:

is believed to have been the first of Alexander's commanders to visit this islands, and he found a verdant land that was part of a wide trading network; he recorded: "That in the island of Tylos, situated in the Persian Gulf, are large plantations of cotton tree, from which are manufactured clothes

1122:

Dilmun was an important trading center from the late fourth millennium to 1800 BCE. Dilmun was very prosperous during the first 300 years of the second millennium. Dilmun's commercial power began to decline between 2000 BCE and 1800 BCE because piracy flourished in the Persian Gulf. In 600 BCE, the

2812:

population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Greeks called Yemen "Arabia Felix" (Happy Arabia). The Romans called the vassal nomadic states within the Roman Empire "Arabia Petraea" after the city of Petra, and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and east Arabia

3929:

However, Justinian could not afford further losses in Arabia. The Byzantines and the Sasanians sponsored powerful nomadic mercenaries from the desert with enough power to trump the possibility of aggression in Arabia. Justinian viewed his mercenaries as so valued for preventing conflict that he

2019:

in the 4th century BCE, however, Hadramaut became one of its confederates, probably because of commercial interests. It later became independent and was invaded by the growing Yemeni kingdom of Himyar toward the end of the 1st century BCE, but it was able to repel the attack. Hadramaut annexed

3445: 6880: 3465: 2322:

language. The Lihyanite kingdom went through three different stages, the early phase of Lihyan Kingdom was around the 7th century BC, started as a Sheikdom of Dedan then developed into the Kingdom of Lihyan tribe. Some authors assert that the Lihyanites fell into the hands of the

6608:

That Manicheism went further on to the Arabian peninsula, up to the Hejaz and Mecca, where it could have possibly contributed to the formation of the doctrine of Islam, cannot be proven. A detailed description of Manichean traces in the Arabian-speaking regions is given by Tardieu

3979:

Meanwhile, the Sassanid Empire broke its alliance with the Lakhmids due to false accusations that the Lakhmids' leader had committed treason; the Sasanians annexed the Lakhmid kingdom in 602. The fertile lands and important trade routes of Iraq were now open ground for upheaval.

2638:. The town grew up around its Colonnaded Street in the 1st century and by the middle of the 1st century had witnessed rapid urbanization. The quarries were probably opened in this period, and there followed virtually continuous building through the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. 2257:

out of Yemen. Southern Arabia became a Persian dominion under a Yemenite vassal and thus came within the sphere of influence of the Sassanid Empire. After the demise of the Lakhmids, another army was sent to Yemen, making it a province of the Sassanid Empire under a Persian

3105:

hunters and salt-traders who once dominated Arabia. Those were assimilated in the next wave of humans consisted of cattle herders in the 6th millennium BCE who introduced cows, wild donkeys, sheep, dogs, camels and goats. Those peoples may have engaged in trade across the

6742:

There was a continuous migration from Arabia to the neighbouring regions, because the Arabian peninsula was overpopulated and lacked resources and periodic drought drove the people out of the region. The overflow of migration accelerated during the Islamic expansion

4020:

When the military stalemate was finally broken and it seemed that Byzantium had finally gained the upper hand in battle, nomadic Arabs invaded from the desert frontiers, bringing with them a new social order that emphasized religious devotion over tribal membership.

3911:. The exact number; however, is often disputed by contemporary historians. Both empires were permanently weakened by the pandemic as their citizens struggled to deal with death as well as heavy taxation, which increased as each empire campaigned for more territory. 1756:

and Ahob of Qatar. Christianity's significance was diminished by the arrival of Islam in Eastern Arabia by 628. In 676, the bishops of Beth Qatraye stopped attending synods; although the practice of Christianity persisted in the region until the late 9th century.

3569: 6852: 1655:. The Parthian dynasty brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman. Because they needed to control the Persian Gulf trade route, the Parthians established garrisons in the southern coast of Persian Gulf. 3511:

South Arabian stele, bust of female raising her hand, with the donor's name, Rathadum, written below; 1st century BC-1st century AD; calcite-alabaster; 32.1 cm (12.6 in) x 23.3 cm (9.1 in) x 3.5 cm (1.3 in);

1177:

at that time. Following the collapse of the Kassite dynasty, Mesopotamian documents make no mention of Dilmun with the exception of Assyrian inscriptions dated to 1250 BCE which proclaimed the Assyrian king to be king of Dilmun and

2905:' forces during the Jewish king's attempt to suppress Christianity in Yemen. They converted to Islam in mid 7th century CE and played a crucial role during the Arab conquest of their surroundings, although some sub-tribes declared 4355:

Rothenberg, "Egyptian Chariots, Midianites from Hijaz/ Midian (Northwest Arabia) and Amalekites from the Negev in the Timna Mines: Rock drawings in the Ancient Copper Mines of the Arabah – new aspects of the region's history II,"

3926:. The drive into Persian territory would also put an end to tribute payments to the Sasanians, which resulted in an agreement to give 11,000 lb (5,000 kg) of tribute to the Persians annually in exchange for a ceasefire. 2490:

of that empire, with revolts against Assyria becoming more common in the 7th century BCE. It is thought that the Qedarites were eventually subsumed into the Nabataean state after their rise to prominence in the 2nd century CE.

168:

Some of the settled communities developed into distinctive civilizations. Information about these communities is limited and has been pieced together from archaeological evidence, accounts written outside of Arabia, and

891:

and the son Imru' al-Qais converted to Christianity. Gradually the whole city converted to that faith. Imru' al-Qais dreamt of a unified and independent Arab kingdom and, following that dream, he seized many cities in

1604:

origins, and the similarity in the words "Tylos" and "Tyre" has been commented upon. However, there is little evidence of occupation at all in Bahrain during the time when such migration had supposedly taken place.

2934:(the people of Thawr), who had sworn allegiance to the king of Saba' and Dhū Raydān. Since later Arab genealogists trace Kindah back to a person called Thawr ibn 'Uqayr, modern historians have concluded that this 1182:. Assyrian inscriptions recorded tribute from Dilmun. There are other Assyrian inscriptions during the first millennium BCE indicating Assyrian sovereignty over Dilmun. Dilmun was also later on controlled by the 3167:

Arab traditions relating to the origins and classification of the Arabian tribes is based on biblical genealogy. The general consensus among 14th-century Arabic genealogists was that Arabs were three kinds:

1566:), having migrated to the Mediterranean and settled in the parts which they now inhabit, began at once, they say, to adventure on long voyages, freighting their vessels with the wares of Egypt and Assyria... 3368:

resulted in Christian communities in the northwest, northeast and south of Arabia. Christianity made a lesser impact, but secured some conversions, in the remainder of the peninsula. With the exception of

2890:; its kings exercised an influence over a number of associated tribes more by personal prestige than by coercive settled authority. Their first capital was Qaryat Dhāt Kāhil, today known as Qaryat Al-Fāw. 3918:(reigned 527–565) attempted to resurrect the might of the Roman Empire by expanding into Arabia. The Arabian Peninsula had a long coastline for merchant ships and an area of lush vegetation known as the 3545: 2852:

by the Abdul Qais Rabi'a tribe. They returned to Yemen and allied themselves with the Himyarites who installed them as a vassal kingdom that ruled Central Arabia from Qaryah dhat Kahl (the present-day

2537:

from the first years of his reign, but does mention them in later texts. This suggests that Darius might have conquered this part of Arabia or that it was originally part of another province, perhaps

1990:

Agriculture in Yemen thrived during this time due to an advanced irrigation system which consisted of large water tunnels in mountains, and dams. The most impressive of these earthworks, known as the

580:

has been sparse; indigenous written sources are limited to the many inscriptions and coins from southern Arabia. Existing material consists primarily of written sources from other traditions (such as

3934:, and king – the highest honours that he could bestow on anyone. By the late 6th century, an uneasy peace remained until disagreements erupted between the mercenaries and their patron empires. 2774:

In Sassanid times, Arabia Petraea was a border province between the Roman and Persian empires, and from the early centuries CE was increasingly affected by South Arabian influence, notably with the

2718:

The Roman province of Arabia Petraea was created at the beginning of the 2nd century by emperor Trajan. It was centered on Petra, but included even areas of northern Arabia under Nabatean control.

2137:

began to interfere in South Arabian affairs, signing an alliance with Saba, and a Himyarite text notes that Hadramaut and Qataban were also allied against the kingdom. As a result of this, the

363:, published by Oxford University Press in 2015. This book collects a diverse range of ancient texts and inscriptions for the history especially of the northern region during this time period. 2835:

they ended up allying with the Sassanid against the Ghassanids and the Byzantine Empire. The Lakhmids contested control of the central Arabian tribes with the Kindites, eventually destroying

2585:

The Nabataeans are not to be found among the tribes that are listed in Arab genealogies because the Nabatean kingdom ended a long time before the coming of Islam. They settled east of the

1471:, states that much of the islands were covered in these cotton trees and that Tylos was famous for exporting walking canes engraved with emblems that were customarily carried in Babylon. 1236:

For Dilmun, the land of my lady's heart, I will create long waterways, rivers and canals, whereby water will flow to quench the thirst of all beings and bring abundance to all that lives.

818:

cited Hieronymus in his report, and added the following: "Just as the Seleucids had tried to subdue them, so the Romans made several attempts to get their hands on that lucrative trade."

3405:

is also but rarely practiced as well. From the fourth-century onwards, monotheism became increasingly prevalent in pre-Islamic Arabia, as is attested in texts like the inscriptions from

2068:

valley. Like the other Southern Arabian kingdoms, it gained great wealth from the trade of frankincense and myrrh incense, which were burned at altars. The capital of Qataban was named

2012:

inscription of Karab'il Watar from the early 7th century BCE, in which the King of Hadramaut, Yada`'il, is mentioned as being one of his allies. When the Minaeans took control of the

1994:, was built ca. 700 BCE and provided irrigation for about 25,000 acres (101 km) of land and stood for over a millennium, finally collapsing in 570 CE after centuries of neglect. 1491:

classes was Greek (although Aramaic was in everyday use), while Zeus was worshipped in the form of the Arabian sun-god Shams. Tylos even became the site of Greek athletic contests.

2486:. An influential force between the 8th and 4th centuries BCE, Qedarite monarchs are first mentioned in inscriptions from the Assyrian Empire. Some early Qedarite rulers were 1119:. The adjective "Dilmun" is used to describe a type of axe and one specific official; in addition there are lists of rations of wool issued to people connected with Dilmun. 3493: 2969:

The first Classical author to mention Kindah was the Byzantine ambassador Nonnosos, who was sent by the Emperor Justinian to the area. He refers to the people in Greek as

2664:(14–37 CE), the already wealthy and elegant north Arabian city of Palmyra, located along the caravan routes linking Persia with the Mediterranean ports of Roman Syria and 1376:

Gerrha was destroyed by the Qarmatians in the end of the 9th century where all inhabitants were massacred (300,000). It was 2 miles from the Persian Gulf near current day

771:. Ships from Himyar regularly traveled the East African coast, and the state also exerted a considerable amount of political control of the trading cities of East Africa. 2314:, also called Dadān or Dedan, was a powerful and highly organized ancient Arab kingdom that played a vital cultural and economic role in the north-western region of the 814:). The first definite appearance was in 312 BC, when Hieronymus of Cardia, a Seleucid officer, mentioned the Nabateans in a battle report. In 50 BC, the Greek historian 412: 5876: 4183: 1467:, a very different degrees of value, some being costly, others less expensive. The use of these is not confined to India, but extends to Arabia." The Greek historian, 2409:(8th century BCE), who defeated these people in a campaign in northern Arabia. The Greeks also refer to these people as "Tamudaei", i.e. "Thamud", in the writings of 4824: 2042:

The ancient Kingdom of Awsān in South Arabia (modern Yemen), with a capital at Ḥagar Yaḥirr in the wadi Markhah, to the south of the Wādī Bayḥān, is now marked by a

6596: 3557: 6571: 748:

c. 300 AD. Its political fortunes relative to Saba changed frequently until it finally conquered the Sabaean Kingdom around 280 CE. It was the dominant state in

3872:. It left both the Byzantine and Sassanid empires exhausted and susceptible to third-party attacks, particularly from nomadic Arabs united under a newly formed 5705: 3976:

from Iraq, believed that God and Jesus Christ were only one nature. This disagreement proved irreconcilable and resulted in a permanent break in the alliance.

2544:

Arabs were not considered as subjects to the Achaemenids, as other peoples were, and were exempt from taxation. Instead, they simply provided 1,000 talents of

1134:

The Dilmun civilization was the centre of commercial activities linking traditional agriculture of the land with maritime trade between diverse regions as the

2478:

The most organized of the Northern Arabian tribes, at the height of their rule in the 6th century BCE, the Kingdom of Qedar spanned a large area between the

1721:

The Christian name used for the region encompassing north-eastern Arabia was Beth Qatraye, or "the Isles". The name translates to 'region of the Qataris' in

6308: 3145:

being of 12th- to 13th-century CE migrants from southern Persia, and the group to the west being composed of communities emerging after their defeat by the

1507:

when the inhabitants are referred to as 'Thilouanoi'. Some place names in Bahrain go back to the Tylos era, for instance, the residential suburb of Arad in

355:, plus a number of ancient Arab documents that survived into medieval times when portions of them were cited or recorded. Archaeological exploration in the 3526: 3141:

criticizes the Crusader origin theory and instead proposes that the term "Solluba" describes a host of groups hailing from different backgrounds: those of

4432: 4037:"Within the lifetime of some of the children who met Muhammad and sat on the Prophet's knees, Arab armies controlled the land mass that extended from the 5366:

Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren, Historical Researches Into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal Nations of Antiquity, Henry Bohn, 1854 p38

3855: 3345:. Deities were venerated and invoked through a variety of rituals, including pilgrimages and divination, as well as ritual sacrifice. Different theories 1906:

During Sabaean rule, trade and agriculture flourished, generating much wealth and prosperity. The Sabaean kingdom was located in Yemen, and its capital,

359:

has been sparse but fruitful; and many ancient sites have been identified by modern excavations. The most recent detailed study of pre-Islamic Arabia is

189:, which arose around the end of the 4th millennium BCE and lasted to around 600 CE. Additionally, from around the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE, 6328:

Le Muséon, 3-4, 1953, P.296, Bulletin Of The School Of Oriental And African Studies, University Of London, Vol., Xvi, Part: 3, 1954, P.434, Ryckmans 508

856:, they were for a time very troublesome, as wreckers and pirates, to the reopened commerce between Egypt and the East, until they were chastised by the 4250:

Kenneth A. Kitchen The World of "Ancient Arabia" Series. Documentation for Ancient Arabia. Part I. Chronological Framework and Historical Sources p.110

2680:, and the Roman Empire. During the following period of great prosperity, the Arab citizens of Palmyra adopted customs and modes of dress from both the 6176: 1744:, but eastern Arabia was outside the Empire's control offering some safety. Several notable Nestorian writers originated from Beth Qatraye, including 2114:, the Himyarite kings launched successful military campaigns, and had stretched its domain at times as far east as eastern Yemen and as far north as 718:. Once it was one of the most important small kingdoms of South Arabia. The city seems to have been destroyed in the 7th century BCE by the king and 285:

Gravestone of a young woman named Aban, portrayed frontally with a raised right hand and a sheaf of a wheat in her left hand, symbolizing fertility.

3040:

Sedentary Arabs who inhabited cities or rural areas (towns, villages or oases). In pre-Islamic Arabia, most sedentary Arabs were of Arabian origin.

6271: 5457: 2882:

Kindah was an Arab kingdom by the Kindah tribe, the tribe's existence dates back to the second century BCE. The Kindites established a kingdom in

2331:, and finally to their capital Dedan in 9 BCE. Werner Cascel consider the Nabataean annexation of Lihyan was around 24 BCE under the reign of the 3580: 2296:

Colossal statue from al-Ula, it followed the standardized artistic sculpting of the Lihyanite kingdom, the original statue was painted with white

707: 396: 2072:

and was located on the trade route which passed through the other kingdoms of Hadramaut, Saba and Ma'in. The chief deity of the Qatabanians was

1624:

in 127 BCE. A building inscriptions found in Bahrain indicate that Hyspoasines occupied the islands, (and it also mention his wife, Thalassia).

627:

inscription of Karab'il Watar from the early 7th century BC, in which the King of Hadramaut, Yada`'il, is mentioned as being one of his allies.

6830: 5773: 5424:

Jean Francois Salles in Traces of Paradise: The Archaeology of Bahrain, 2500BC-300AD in Michael Rice, Harriet Crawford Ed, IB Tauris, 2002 p132

3946: 3877: 3183:): These are traditionally considered to have originated from the progeny of Ya'rub bin Yashjub bin Qahtan so were also called Qahtanite Arabs. 763:. For many years it was also the major intermediary linking East Africa and the Mediterranean world. This trade largely consisted of exporting 406: 384: 6794:"Bowersock", "Brown", and "Grabar", ""Alphabetical Guide" in Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Post-Classical World", "(Cambridge: 2000)", "469". 3082:. The Solubba maintained a distinctive lifestyle as isolated nomads. The origin of the Solluba is obscure. They have been identified with the 2024:

in the second half of the 2nd century CE, reaching its greatest size. The kingdom of Hadramaut was eventually conquered by the Himyarite king

9325: 2047: 1865: 715: 8679: 645:

refers to a type of axe and one specific official; in addition, there are lists of rations of wool issued to people connected with Dilmun.

6486:

through Adnan, but in this case the genealogy does not match the Biblical line exactly. The label 'arabicised' is due to the belief that

5543: 5179: 4862: 4763: 4725: 4500: 4078:, headed by Olivia Munoz believe that these findings illuminate a pastoralist nomadic lifestyle and a ritual used in prehistoric Arabia. 1740:, which had come to dominate the southern shores of the Persian Gulf. As a sect, the Nestorians were often persecuted as heretics by the 6533: 6255: 6113: 5505: 5083: 4920: 4598: 4537: 3883:

The demographic situation also favoured Arab expansion: overpopulation and lack of resources encouraged Arabs to migrate out of Arabia.

1632:

From the 3rd century BCE to arrival of Islam in the 7th century CE, Eastern Arabia was controlled by two other Iranian dynasties of the

6158: 6128: 6098: 5804:

Curtis E. Larsen. Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarchaeology of an Ancient Society University Of Chicago Press, 1984.

5322:

Larsen, Curtis (1983). Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarcheology of an Ancient Society. University of Chicago Press.

