207:
20:
219:
2443:
3093:
231:
192:('Southern script'), a script for the Vietnamese language. The Nôm script, using a mixture of Chinese characters and locally created characters, became the vehicle for a flourishing vernacular literature, peaking in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. However, Literary Chinese remained the medium of scholarship and administration for almost all of the period until the early 20th century.
262:(39–43). After the suppression of the revolt, Chinese authorities stepped up assimilation, destroying the estates of Vietnamese nobles, but also opening Chinese education to the Vietnamese. A few rose through the civil service to senior positions in the province and elsewhere in the empire. As in any other part of the empire, the administrative language of Vietnam was Chinese.
465:
498:
were also opposed to
Chinese, both because it made administration more difficult for them, and because of the nationalist literature being circulated in the language. The French abolished the examination system in 1913, and both Literary Chinese and chữ Nôm were swiftly replaced by the Latin-based
448:
The shared written language made it possible for
Vietnamese scholars to communicate with literate Chinese and Koreans, but only in writing. They required interpreters for verbal communication. The Vietnamese sent their best scholars as envoys to the Chinese capital, where they were to purchase the
413:
436:
invaded the country. None of the Nôm literature of the period has survived, through a combination of the Ming destruction of
Vietnamese libraries, and the continued prestige of Chinese works after the Ming were driven out. Similar reforms were attempted by
127:
evolved and diverged to the point of mutual unintelligibility. The language was also used for formal writing in
Vietnam, Korea and Japan, enabling scholars from these countries, as well as China, to communicate in writing, in a role similar to that of
381:(1272), was commissioned during this dynasty. Although this work has been lost, it served as a model for later annals, and parts of it are preserved in later annals that were written in Chinese, which include the
269:. At first, Buddhist monks dominated government and scholarship in the country. The next extant writings by Vietnamese authors are poems from the late 10th century, in Chinese, by the Buddhist monks Lạc Thuận and
1321:
319:. His poem was the first of a series of statements expressing Vietnamese determination to resist northern invaders, all written in Literary Chinese. Later examples include:
1866:
453:
in such a competition became a focus of national pride. Lê Quý Đôn is considered the last great author of
Chinese literature in Vietnam. His prodigious output included
428:
seized the throne in 1400, as well as pursuing a programme of land reform, he sought to break the power of the
Confucian literati by making Vietnamese, written in the
85:. It was used for official business, historical annals, fiction, verse, scholarship, and even for declarations of Vietnamese determination to resist Chinese invaders.
135:
Literary
Chinese as written in Vietnam used the same characters and outward form as in China. Although Literary Chinese was used only for written communication, each
1828:
2568:
1350:
2375:
2365:
346:
2370:
2129:
1677:
2284:
424:
Literary
Chinese remained the language of administration throughout the traditional period, except during two short-lived reformist regimes. When
3125:
315:
2451:
1689:
1078:
298:
on the
Chinese model began in 1075, and in the following year, a college was established for training sons of the ruling elite in the
3120:
395:
383:
1653:
1641:
1665:
1157:
472:
Vietnamese intellectuals continued to write in
Chinese until the early decades of the 20th century. For example, the nationalist
295:
2749:
250:, interrupted only by two short-lived revolts. At first, the empire sought to rule their new possession indirectly through the
389:
1988:
1046:
1023:
982:
959:
935:
909:
888:
866:
842:
2799:
351:
286:
449:
latest Chinese books, and enter poetry-writing competitions with Chinese and Korean scholars. The 18th-century triumph of
2641:
432:
script, the state language, and translating the classics to make them available to all. Hồ’s reforms were reversed after
454:
503:
in the early 20th century. In modern Vietnam, Chinese characters are seen only singly or in stock phrases written by
494:
even used Chinese to write their attacks on education in Chinese and the examination system. On the other side, the
458:
2721:
1428:
1071:
478:
161:. With these pronunciations, Chinese words were imported wholesale into the Vietnamese language. The resulting
119:
3037:
2491:
247:
201:
58:
377:
24:
3096:
3007:
2531:
325:
359:
280:(1009–1225) was established with the support of Buddhist clergy. When the first king moved the capital to
3012:
2884:
2466:
330:
310:
291:
235:
206:
19:
3115:
3054:
3027:
2904:
2816:
2563:
2543:
401:
162:
2606:
1304:
1064:
945:
2980:
2965:
2955:
2669:
486:
when in Japan and China, as he spoke neither Japanese nor Chinese. Writers such as Phan Bội Châu,
2992:
1231:
337:
2985:
2834:
2926:
2769:
1367:
1013:
970:
830:
210:
An 1814 printing of the preserved compliance note titled "Đỗi trực ngôn cực gián", written by
61:
for almost all of the country's history until the early 20th century, when it was replaced by
2921:
2844:
2558:
2536:
1291:
1124:
949:
923:
899:
856:
94:
62:
2689:
2657:
2486:
1611:
1106:
450:
218:
124:
473:
417:
8:
2933:
2899:
2734:
2701:
2548:
2476:
2393:
2234:
2229:
1983:
1793:
1299:
500:
251:
242:
The northern part of Vietnam (down to about the 17th parallel) was incorporated into the
66:
36:
375:(1225–1400) until they had a monopoly on public office. The first official history, the
3049:
2916:
2879:
2764:
2662:
2596:
2591:
2481:
2471:
2097:
2075:
1968:
1776:
1771:
1694:
1682:
1670:
1658:
1646:
1170:
491:
442:
438:
299:
993:
487:
270:
2960:
2950:
2829:
2794:
2649:
2601:
2553:
2320:
2173:
2107:
1963:
1948:
1619:
1596:
1550:
1475:
1401:
1281:
1249:
1203:
1142:
1132:
1097:
1042:
1019:
978:
955:
931:
905:
884:
862:
838:
461:
on a wide variety of topics, anthologies of verse, and commentaries on the classics.
136:
109:
82:
1035:
852:
3066:
2586:
2461:
2325:
2315:
2300:
2246:
2168:
2119:
2080:
2029:
1943:
1895:
1879:
1759:
1719:
1714:
1601:
1555:
1501:
1496:
1486:
1480:
1309:
1254:
1239:
1115:
1087:
994:"Graphemic borromings from Chinese: the case of chữ Nôm – Vietnam's demotic script"
495:
372:
266:
32:
425:
259:
3017:
2997:
2894:
2854:
2839:
2578:
2428:
2418:
2398:
2355:
2350:
2216:
2180:
2163:
2153:
2092:
1910:
1846:
1788:
1736:
1731:
1633:
1529:
1524:
1433:
1380:
1375:
1355:
1340:
1335:
1276:
1271:
1261:
1244:
1216:
1188:
1165:
28:, a 14th-century collection of stories of Vietnamese history, written in Chinese
3071:
3061:
3032:
3022:
2739:
2711:
2423:
2408:
2310:
2261:
2256:
2241:
2185:
2124:
2006:
1978:
1958:
1905:
1874:
1851:
1841:
1836:
1798:
1781:
1726:
1591:
1573:
1491:
1465:
1406:
1326:
1314:
1266:
1221:
1211:
1137:
919:
876:
140:
129:
103:
2442:
187:
3109:
2872:
2684:
2679:
2251:
2195:
2190:
2158:
2145:
2021:
1973:
1900:
1856:
1746:
1583:
1506:
1345:
1193:
1180:
258:(9–23 AD), policy shifted to assimilation, contributing to the revolt of the
238:, recording the names of doctoral graduates in the civil service examinations
290:. Confucian influence grew over the course of the dynasty, with a Confucian
277:
2744:
2694:
2070:
1953:
1926:
1470:
1460:
433:
211:
2889:
2863:
2759:
2729:
2706:
2674:
2413:
2403:
2207:
2102:
2087:
2050:
1998:
1819:
1810:
1706:
1545:
1420:
1147:
504:
364:
306:
98:
93:
Literary Chinese was a style of writing modelled on the classics of the
2305:
2279:
2045:
2011:
1516:
1443:
243:
441:
from 1788, but were again reversed at the beginning of the succeeding
2754:
2505:
2496:
2224:
2114:
1766:
1754:
1565:
1396:
971:"Patriotism in classical Vietnamese literature: evolution of a theme"
483:
255:
114:
265:
After the country achieved independence in 938, it continued to use
3044:
2630:
2271:
1452:
1056:
230:
3076:
2943:
2623:
2510:
2339:
1935:
527:. Nhà xuất bản Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. p. 5.