4207: 2897:

and Kāhil found in their ancient capital in south-central Arabia (present day Saudi Arabia). It is not clear whether they converted to

2089: 2008:

The first known inscriptions of Hadramaut are known from the 8th century BCE. It was first referenced by an outside civilization in an

1765: 6143: 6083: 1584:

also believed that the homeland of the Phoenicians was Eastern Arabia. This theory was accepted by the 19th-century German classicist

1380:. The researcher Abdulkhaliq Al Janbi argued in his book that Gerrha was most likely the ancient city of Hajar, located in modern-day 9503: 3892: 3767: 888: 2622:

about 80 km (50 mi) south of the Dead Sea. It came into prominence in the late 1st century BCE through the success of the

600:

later recorded by Islamic scholars. Many small kingdoms prospered from Red Sea and Indian Ocean trade. Major kingdoms included the

457:), settling to the east of the Qahtan tribe. They established the Kingdom of ʿĀd around the 10th century BCE to the 3rd century CE. 5684: 5008: 2448: 1707:. The name, meaning 'ewe-fish' would appear to suggest that the name /Tulos/ is related to Hebrew /ṭāleh/ 'lamb' (Strong's 2924). 1189:

Dilmun, sometimes described as "the place where the sun rises" and "the Land of the Living", is the scene of some versions of the

506:

region and imposed themselves on a pre-existing Semitic stratum. The question of the origin of the Midianites still remains open.

9432: 3848: 3209:

The several different tribes throughout Arabian history are traditionally regarded as having emerged from two main branches: the

2142:

Aksumite territories, retaking Thifar, which had been under the control of Gadarat's son Beygat, and pushing Aksum back into the

1596:, which boasted that they were the mother country of the Phoenicians, and exhibited relics of Phoenician temples." The people of 6853:"Marking the sacral landscape of a north Arabian oasis: a sixth-millennium BC monumental stone platform and surrounding burials" 3241:

Rising from a roundel, the sculpture represents a priestess who intercedes with the sun goddess on behalf of the donor, Rathadum

1396: 1036:

at the time of the Arab conquest". Other archaeological assemblages cannot be brought clearly into larger context, such as the

6776:"Egger, Vernon", "Origins" in A History of the Muslim World to 1405: The Making of a Civilization", "(New Jersey: 2005)", "10" 6228: 1346:

in 709 BCE. Gerrha was the center of an Arab kingdom from approximately 650 BCE to circa 300 CE. The kingdom was attacked by

19:

This article is about the peoples, cultures, and traditions within Arabia before Islam. For a religion-specific overview, see

8636: 8611: 8580: 8549: 8524: 8499: 8474: 8445: 8409: 8391: 8356: 8318: 8300: 8282: 8264: 8229: 8183: 8163: 8145: 8127: 8089: 8043: 8022: 7995: 7926: 7906: 7885: 7864: 7843: 7824: 7780: 7762: 7741: 7723: 7705: 7687: 7664: 7646: 7628: 7607: 7582: 7561: 7543: 7525: 7507: 7486: 7468: 7450: 7429: 7411: 7376: 7330: 7311: 7263: 7240: 7217: 7198: 7180: 7157: 7139: 7118: 7100: 7082: 7064: 7026: 6980: 6962: 6937: 6916: 6447: 6428: 6409: 6390: 6371: 6352: 6213: 6066: 6047: 5909: 5835: 5607: 5582: 5231: 5148: 4696: 4302: 3346: 806:

grazing lands, Nabataean inscriptions began to be left in Edomite territory (earlier than 312 BC, when they were attacked at

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as their ascendant, and the lineage of Mohammed, the Seal of Prophets (khatim al-anbiya'), can therefore be traced back to

6305: 3593: 2853: 1350:

in 205-204 BCE, though it seems to have survived. It is currently unknown exactly when Gerrha fell, but the area was under

6490:

spoke Hebrew until he got to Mecca, where he married a Yemeni woman and learnt Arabic. Both genealogical lines go back to

5868: 4818: 2856:) in Central Arabia. They ruled much of the Northern/Central Arabian Peninsula until the fall of the Himyarites in 525 CE. 2552:(479-480 BCE) while also helping the Achaemenids invade Egypt by providing water skins to the troops crossing the desert. 9192: 6971:

Bernabé, Alberto; Jáuregui, Miguel Herrero de; Cristóbal, Ana Isabel Jiménez San; Hernández, Raquel Martín, eds. (2013),

6592: 5960: 4152: 4122: 3149:. Another theory sees the Solubba as a former Bedouin group that lost their herds and fell in the eyes of other Bedouin. 537: 2597:. And although the first sure reference to them dates from 312 BCE, it is possible that they were present much earlier. 9247: 6565: 6475: 5750: 5295: 4914: 4592: 4531: 3841: 2651: 1558:

best informed in history, the Phoenicians began the quarrel. These people, who had formerly dwelt on the shores of the

633:

appears first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the end of 4th millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess

61: 6555: 9478: 9318: 7966: 6729: 6688: 6527: 5537: 5499: 5327: 5173: 5127: 5077: 4984: 4856: 4801: 4757: 4719: 4494: 4467: 4426: 4381: 4269: 4232: 3721: 2549: 2102:

The Himyarites rebelled against Qataban and eventually united Southwestern Arabia (Hejaz and Yemen), controlling the

1937:. After an unsuccessful siege of Ma'rib, the Roman general retreated to Egypt, while his fleet destroyed the port of 1764:, except for a short period during the mid-to-late seventh century. They were instead subject to the Metropolitan of 559: 5712: 2839:

in 540 after the fall of Kindah's main ally at the time, Himyar. The Sassanids dissolved the Lakhmid kingdom in 602.

1311:. More accurately, the ancient city of Gerrha has been determined to have existed near or under the present fort of 8672: 7941: 7795: 3270: 680:. They lasted from the early 2nd millennium to the 1st century BCE. In the 1st century BCE it was conquered by the 182: 5357:

Security and Territoriality in the Persian Gulf: A Maritime Political Geography By Pirouz Mojtahed-Zadeh, page 119

729:, according to a Sabaean text that reports the victory in terms that attest to its significance for the Sabaeans. 8647: 7979:

Christ in Islam and Christianity: The Representation of Jesus in the Qur'an and the Classical Muslim Commentaries

5041: 3456: 2626:. The city was the principal city of ancient Nabataea and was famous above all for two things: its trade and its 1253: 4946:

Jesper Eidema, Flemming Højlundb (1993). "Trade or diplomacy? Assyria and Dilmun in the eighteenth century BC".

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Drijvers, H. J. W (1976). van Baaren, Theodoor Pieter; Leertouwer, Lammert; Leemhuis, Fred; Buning, H. (eds.).

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and game traps, first attested to in around 7,000 BCE, which makes them the pre-Semitic inhabitants of Arabia.

2987:) were the two most important tribes in the area in terms of territory and number. He calls the king of Kindah 1777: 1716: 1320: 975: 541: 232: 130: 20: 5648:

Conflict and Cooperation: Zoroastrian Subalterns and Muslim Elites in ... By Jamsheed K. Choksy, 1997, page 75

3641: 479:(2nd century CE) refers to the area as the "land of the Iobaritae" a region which legend later referred to as 9417: 9242: 8962: 4286: 4285:

Blom, Ronald G.; Crippen, Robert; Elachi, Charles; Clapp, Nicholas; Hedges, George R.; Zarins, Juris (2007).

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Pre-Islamic Yemen: Socio-political Organization of the Sabaean Cultural Area in the 2nd and 3rd Centuries AD

6170: 4062:

dated back to VI millennium BCE and which was presumably dedicated to ritual practices was published in the

2369:, which was a flourished kingdom from 3000 BCE to 200 BCE. Recent archaeological work has revealed numerous 1983:

and Saba. Though the civilization was indigenous and the royal inscriptions were written in a sort of proto-

1670:

dynasty marched down the Persian Gulf to Oman and Bahrain and defeated Sanatruq (or Satiran), probably the

205:

was inhabited by Semitic-speaking peoples who presumably migrated from the southwest, such as the so-called

9311: 9070: 8945: 5339:

Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarcheology of an Ancient Society By Curtis E. Larsen p. 13

3670: 3381:. The peninsula had been a destination for Jewish migration since pre-Roman times, which had resulted in a 1585: 1407:

preferring Kuwait and C Forster suggesting the ruins at the head of the bay behind the islands of Bahrain.

442:

is attested as the name of a trading partner of the Sumerians. It is often assumed to have been located in

5858:: Ṣayhadic Languages (Epigraphic South Arabian) // Semitic Languages. London: Routledge, 1997, p. 157–183. 3237: 2146:. The standing relief image of a crowned man, is taken to be a representation possibly of the Jewish king 9498: 8972: 8665: 7341:"Arabia In Late Antiquity: An Outline of The Cultural Situation In The Peninsula At The Time of Muhammad" 6622:

M. Tardieu, "Les manichéens en Egypte," Bulletin de la Société Française d'Egyptologie 94, 1982, pp. 5-19

4157: 3869: 3726: 3696: 2893:

The Kindites were polytheistic until the 6th century CE, with evidence of rituals dedicated to the idols

1987:, there were also some Sabaean immigrants in the kingdom as evidenced by a few of the Dʿmt inscriptions. 1984: 692:

reappeared in the early 2nd century. It was finally conquered by the Himyarites in the late 3rd century.

8925: 6275: 5706:"AUB academics awarded $ 850,000 grant for project on the Syriac writers of Qatar in the 7th century AD" 5464: 1080:

The Dilmun civilization was an important trading centre which at the height of its power controlled the

8516: 8491: 8437: 8379: 3784: 3410: 2197: 6296:

D. H. Müller, Al-Hamdani, 53, 124, W. Caskel, Entdeckungen In Arabien, Koln, 1954, S. 9. Mahram, P.318

5634:

Robert G. Hoyland, Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam, Routledge 2001p28

2439: 844:. This migration, the date of which cannot be determined, also made them masters of the shores of the 8992: 8654:: Portal of Pre-Islamic Arabian Studies, University of Pisa - Dipartimento Civiltà e Forme del Sapere 7285: 3651: 3621: 3426: 3357:, especially near the Kaaba, which is said to have contained up to 360 of them in Islamic tradition. 2267: 1373:(lust. Nat. vi. 32) says it was 5 miles in circumference with towers built of square blocks of salt. 174: 6822: 5780: 5206: 4889: 4625: 4564: 2901:

or remained pagan, but there is a strong archaeological evidence that they were among the tribes in

2740:. As a frontier province, it included a desert area of northeastern Arabia populated by the nomadic 2129:

During the 3rd century CE, the South Arabian kingdoms were in continuous conflict with one another.

1948:

The success of the kingdom was based on the cultivation and trade of spices and aromatics including

9455: 8466: 7281: 5928: 4342:

Peter J. Parr, "Further Reflections on Late Second Millennium Settlement in North West Arabia," in

3823: 3789: 3691: 3480: 3262: 1799: 248: 934:

communities. The Ghassanid emigration has been passed down in the rich oral tradition of southern

8572: 5957:"Culture of Yemen - history, people, clothing, traditions, women, beliefs, food, customs, family" 4639: 4107: 4049:. In less than a century, Arabs had come to rule over an area that spanned five thousand miles." 3962: 3656: 3406: 2586: 2292: 1971:

During the 8th and 7th century BCE, there was a close contact of cultures between the Kingdom of

1783: 1761: 1347: 1017: 530: 247:. In addition to Arabian paganism, other religious practices in the region included those of the 244: 26:"Jahili Arabia" redirects here. For the Islamic concept of a pre-Islamic "age of ignorance", see 8967: 8384:

The Places Where Men Pray Together: Cities in Islamic Lands, Seventh Through the Tenth Centuries

3937:

The Byzantines' ally was a Christian Arabic tribe from the frontiers of the desert known as the

1823:, mentioning five South Arabian gods, two reigning sovereigns and two governors, 7th century BCE 1243:, the Sumerian goddess of air and south wind had her home in Dilmun. It is also featured in the 8985: 7294: 6482:"The 'arabicised or arabicising Arabs', on the contrary, are believed to be the descendants of 4793: 4137: 3954: 3646: 3115: 2943: 2765: 2673: 1861:). The Minaean Kingdom was centered in northwestern Yemen, with most of its cities lying along 1737: 1588:

who said that: "In the Greek geographers, for instance, we read of two islands, named Tyrus or

1328: 1173:. These letters and other documents, hint at an administrative relationship between Dilmun and 342: 8193: 8053: 6990: 5527: 5163: 5117: 4974: 4846: 4747: 4709: 4484: 4457: 4222: 2695:

visited the city and was so enthralled by it that he proclaimed it a free city and renamed it

9035: 9030: 8786: 8328: 7936: 7894: 7790: 7595: 7340: 6517: 6252: 5738: 5489: 5067: 4904: 4582: 4521: 3762: 3742: 2627: 2444: 2434: 623:

are known from the 8th century BCE. It was first referenced by an outside civilization in an

620: 345:

of the 7th century. Sources of history include archaeological evidence, foreign accounts and

306: 6803:"Singh, Nagendra", "International encyclopaedia of Islamic dynasties", "(India: 2005)", "75" 3353:

in Meccan religion. Many of the physical descriptions of the pre-Islamic gods are traced to

903:

were a group of South Arabian Christian tribes that emigrated in the early 3rd century from

9144: 8711: 7616: 5823: 5491:

Beyond Price: Pearls and Pearl-fishing : Origins to the Age of Discoveries, Volume 224

4142: 3799: 3579:). Exhibition "Roads of Arabia": Funeral mask and glove (1st century AD), gold, from Thaj, 3360:

Other religions were represented to varying, lesser degrees. The influence of the adjacent

2538: 2534: 2013: 1703:/Pahlavi means "ewe-fish".) which included the Bahrain archipelago that was earlier called 1503: 837: 791: 439: 433: 170: 7657:

The Variety of Local Religious Life in the Near East: In the Hellenistic and Roman Periods

6206:

The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern, chronologically arranged

3868:

The early 7th century in Arabia began with the longest and most destructive period of the

1868:. Minaean inscriptions have been found far afield of the Kingdom of Maīin, as far away as 1100:. The Sumerian tale of the garden paradise of Dilmun may have been an inspiration for the 1028:"descendants of converts from the original population of Christians (Aramaeans), Jews and 8: 9334: 9154: 8603: 7750: 5397:

Classical Greece: Ancient histories and modern archaeologies, Ian Morris, Routledge, p184

4063: 3907:, who witnessed the plague, documented that citizens died at a rate of 10,000 per day in 3896: 3794: 3772: 3752: 3661: 3630: 3274: 3266: 3049: 2402: 2025: 1957: 1519: 1443: 1381: 1037: 993: 480: 475: 252: 206: 91: 8369: 6636: 6519:

Journeys in Holy Lands: The Evolution of the Abraham-Ishmael Legends in Islamic Exegesis

5000: 2733:

area of northwestern Arabia, increasing the extension of the "Arabia Petraea" province.

1662:

succeeded the Parthians and held the area until the rise of Islam four centuries later.

9412: 8430: 8365: 8243: 8173: 8103: 8001: 7390: 7289: 7040: 6951: 6872: 5681: 5194: 4877: 4786: 4667: 4659: 4613: 4552: 4112: 3804: 3513: 3455:

figurines from Yemen that represent seated women and female heads; 3rd-1st century BC;

3111: 2962:

war. Following the Himyarite victory, a branch of Kindah established themselves in the

2797: 2676:. The area steadily grew further in importance as a trade route linking Persia, India, 2611: 2250: 2147: 2043: 1111:

clay tablets dated to the end of fourth millennium BCE, found in the temple of goddess

711: 378: 9483: 8221: 8202:

The Qurʾān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʾānic Milieu

8081: 8062:

The Qurʾān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʾānic Milieu

7368: 7349:

The Qurʾān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʾānic Milieu

7018: 6999:

The Qurʾān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʾānic Milieu

6557:

Ibn García's Shuʻūbiyya Letter: Ethnic and Theological Tensions in Medieval al-Andalus

5415:

W. B. Fisher et al. The Cambridge History of Iran, Cambridge University Press 1968 p40

3439:(the most common material for sculpture) heads of great aesthetic and historic charm. 1511:, is believed to originate from "Arados", the ancient Greek name for Muharraq island. 1046:

was also present in Eastern Arabia. The Zoroastrians of Eastern Arabia were known as "

9445: 9139: 8855: 8801: 8632: 8607: 8576: 8545: 8533: 8520: 8495: 8470: 8441: 8405: 8387: 8352: 8314: 8296: 8278: 8260: 8235: 8225: 8197: 8179: 8159: 8141: 8123: 8107: 8095: 8085: 8057: 8039: 8018: 8005: 7991: 7962: 7958: 7922: 7902: 7881: 7860: 7839: 7820: 7816: 7776: 7758: 7737: 7719: 7701: 7683: 7660: 7642: 7624: 7603: 7578: 7570: 7557: 7539: 7521: 7503: 7482: 7464: 7446: 7425: 7407: 7394: 7382: 7372: 7344: 7326: 7307: 7303: 7259: 7253: 7236: 7230: 7213: 7194: 7176: 7153: 7135: 7114: 7096: 7078: 7060: 7044: 7032: 7022: 6994: 6976: 6958: 6933: 6912: 6876: 6725: 6684: 6656: 6561: 6523: 6471: 6209: 6201: 5831: 5746: 5603: 5578: 5533: 5495: 5323: 5291: 5227: 5169: 5123: 5073: 4980: 4910: 4852: 4797: 4753: 4715: 4692: 4671: 4588: 4527: 4490: 4463: 4422: 4377: 4298: 4265: 4228: 4201: 4097: 4087: 3880:, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam". 3777: 3757: 3747: 3716: 3701: 3390: 3306: 3294: 3203: 3119: 3087: 3075: 3029: 2688: 2370: 2315: 2097: 1369:, who built their houses of salt and repaired them by the application of salt water. 1335: 1244: 1202: 1170: 1105: 1097: 1055: 726: 661: 653: 609: 577: 491: 356: 326: 298: 256: 126: 8247: 7916: 2848:

migrated from Yemen along with the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, but were turned back in

1929:" by the Romans, who were impressed by its wealth and prosperity. The Roman emperor 341:

by the Qaḥṭānites in the early centuries CE, a pattern of expansion exceeded in the

9450: 9149: 9120: 9025: 9020: 8940: 8906: 8870: 8806: 8791: 8589: 8558: 8344: 8217: 8213: 8077: 8073: 7983: 7954: 7950: 7812: 7808: 7673: 7364: 7360: 7299: 7277: 7014: 7010: 6864: 6722:

The Shaiqiya: the cultural and social change of a Northern Sudanese riverain people

6648: 6499: 6483: 6232: 5855: 4955: 4651: 4369: 4092: 4058:

On 9 June 2020, the discovery of a 35-meter long triangular megalithic monument in

3919: 3472: 3365: 3158: 3133:. One legend mentions that they originated from ancient Christian groups, possibly 3033: 2877: 2836: 2788:

revived the Semitic presence in the then Hellenized Syria. They mainly settled the

2726: 2711: 2657: 2530: 2500: 2394: 2254: 2242: 2203:

invaded and annexed Yemen. The Aksumites controlled Himyar and attempted to invade

2177: 2171: 2037: 2009: 1961: 1885: 1881: 1787: 1753: 1745: 1741: 1487: 1166: 1150: 985: 981: 815: 795: 696: 685: 624: 605: 487: 390: 264: 6337:

Jamme 635. See: Jawād 'Alī: Al-Mufaṣṣal fī Tārīkh al-'Arab Qabl al-Islam, Part 39.

5913: 5444:

Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarchaeology of an Ancient Society

5313:

Gerrha, The Ancient City Of International Trade جره مدينة التجارة العالمية القديمة

4959: 2660:

dating to the reign of Caesar Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE). During the reign of

1169:, in Dilmun to his friend Enlil-kidinni in Mesopotamia. The names referred to are 9479:

Internet Medieval Sourcebook: Pre-Islamic Arabia: The Hanged Poems, before 622 CE

9399: 9184: 9015: 8736: 8651: 8459: 8454: 8425: 7977: 7591: 7170: 6946: 6717: 6678: 6312: 6259: 5688: 5221: 4059: 4015: 3386: 2730: 2483: 2456: 2422: 2418: 2358: 2228: 2208: 2138: 2084: 1749: 1722: 1633: 1483: 1455: 1404: 1370: 1343: 1300: 1274:, are described as taking place in a world "before Dilmun had yet been settled". 1183: 997: 989: 931: 864: 836:

country, and succeeded to its commerce, after the Edomites took advantage of the

689: 495: 243:

was still a notable practice among some of the region's inhabitants, such as the

226: 222: 218: 209:. From 106 CE to 630 CE, Arabia's most northwestern areas were controlled by the 118: 49: 9303: 9202: 9080: 8115: 6851:

Munoz, Olivia; Cotty, Marianne; Charloux, Guillaume; Bouchaud, Charlène (2020).

6103: 4287:"Southern Arabian Desert Trade Routes, Frankincense, Myrrh, and the Ubar Legend" 3988: 2966:

region, while the majority of Kindah remained in their lands in central Arabia.

9349: 9267: 9132: 8890: 8703: 8620: 8031: 7438: 7127: 7052: 6025: 3908: 3605: 3394: 3313:. Arabian polytheism was, according to Islamic tradition, the dominant form of 3298: 3053: 2814: 2769: 2737: 2669: 2647: 2604: 2514: 1933:

sent a military expedition to conquer the "Arabia Felix", under the command of

1700: 1559: 1555: 1447: 1128: 1101: 1051: 1043: 1033: 1029: 971: 876: 597: 400: 346: 286: 214: 202: 8329:"The Earliest Relations of Islam with Other Religions: The Meccan Polytheists" 6148: 6118: 6088: 5956: 4655: 3330: 9492: 9440: 9384: 9225: 8980: 8508: 8239: 8099: 7935:

Robin, Christian Julien (2006). "South Arabia, Religions in Pre-Islamic". In

7873: 7852: 7495: 7386: 7249: 7226: 7166: 7036: 6904: 6660: 6197: 6133: 6073: 4290: 4127: 3973: 3809: 3675: 3422: 3385:

community supplemented by local converts. Additionally, the influence of the

3142: 3138: 2844: 2378: 2216: 2193: 1934: 1812: 1730: 1726: 1597: 1593: 1494:

The name Tylos is thought to be a Hellenisation of the Semitic, Tilmun (from

1316: 1229: 1190: 1143: 853: 845: 267:, which were mostly adhered to by non-native merchants and other travellers. 6767:"Sicker, Martin", "The Pre-Islamic Middle East","(Connecticut:2000)", "201." 4644:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London

2702: 1050:" in pre-Islamic times. The sedentary dialects of Eastern Arabia, including 576:

in the 610s is not known in great detail. Archaeological exploration in the

9252: 8761: 7273: 6925: 4684: 4071: 3923: 3828: 3476: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3361: 3321:

and spirits. Worship was directed to various gods and goddesses, including

3286: 3278: 3222: 3102: 3098: 3091: 2722: 2635: 2545: 2479: 2425:, approximately between 400 and 600 CE, the Thamud completely disappeared. 2386: 2111: 2107: 1997: 1949: 1926: 1873: 1807: 1803: 1652: 1601: 1531: 1468: 1385: 1324: 1308: 1135: 1081: 1072: 1013: 1009: 927: 768: 756: 737: 700: 593: 450: 372: 349:

later recorded by Islamic scholars—especially in the pre-Islamic poems—and

318: 276: 210: 190: 8348: 5302:

Hagar is the name of Bahrain and its capital Hagar destroyed by Qarmatians

3202:

Modern historians believe that these distinctions were created during the

2118:

Together with their Kindite allies, it extended maximally as far north as

790:, but modern historians are cautious about an early Nabatean history. The 281: 181:, who arose around 3000 BCE and lasted to around 300 CE; and the earliest 9354: 9262: 8483: 7422:

Close Relationships: Incest and Inbreeding in Classical Arabic Literature

7232:

History of Religious Ideas, Volume 3: From Muhammad to the Age of Reforms

6868: 6785:"Ware, Timothy", "The Orthodox Church", "(New York:1997)", "67 – 69" 4749:

Close Relationships: Incest and Inbreeding in Classical Arabic Literature

4042: 3915: 3398: 3302: 3214: 2973:(Greek Χινδηνοι, Arabic Kindah), and mentions that they and the tribe of 2894: 2623: 2522: 2510: 2151: 2016: 1965: 1817: 1621: 1541:'s account (written c. 440 BCE) refers to the Io and Europa myths. ( 1523: 1451: 1217: 1194: 1124: 1093: 1001: 950:" refers to that exodus in history. The emigrants were from the southern 825: 811: 764: 499: 9484:

Ancient History Sourcebook: Ancient Accounts of Arabia, 430 BCE – 550 CE

8513:

The Idea of Idolatry and the Emergence of Islam: From Polemic to History

8194:"Literacy In Pre-Islamic Arabia: An Analysis of The Epigraphic Evidence" 7500:

The Idea of Idolatry and the Emergence of Islam: From Polemic to History

4333:, Vol. 3, ed. A. R. Al-Ansary (Riyadh: King Saud University), pp. 137–45 3961:

forced a schism in the alliances. The Byzantines' official religion was

3028:

Approximate locations of some of the important tribes and Empire of the

2053: 9292: 9105: 9058: 8880: 8865: 8340: 7987: 6953:

The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800

6593:"MANICHEISM v. MISSIONARY ACTIVITY AND TECHNIQUE: Manicheism in Arabia" 5682:"Nestorian Christianity in the Pre-Islamic UAE and Southeastern Arabia" 4132: 4046: 3938: 3354: 3258: 3252: 3024: 2910: 2784: 2775: 2757: 2570: 2561: 2506: 2332: 2324: 2263: 2189: 2031: 2003: 1869: 1836: 1667: 1663: 1392:, particularly the main island of Bahrain itself, another possibility. 1092:. Dilmun is regarded as one of the oldest ancient civilizations in the 924: 900: 872: 613: 544: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 503: 338: 322: 302: 260: 240: 236: 140: 27: 8644: 6652: 5033: 4691:, Abhandlungen Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, vol. 30, Wiesbaden 2014, 4663: 4344:

Retrieving the Past: Essays on Archaeological Research and Methodology

3397:

existed in the eastern and southern Arabia, there was no existence of

2373:

rock writings and pictures. They are mentioned in sources such as the

1891: 1334:

Gerrha and Uqair are archaeological sites on the eastern coast of the

996:. In pre-Islamic times, the population of Eastern Arabia consisted of 486:

The origin of the Midianites has not been established. Because of the

9473: 9257: 9110: 9040: 8875: 8850: 8657: 8599: 8541: 4147: 3904: 3900: 3532: 3517: 3452: 3436: 3290: 3180: 3134: 3130: 2959: 2955: 2902: 2804:. The Ghassanids held Syria until engulfed by the expansion of Islam. 2665: 2566: 2518: 2473: 2410: 2406: 2374: 2336: 2319: 2234: 2181: 2157: 2076:, or "Uncle" and the people called themselves the "children of Amm". 2073: 1991: 1911: 1907: 1854: 1827: 1688: 1659: 1644: 1637: 1613: 1581: 1538: 1425:

Asia in 600 CE, showing the Sassanid Empire before the Arab conquest.

1225: 1108: 1089: 939: 920: 857: 775: 745: 330: 310: 8593: 8562: 7677: 6208:(6th, illustrated ed.), Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, p. 41, 4848:

Non-Arabic Semitic elements in the Arabic dialects of eastern Arabia

2300: 2079: 2064:

Qataban was one of the ancient Yemeni kingdoms which thrived in the

664:; from 2000 BCE to the 8th century BCE. Some Sabaeans also lived in 519: 9389: 9379: 9272: 9075: 9063: 9053: 8950: 8911: 8885: 8781: 8769: 8628: 6755: 5896: 5869:"Yemen's history and its originality:Report. - Free Online Library" 5621: 5619: 4038: 4026: 3942: 3931: 3873: 3402: 3382: 3310: 3210: 3191: 3187: 3122:

arrived from the Near East and marginalised and absorbed the rest.

3048:

Consisted of many major ancient tribes and clans which were mainly

2983: 2906: 2832: 2823: 2753: 2736:

The desert frontier of Arabia Petraea was called by the Romans the

2661: 2590: 2460: 2212: 2200: 1980: 1930: 1897: 1858: 1848: 1692: 1675: 1609: 1508: 1459: 1439: 1351: 1263: 1259: 1198: 1158: 1025: 884: 783: 723: 719: 673: 649: 601: 425: 321:, etc.), so it was not known in great detail. From the 3rd century 297:

of the early 19th century when they managed to decipher epigraphic

198: 194: 162: 9217: 3471:

Stele, male wearing a baldric – an iconic artwork for pre-Islamic

3334: 3056:, since the tribes and clans were named after the male ancestors. 2938:(Rabī'ah of the People of Thawr) must have been a king of Kindah ( 1514: 1307:), was an ancient city of Eastern Arabia, on the west side of the 9407: 9374: 9369: 9207: 9127: 9115: 9048: 8796: 8741: 6970: 6503: 6487: 5165:

Traces of Paradise: The Archaeology of Bahrain, 2500 BC to 300 AD

3706: 3431:

The art is similar to that of neighbouring cultures. Pre-Islamic

3282: 3226: 3162: 3146: 3126: 3107: 3071: 3065: 2898: 2849: 2741: 2692: 2684: 2414: 2382: 2185: 2143: 2103: 2059: 2021: 1976: 1832: 1820: 1696: 1671: 1648: 1527: 1499: 1476: 1429: 1389: 1366: 1362: 1179: 1174: 1162: 1021: 1005: 833: 741: 677: 669: 665: 470: 294: 8538:

Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam

7755:

Jealous Gods and Chosen People: The Mythology of the Middle East

7575:

Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam

5616: 4945: 1972: 1842: 9197: 9159: 9100: 8860: 8834: 8824: 8774: 8721: 8716: 8568: 8336: 8209: 8205: 8069: 8065: 7946: 7804: 7800: 7356: 7352: 7006: 7002: 5037: 4346:, ed. J. D. Seger (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1996), pp. 213–18. 4102: 4067: 3972:

and God were two natures within one entity. The Ghassanids, as

3969: 3584: 3576: 3326: 3218: 3173: 2918:

Ancient South Arabian inscriptions mention a tribe settling in

2828: 2801: 2793: 2789: 2761: 2707: 2631: 2619: 2615: 2578: 2487: 2354: 2348: 2311: 2306: 2259: 2238: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2065: 1786:

known as Beth Mazunaye. The name was derived from 'Mazun', the

1617: 1577: 1495: 1421: 1395:

Various other identifications of the site have been attempted,

1358: 1339: 1283: 1240: 1154: 1112: 1067: 980:

The sedentary people of pre-Islamic Eastern Arabia were mainly

959: 916: 908: 893: 779: 749: 733: 681: 634: 630: 589: 585: 462: 429: 351: 334: 314: 186: 178: 6909:

The Emergence of Islam in Late Antiquity: Allah and His People

5774:"Christianity in the Gulf during the first centuries of Islam" 5109: 4523:

E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Volume 5

3551:

Bas-relief with a palm tree; Sana'a, ancient Yemen, alabaster.

2165: 1232:

occurred. The promise of Enki to Ninhursag, the Earth Mother:

1193:, and the place where the deified Sumerian hero of the flood, 9364: 9212: 8829: 8816: 8731: 6724:. Studien zur Kulturkunde. Vol. 49. Steiner. p. 7. 6680:

Expanding Realism: The Historical Dimension of World Politics

6468:

Citizenship in the Arab World: Kin, Religion and Nation-State

6408:

harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBosworthHeinrichsDonzel2003 (

6154: 6139: 6124: 6109: 6094: 6079: 6035: 6028:, A Late Antique christian king from Ẓafār, southern Arabia, 5223:

The Harps that once--: Sumerian poetry in translation, p. 150

4075: 4030: 3966: 3536: 3484: 3432: 3350: 3342: 3338: 3322: 3318: 3195: 3079: 2963: 2887: 2809: 2677: 2600: 2574: 2526: 2398: 2390: 2366: 2328: 2284: 2279: 2204: 2161:

The 'Crowned Man' excavated from the Stone Building in Zafar.

2134: 2069: 1998:

Kingdom of Hadhramaut (8th century BCE – 3rd century CE)

1953: 1942: 1901: 1877: 1684: 1680: 1589: 1434: 1416: 1400: 1377: 1312: 1288: 1271: 1139: 1096:. The Sumerians described Dilmun as a paradise garden in the 1085: 1047: 947: 943: 935: 912: 904: 868: 849: 841: 821: 807: 803: 760: 657: 581: 573: 494:, some scholars including George Mendenhall, Peter Parr, and 466: 454: 325:, Arabian history becomes more tangible with the rise of the 134: 8311:

The Pagan God: Popular Religion in the Greco-Roman Near East

7404:

Arabic Theology, Arabic Philosophy: From the Many to the One

6672: 6670: 5711:. American University of Beirut. 31 May 2011. Archived from 3257:

Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia included pre-Islamic Arabian

2196:, the Christian King of Aksum with the encouragement of the 1853:

During Minaean rule, the capital was at Karna (now known as

9359: 8726: 6495: 6491: 5385: 5034:"Qal'at al-Bahrain – Ancient Harbour and Capital of Dilmun" 3950: 3914:

Despite almost succumbing to the plague, Byzantine emperor

3499:

Another anthropomorphic stele from pre-Islamic Saudi Arabia

2919: 2883: 2866: 2681: 2594: 2327:

around 65 BCE upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to

2130: 2028:

around 300 CE, unifying all of the South Arabian kingdoms.

1938: 1919: 1915: 1862: 1704: 1472: 1267: 1221: 1146:

in the later period (from the 3rd to the 16th century CE).

1116: 951: 880: 829: 799: 704: 638: 443: 6850: 6754:"Bury, John.", "A history of the later Roman empire: from 4689:

Cross-roads – Early and Late Iron Age South-eastern Arabia

2270:, converted to Islam and Yemen followed the new religion. 2054:

Kingdom of Qataban (4th century BCE – 3rd century CE)

1914:. According to South Arabian tradition, the eldest son of 1498:). The term Tylos was commonly used for the islands until 1446:. From the 6th to 3rd century BCE Bahrain was included in 1149:

Dilmun was mentioned in two letters dated to the reign of

1032:

inhabiting the island and cultivated coastal provinces of

8156:

Tradition and Modernity in Arabic Language and Literature

7554:

Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary

6667: 5736: 5427: 5406:

Phillip Ward, Bahrain: A Travel Guide, Oleander Press p68

4976:

Egypt's Making: The Origins of Ancient Egypt 5000-2000 BC

4906:

Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary

4584:

Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary

4459:

Tradition and Modernity in Arabic Language And Literature

3958: 3899:

had erupted (541–542), spreading through Persia and into

2593:

and the Red Sea, that is, in the land that had once been

2467: 2207:

in the year 570 CE. Eastern Yemen remained allied to the

2032:

Kingdom of Awsān (8th century BCE – 6th century BCE)

1964:, where they were greatly prized by many cultures, using 1580:

believed the Phoenicians originated from Eastern Arabia.

955: 8625:

Himyar–Die Spätantike im Jemen/Himyar Late Antique Yemen

6823:"6th millennium BC structure discovered in Saudi Arabia" 6054: 3206:, to support the cause of different political factions. 3194:): They are traditionally seen as having descended from 1892:

Kingdom of Saba (12th century BCE – 7th century CE)

1857:). Their other important city was Yathill (now known as 1736:

By the 5th century, Beth Qatraye was a major centre for

6403: 5136: 4638: 2401:. They are also mentioned in the victory annals of the 938:. It is said that the Ghassanids came from the city of 887:

their capital in (266). The founder of the dynasty was

875:, hence the name given it. It was formed of a group of 867:

was founded by the Lakhum tribe that immigrated out of

293:

Scientific studies of Pre-Islamic Arabs start with the

255:, of which the emerging Islam would become a part; the 6991:"Mecca On The Caravan Routes In Pre-Islamic Antiquity" 6637:"A Paleo-Arabic inscription on a route north of Ṭāʾif" 4284: 2630:

systems. It was locally autonomous until the reign of

2301:

Kingdom of Lihyan/Dedan (7th century BCE - 24 BC)

2080:

Kingdom of Himyar (late 2nd century BCE – 525 CE)

1910:, is located near what is now Yemen's modern capital, 710:, to the south of the wadi Bayhan, is now marked by a 7716:

A Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses, Devils and Demons

7443:

In Ishmael's House: A History of Jews in Muslim Lands

6446:

harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDoughtyLawrence2010 (

2494: 2184:, a Himyarite king who changed the state religion to 1835:

from the royal palace at Shabwa, the capital city of

778:

origins remain obscure. On the similarity of sounds,

572:

The history of Pre-Islamic Arabia before the rise of

375:(5300 BCE) – could have originated in Eastern Arabia. 7789:

Mir, Mustansir (2006). "Polytheism and Atheism". In

7402:

Frank, Richard M.; Montgomery, James Edward (2007),

4642:(1968). "Fisher-folk and fish-traps in al-Bahrain". 4329:

George Mendenhall, "Qurayya and the Midianites," in

3922:

which could help fund his expansion into Europe and

3090:

records, and a clue to their origin is their use of

2505:

Achaemenid Arabia corresponded to the lands between

752:

until 525 CE. The economy was based on agriculture.