482:(1905) and other tracts in Literary Chinese, and also used it to
468:
Chinese characters used for decorative purposes in modern Vietnam
166:
609:
412:
3002:
2804:
429:
2515:
861:, translated by H.M. Wright, University of California Press,
281:
223:
155:
in Modern Standard Chinese) has a Sino-Vietnamese reading of
143:
pronunciation. For example, the term for Chinese characters,
78:
74:
70:
794:
758:
674:
835:
Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook
734:
722:
652:
650:
648:
393:(1479). Unofficial histories from this period include the
371:
The influence of Confucian literati grew in the following
341:, a poem celebrating the expulsion of the Mongols in 1288,
254:, but after an influx of refugees fleeing the takeover of
710:
698:
585:
563:
561:
139:
could be read aloud in a Vietnamese approximation of the
782:
548:
546:
806:
770:
746:
645:
633:
464:
558:
924:"A transnational approach to East Asian book history"
621:
543:
928:
New Word Order: Transnational Themes in Book History
662:
597:
573:
531:
284:in the following year, he issued the 110-character
1034:
1001:Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology
686:
347:Great Proclamation upon the Pacification of the Wu
926:, in Chakravorty, Swapan; Gupta, Abhijit (eds.),
405:, parts of which were also incorporated into the
3107:
185:
179:
173:
172:The Vietnamese terms for writing in Chinese are
156:
52:
46:
40:
329:, issued in 1285 when the country was facing a
123:. It remained largely static while the various
1072:
833:, in Haspelmath, Martin; Tadmor, Uri (eds.),
150:
144:
2871:
363:at the time of an attempted invasion by the
316:Mountains and rivers of the Southern country
69:. The language was the same as that used in
881:Colonialism and language policy in Viet Nam
821:
3092:
2862:
1079:
1065:
930:, Worldview Publications, pp. 65–79,
954:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
875:
800:
788:
776:
752:
740:
728:
680:
656:
639:
627:
615:
591:
567:
396:Spirits of the Departed in the Viet Realm
309:invaded the country in 1076, the general
1032:
975:Literature and Society in Southeast Asia
918:
764:
552:
463:
411:
229:
217:
205:
184:('Scholars' characters') in contrast to
18:
2787:
420:(1867–1940), wrote in Literary Chinese.
276:After three short-lived dynasties, the
16:Classical Chinese as written in Vietnam
3126:Chinese-language literature of Vietnam
3108:
1011:
991:
968:
944:
897:
851:
812:
716:
704:
692:
668:
603:
537:
522:
294:being erected in the capital in 1070.
1060:
828:
579:
165:makes up over half of the Vietnamese
1086:
287:Edict on the Transfer of the Capital
65:in Vietnamese using the Latin-based
88:
13:
1018:, University of California Press,
525:Giáo trình tiếng Hán. Tập I: Cơ sở
14:
3137:
57:漢文) was the medium of all formal
3121:History of literature in Vietnam
3091:
2569:Literary and colloquial readings
2441:
837:, De Gruyter, pp. 617–637,
326:Call to the Officers of the Army
977:, NUS Press, pp. 303–320,
992:——— (1990),
904:, University of Hawaii Press,
516:
479:History of the Loss of Vietnam
384:Abbreviated Annals of Đại Việt
1:
1037:Vietnam and the Chinese Model
1012:Taylor, Keith Weller (1983),
973:, in Tham, Seong Chee (ed.),
858:The Making of South East Asia
510:
350:, celebrating the end of the
236:Temple of Literature in Hanoi
202:History of writing in Vietnam
81:, and used the same standard
3097:List of varieties of Chinese
1041:, Harvard Univ Asia Center,
1033:Woodside, Alexander (1971),
387:(late 14th century) and the
7:
901:Asia's Orthographic Dilemma
496:French colonial authorities
490:, and the principal of the
416:The Vietnamese nationalist
390:Complete Annals of Đại Việt
313:wrote a 4-line poem titled
151:
10:
3142:
3055:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
402:Wondrous Tales of Lĩnh Nam
296:Civil service examinations
248:millennium of Chinese rule
199:
195:
163:Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary
25:Wondrous Tales of Lĩnh Nam
3089:
2973:
2942:
2853:
2778:
2720:
2640:
2615:
2577:
2524:
2450:
2439:
2386:
2338:
2293:
2270:
2215:
2206:
2144:
2063:
2038:
2020:
1997:
1934:
1925:
1888:
1865:
1827:
1818:
1809:
1745:
1705:
1632:
1610:
1582:
1564:
1538:
1515:
1451:
1442:
1419:
1389:
1366:
1290:
1230:
1202:
1179:
1156:
1123:
1114:
1105:
1094:
969:Nguyen, Dinh-Hoa (1981),
831:"Loanwords in Vietnamese"
145:
822:Cited books and articles
618:, pp. 31–32, 40–44.