138: 8138:

Scriptural Polemics: The Qur'an and Other Religions

7073:Coulter, Charles Russell; Turner, Patricia (2013), 4745: 2710:control of northwestern Arabia until Hegra (actual 498:have suggested that the Midianites were originally 8458: 8429: 8015:Central Arabia During the Early Hellenistic Period 7836:Men on the Rocks: The Formation of Nabataean Petra 7698:The Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century 6950: 5988:Himyar Spätantike im Jemen Late Antique Yemen 2007 5743:The Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century 4785: 3930:awarded their chief with the titles of patrician, 3337:, at local shrines and temples, maybe such as the 3129:did not consider the Solluba to be descendants of 1941:in order to guarantee the Roman merchant route to 1843:Kingdom of Ma'īn (10th century BCE – 150 BCE) 193:was the home to a number of kingdoms, such as the 9333: 8054:"Sources For The History of Pre-Islamic Religion" 7899:Mecca: A Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land 7172:Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions 6930:Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire 6046:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRohmerCharloux2015 ( 5353: 5351: 5349: 5347: 5345: 5219: 5001:"Bahrain digs unveil one of oldest civilisations" 4246: 4244: 3563:Miniature gate; Zafar, Yemen, 2rd-3rd century AD. 3118:. In the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE, speakers of 2886:in central Arabia unlike the organized states of 2529:when he attacked Egypt in 525 BCE. His successor 2266:in 628, the Persian governor in Southern Arabia, 2222: 1674:governor of Eastern Arabia. He appointed his son 1165:. These letters were from a provincial official, 1076:Dilmun and its neighbors in the 10th century BCE. 16:Demography of the Arabian Peninsula before 610 CE 9490: 8204:. Texts and Studies on the Qurʾān. Vol. 6. 8064:. Texts and Studies on the Qurʾān. Vol. 6. 7351:. Texts and Studies on the Qurʾān. Vol. 6. 7001:. Texts and Studies on the Qurʾān. Vol. 6. 6515: 6272:"Saudi Aramco World : Well of Good Fortune" 5926:Sima, Alexander. "Dʿmt" in Siegbert Uhlig, ed., 4394:Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity 3032:at the dawn of Islam (approximately 600 CE / 50 2468:Kingdom of Qedar (8th century BCE – ?) 2397:source and in Old North Arabian graffiti within 2166:Aksumite occupation of Yemen (525 – 570 CE) 1782:Oman and the United Arab Emirates comprised the 1616:or Mesenian, the state founded in what today is 1482:It is not known whether Bahrain was part of the 688:of the Kings of Saba' and dhu-Raydan the Middle 177:. Among the most prominent communities were the 7734:Jews and Arabs in Pre- and Early Islamic Arabia 7695: 7401: 7150:Islam, Arabs, and Intelligent World of the Jinn 6441: 5933:(Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), p. 185. 3269:which themselves likewise originated among the 1679:was subdivided into three districts of Haggar ( 794:that began in 586 BCE opened a power vacuum in 7458: 6634: 6041: 5494:. American Philosophical Society. p. 48. 5342: 5065: 4851:. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 270–279. 4707: 4241: 3152: 2946:inscriptions mention that he was king both of 740:dating from 110 BC. It conquered in c. 25 BC, 9319: 8673: 8051: 7857:Jeremiah in Talmud and Midrash: A Source Book 7696:Kozah, Mario; Abu-Husayn, Abdulrahim (2014), 7602:, Columbia University Press, pp. 17–40, 7072: 6553: 6196: 6190: 5597: 5572: 3849: 1760:The dioceses of Beth Qatraye did not form an 1205:'s translation of the Eridu Genesis calls it 509: 8374:, Oxford At The Clarendon Press, p. 318 8275:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans 8120:Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century 8012: 7833: 7533: 7518:The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus 7459:Gilman, Ian; Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (2013), 6427:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMeeker1979 ( 6397: 6389:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMcNutt2003 ( 6370:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBlench2010 ( 6351:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBlench2010 ( 6065:sfn error: no target: CITEREFAl-Ansary1999 ( 5850:Nebes, Norbert. "Epigraphic South Arabian", 5668:Hebrew and Aramaic Dictionary of Bible Words 5625:Bahrain By Federal Research Division, page 7 5525: 5487: 5213: 5161: 4376:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 5. 3137:who were taken into slavery by the Bedouin. 2046:or artificial mound, which is locally named 1790:name for Oman and the United Arab Emirates. 1338:. Prior to Gerrha, the area belonged to the 832:; the Nabataeans must have occupied the old 714:or artificial mound, which is locally named 684:, but after the disintegration of the first 217:. A few nodal points were controlled by the 66:Nabataean trade routes in Pre-Islamic Arabia 41: 8326: 7834:Mouton, Michel; Schmid, Stephan G. (2014), 7600:Muslim Identities: An Introduction to Islam 6461: 6459: 6457: 6435: 5946:(Edinburgh: University Press, 1991), p. 58. 5830:. Georgetown University Press. p. 43. 5779:. Oxford Brookes University. Archived from 5644: 5642: 5640: 5122:. Cambridge University Press. p. 152. 5072:. University Press of America. p. 10. 4792:. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. p. 4783: 4358:Institute for Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies 4264:. London: Aurum Press Ltd. pp. 25–31. 2721:Recently evidence has been discovered that 146: 9326: 9312: 8680: 8666: 7770: 6470:. Amsterdam University Press. p. 30. 5768: 5766: 5764: 5762: 5695:, volume 18, number 72, winter 2011, p. 88 5455: 3856: 3842: 3101:sees the Solubba as the last survivors of 3078:who were clearly distinguishable from the 2954:(Qaḥṭān). They played a major role in the 1518:Phoenicians man their ships in service to 1201:), was taken by the gods to live forever. 366: 8588: 8557: 7672: 7615: 7534:Healey, John F.; Porter, Venetia (2003), 7057:The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity 6683:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 170. 6416: 6378: 6359: 6060: 5162:Crawford, Harriet; Rice, Michael (2000). 5147:sfn error: no target: CITEREFLarsen1983 ( 4486:The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity 3992:Expansion of the caliphate, 622–750 CE. 3074:tribal group in the northern part of the 2428: 1793: 1612:Greek power, Tylos was incorporated into 1342:civilization, which was conquered by the 840:captivity to press forward into southern 755:Foreign trade was based on the export of 560:Learn how and when to remove this message 419: 8378: 8333:Muslims and Others: Relations in Context 8308: 8290: 7975: 7621:Islamic History: A Framework for Inquiry 7248: 7207: 7188: 7108: 6988: 6903: 6635:Al-Jallad, Ahmad; Sidky, Hythem (2022). 6454: 5944:Aksum: a Civilization of Late Antiquity, 5822: 5677: 5675: 5637: 5115: 5097: 4224:Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture 4221:Jr, William H. Stiebing (July 1, 2016). 3987: 3377:, the dominant form of Christianity was 3236: 3023: 2701: 2565: 2438: 2291: 2283: 2219:into Yemen, ending the Aksumite period. 2156: 2083: 1826: 1811: 1627: 1564:the eastern part of the Arabia peninsula 1513: 1420: 1287: 1138:and Mesopotamia in the early period and 1071: 280: 8532: 8507: 8453: 8399: 7914: 7893: 7872: 7851: 7749: 7636: 7596:"Setting the Stage: Pre-Islamic Arabia" 7569: 7536:Studies on Arabia in Honour of G. Felix 7494: 7479:A History of Christian-Muslim Relations 7476: 7437: 7338: 7165: 7147: 7051: 6715: 6465: 6340: 5759: 5388:, Ares in the Arabian Peninsula section 5220:Thorkild Jacobsen (23 September 1997). 4844: 4482: 3599:Dhamar Ali Yahbur II, King of Himyarite 1925:During Sabaean rule, Yemen was called " 1548: 9491: 8687: 8482: 8424: 8272: 8171: 8114: 8030: 7878:The Great Islamic Conquests AD 632-750 7731: 7713: 7654: 7590: 7515: 7419: 7320: 7225: 7090: 6945: 6422: 6384: 6365: 6346: 5333: 5142: 5028: 5026: 4941: 4939: 4937: 4576: 4574: 4259: 4206:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3886: 3393:being present in the peninsula. While 3097:Cambridge linguist and anthropologist 2808:Greeks and Romans referred to all the 2778:migrating north from the 3rd century. 1486:, although the archaeological site at 782:suggested a connection with the tribe 449:The A'adids established themselves in 9307: 8661: 8335:, Religion and Reason, vol. 41, 8254: 8191: 8153: 8135: 7934: 7639:The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity 7551: 7126: 6758:to Irene.", "(New York: 1889)", "401" 6676: 6404:Bosworth, Heinrichs & Donzel 2003 5844: 5672: 5446:University Of Chicago Press, 1984 p13 5285: 5061: 5059: 5011:from the original on 13 November 2014 4902: 4580: 4455: 4451: 4449: 4278: 4053: 3225:(and later Muhammad's own tribe, the 2792:region and spread to modern Lebanon, 2541:, but later became its own province. 1968:through Arabia, and to India by sea. 1816:Sabaean inscription addressed to the 1315:. This fort is 50 miles northeast of 8619: 8364: 8257:Who's Who in Non-Classical Mythology 8178:, The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 7271: 6924: 6509: 6274:. Saudiaramworld.com. Archived from 5813:Kozah, Abu-Husayn, Abdulrahim. p. 1. 5240:from the original on 17 January 2023 5168:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 217. 5069:Getting Back Into the Garden of Eden 4972: 4752:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 110. 3125:Western travelers reported that the 2871: 1438:, the centre of pearl trading, when 871:in the 2nd century and ruled by the 656:language who lived in what is today 619:The first known inscriptions of the 542:adding citations to reliable sources 513: 337:and the gradual assimilation of the 8013:al-Sa'ud, 'Abd Allah Sa'ud (2011), 7788: 6175:. p. DNa inscription Line 27. 5741:; Al-Murikhi, Saif Shaheen (2014). 5600:The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf 5575:The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf 5023: 4934: 4896: 4571: 4418:Abu Bakr: The Beloved Of My Beloved 4153:Soviet Orientalist studies in Islam 4123:History of the United Arab Emirates 3903:territory. The Byzantine historian 2362: 2246: 2223:Sassanid period (570 – 630 CE) 1880:and Egypt. It was the first of the 1600:in particular have long maintained 1475:was also worshipped by the ancient 1397:Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville 1304: 1258:, the main events, which center on 652:were an ancient people speaking an 409:Late Iron Age (c. 100 BCE–c.300 CE) 165:throughout the region at the time. 122: 42: 13: 8418: 8327:Waardenburg, Jean Jacques (2003), 7637:Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (2012), 7132:Medieval Islamic Political Thought 5056: 4816: 4711:Medieval Islamic Political Thought 4446: 4360:, newsletter no. 23 (2003), p. 12. 4220: 4066:. Archaeological researchers from 4003: Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661 3019: 2652:Arabian Peninsula in the Roman era 2548:a year. They participated in the 2533:does not mention the Arabs in the 2495:The Achaemenids in Northern Arabia 1442:came to discover it serving under 1327:. This site was first proposed by 161:), highlighting the prevalence of 14: 9515: 9467: 8222:10.1163/ej.9789004176881.i-864.58 8082:10.1163/ej.9789004176881.i-864.66 7918:Muhammad and the Origins of Islam 7369:10.1163/ej.9789004176881.i-864.21 7019:10.1163/ej.9789004176881.i-864.25 6641:Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 5745:. Gorgias Press LLC. p. 24. 5155: 5106:by Harriet E. W. Crawford, page 5 5044:from the original on 5 April 2012 4414: 4311:from the original on 4 March 2018 4009: Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750 3893:Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628 3613: 3413:, and the Abd Shams inscription. 3043: 2860: 2610:, meaning 'of rock') lies in the 2550:Second Persian invasion of Greece 2365:) was an ancient civilization in 2249:), who helped the semi-legendary 2237:sent troops under the command of 1683:, Saudi Arabia), Batan Ardashir ( 1666:, the first ruler of the Iranian 1432:was referred to by the Greeks as 1292:Gerrha and its neighbors in 1 CE. 965: 676:, due to their hegemony over the 490:motifs on what is referred to as 461:The ʿĀd nation were known to the 329:, and with the appearance of the 9504:History of the Arabian Peninsula 8924: 7959:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00189 7915:Peters, Francis Edward (1994b), 7817:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00151 7304:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4901 7109:Crawford, Harriet E. W. (1998), 6844: 6815: 6806: 6797: 6788: 6779: 6770: 6761: 6748: 6708: 6628: 6614: 6585: 6547: 5963:from the original on 2006-09-02. 5657:Yoma 77a and Rosh Hashbanah, 23a 5529:Bahrain Through The Ages - Archa 5276:Strabon, Geography, i6. 4. 19-20 5116:Crawford, Harriet E. W. (1998). 4331:Studies in the History of Arabia 3997: Prophet Muhammad, 622–632 3983: 3604: 3592: 3568: 3556: 3544: 3525: 3504: 3492: 3464: 3444: 3271:ancient Semitic-speaking peoples 3221:, from which amongst others the 3213:, from which amongst others the 1771: 1216:Dilmun is also described in the 1058:, Aramaic and Syriac languages. 518: 96: 60: 8386:, University of Chicago Press, 7859:, University Press of America, 7235:, University of Chicago Press, 7075:Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities 6897: 6883:from the original on 2020-09-03 6833:from the original on 2020-09-29 6697:from the original on 2022-04-07 6599:from the original on 2019-11-16 6574:from the original on 2023-01-17 6536:from the original on 2023-01-17 6498:, but only Adnanites can claim 6331: 6322: 6299: 6290: 6264: 6246: 6221: 6179:from the original on 2021-03-25 6163: 6019: 6006: 5993: 5980: 5967: 5949: 5936: 5920: 5902: 5890: 5879:from the original on 2021-10-23 5861: 5816: 5807: 5798: 5730: 5698: 5660: 5651: 5628: 5591: 5566: 5557: 5546:from the original on 2023-01-17 5532:. Routledge. pp. 401–402. 5519: 5508:from the original on 2023-01-17 5481: 5449: 5436: 5418: 5409: 5400: 5391: 5378: 5369: 5360: 5316: 5307: 5279: 5270: 5261: 5252: 5182:from the original on 2023-01-17 5086:from the original on 2023-01-17 4993: 4966: 4923:from the original on 2023-01-17 4865:from the original on 2023-01-17 4838: 4827:from the original on 2023-01-17 4810: 4777: 4766:from the original on 2023-01-17 4739: 4728:from the original on 2021-06-14 4701: 4678: 4632: 4601:from the original on 2023-01-17 4540:from the original on 2023-01-17 4514: 4503:from the original on 2023-01-17 4476: 4435:from the original on 2023-01-17 4408: 4399: 4386: 4189:from the original on 2018-04-30 3475:; 4th millennium BCE, Al-'Ula ( 3457:National Museum of Oriental Art 2641: 2389:inscription from the northwest 2180:intervention is connected with 1710: 1695:, Bahrain; also referred to as 1254:Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta 1131:added Dilmun to their empires. 1104:story. Dilmun appears first in 1016:agriculturalists. According to 529:needs additional citations for 123:شبه الجزيرة العربية قبل الإسلام 43:شبه الجزيرة العربية قبل الإسلام 8313:, Princeton University Press, 8052:Seidensticker, Tilman (2009). 8017:, King Fahd National Library, 7901:, Princeton University Press, 7623:, Princeton University Press, 7502:, Cambridge University Press, 7461:Christians in Asia before 1500 7323:Arabs and Empires before Islam 7134:, Edinburgh University Press, 7113:, Cambridge University Press, 7111:Dilmun and Its Gulf Neighbours 6957:, Cambridge University Press, 6911:, Cambridge University Press, 5990:, pp. map. p. 16 Fog. 3,45–55. 5119:Dilmun and Its Gulf Neighbours 5104:Dilmun and Its Gulf Neighbours 4374:Dilmun and its Gulf neighbours 4363: 4349: 4336: 4323: 4253: 4214: 4169: 4118:History of the Arabic alphabet 3315:religion in pre-Islamic Arabia 3247:Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia 2211:via tribal alliances with the 1922:, founded the city of Ma'rib. 1778:Christianity in Eastern Arabia 1717:Christianity in Eastern Arabia 1354:Persian control after 300 CE. 1211:"faraway, half-mythical place" 976:Christianity in Eastern Arabia 858:Ptolemaic rulers of Alexandria 767:from Africa to be sold in the 361:Arabs and Empires Before Islam 233:Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia 21:Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia 1: 8175:Islamic Beliefs and Practices 7420:Gelder, G. J. H. van (2005), 7272:Fahd, T. (2012). "Manāf". In 7152:, Syracuse University Press, 6989:Bukharin, Mikhail D. (2009). 6466:Parolin, Gianluca P. (2009). 6319:. Retrieved 11 February 2012. 5973:Müller, Walter W. "Ḥaḍramawt" 5463:. p. 274. Archived from 4960:10.1080/00438243.1993.9980218 4788:Islamic Beliefs and Practices 4587:. BRILL. pp. XXIV–XXVI. 4295:Remote Sensing in Archaeology 2915:after the death of Muḥammad. 2747: 2658:Roman rule in northern Arabia 2150:or more likely the Christian 2106:as well as the coasts of the 1956:. These were exported to the 1526:, during his war against the 1153:(c. 1370 BCE) recovered from 1008:Christians, Persian-speaking 923:where they intermarried with 183:Semitic-speaking civilization 133:in 610 CE, is referred to in 8038:, Harvard University Press, 7838:, Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH, 7771:McLaughlin, John L. (2012), 7682:, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 7481:, Rowman & Littlefield, 7445:, McClelland & Stewart, 6718:"The Region: Time and Space" 4909:. BRILL. pp. XXIX–XXX. 4746:G. J. H. van Gelder (2005). 3712:Pre-Islamic Arabian religion 2831:region around their capital 2555: 2393:of 169 CE, in a 5th-century 984:, Arabic and to some degree 930:settlers and Greek-speaking 848:and the important harbor of 173:that were later recorded by 7: 8488:The Early Islamic Conquests 8400:Zeitlin, Irving M. (2007), 8140:, Oxford University Press, 7942:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān 7796:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān 7757:, Oxford University Press, 7538:, Oxford University Press, 7258:, Oxford University Press, 7255:The Oxford History of Islam 7210:Cults and Beliefs at Edessa 7208:Drijvers, H. J. W. (1980), 6442:Doughty & Lawrence 2010 5999:Sima, Alexander. "GDR(T)", 4526:. BRILL. 1993. p. 98. 4158:Women in pre-Islamic Arabia 4081: 3941:. The Sasanians' ally; the 3535:sculpture from pre-Islamic 3232: 3153:Arab genealogical tradition 2513:, later known to Romans as 2188:and began to persecute the 2110:. From their capital city, 1658:In the 3rd century CE, the 1250:However, in the early epic 828:was the ancient capital of 139: 131:Muhammad's first revelation 10: 9520: 8517:Cambridge University Press 8492:Princeton University Press 8438:Cambridge University Press 8036:The Middle East Under Rome 7095:, University of Michigan, 6522:. SUNY Press. p. 72. 6306:History of Arabia – Kindah 6258:November 12, 2007, at the 6042:Rohmer & Charloux 2015 5854:pp. 334; Leonid Kogan and 5458:"Canaan. Phoenicia. Sidon" 4979:. Routledge. p. 230. 4489:. Routledge. p. 185. 4013: 3420: 3265:(religions predating the 3250: 3244: 3156: 3063: 3059: 2875: 2864: 2751: 2706:Map showing Roman emperor 2687:world to the east and the 2645: 2634:, but it flourished under 2559: 2498: 2471: 2432: 2346: 2304: 2277: 2226: 2215:, which later brought the 2169: 2095: 2057: 2035: 2001: 1895: 1876:and even on the island of 1846: 1797: 1775: 1714: 1647:lost their territories to 1414: 1281: 1065: 969: 962:branch of Qahtani tribes. 510:Overview of major kingdoms 423: 274: 270: 25: 18: 9431: 9398: 9342: 9285: 9235: 9183: 9174: 9093: 9008: 9001: 8993:Ancient South Arabian art 8933: 8922: 8899: 8843: 8815: 8760: 8702: 8695: 8309:Teixidor, Javier (2015), 8291:Teixidor, Javier (1979), 8200:; Sinai, Nicolai (eds.). 8060:; Sinai, Nicolai (eds.). 7347:; Sinai, Nicolai (eds.). 7339:Finster, Barbara (2009). 6997:; Sinai, Nicolai (eds.). 6516:Reuven Firestone (1990). 5693:Journal of Social Affairs 5602:. Routledge. p. 21. 5577:. Routledge. p. 20. 5433:Jean Francois Salles p132 5375:Arnold Heeren, ibid, p441 5226:. Yale University Press. 4820:Glossary Of Islamic Terms 4656:10.1017/s0041977x00125522 4293:; El-Baz, Farouk (eds.). 4237:– via Google Books. 3876:. According to historian 3427:Ancient South Arabian art 3373:in the northeast and the 3317:, based on veneration of 3263:ancient Semitic religions 3014: 2813:Magna (Larger Arabia) or 2342: 2262:. Following the death of 1277: 1228:as the site at which the 1061: 413:Recent Pre-Islamic Period 249:ancient Semitic religions 71: 59: 35: 8467:Harvard University Press 7732:Lecker, Michael (1998), 7714:Lurker, Manfred (2015), 7516:Healey, John F. (2001), 6716:Ibrahim, Hayder (1979). 5929:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica 4483:Cameron, Averil (1993). 4421:. Mohammad Hafiz Ganie. 4405:See, e.g., Bafaqih 1990. 4297:. Springer. p. 71. 4163: 3481:National Museum of Korea 3052:. The ancestral lineage 2926:, who had a king called 2273: 2092:, 1st century BCE, Yemen 1800:Ancient history of Yemen 1651:, an Iranian tribe from 1410: 1357:Gerrha was described by 1030:ancient Persians (Majus) 185:in the eastern part was 156:The period of ignorance 9474:Ancient Arabia Database 8573:Oxford University Press 8461:The Camel and the Wheel 8402:The Historical Muhammad 8293:The Pantheon of Palmyra 8255:Sykes, Egerton (2014), 7976:Robinson, Neal (1991). 7298:(2nd ed.). Brill. 7191:The Religion of Palmyra 7148:El-Zein, Amira (2009), 6947:Berkey, Jonathan Porter 6317:Encyclopædia Britannica 6202:Langer, William Leonard 5828:Qatar: A Modern History 5066:Edward Conklin (1998). 4817:Zanaty, Anwer Mahmoud. 4708:Patricia Crone (2005). 4640:Robert Bertram Serjeant 4415:Ganie, Mohammad Hafiz. 4370:Crawford, Harriet E. W. 4108:History of Saudi Arabia 3949:, but from what is now 3870:Byzantine–Sassanid Wars 2668:, was made part of the 1784:ecclesiastical province 1762:ecclesiastical province 1725:. It included Bahrain, 1479:and the Greek empires. 1348:Antiochus III the Great 1262:'s construction of the 1018:Robert Bertram Serjeant 736:was a state in ancient 367:Prehistoric to Iron Age 213:, which governed it as 9418:Levant (Greater Syria) 8986:Nabataean architecture 8432:The Formation of Islam 8136:Sirry, Mun'im (2014), 7937:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen 7895:Peters, Francis Edward 7791:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen 7700:, Gorgias Press, LLC, 7477:Goddard, Hugh (2000), 7406:, Peeters Publishers, 7295:Encyclopaedia of Islam 6677:Liska, George (1998). 6560:. BRILL. p. 170. 6554:Göran Larsson (2003). 5873:www.thefreelibrary.com 5739:Abu-Husayn, Abdulrahim 5598:Rice, Michael (1994). 5573:Rice, Michael (1994). 4973:Rice, Michael (1991). 4845:Jastrow, Otto (2002). 4138:Pre-Islamic Arab trade 4051: 4011: 3974:Monophysite Christians 3965:, which believed that 3416: 3349:regarding the role of 3242: 3054:followed through males 3037: 2766:Syria (Roman province) 2715: 2582: 2464: 2429:North Arabian kingdoms 2385:annals (Tamudi), in a 2297: 2289: 2162: 2093: 1839: 1824: 1794:South Arabian Kingdoms 1738:Nestorian Christianity 1643:By about 250 BCE, the 1574: 1535: 1426: 1329:Robert Ernest Cheesman 1293: 1238: 1209:which he locates as a 1077: 879:who lived in Southern 502:who migrated from the 420:Magan, Midian, and ʿĀd 415:(c. 150 BCE–c. 325 CE) 290: 235:was diverse; although 9071:Ancient South Arabian 9036:Ancient North Arabian 9031:South Semitic scripts 8349:10.1515/9783110200959 8273:Taylor, Jane (2001), 8192:Stein, Peter (2009). 8172:Stefon, Matt (2009), 8154:Smart, J. R. (1996), 7880:, Osprey Publishing, 7773:The Ancient Near East 7617:Humphreys, R. Stephen 7552:Holes, Clive (2001), 7321:Fisher, Greg (2015), 7091:Cramer, Marc (1979), 6975:, Walter de Gruyter, 6812:"Egger", "2005", "33" 5526:Michael Rice (1986). 5488:R. A. Donkin (1998). 4903:Holes, Clive (2001). 4581:Holes, Clive (2001). 4456:Smart, J. R. (2013). 4260:Taylor, Jane (2005). 4035: 3991: 3963:Orthodox Christianity 3539:that represents a ram 3479:); exhibition at the 3421:Further information: 3240: 3027: 2876:Further information: 2865:Further information: 2752:Further information: 2705: 2656:There is evidence of 2628:hydraulic engineering 2569: 2445:Old Persian cuneiform 2442: 2435:Ancient North Arabian 2347:Further information: 2295: 2287: 2278:Further information: 2160: 2087: 1888:died around 100 CE . 1830: 1815: 1687:, Saudi Arabia), and 1628:Parthian and Sassanid 1552: 1517: 1424: 1291: 1234: 1075: 1054:, were influenced by 852:. Here, according to 621:Kingdom of Hadhramaut 424:Further information: 307:Ancient North Arabian 284: 8216:. pp. 255–280. 8196:. In Marx, Michael; 8158:, Psychology Press, 8076:. pp. 293–322. 8056:. In Marx, Michael; 7751:Leeming, David Adams 7655:Kaizer, Ted (2008), 7343:. In Marx, Michael; 7013:. pp. 115–134. 6993:. In Marx, Michael; 6869:10.15184/aqy.2020.81 6253:Encyclopædia Iranica 5258:Potts (1990), p. 56. 4784:Matt Stefon (2009). 4462:. Psychology Press. 4143:Pre-Islamic calendar 3957:disagreements about 3795:Religious conversion 2539:Achaemenid Babylonia 2535:Behistun inscription 2192:in Yemen. Outraged, 1576:The Greek historian 1549:Phoenicians Homeland 1458:. The Greek admiral 1084:trading routes. The 792:Babylonian captivity 538:improve this article 434:Magan (civilization) 171:Arab oral traditions 125:), referring to the 9335:Classical antiquity 9286:Islamic perspective 8934:Society and culture 8604:Harrassowitz Verlag 8455:Bulliet, Richard W. 8426:Berkey, Jonathan P. 8366:Watt, W. Montgomery 7363:. pp. 61–114. 7175:, Merriam-Webster, 6973:Redefining Dionysos 6001:Encyclopaedia: D-Ha 5975:Encyclopaedia: D-Ha 5942:Munro-Hay, Stuart. 5852:Encyclopaedia: D-Ha 5563:Arnold Heeren, p441 5267:Bibby, pp. 317-318. 4025:in the Levant, the 3897:Plague of Justinian 3887:Fall of the Empires 3632:Abrahamic religions 3624:and other religions 3275:Abrahamic religions 3267:Abrahamic religions 3070:The Solluba were a 2817:(Deserted Arabia). 2525:did not subdue the 2148:Malkīkarib Yuhaʾmin 2122:and as far east as 1608:With the waning of 1444:Alexander the Great 1088:regarded Dilmun as 1038:Samad Late Iron Age 998:Christianized Arabs 994:liturgical language 810:without success by 263:; and, rarely, the 253:Abrahamic religions 225:and then under the 92:First Islamic State 9499:Pre-Islamic Arabia 8977:Nabataean culture 8689:Pre-Islamic Arabia 8650:2006-02-16 at the 8534:Hoyland, Robert G. 8371:Muhammad At Medina 8343:, pp. 89–91, 8198:Neuwirth, Angelika 8122:, Dumbarton Oaks, 8058:Neuwirth, Angelika 7775:, Abingdon Press, 7571:Hoyland, Robert G. 7345:Neuwirth, Angelika 6995:Neuwirth, Angelika 6311:2015-04-03 at the 6032:87, 2013, 1124-35. 5687:2012-04-19 at the 5442:Curtis E. Larsen. 4392:Stuart Munro-Hay, 4113:History of Bahrain 4054:Recent discoveries 4039:Pyrenees Mountains 4033:and North Africa. 4012: 3583:(National Museum, 3514:Walters Art Museum 3435:produced stylized 3347:have been proposed 3325:and the goddesses 3243: 3038: 2716: 2612:Jordan Rift Valley 2583: 2465: 2298: 2290: 2251:Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan 2163: 2094: 1840: 1825: 1536: 1427: 1390:Kingdom of Bahrain 1294: 1078: 699:with a capital at 379:Umm Al Nar culture 291: 221:, first under the 137:in the context of 115:Pre-Islamic Arabia 37:Pre-Islamic Arabia 9464: 9463: 9301: 9300: 9281: 9280: 9170: 9169: 9140:Old South Arabian 8920: 8919: 8856:Achaemenid Arabia 8638:978-3-929290-35-6 8613:978-3-447-03679-5 8595:Pre-Islamic Yemen 8590:Korotayev, Andrey 8582:978-0-19-922237-7 8559:Korotayev, Andrey 8551:978-0-415-19535-5 8526:978-0-521-65165-3 8501:978-0-691-10182-8 8476:978-0-674-09130-6 8447:978-0-521-58813-3 8411:978-0-7456-3999-4 8393:978-0-226-89428-7 8358:978-3-11-017627-8 8320:978-1-4008-7139-1 8302:978-90-04-05987-0 8295:, Brill Archive, 8284:978-1-86064-508-2 8266:978-1-136-41437-4 8231:978-90-04-17688-1 8185:978-1-61530-017-4 8165:978-0-7007-0411-8 8147:978-0-19-935937-0 8129:978-0-88402-284-8 8091:978-90-04-17688-1 8045:978-0-674-01683-5 8024:978-9-960-00097-8 7997:978-0-7914-0558-1 7928:978-0-7914-1875-8 7908:978-0-691-03267-2 7887:978-1-78096-998-5 7866:978-0-7618-3487-8 7845:978-3-8325-3313-7 7826:978-90-04-14743-0 7782:978-1-4267-6550-6 7764:978-0-19-534899-6 7743:978-0-86078-784-6 7725:978-1-136-10628-6 7707:978-1-4632-0355-9 7689:978-3-447-03679-5 7666:978-90-04-16735-3 7648:978-0-19-533693-1 7630:978-1-85043-360-6 7609:978-0-231-53192-4 7584:978-1-134-64634-0 7563:978-90-04-10763-2 7545:978-0-19-851064-2 7527:978-90-04-10754-0 7509:978-1-139-42635-0 7488:978-1-56663-340-6 7470:978-1-136-10978-2 7452:978-1-55199-342-3 7431:978-1-85043-855-7 7413:978-90-429-1778-1 7378:978-90-04-17688-1 7332:978-0-19-105699-4 7313:978-90-04-16121-4 7286:van Donzel, E. J. 7265:978-0-19-510799-9 7242:978-0-226-14772-7 7219:978-90-04-06050-0 7212:, Brill Archive, 7200:978-0-585-36013-3 7182:978-0-87779-044-0 7159:978-0-8156-3200-9 7141:978-0-7486-2194-1 7120:978-0-521-58679-5 7102:978-0-491-02366-5 7084:978-1-135-96390-3 7066:978-1-134-98081-9 7028:978-90-04-17688-1 6982:978-3-11-030132-8 6964:978-0-521-58813-3 6939:978-1-134-82387-1 6918:978-1-316-64155-2 6653:10.1111/aae.12203 6215:978-0-395-65237-4 6198:Stearns, Peter N. 5837:978-1-58901-910-2 5826:(13 April 2012). 