523:Nguyễn, Tri Tài (2002).
898:Hannas, Wm. C. (1997),
829:Alves, Mark J. (2009),
246:in 111 BC, beginning a
222:Xá Lợi Buddhist temple
476:(1867–1940) wrote his
469:
421:
239:
227:
215:
186:
180:
178:('Han characters') or
174:
157:
53:
47:
41:
29:
467:
415:
338:Return to the Capital
233:
221:
209:
95:Warring States period
22:
1015:The Birth of Vietnam
455:a history of Vietnam
292:Temple of Literature
125:varieties of Chinese
803:, pp. 178–179.
767:, pp. 114–115.
719:, pp. 352–357.
707:, pp. 350–359.
501:Vietnamese alphabet
360:Address to the Army
252:Vietnamese nobility
67:Vietnamese alphabet
3050:Cantonese Bopomofo
2917:Chinese characters
2845:Written Sichuanese
1429:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot
492:Tonkin Free School
470:
422:
378:Annals of Đại Việt
300:Confucian classics
240:
228:
216:
120:Historical Records
83:Chinese characters
63:vernacular writing
59:writing in Vietnam
30:
3116:Classical Chinese
3103:
3102:
3085:
3084:
2912:
2911:
2830:Written Cantonese
2825:
2824:
2607:Classical grammar
2602:Cantonese grammar
2437:
2436:
2334:
2333:
2140:
2139:
2059:
2058:
1921:
1920:
1628:
1627:
1415:
1414:
1305:Chengdu–Chongqing
1098:Sinitic languages
1048:978-0-674-93721-5
1025:978-0-520-07417-0
984:978-9971-690-36-6
961:978-0-521-29653-3
937:978-81-920651-1-3
911:978-0-8248-1892-0
890:978-90-279-7643-7
868:978-0-520-05061-7
844:978-3-11-021843-5
815:, pp. 84–90.
743:, pp. 40–44.
731:, pp. 31–32.
683:, p. 16, 18.
594:, pp. 26–27.
305:When the Chinese
137:Chinese character
110:Commentary of Zuo
3133:
3095:
3094:
3067:Taiwanese Hangul
2956:Mainland Chinese
2869:
2868:
2860:
2859:
2785:
2784:
2462:Standard Chinese
2445:
2213:
2212:
1932:
1931:
1825:
1824:
1816:
1815:
1698:
1686:
1674:
1662:
1650:
1449:
1448:
1121:
1120:
1112:
1111:
1088:Chinese language
1081:
1074:
1067:
1058:
1057:
1052:
1040:
1029:
1008:
998:
988:
965:
941:
915:
894:
872:
848:
816:
810:
804:
801:DeFrancis (1977)
798:
792:
789:DeFrancis (1977)
786:
780:
777:DeFrancis (1977)
774:
768:
762:
756:
753:DeFrancis (1977)
750:
744:
741:DeFrancis (1977)
738:
732:
729:DeFrancis (1977)
726:
720:
714:
708:
702:
696:
690:
684:
681:DeFrancis (1977)
678:
672:
666:
660:
657:DeFrancis (1977)
654:
643:
640:DeFrancis (1977)
637:
631:
628:DeFrancis (1977)
625:
619:
616:DeFrancis (1977)
613:
607:
601:
595:
592:DeFrancis (1977)
589:
583:
577:
571:
568:DeFrancis (1977)
565:
556:
550:
541:
535:
529:
528:
520:
459:collected essays
267:Literary Chinese
226:, erected in 601
191:
183:
177:
160:
154:
148:
147:
89:Literary Chinese
73:, as well as in
56:
50:
44:
33:Literary Chinese
3141:
3140:
3136:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3131:
3130:
3106:
3105:
3104:
3099:
3081:
3018:Tongyong Pinyin
2998:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
2986:Dungan Cyrillic
2969:
2938:
2908:
2849:
2840:Written Hokkien
2821:
2780:
2774:
2750:Middle Mandarin
2716:
2636:
2611:
2573:
2520:
2453:
2446:
2433:
2382:
2330:
2289:
2266:
2202:
2136:
2055:
2034:
2016:
1993:
1917:
1884:
1861:
1805:
1741:
1701:
1692:
1680:
1668:
1656:
1644:
1624:
1606:
1578:
1560:
1534:
1511:
1438:
1411:
1385:
1362:
1286:
1226:
1198:
1175:
1152:
1101:
1090:
1085:
1055:
1049:
1026:
996:
985:
962:
938:
912:
891:
877:DeFrancis, John
869:
845:
824:
819:
811:
807:
799:
795:
787:
783:
775:
771:
765:Woodside (1971)
763:
759:
751:
747:
739:
735:
727:
723:
715:
711:
703:
699:
691:
687:
679:
675:
667:
663:
655:
646:
638:
634:
626:
622:
614:
610:
602:
598:
590:
586:
578:
574:
566:
559:
553:Kornicki (2011)
551:
544:
536:
532:
521:
517:
513:
488:Phan Châu Trinh
407:Complete Annals
352:Ming occupation
331:Mongol invasion
204:
198:
91:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3139:
3129:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3101:
3100:
3090:
3087:
3086:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3062:Taiwanese kana
3059:
3058:
3057:
3052:
3042:
3041:
3040:
3035:
3033:Lessing-Othmer
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2990:
2989:
2988:
2977:
2975:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2946:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2936:
2931:
2930:
2929:
2924:
2913:
2910:
2909:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2875:
2866:
2857:
2851:
2850:
2848:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2835:Written Dungan
2832:
2826:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2819:
2814:
2813:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2791:
2789:
2782:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2740:Middle Chinese
2737:
2732:
2726:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2715:
2714:
2709:
2707:Wubi (Wang Ma)
2704:
2699:
2698:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2666:
2665:
2655:
2652:
2646:
2644:
2638:
2637:
2635:
2634:
2627:
2619:
2617:
2613:
2612:
2610:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2583:
2581:
2575:
2574:
2572:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2540:
2539:
2528:
2526:
2522:
2521:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2502:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2494:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2458:
2456:
2448:
2447:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2424:Xiangnan Tuhua
2421:
2416:
2411:
2409:Shaozhou Tuhua
2406:
2401:
2396:
2390:
2388:
2384:
2383:
2381:
2380:
2379:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2360:
2359:
2358:
2353:
2344:
2342:
2336:
2335:
2332:
2331:
2329:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2287:
2282:
2276:
2274:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2238:
2237:
2232:
2221:
2219:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2200:
2199:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2178:
2177:
2176:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2150:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2112:
2111:
2110:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2084:
2083:
2078:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2060:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2053:
2048:
2042:
2040:
2036:
2035:
2033:
2032:
2026:
2024:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2014:
2009:
2003:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1992:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1940:
1938:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1919:
1918:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1913:
1908:
1898:
1892:
1890:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1882:
1877:
1871:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1860:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1833:
1831:
1822:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1803:
1802:
1801:
1791:
1786:
1785:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1764:
1763:
1762:
1751:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1723:
1722:
1711:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1699:
1687:
1675:
1663:
1651:
1638:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1616:
1614:
1608:
1607:
1605:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1588:
1586:
1580:
1579:
1577:
1576:
1570:
1568:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1535:
1533:
1532:
1527:
1521:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1510:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1457:
1455:
1446:
1440:
1439:
1437:
1436:
1431:
1425:
1423:
1417:
1416:
1413:
1412:
1410:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1386:
1384:
1383:
1378:
1372:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1360:
1359:
1358:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1332:
1331:
1330:
1329:
1322:Renshou–Fushun
1319:
1318:
1317:
1307:
1296:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1285:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1247:
1242:
1236:
1234:
1232:Central Plains
1228:
1227:
1225:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1208:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1197:
1196:
1191:
1185:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1162:
1160:
1154:
1153:
1151:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1129:
1127:
1118:
1109:
1103:
1102:
1095:
1092:
1091:
1084:
1083:
1076:
1069:
1061:
1054:
1053:
1047:
1030:
1024:
1009:
989:
983:
966:
960:
942:
936:
920:Kornicki, P.F.