5691:, Peter Hellyer, 5609:978-0-415-03268-1 5584:978-0-415-03268-1 5233:978-0-300-07278-5 4948:World Archaeology 4697:978-3-447-10127-1 4304:978-0-387-44455-0 4291:Wiseman, James R. 4098:Arabian mythology 4088:Ancient Near East 4064:journal Antiquity 4041:in Europe to the 3866: 3865: 3575:Pergamon Museum ( 3391:Iranian religions 3307:Dharmic religions 3295:Iranian religions 3217:emerged, and the 3120:Semitic languages 3110:with speakers of 3076:Arabian Peninsula 3030:Arabian Peninsula 2999:), the nephew of 2872:Kingdom of Kindah 2587:Syro-African rift 2459:, circa 480 BCE. 2316:Arabian Peninsula 2288:Location of Dedan 2233:The Persian king 2198:Byzantine Emperor 2098:Himyarite Kingdom 1685:al-Qatif province 1554:According to the 1336:Arabian Peninsula 1245:Epic of Gilgamesh 1203:Thorkild Jacobsen 1115:, in the city of 1098:Epic of Gilgamesh 744:in c. 200 CE and 662:Arabian Peninsula 654:Old South Arabian 637:, in the city of 578:Arabian peninsula 570: 569: 562: 492:Midianite pottery 357:Arabian Peninsula 299:Old South Arabian 261:Gnostic religions 257:Iranian religions 175:Muslim historians 127:Arabian Peninsula 112: 111: 108: 107: 104: 103: 9511: 9328: 9321: 9314: 9305: 9304: 9181: 9180: 9121:Nabataean Arabic 9026:Nabataean script 9021:Aramaic alphabet 9006: 9005: 8928: 8700: 8699: 8682: 8675: 8668: 8659: 8658: 8641: 8616: 8585: 8554: 8529: 8504: 8479: 8464: 8450: 8435: 8414: 8396: 8375: 8361: 8323: 8305: 8287: 8277:, I. B. Tauris, 8269: 8251: 8214:Brill Publishers 8188: 8168: 8150: 8132: 8111: 8074:Brill Publishers 8048: 8027: 8009: 7984:Albany, New York 7972: 7951:Brill Publishers 7931: 7911: 7890: 7869: 7848: 7830: 7809:Brill Publishers 7799:. Vol. IV. 7785: 7767: 7746: 7728: 7710: 7692: 7674:Korotayev, A. V. 7669: 7651: 7633: 7612: 7592:Hughes, Aaron W. 7587: 7566: 7548: 7530: 7512: 7491: 7473: 7455: 7434: 7424:, I. B. Tauris, 7416: 7398: 7361:Brill Publishers 7335: 7317: 7290:Heinrichs, W. P. 7268: 7245: 7222: 7204: 7185: 7162: 7144: 7123: 7105: 7093:The Devil Within 7087: 7069: 7048: 7011:Brill Publishers 6985: 6967: 6956: 6942: 6921: 6892: 6891: 6889: 6888: 6863:(375): 601–621. 6848: 6842: 6841: 6839: 6838: 6819: 6813: 6810: 6804: 6801: 6795: 6792: 6786: 6783: 6777: 6774: 6768: 6765: 6759: 6752: 6746: 6745: 6739: 6738: 6712: 6706: 6705: 6703: 6702: 6674: 6665: 6664: 6632: 6626: 6625: 6618: 6612: 6611: 6605: 6604: 6589: 6583: 6582: 6580: 6579: 6551: 6545: 6544: 6542: 6541: 6513: 6507: 6481: 6463: 6452: 6451: 6439: 6433: 6432: 6420: 6414: 6413: 6401: 6395: 6394: 6382: 6376: 6375: 6363: 6357: 6356: 6344: 6338: 6335: 6329: 6326: 6320: 6303: 6297: 6294: 6288: 6287: 6285: 6283: 6268: 6262: 6250: 6244: 6243: 6241: 6240: 6231:. 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Tsirkin. 5453: 5447: 5440: 5434: 5431: 5425: 5422: 5416: 5413: 5407: 5404: 5398: 5395: 5389: 5382: 5376: 5373: 5367: 5364: 5358: 5355: 5340: 5337: 5331: 5320: 5314: 5311: 5305: 5304: 5283: 5277: 5274: 5268: 5265: 5259: 5256: 5250: 5249: 5247: 5245: 5217: 5211: 5210: 5204: 5200: 5198: 5190: 5188: 5187: 5159: 5153: 5152: 5145:, p. 50-51. 5140: 5134: 5133: 5113: 5107: 5101: 5095: 5094: 5092: 5091: 5063: 5054: 5053: 5051: 5049: 5030: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5016: 4997: 4991: 4990: 4970: 4964: 4963: 4943: 4932: 4931: 4929: 4928: 4900: 4894: 4893: 4887: 4883: 4881: 4873: 4871: 4870: 4842: 4836: 4835: 4833: 4832: 4814: 4808: 4807: 4791: 4781: 4775: 4774: 4772: 4771: 4743: 4737: 4736: 4734: 4733: 4705: 4699: 4682: 4676: 4675: 4636: 4630: 4629: 4623: 4619: 4617: 4609: 4607: 4606: 4578: 4569: 4568: 4562: 4558: 4556: 4548: 4546: 4545: 4518: 4512: 4511: 4509: 4508: 4480: 4474: 4473: 4453: 4444: 4443: 4441: 4440: 4412: 4406: 4403: 4397: 4390: 4384: 4367: 4361: 4353: 4347: 4340: 4334: 4327: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4316: 4282: 4276: 4275: 4257: 4251: 4248: 4239: 4238: 4218: 4212: 4211: 4205: 4197: 4195: 4194: 4188: 4181: 4173: 4093:Arab (etymology) 4008: 4002: 3996: 3920:Fertile Crescent 3858: 3851: 3844: 3633: 3618: 3617: 3608: 3596: 3572: 3560: 3548: 3529: 3508: 3496: 3468: 3448: 3159:Tribes of Arabia 2878:Kingdom of Kinda 2827:settled the mid 2697:Palmyra Hadriana 2573:in the ruins of 2531:Darius the Great 2501:Arabia (satrapy) 2364: 2248: 2172:Kingdom of Aksum 2038:Kingdom of Awsan 2026:Shammar Yahri'sh 1966:camels on routes 1886:Minaean language 1884:to end, and the 1872:in northwestern 1754:Gabriel of Qatar 1746:Isaac of Nineveh 1742:Byzantine Empire 1572: 1488:Qalat Al Bahrain 1361:as inhabited by 1321:Eastern Province 1306: 1186:in Mesopotamia. 1151:Burna-Buriash II 992:functioned as a 986:Persian speakers 816:Diodorus Siculus 697:Kingdom of Awsan 686:Himyarite empire 660:, in south west 641:. The adjective 565: 558: 554: 551: 545: 522: 514: 471:Claudius Ptolemy 391:Wadi Suq Culture 343:Muslim conquests 265:Indian religions 207:Samad population 160: 157: 154: 151: 148: 144: 124: 100: 99: 88: 87: 73: 72: 64: 53: 45: 44: 33: 32: 9519: 9518: 9514: 9513: 9512: 9510: 9509: 9508: 9489: 9488: 9470: 9465: 9460: 9427: 9394: 9338: 9332: 9302: 9297: 9277: 9236:Other religions 9231: 9166: 9089: 9016:Arabic alphabet 8997: 8929: 8916: 8895: 8839: 8811: 8756: 8691: 8686: 8652:Wayback Machine 8639: 8621:Yule, Paul Alan 8614: 8583: 8552: 8527: 8502: 8477: 8448: 8421: 8419:Further reading 8412: 8394: 8359: 8321: 8303: 8285: 8267: 8232: 8186: 8166: 8148: 8130: 8092: 8046: 8032:Sartre, Maurice 8025: 7998: 7969: 7945:. Vol. V. 7929: 7909: 7888: 7867: 7846: 7827: 7783: 7765: 7744: 7726: 7708: 7690: 7667: 7649: 7631: 7610: 7585: 7564: 7546: 7528: 7510: 7489: 7471: 7453: 7439:Gilbert, Martin 7432: 7414: 7379: 7333: 7314: 7282:Bosworth, C. E. 7266: 7243: 7220: 7201: 7183: 7160: 7142: 7128:Crone, Patricia 7121: 7103: 7085: 7067: 7053:Cameron, Averil 7029: 6983: 6965: 6940: 6919: 6900: 6895: 6886: 6884: 6849: 6845: 6836: 6834: 6821: 6820: 6816: 6811: 6807: 6802: 6798: 6793: 6789: 6784: 6780: 6775: 6771: 6766: 6762: 6753: 6749: 6736: 6734: 6732: 6713: 6709: 6700: 6698: 6691: 6675: 6668: 6633: 6629: 6620: 6619: 6615: 6602: 6600: 6591: 6590: 6586: 6577: 6575: 6568: 6552: 6548: 6539: 6537: 6530: 6514: 6510: 6478: 6464: 6455: 6445: 6440: 6436: 6426: 6421: 6417: 6407: 6402: 6398: 6388: 6383: 6379: 6369: 6364: 6360: 6350: 6345: 6341: 6336: 6332: 6327: 6323: 6313:Wayback Machine 6304: 6300: 6295: 6291: 6281: 6279: 6270: 6269: 6265: 6260:Wayback Machine 6251: 6247: 6238: 6236: 6227: 6226: 6222: 6216: 6195: 6191: 6182: 6180: 6169: 6168: 6164: 6153: 6149: 6138: 6134: 6123: 6119: 6108: 6104: 6093: 6089: 6078: 6074: 6064: 6059: 6055: 6045: 6040: 6036: 6024: 6020: 6011: 6007: 5998: 5994: 5985: 5981: 5972: 5968: 5955: 5954: 5950: 5941: 5937: 5925: 5921: 5908: 5907: 5903: 5895: 5891: 5882: 5880: 5867: 5866: 5862: 5849: 5845: 5838: 5824:Fromherz, Allen 5821: 5817: 5812: 5808: 5803: 5799: 5789: 5787: 5783: 5776: 5772: 5771: 5760: 5753: 5735: 5731: 5721: 5719: 5715: 5708: 5704: 5703: 5699: 5689:Wayback Machine 5680: 5673: 5665: 5661: 5656: 5652: 5647: 5638: 5633: 5629: 5624: 5617: 5610: 5596: 5592: 5585: 5571: 5567: 5562: 5558: 5549: 5547: 5540: 5524: 5520: 5511: 5509: 5502: 5486: 5482: 5473: 5471: 5467: 5460: 5454: 5450: 5441: 5437: 5432: 5428: 5423: 5419: 5414: 5410: 5405: 5401: 5396: 5392: 5383: 5379: 5374: 5370: 5365: 5361: 5356: 5343: 5338: 5334: 5321: 5317: 5312: 5308: 5298: 5284: 5280: 5275: 5271: 5266: 5262: 5257: 5253: 5243: 5241: 5234: 5218: 5214: 5202: 5201: 5192: 5191: 5185: 5183: 5176: 5160: 5156: 5146: 5141: 5137: 5130: 5114: 5110: 5102: 5098: 5089: 5087: 5080: 5064: 5057: 5047: 5045: 5032: 5031: 5024: 5014: 5012: 5007:. 21 May 2013. 4999: 4998: 4994: 4987: 4971: 4967: 4944: 4935: 4926: 4924: 4917: 4901: 4897: 4885: 4884: 4875: 4874: 4868: 4866: 4859: 4843: 4839: 4830: 4828: 4815: 4811: 4804: 4782: 4778: 4769: 4767: 4760: 4744: 4740: 4731: 4729: 4722: 4714:. p. 371. 4706: 4702: 4683: 4679: 4637: 4633: 4621: 4620: 4611: 4610: 4604: 4602: 4595: 4579: 4572: 4560: 4559: 4550: 4549: 4543: 4541: 4534: 4520: 4519: 4515: 4506: 4504: 4497: 4481: 4477: 4470: 4454: 4447: 4438: 4436: 4429: 4413: 4409: 4404: 4400: 4391: 4387: 4368: 4364: 4354: 4350: 4341: 4337: 4328: 4324: 4314: 4312: 4305: 4283: 4279: 4272: 4258: 4254: 4249: 4242: 4235: 4219: 4215: 4199: 4198: 4192: 4190: 4186: 4179: 4177:"Archived copy" 4175: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4084: 4060:Dumat al-Jandal 4056: 4018: 4016:Spread of Islam 4010: 4006: 4004: 4000: 3998: 3994: 3986: 3947:Christian Arabs 3889: 3862: 3833: 3707:Pagan Sabianism 3684:Other religions 3631: 3623: 3616: 3609: 3600: 3597: 3588: 3573: 3564: 3561: 3552: 3549: 3540: 3530: 3521: 3509: 3500: 3497: 3488: 3469: 3460: 3449: 3429: 3419: 3387:Sasanian Empire 3255: 3249: 3235: 3165: 3157:Main articles: 3155: 3068: 3062: 3050:pastoral nomads 3046: 3022: 3020:Sedentary Arabs 3017: 2930:(Rabi'ah) from 2880: 2874: 2869: 2863: 2772: 2750: 2731:Hijaz mountains 2654: 2646:Main articles: 2644: 2564: 2558: 2517:. According to 2503: 2497: 2476: 2470: 2457:Achaemenid army 2437: 2431: 2351: 2345: 2309: 2303: 2282: 2276: 2231: 2229:Sassanid Empire 2225: 2174: 2168: 2139:Aksumite Empire 2100: 2082: 2062: 2056: 2040: 2034: 2006: 2000: 1904: 1896:Main articles: 1894: 1882:Yemeni kingdoms 1851: 1845: 1810: 1798:Main articles: 1796: 1780: 1774: 1750:Dadisho Qatraya 1719: 1713: 1630: 1573: 1570: 1551: 1484:Seleucid Empire 1456:Iranian dynasty 1419: 1413: 1405:Carsten Niebuhr 1371:Pliny the Elder 1344:Assyrian Empire 1286: 1280: 1184:Kassite dynasty 1070: 1064: 978: 970:Main articles: 968: 932:Early Christian 877:Arab Christians 865:Lakhmid Kingdom 690:Sabaean Kingdom 598:oral traditions 566: 555: 549: 546: 535: 523: 512: 496:Beno Rothenberg 436: 422: 393:(1900–1300 BCE) 381:(2600–2000 BCE) 369: 347:oral traditions 279: 273: 239:was prevalent, 219:Iranian peoples 191:Southern Arabia 158: 155: 152: 149: 97: 67: 55: 54: 47: 38: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9517: 9507: 9506: 9501: 9487: 9486: 9481: 9476: 9469: 9468:External links 9466: 9462: 9461: 9459: 9458: 9453: 9448: 9443: 9437: 9435: 9429: 9428: 9426: 9425: 9420: 9415: 9410: 9404: 9402: 9396: 9395: 9393: 9392: 9387: 9382: 9377: 9372: 9367: 9362: 9357: 9352: 9346: 9344: 9340: 9339: 9331: 9330: 9323: 9316: 9308: 9299: 9298: 9296: 9295: 9289: 9287: 9283: 9282: 9279: 9278: 9276: 9275: 9270: 9268:Zoroastrianism 9265: 9260: 9255: 9250: 9245: 9239: 9237: 9233: 9232: 9230: 9229: 9222: 9221: 9220: 9215: 9210: 9205: 9200: 9189: 9187: 9178: 9172: 9171: 9168: 9167: 9165: 9164: 9163: 9162: 9157: 9152: 9147: 9137: 9136: 9135: 9133:Hatran Aramaic 9125: 9124: 9123: 9118: 9113: 9108: 9097: 9095: 9091: 9090: 9088: 9087: 9086: 9085: 9084: 9083: 9078: 9068: 9067: 9066: 9061: 9056: 9051: 9046: 9043: 9028: 9023: 9018: 9012: 9010: 9003: 8999: 8998: 8996: 8995: 8990: 8989: 8988: 8983: 8975: 8970: 8965: 8960: 8955: 8954: 8953: 8943: 8937: 8935: 8931: 8930: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8917: 8915: 8914: 8909: 8903: 8901: 8900:Central Arabia 8897: 8896: 8894: 8893: 8891:Arabia Petraea 8888: 8883: 8878: 8873: 8868: 8863: 8858: 8853: 8847: 8845: 8841: 8840: 8838: 8837: 8832: 8827: 8821: 8819: 8813: 8812: 8810: 8809: 8804: 8799: 8794: 8789: 8784: 8779: 8778: 8777: 8766: 8764: 8758: 8757: 8755: 8754: 8749: 8744: 8739: 8734: 8729: 8724: 8719: 8714: 8708: 8706: 8704:Eastern Arabia 8697: 8693: 8692: 8685: 8684: 8677: 8670: 8662: 8656: 8655: 8642: 8637: 8617: 8612: 8586: 8581: 8555: 8550: 8530: 8525: 8509:Hawting, G. R. 8505: 8500: 8480: 8475: 8451: 8446: 8420: 8417: 8416: 8415: 8410: 8397: 8392: 8380:Wheatley, Paul 8376: 8362: 8357: 8324: 8319: 8306: 8301: 8288: 8283: 8270: 8265: 8252: 8230: 8189: 8184: 8169: 8164: 8151: 8146: 8133: 8128: 8112: 8090: 8049: 8044: 8028: 8023: 8010: 7996: 7973: 7967: 7932: 7927: 7921:, SUNY Press, 7912: 7907: 7891: 7886: 7874:Nicolle, David 7870: 7865: 7853:Neusner, Jacob 7849: 7844: 7831: 7825: 7786: 7781: 7768: 7763: 7747: 7742: 7729: 7724: 7711: 7706: 7693: 7688: 7670: 7665: 7652: 7647: 7634: 7629: 7613: 7608: 7588: 7583: 7567: 7562: 7549: 7544: 7531: 7526: 7513: 7508: 7496:Hawting, G. R. 7492: 7487: 7474: 7469: 7456: 7451: 7435: 7430: 7417: 7412: 7399: 7377: 7336: 7331: 7325:, OUP Oxford, 7318: 7312: 7274:Bearman, P. J. 7269: 7264: 7250:Esposito, John 7246: 7241: 7227:Eliade, Mircea 7223: 7218: 7205: 7199: 7186: 7181: 7169:, ed. (1999), 7167:Doniger, Wendy 7163: 7158: 7145: 7140: 7124: 7119: 7106: 7101: 7088: 7083: 7070: 7065: 7049: 7027: 6986: 6981: 6968: 6963: 6943: 6938: 6922: 6917: 6905:al-Azmeh, Aziz 6899: 6896: 6894: 6893: 6843: 6814: 6805: 6796: 6787: 6778: 6769: 6760: 6747: 6730: 6707: 6689: 6666: 6647:(1): 202–215. 6627: 6613: 6584: 6567:978-9004127401 6566: 6546: 6528: 6508: 6477:978-9089640451 6476: 6453: 6434: 6415: 6396: 6377: 6358: 6349:, pp. 4–5 6339: 6330: 6321: 6298: 6289: 6263: 6245: 6220: 6214: 6189: 6162: 6147: 6132: 6117: 6102: 6087: 6072: 6063:, p. 192. 6061:Al-Ansary 1999 6053: 6044:, p. 297. 6034: 6018: 6005: 5992: 5979: 5966: 5948: 5935: 5919: 5916:on 2007-11-12. 5901: 5889: 5860: 5843: 5836: 5815: 5806: 5797: 5786:on 28 May 2015 5758: 5752:978-1463203559 5751: 5737:Kozah, Mario; 5729: 5718:on 28 May 2015 5697: 5671: 5659: 5650: 5636: 5627: 5615: 5608: 5590: 5583: 5565: 5556: 5538: 5518: 5500: 5480: 5448: 5435: 5426: 5417: 5408: 5399: 5390: 5377: 5368: 5359: 5341: 5332: 5315: 5306: 5297:978-9004082687 5296: 5290:. E.J. Brill. 5286:Yaqut (1959). 5278: 5269: 5260: 5251: 5232: 5212: 5174: 5154: 5135: 5128: 5108: 5096: 5078: 5055: 5022: 4992: 4985: 4965: 4954:(3): 441–448. 4933: 4916:978-9004107632 4915: 4895: 4857: 4837: 4809: 4802: 4776: 4758: 4738: 4720: 4700: 4677: 4650:(3): 486–514. 4631: 4594:978-9004107632 4593: 4570: 4533:978-9004097919 4532: 4513: 4495: 4475: 4468: 4445: 4427: 4407: 4398: 4385: 4362: 4348: 4335: 4322: 4303: 4277: 4270: 4252: 4240: 4233: 4213: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4161: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4083: 4080: 4055: 4052: 4014:Main article: 4005: 3999: 3993: 3985: 3982: 3955:denominational 3909:Constantinople 3888: 3885: 3864: 3863: 3861: 3860: 3853: 3846: 3838: 3835: 3834: 3832: 3831: 3826: 3820: 3817: 3816: 3815: 3814: 3813: 3812: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3781: 3780: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3737: 3736: 3732: 3731: 3730: 3729: 3727:Zoroastrianism 3724: 3719: 3714: 3709: 3704: 3699: 3694: 3686: 3685: 3681: 3680: 3679: 3678: 3673: 3668: 3667: 3666: 3665: 3664: 3654: 3644: 3636: 3635: 3627: 3626: 3615: 3614:Late Antiquity 3612: 3611: 3610: 3603: 3601: 3598: 3591: 3589: 3574: 3567: 3565: 3562: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3543: 3541: 3531: 3524: 3522: 3510: 3503: 3501: 3498: 3491: 3489: 3470: 3463: 3461: 3450: 3443: 3418: 3415: 3411:Ri al-Zallalah 3395:Zoroastrianism 3299:Zoroastrianism 3245:Main article: 3234: 3231: 3204:Umayyad period 3200: 3199: 3184: 3179:"Pure Arabs" ( 3177: 3154: 3151: 3064:Main article: 3061: 3058: 3045: 3044:Bedouin tribes 3042: 3021: 3018: 3016: 3013: 2873: 2870: 2862: 2861:Central Arabia 2859: 2858: 2857: 2840: 2815:Arabia Deserta 2806: 2805: 2770:Arabia Petraea 2749: 2746: 2738:Limes Arabicus 2691:west. In 129, 2670:Roman province 2648:Arabia Petraea 2643: 2640: 2560:Main article: 2557: 2554: 2515:Arabia Petraea 2499:Main article: 2496: 2493: 2472:Main article: 2469: 2466: 2443:Arab soldier ( 2430: 2427: 2379:Arabian poetry 2344: 2341: 2305:Main article: 2302: 2299: 2275: 2272: 2227:Main article: 2224: 2221: 2170:Main article: 2167: 2164: 2154:(Samu Yafa'). 2096:Main article: 2081: 2078: 2058:Main article: 2055: 2052: 2036:Main article: 2033: 2030: 2002:Main article: 1999: 1996: 1893: 1890: 1847:Main article: 1844: 1841: 1795: 1792: 1776:Main article: 1773: 1770: 1715:Main article: 1712: 1709: 1701:Middle-Persian 1629: 1626: 1568: 1560:Erythraean Sea 1550: 1547: 1448:Persian Empire 1415:Main article: 1412: 1409: 1282:Main article: 1279: 1276: 1207:"Mount Dilmun" 1127:and later the 1102:Garden of Eden 1066:Main article: 1063: 1060: 1052:Bahrani Arabic 1044:Zoroastrianism 1034:Eastern Arabia 972:Eastern Arabia 967: 966:Eastern Arabia 964: 727:Karib'il Watar 568: 567: 526: 524: 517: 511: 508: 459: 458: 447: 421: 418: 417: 416: 410: 404: 403:(1300–300 BCE) 401:Early Iron Age 394: 388: 382: 376: 368: 365: 301:(10th century 287:British Museum 272: 269: 215:Arabia Petraea 203:Eastern Arabia 110: 109: 106: 105: 102: 101: 94: 85: 82: 81: 76: 69: 68: 65: 57: 56: 40: 39: 36: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9516: 9505: 9502: 9500: 9497: 9496: 9494: 9485: 9482: 9480: 9477: 9475: 9472: 9471: 9457: 9454: 9452: 9449: 9447: 9444: 9442: 9439: 9438: 9436: 9434: 9430: 9424: 9421: 9419: 9416: 9414: 9411: 9409: 9406: 9405: 9403: 9401: 9397: 9391: 9388: 9386: 9383: 9381: 9378: 9376: 9373: 9371: 9368: 9366: 9363: 9361: 9358: 9356: 9353: 9351: 9348: 9347: 9345: 9341: 9336: 9329: 9324: 9322: 9317: 9315: 9310: 9309: 9306: 9294: 9291: 9290: 9288: 9284: 9274: 9271: 9269: 9266: 9264: 9261: 9259: 9256: 9254: 9251: 9249: 9246: 9244: 9241: 9240: 9238: 9234: 9228: 9227: 9226:Book of Idols 9223: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9206: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9195: 9194: 9191: 9190: 9188: 9186: 9182: 9179: 9177: 9173: 9161: 9158: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9142: 9141: 9138: 9134: 9131: 9130: 9129: 9126: 9122: 9119: 9117: 9114: 9112: 9109: 9107: 9104: 9103: 9102: 9099: 9098: 9096: 9092: 9082: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9073: 9072: 9069: 9065: 9062: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9044: 9042: 9039: 9038: 9037: 9034: 9033: 9032: 9029: 9027: 9024: 9022: 9019: 9017: 9014: 9013: 9011: 9007: 9004: 9000: 8994: 8991: 8987: 8984: 8982: 8981:Nabataean art 8979: 8978: 8976: 8974: 8971: 8969: 8966: 8964: 8961: 8959: 8956: 8952: 8949: 8948: 8947: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8938: 8936: 8932: 8927: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8904: 8902: 8898: 8892: 8889: 8887: 8884: 8882: 8879: 8877: 8874: 8872: 8869: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8852: 8849: 8848: 8846: 8842: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8828: 8826: 8823: 8822: 8820: 8818: 8814: 8808: 8805: 8803: 8800: 8798: 8795: 8793: 8790: 8788: 8785: 8783: 8780: 8776: 8773: 8772: 8771: 8768: 8767: 8765: 8763: 8759: 8753: 8752:Beth Manuzaye 8750: 8748: 8745: 8743: 8740: 8738: 8735: 8733: 8730: 8728: 8725: 8723: 8720: 8718: 8715: 8713: 8710: 8709: 8707: 8705: 8701: 8698: 8694: 8690: 8683: 8678: 8676: 8671: 8669: 8664: 8663: 8660: 8653: 8649: 8646: 8645:Arabia Antica 8643: 8640: 8634: 8630: 8626: 8622: 8618: 8615: 8609: 8605: 8601: 8597: 8596: 8591: 8587: 8584: 8578: 8574: 8570: 8566: 8565: 8564:Ancient Yemen 8560: 8556: 8553: 8547: 8543: 8539: 8535: 8531: 8528: 8522: 8518: 8514: 8510: 8506: 8503: 8497: 8493: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8478: 8472: 8468: 8463: 8462: 8456: 8452: 8449: 8443: 8439: 8434: 8433: 8427: 8423: 8422: 8413: 8407: 8403: 8398: 8395: 8389: 8385: 8381: 8377: 8373: 8372: 8367: 8363: 8360: 8354: 8350: 8346: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8330: 8325: 8322: 8316: 8312: 8307: 8304: 8298: 8294: 8289: 8286: 8280: 8276: 8271: 8268: 8262: 8259:, Routledge, 8258: 8253: 8249: 8245: 8241: 8237: 8233: 8227: 8223: 8219: 8215: 8211: 8207: 8203: 8199: 8195: 8190: 8187: 8181: 8177: 8176: 8170: 8167: 8161: 8157: 8152: 8149: 8143: 8139: 8134: 8131: 8125: 8121: 8117: 8116:Shahîd, Irfan 8113: 8109: 8105: 8101: 8097: 8093: 8087: 8083: 8079: 8075: 8071: 8067: 8063: 8059: 8055: 8050: 8047: 8041: 8037: 8033: 8029: 8026: 8020: 8016: 8011: 8007: 8003: 7999: 7993: 7989: 7985: 7981: 7980: 7974: 7970: 7968:90-04-14743-8 7964: 7960: 7956: 7952: 7948: 7944: 7943: 7938: 7933: 7930: 7924: 7920: 7919: 7913: 7910: 7904: 7900: 7896: 7892: 7889: 7883: 7879: 7875: 7871: 7868: 7862: 7858: 7854: 7850: 7847: 7841: 7837: 7832: 7828: 7822: 7818: 7814: 7810: 7806: 7802: 7798: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7784: 7778: 7774: 7769: 7766: 7760: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7745: 7739: 7735: 7730: 7727: 7721: 7718:, Routledge, 7717: 7712: 7709: 7703: 7699: 7694: 7691: 7685: 7681: 7680: 7675: 7671: 7668: 7662: 7658: 7653: 7650: 7644: 7640: 7635: 7632: 7626: 7622: 7618: 7614: 7611: 7605: 7601: 7597: 7593: 7589: 7586: 7580: 7577:, Routledge, 7576: 7572: 7568: 7565: 7559: 7555: 7550: 7547: 7541: 7537: 7532: 7529: 7523: 7519: 7514: 7511: 7505: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7490: 7484: 7480: 7475: 7472: 7466: 7463:, Routledge, 7462: 7457: 7454: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7433: 7427: 7423: 7418: 7415: 7409: 7405: 7400: 7396: 7392: 7388: 7384: 7380: 7374: 7370: 7366: 7362: 7358: 7354: 7350: 7346: 7342: 7337: 7334: 7328: 7324: 7319: 7315: 7309: 7305: 7301: 7297: 7296: 7291: 7287: 7283: 7279: 7278:Bianquis, Th. 7275: 7270: 7267: 7261: 7257: 7256: 7251: 7247: 7244: 7238: 7234: 7233: 7228: 7224: 7221: 7215: 7211: 7206: 7202: 7196: 7192: 7187: 7184: 7178: 7174: 7173: 7168: 7164: 7161: 7155: 7151: 7146: 7143: 7137: 7133: 7129: 7125: 7122: 7116: 7112: 7107: 7104: 7098: 7094: 7089: 7086: 7080: 7077:, Routledge, 7076: 7071: 7068: 7062: 7059:, Routledge, 7058: 7054: 7050: 7046: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7024: 7020: 7016: 7012: 7008: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6992: 6987: 6984: 6978: 6974: 6969: 6966: 6960: 6955: 6954: 6948: 6944: 6941: 6935: 6932:, Routledge, 6931: 6927: 6926:Ball, Warwick 6923: 6920: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6902: 6901: 6882: 6878: 6874: 6870: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6847: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6818: 6809: 6800: 6791: 6782: 6773: 6764: 6757: 6751: 6744: 6733: 6731:9783515029070 6727: 6723: 6719: 6711: 6696: 6692: 6690:9780847686797 6686: 6682: 6681: 6673: 6671: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6650: 6646: 6642: 6638: 6631: 6623: 6617: 6610: 6598: 6594: 6588: 6573: 6569: 6563: 6559: 6558: 6550: 6535: 6531: 6529:9780791403310 6525: 6521: 6520: 6512: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6479: 6473: 6469: 6462: 6460: 6458: 6449: 6444:, p. 282 6443: 6438: 6430: 6424: 6419: 6411: 6406:, p. 814 6405: 6400: 6392: 6386: 6381: 6373: 6367: 6362: 6354: 6348: 6343: 6334: 6325: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6307: 6302: 6293: 6278:on 2014-10-23 6277: 6273: 6267: 6261: 6257: 6254: 6249: 6235:on 2013-09-01 6234: 6230: 6224: 6217: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6193: 6178: 6174: 6173: 6166: 6160: 6156: 6151: 6145: 6141: 6136: 6130: 6126: 6121: 6115: 6111: 6106: 6100: 6096: 6091: 6085: 6081: 6076: 6068: 6062: 6057: 6049: 6043: 6038: 6031: 6027: 6022: 6015: 6009: 6002: 5996: 5989: 5983: 5977:, pp. 965–66. 5976: 5970: 5962: 5958: 5952: 5945: 5939: 5932: 5930: 5923: 5915: 5911: 5905: 5898: 5893: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5864: 5857: 5853: 5847: 5839: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5819: 5810: 5801: 5782: 5775: 5769: 5767: 5765: 5763: 5754: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5733: 5714: 5707: 5701: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5683: 5678: 5676: 5669: 5663: 5654: 5645: 5643: 5641: 5631: 5622: 5620: 5611: 5605: 5601: 5594: 5586: 5580: 5576: 5569: 5560: 5545: 5541: 5539:9780710301123 5535: 5531: 5530: 5522: 5507: 5503: 5501:9780871692245 5497: 5493: 5492: 5484: 5470:on 2013-12-03 5466: 5459: 5452: 5445: 5439: 5430: 5421: 5412: 5403: 5394: 5387: 5381: 5372: 5363: 5354: 5352: 5350: 5348: 5346: 5336: 5329: 5328:0-226-46906-9 5325: 5319: 5310: 5303: 5299: 5293: 5289: 5282: 5273: 5264: 5255: 5239: 5235: 5229: 5225: 5224: 5216: 5208: 5196: 5181: 5177: 5175:9781860647420 5171: 5167: 5166: 5158: 5150: 5144: 5139: 5131: 5129:9780521586795 5125: 5121: 5120: 5112: 5105: 5100: 5085: 5081: 5079:9780761811404 5075: 5071: 5070: 5062: 5060: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5029: 5027: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4996: 4988: 4986:9781134492633 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Routledge. 4226: 4225: 4217: 4209: 4203: 4185: 4178: 4172: 4168: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4146: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4128:Incense Route 4126: 4124: 4121: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4085: 4079: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4050: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4034: 4032: 4028: 4022: 4017: 3990: 3984:Rise of Islam 3981: 3977: 3975: 3971: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3935: 3933: 3927: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3912: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3859: 3854: 3852: 3847: 3845: 3840: 3839: 3837: 3836: 3830: 3827: 3825: 3822: 3821: 3819: 3818: 3811: 3808: 3807: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3779: 3776: 3775: 3774: 3771: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3761: 3759: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3740: 3739: 3738: 3734: 3733: 3728: 3725: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3713: 3710: 3708: 3705: 3703: 3700: 3698: 3695: 3693: 3690: 3689: 3688: 3687: 3683: 3682: 3677: 3674: 3672: 3669: 3663: 3660: 3659: 3658: 3657:Protestantism 3655: 3653: 3650: 3649: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3639: 3638: 3637: 3634: 3629: 3628: 3625: 3620: 3619: 3607: 3602: 3595: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3581:Tell Al-Zayer 3578: 3571: 3566: 3559: 3554: 3547: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3528: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3507: 3502: 3495: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3467: 3462: 3459:(Rome, Italy) 3458: 3454: 3447: 3442: 3441: 3440: 3438: 3434: 3428: 3424: 3423:Nabataean art 3414: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3367: 3363: 3358: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3305:, as well as 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3254: 3248: 3239: 3230: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3207: 3205: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3182: 3178: 3175: 3171: 3170: 3169: 3164: 3160: 3150: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3139:Werner Caskel 3136: 3132: 3128: 3123: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3104: 3100: 3095: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3067: 3057: 3055: 3051: 3041: 3035: 3031: 3026: 3012: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2985: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2967: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2950:(Kindah) and 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2916: 2914: 2913: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2891: 2889: 2885: 2879: 2868: 2855: 2854:Qaryat al-Fāw 2851: 2847: 2846: 2841: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2825: 2820: 2819: 2818: 2816: 2811: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2786: 2781: 2780: 2779: 2777: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2745: 2743: 2739: 2734: 2732: 2728: 2727:Mada'in Saleh 2724: 2723:Roman legions 2719: 2713: 2712:Mada'in Saleh 2709: 2704: 2700: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2653: 2649: 2639: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2553: 2551: 2547: 2542: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2502: 2492: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2475: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2441: 2436: 2426: 2424: 2423:rise of Islam 2421:. Before the 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2360: 2356: 2350: 2340: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2308: 2294: 2286: 2281: 2271: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2253:to drive the 2252: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2230: 2220: 2218: 2217:Sassanid army 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2173: 2159: 2155: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2127: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2099: 2091: 2086: 2077: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2061: 2051: 2049: 2045: 2039: 2029: 2027: 2023: 2018: 2015: 2011: 2005: 1995: 1993: 1988: 1986: 1982: 1979:and northern 1978: 1974: 1969: 1967: 1963: 1960:, India, and 1959: 1958:Mediterranean 1955: 1951: 1946: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1935:Aelius Gallus 1932: 1928: 1923: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1903: 1899: 1889: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1850: 1838: 1834: 1829: 1822: 1819: 1814: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1791: 1789: 1785: 1779: 1772:Beth Mazunaye 1769: 1767: 1763: 1758: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1734: 1733:, and Qatar. 1732: 1728: 1727:Tarout Island 1724: 1718: 1708: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1656: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1641: 1639: 1635: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1606: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1594:Arad, Bahrain 1591: 1587: 1586:Arnold Heeren 1583: 1579: 1567: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1546: 1544: 1540: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1516: 1512: 1510: 1506: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1492: 1489: 1485: 1480: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1436: 1431: 1423: 1418: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1393: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1374: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1355: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1332: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1302: 1298: 1290: 1285: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1255: 1248: 1246: 1242: 1237: 1233: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1214: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1191:Eridu Genesis 1187: 1185: 1181: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1157:, during the 1156: 1152: 1147: 1145: 1144:Mediterranean 1141: 1137: 1132: 1130: 1126: 1120: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1074: 1069: 1059: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 977: 973: 963: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 897: 895: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 861: 859: 855: 854:Agatharchides 851: 847: 846:Gulf of Aqaba 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 817: 813: 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 786:mentioned in 785: 781: 777: 772: 770: 766: 762: 758: 753: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 730: 728: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 706: 702: 698: 693: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 672:and northern 671: 668:, located in 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 646: 644: 640: 636: 632: 628: 626: 622: 617: 615: 611: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 564: 561: 553: 543: 539: 533: 532: 527:This section 525: 521: 516: 515: 507: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 484: 482: 478: 477: 472: 468: 464: 456: 452: 448: 445: 441: 438: 437: 435: 431: 427: 414: 411: 408: 405: 402: 398: 397:Lizq/Rumaylah 395: 392: 389: 386: 383: 380: 377: 374: 371: 370: 364: 362: 358: 354: 353: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 288: 283: 278: 268: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 245:Jewish tribes 242: 238: 234: 230: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 166: 164: 143: 142: 136: 132: 128: 120: 116: 95: 93: 90: 89: 86: 84: 83: 80: 77: 75: 74: 70: 63: 58: 51: 34: 29: 22: 9422: 9253:Samaritanism 9248:Christianity 9224: 8844:North Arabia 8762:South Arabia 8747:Beth Qatraye 8688: 8624: 8594: 8563: 8537: 8512: 8487: 8484:Donner, Fred 8460: 8431: 8401: 8383: 8370: 8332: 8310: 8292: 8274: 8256: 8201: 8174: 8155: 8137: 8119: 8061: 8035: 8014: 7978: 7940: 7917: 7898: 7877: 7856: 7835: 7794: 7772: 7754: 7733: 7715: 7697: 7678: 7656: 7638: 7620: 7599: 7574: 7553: 7535: 7517: 7499: 7478: 7460: 7442: 7421: 7403: 7348: 7322: 7293: 7254: 7231: 7209: 7190: 7171: 7149: 7131: 7110: 7092: 7074: 7056: 6998: 6972: 6952: 6929: 6908: 6898:Bibliography 6885:. Retrieved 6860: 6856: 6846: 6835:. Retrieved 6826: 6817: 6808: 6799: 6790: 6781: 6772: 6763: 6750: 6741: 6735:. Retrieved 6721: 6710: 6699:. Retrieved 6679: 6644: 6640: 6630: 6621: 6616: 6607: 6601:. Retrieved 6587: 6576:. Retrieved 6556: 6549: 6538:. Retrieved 6518: 6511: 6467: 6437: 6425:, p. 22 6418: 6399: 6387:, p. 43 6380: 6368:, p. 10 6361: 6342: 6333: 6324: 6316: 6301: 6292: 6280:. Retrieved 6276:the original 6266: 6248: 6237:. Retrieved 6233:the original 6223: 6205: 6192: 6181:. Retrieved 6172:DNa - Livius 6171: 6165: 6150: 6135: 6120: 6105: 6090: 6075: 6056: 6037: 6029: 6021: 6013: 6008: 6000: 5995: 5987: 5986:Yule, Paul. 5982: 5974: 5969: 5951: 5943: 5938: 5927: 5922: 5914:the original 5904: 5892: 5881:. Retrieved 5872: 5863: 5851: 5846: 5827: 5818: 5809: 5800: 5788:. Retrieved 5781:the original 5742: 5732: 5720:. Retrieved 5713:the original 5700: 5692: 5667: 5662: 5653: 5630: 5599: 5593: 5574: 5568: 5559: 5548:. Retrieved 5528: 5521: 5510:. Retrieved 5490: 5483: 5472:. Retrieved 5465:the original 5451: 5443: 5438: 5429: 5420: 5411: 5402: 5393: 5380: 5371: 5362: 5335: 5318: 5309: 5301: 5288:Mujam Buldan 5287: 5281: 5272: 5263: 5254: 5242:. Retrieved 5222: 5215: 5184:. Retrieved 5164: 5157: 5138: 5118: 5111: 5103: 5099: 5088:. Retrieved 5068: 5046:. Retrieved 5013:. Retrieved 5004: 4995: 4975: 4968: 4951: 4947: 4925:. Retrieved 4905: 4898: 4867:. Retrieved 4847: 4840: 4829:. Retrieved 4819: 4812: 4787: 4779: 4768:. Retrieved 4748: 4741: 4730:. Retrieved 4710: 4703: 4688: 4685:Paul A. Yule 4680: 4647: 4643: 4634: 4603:. Retrieved 4583: 4542:. Retrieved 4522: 4516: 4505:. Retrieved 4485: 4478: 4458: 4437:. Retrieved 4417: 4410: 4401: 4393: 4388: 4373: 4365: 4357: 4351: 4343: 4338: 4330: 4325: 4313:. Retrieved 4294: 4280: 4261: 4255: 4223: 4216: 4191:. Retrieved 4171: 4072:Saudi Arabia 4057: 4036: 4023: 4019: 3978: 3945:, were also 3936: 3928: 3924:North Africa 3913: 3890: 3882: 3878:George Liska 3867: 3743:Antisemitism 3735:Islam and... 3647:Christianity 3642:Baháʼí Faith 3477:Saudi Arabia 3430: 3389:resulted in 3379:Miaphysitism 3375:Persian Gulf 3371:Nestorianism 3359: 3287:Samaritanism 3279:Christianity 3256: 3223:Banu Kinanah 3208: 3201: 3166: 3124: 3116:Nilo-Saharan 3103:Palaeolithic 3099:Roger Blench 3096: 3092:desert kites 3083: 3069: 3047: 3039: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2968: 2951: 2947: 2939: 2936:rbˁt ḏw ṯwrm 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2917: 2911: 2892: 2881: 2843: 2822: 2807: 2783: 2773: 2735: 2720: 2717: 2696: 2689:Graeco-Roman 2655: 2642:Roman Arabia 2607: 2599: 2589:between the 2584: 2546:frankincense 2543: 2509:(Egypt) and 2504: 2480:Persian Gulf 2477: 2463:tomb relief. 2452: 2403:Neo-Assyrian 2387:Greek temple 2352: 2310: 2232: 2175: 2128: 2108:Gulf of Aden 2101: 2063: 2041: 2007: 1989: 1985:Ethiosemitic 1970: 1950:frankincense 1947: 1927:Arabia Felix 1924: 1905: 1874:Saudi Arabia 1852: 1808:Zafar, Yemen 1804:South Arabia 1781: 1759: 1735: 1729:, Al-Khatt, 1720: 1711:Beth Qatraye 1657: 1653:Central Asia 1642: 1631: 1607: 1602:Persian Gulf 1575: 1563: 1553: 1542: 1537: 1534:, c. 700 BCE 1532:Persian Gulf 1502: 1493: 1481: 1469:Theophrastus 1464: 1452:Achaemenians 1433: 1428: 1394: 1386:Saudi Arabia 1375: 1365:exiles from 1356: 1333: 1325:Saudi Arabia 1309:Persian Gulf 1296: 1295: 1251: 1249: 1239: 1235: 1215: 1210: 1206: 1188: 1148: 1136:Indus Valley 1133: 1121: 1082:Persian Gulf 1079: 1042: 1010:Zoroastrians 979: 911:in southern 898: 862: 820: 787: 773: 769:Roman Empire 757:frankincense 754: 738:South Arabia 731: 701:Hagar Yahirr 695:The ancient 694: 647: 642: 629: 618: 596:, etc.) and 571: 556: 547: 536:Please help 531:verification 528: 485: 474: 460: 453:(modern-day 451:South Arabia 407:Samad Period 385:Sabr culture 373:Ubaid period 360: 350: 292: 277:Arab studies 231: 211:Roman Empire 167: 114: 113: 79:Succeeded by 78: 9263:Manichaeism 9145:Ḥaḍramautic 8696:Settlements 7736:, Ashgate, 7641:, OUP USA, 6423:Meeker 1979 6385:McNutt 2003 6366:Blench 2010 6347:Blench 2010 6282:11 December 6012:Munro-Hay, 6003:, p. 718–9. 5910:"Dead link" 5203:|work= 5143:Larsen 1983 5015:11 December 4886:|work= 4622:|work= 4561:|work= 4043:Indus River 3953:. However, 3916:Justinian I 3891:Before the 3652:Catholicism 3407:Jabal Dabub 3399:Manichaeism 3303:Manichaeism 3229:) emerged. 3215:Banu Hanifa 2909:during the 2624:spice trade 2616:Wadi `Araba 2511:Mesopotamia 2247:اسپهبد وهرز 2152:Esimiphaios 2048:Ḥajar Asfal 1622:Hyspaosines 1524:Sennacherib 1195:Utnapishtim 1167:Ilī-ippašra 1161:dynasty of 1125:Babylonians 1094:Middle East 1024:may be the 1002:Abd al-Qays 1000:(including 883:, and made 812:Antigonus I 802:moved into 716:Hagar Asfal 550:August 2020 500:Sea Peoples 9493:Categories 9293:Jahiliyyah 9185:Polytheism 9155:Qatabanian 9106:Old Arabic 9059:Taymanitic 8881:Ghassanids 8631:: Linden, 8404:, Polity, 8341:De Gruyter 7988:SUNY Press 6887:2020-09-11 6837:2020-09-11 6737:2018-02-08 6701:2018-02-08 6603:2019-09-26 6578:2020-11-07 6540:2015-08-13 6239:2007-05-22 6183:2020-03-26 6114:26:141–158 6026:Yule, Paul 5883:2022-10-17 5550:2015-08-13 5512:2015-08-13 5474:2014-03-12 5186:2015-08-13 5090:2015-08-13 4927:2015-08-13 4869:2015-08-13 4831:2020-11-07 4770:2015-08-13 4732:2015-08-13 4605:2015-08-13 4544:2015-08-13 4507:2015-08-13 4439:2022-03-09 4193:2017-05-13 4133:Jahiliyyah 4047:South Asia 4045:valley in 3939:Ghassanids 3800:Secularism 3790:Shia–Sunni 3768:Liberalism 3401:in Mecca. 3259:polytheism 3253:Jahiliyyah 3251:See also: 3007:, Arabic: 2995:, Arabic: 2981:, Arabic: 2785:Ghassanids 2776:Ghassanids 2758:Ghassanids 2748:Qahtanites 2636:Roman rule 2614:, east of 2603:(from the 2571:Al Khazneh 2562:Nabataeans 2507:Nile Delta 2449:𐎠𐎼𐎲𐎠𐎹 2433:See also: 2333:Nabataeans 2325:Nabataeans 2264:Khosrau II 2190:Christians 2133:(GDRT) of 2088:Statue of 2010:Old Sabaic 2004:Hadhramaut 1837:Hadhramaut 1668:Sassanians 1504:Geographia 925:Hellenized 901:Ghassanids 873:Banu Lakhm 838:Babylonian 682:Himyarites 625:Old Sabaic 476:Geographos 387:(2000 BCE) 352:the Ḥadīth 339:Nabataeans 331:Qaḥṭānites 275:See also: 241:monotheism 237:polytheism 141:jahiliyyah 28:Jahiliyyah 9456:Igbo-Ukwu 9385:Britannia 9337:by region 9258:Mandaeism 9111:Dadanitic 9094:Languages 9041:Dadanitic 9002:Languages 8787:Ḥaḍramawt 8600:Wiesbaden 8542:Routledge 8240:1567-2808 8108:161557309 8100:1567-2808 8006:169122179 7897:(1994a), 7659:, Brill, 7556:, Brill, 7520:, Brill, 7395:160525414 7387:1567-2808 7193:. Brill. 7045:127529256 7037:1567-2808 6877:225721042 6857:Antiquity 6714:Compare: 6661:0905-7196 6494:, son of 6030:Antiquity 5666:Strong's 5205:ignored ( 5195:cite book 5048:17 August 4888:ignored ( 4878:cite book 4672:128833964 4624:ignored ( 4614:cite book 4563:ignored ( 4553:cite book 4148:Rahmanism 4029:, Egypt, 3905:Procopius 3901:Byzantine 3778:Modernism 3773:Modernity 3758:Democracy 3753:Blasphemy 3676:Mandaeism 3662:Mormonism 3533:Limestone 3518:Baltimore 3453:alabaster 3437:alabaster 3291:Mandaeism 3181:Qahtanite 3135:Crusaders 3084:Selappayu 2971:Khindynoi 2960:Ḥaḑramite 2956:Himyarite 2903:Dhū Nuwās 2798:Palestine 2725:occupied 2666:Phoenicia 2556:Nabateans 2519:Herodotus 2474:Qedarites 2455:) of the 2411:Aristotle 2407:Sargon II 2395:Byzantine 2337:Aretas IV 2320:Dadanitic 2318:and used 2255:Aksumites 2235:Khosrau I 2209:Sassanids 2182:Dhu Nuwas 1992:Marib Dam 1962:Abyssinia 1689:Mishmahig 1660:Sassanids 1649:Parthians 1645:Seleucids 1638:Sassanids 1634:Parthians 1614:Characene 1582:Herodotus 1571:Herodotus 1539:Herodotus 1528:Chaldeans 1500:Ptolemy's 1399:choosing 1331:in 1924. 1264:ziggurats 1226:Ninhursag 1220:story of 1109:cuneiform 1090:holy land 1086:Sumerians 954:tribe of 921:Holy Land 798:, and as 776:Nabataean 746:Hadramaut 614:Nabateans 582:Egyptians 488:Mycenaean 467:Egyptians 327:Ḥimyarite 311:Egyptians 227:Sasanians 223:Parthians 9451:Carthage 9446:Aegyptus 9413:Anatolia 9390:Germania 9380:Hispania 9273:Buddhism 9203:Al-‘Uzzá 9176:Religion 9076:Hasaitic 9064:Thamudic 9054:Safaitic 9045:Dumaitic 8958:Marriage 8946:Calendar 8912:Al-Magar 8886:Salīḥids 8866:Nabataea 8648:Archived 8629:Aichwald 8623:(2007), 8592:(1996), 8561:(1995), 8536:(2001), 8511:(1999), 8486:(1981), 8457:(1975), 8428:(2003), 8382:(2001), 8368:(1956), 8248:68889318 8118:(1995), 8034:(2005), 7876:(2012), 7855:(2006), 7753:(2004), 7676:(1996), 7619:(1991), 7594:(2013), 7573:(2002), 7498:(1999), 7441:(2010), 7292:(eds.). 7252:(1999), 7229:(2013), 7130:(2005), 7055:(2002), 6949:(2003), 6928:(2002), 6907:(2017), 6881:Archived 6831:Archived 6827:phys.org 6756:Arcadius 6695:Archived 6597:Archived 6572:Archived 6534:Archived 6309:Archived 6256:Archived 6229:"Arabia" 6204:(2001), 6177:Archived 6159:91:11–15 6129:54:23–31 6099:11:61–69 6016:, p. 72. 5961:Archived 5897:Minaeans 5877:Archived 5685:Archived 5544:Archived 5506:Archived 5238:Archived 5180:Archived 5084:Archived 5042:Archived 5009:Archived 5005:BBC News 4921:Archived 4863:Archived 4825:Archived 4764:Archived 4726:Archived 4599:Archived 4538:Archived 4501:Archived 4433:Archived 4372:(1998). 4309:Archived 4202:cite web 4184:Archived 4082:See also 4027:Caucasus 3943:Lakhmids 3932:phylarch 3874:religion 3824:Category 3805:Violence 3785:Politics 3748:Apostasy 3722:Yazidism 3697:Hinduism 3692:Buddhism 3403:Buddhism 3383:diaspora 3366:Aksumite 3331:Al-'Uzzá 3311:Buddhism 3309:such as 3297:such as 3277:such as 3233:Religion 3192:Adnanite 3190:Arabs" ( 3188:Arabized 3147:Wahhabis 3112:Cushitic 3088:Akkadian 3003:(Greek: 2991:(Greek: 2979:Μααδηνοι 2977:(Greek: 2975:Maadynoi 2932:ḏw ṯwr-m 2907:apostasy 2845:Kindites 2833:Al-Hirah 2824:Lakhmids 2754:Lakhmids 2742:Saraceni 2685:Parthian 2662:Tiberius 2591:Dead Sea 2523:Cambyses 2482:and the 2461:Xerxes I 2383:Assyrian 2371:Thamudic 2213:Lakhmids 2201:Justin I 2178:Aksumite 2090:Ammaalay 1981:Ethiopia 1931:Augustus 1898:Sabaeans 1859:Baraqish 1849:Minaeans 1818:moon-god 1693:Muharraq 1676:Shapur I 1672:Parthian 1664:Ardashir 1610:Seleucid 1569:— 1556:Persians 1543:History, 1520:Assyrian 1509:Muharraq 1465:sindones 1460:Nearchus 1440:Nearchus 1363:Chaldean 1352:Sassanid 1260:Enmerkar 1230:Creation 1199:Ziusudra 1171:Akkadian 1142:and the 1129:Persians 1106:Sumerian 1056:Akkadian 1026:Arabized 919:and the 885:al-Hirah 800:Edomites 784:Nebaioth 720:mukarrib 674:Ethiopia 650:Sabaeans 612:and the 602:Sabaeans 590:Persians 295:Arabists 289:, London 199:Minaeans 197:and the 195:Sabaeans 163:paganism 9408:Scythia 9375:Illyria 9370:Thracia 9350:Graecia 9243:Judaism 9208:Dushara 9193:Deities 9160:Sabaean 9150:Minaean 9128:Aramaic 9116:Hismaic 9049:Hismaic 9009:Scripts 8963:Slavery 8835:Yathrib 8797:Qatabān 8742:Parthia 8737:Lakhmid 7939:(ed.). 7793:(ed.). 6609:(1994). 6504:Abraham 6500:Abraham 6488:Ishmael 6484:Ishmael 6144:89:6–13 6084:7:73–79 4396:, 1991. 4315:4 March 3717:Sikhism 3702:Jainism 3671:Judaism 3451:Votive 3319:deities 3283:Judaism 3227:Quraysh 3211:Rabi`ah 3163:Bedouin 3143:al-Ḥasā 3127:Bedouin 3108:Red Sea 3072:Ḥutaymi 3066:Solluba 3060:Solluba 2942:); the 2922:called 2899:Judaism 2850:Bahrain 2810:nomadic 2729:in the 2693:Hadrian 2682:Iranian 2488:vassals 2453:Arabāya 2415:Ptolemy 2243:Persian 2186:Judaism 2131:Gadarat 2104:Red Sea 2060:Qataban 2022:Qataban 2014:caravan 1977:Eritrea 1870:al-'Ula 1833:Griffin 1821:Almaqah 1788:Persian 1731:Al-Hasa 1697:Samahij 1530:in the 1477:Baharna 1463:called 1430:Bahrain 1382:Al Ahsa 1367:Babylon 1319:in the 1317:al-Hasa 1180:Meluhha 1175:Babylon 1163:Babylon 1159:Kassite 1022:Baharna 1006:Aramean 982:Aramaic 958:of the 907:to the 834:Edomite 804:Judaean 788:Genesis 742:Qataban 703:in the 678:Red Sea 670:Eritrea 333:in the 271:Studies 150: 129:before 9433:Africa 9423:Arabia 9360:Gallia 9355:Italia 9343:Europa 9198:Al-Lat 9101:Arabic 8968:Poetry 8941:Tribes 8876:Tanukh 8861:Lihyan 8825:Thamud 8802:Himyar 8775:Kahlan 8722:Gerrha 8717:Dilmun 8635: 8610: 8579: 8569:Oxford 8548: 8523: 8498: 8473: 8444: 8408: 8390: 8355: 8337:Berlin 8317: 8299: 8281: 8263: 8246: 8238: 8228: 8210:Boston 8206:Leiden 8182: 8162: 8144: 8126: 8106: 8098: 8088: 8070:Boston 8066:Leiden 8042: 8021: 8004: 7994: 7965: 7947:Leiden 7925: 7905: 7884: 7863: 7842: 7823: 7805:Boston 7801:Leiden 7779: 7761: 7740: 7722: 7704: 7686: 7663: 7645: 7627: 7606: 7581: 7560: 7542: 7524: 7506: 7485: 7467: 7449: 7428: 7410: 7393: 7385: 7375: 7357:Boston 7353:Leiden 7329: 7310: 7262: 7239: 7216: 7197: 7179: 7156: 7138: 7117: 7099: 7081: 7063: 7043: 7035: 7025: 7007:Boston 7003:Leiden 6979: 6961: 6936: 6915: 6875: 6728: 6687: 6659: 6564: 6526: 6474: 6212: 6157: 6142: 6127: 6112: 6097: 6082: 5931:: D-Ha 5834: 5790:27 May 5749: 5722:12 May 5606: 5581: 5536: 5498: 5326: 5294: 5244:2 July 5230: 5172: 5126: 5076: 5038:UNESCO 4983: 4913: 4855: 4800: 4756: 4718: 4695: 4670: 4664:614301 4662: 4591: 4530: 4493: 4466: 4425: 4380: 4301: 4268: 4231: 4103:Dilmun 4068:France 4007: 4001: 3995: 3970:Christ 3895:, the 3829:Portal 3585:Riyadh 3577:Berlin 3473:Arabia 3327:al-Lāt 3293:, and 3289:, and 3219:Mudhar 3174:Amalek 3131:Qaḥṭān 3015:People 3009:Ḥārith 3001:Aretha 2993:Καισος 2989:Kaïsos 2944:Musnad 2895:Athtar 2837:Kindah 2829:Tigris 2802:Jordan 2794:Israel 2790:Hauran 2768:, and 2762:Kahlan 2708:Trajan 2632:Trajan 2620:Jordan 2579:Jordan 2417:, and 2405:King, 2377:, old 2375:Qur'an 2359:Arabic 2355:Thamud 2349:Thamud 2343:Thamud 2312:Lihyan 2307:Lihyan 2268:Badhan 2260:satrap 2239:Vahriz 2144:Tihama 2124:Yabrin 2120:Riyadh 2116:Najran 2066:Beihan 2017:routes 1912:Sana'a 1908:Ma'rib 1866:Madhab 1855:Sa'dah 1806:; 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