916:
910:
895:
889:
873:
867:
853:Coedès, George
849:
843:
825:
823:
820:
818:
817:
805:
793:
791:, p. 178.
781:
769:
757:
745:
733:
721:
709:
697:
685:
673:
661:
644:
632:
620:
608:
606:, p. 383.
596:
584:
582:, p. 623.
572:
557:
542:
530:
514:
512:
509:
443:Nguyễn dynasty
369:
368:
355:
342:
334:
311:Lý Thường Kiệt
234:Stelae at the
197:
194:
141:Middle Chinese
101:, such as the
90:
87:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3138:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3113:
3111:
3098:
3088:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3047:
3046:
3043:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2991:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2982:
2981:Cyrillization
2979:
2978:
2976:
2972:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2941:
2935:
2932:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2919:
2918:
2915:
2914:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2874:
2873:Script styles
2870:
2867:
2865:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2852:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2818:
2815:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2786:
2783:
2777:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2664:
2661:
2660:
2659:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2628:
2626:
2625:
2621:
2620:
2618:
2614:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2576:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2538:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2523:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2460:
2459:
2457:
2455:
2449:
2444:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2385:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2363:
2361:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2341:
2337:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2292:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2277:
2275:
2273:
2269:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2205:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2183:
2182:
2179:
2175:
2172:
2171:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2147:
2143:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2116:
2113:
2109:
2106:
2105:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2062:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1924:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1864:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1808:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1769:
1768:
1765:
1761:
1758:
1757:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1744:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1721:
1718:
1717:
1716:
1713:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1704:
1696:
1691:
1688:
1684:
1679:
1676:
1672:
1667:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1621:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1543:
1541:
1537:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1514:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1441:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1418:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1394:
1392:
1388:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1374:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1365:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1289:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1253:
1252:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1163:
1161:
1159:
1155:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1099:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1077:
1075:
1070:
1068:
1063:
1062:
1059:
1050:
1044:
1039:
1038:
1031:
1027:
1021:
1017:
1016:
1010:
1007:(2): 383–432.
1006:
1002:
995:
990:
986:
980:
976:
972:
967:
963:
957:
953:
952:
947:
946:Norman, Jerry
943:
939:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
907:
903:
902:
896:
892:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
864:
860:
859:
854:
850:
846:
840:
836:
832:
827:
826:
814:
813:Hannas (1997)
809:
802:
797:
790:
785:
779:, p. 36.
778:
773:
766:
761:
755:, p. 35.
754:
749:
742:
737:
730:
725:
718:
717:Taylor (1983)
713:
706:
705:Taylor (1983)
701:
694:
693:Nguyen (1981)
689:
682:
677:
671:, p. 87.
670:
669:Coedès (1966)
665:
659:, p. 14.
658:
653:
651:
649:
642:, p. 10.
641:
636:
629:
624:
617:
612:
605:
604:Nguyen (1990)
600:
593:
588:
581:
576:
570:, p. 16.
569:
564:
562:
555:, p. 67.
554:
549:
547:
540:, p. 83.
539:
538:Norman (1988)
534:
526:
519:
515:
508:
506:
505:calligraphers
502:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
480:
475:
474:Phan Bội Châu
466:
462:
460:
456:
452:
446:
445:(1802–1945).
444:
440:
435:
431:
427:
419:
418:Phan Bội Châu
414:
410:
408:
404:
403:
398:
397:
392:
391:
386:
385:
380:
379:
374:
366:
362:
361:
356:
353:
349:
348:
343:
340:
339:
335:
332:
328:
327:
322:
321:
320:
318:
317:
312:
308:
303:
301:
297:
293:
289:
288:
283:
279:
274:
272:
268:
263:
261:
260:Trưng sisters
257:
253:
249:
245:
237:
232:
225:
220:
213:
208:
203:
193:
190:
189:
182:
176:
170:
168:
164:
159:
153:
142:
138:
133:
131:
126:
122:
121:
116:
112:
111:
106:
105:
100:
96:
86:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
55:
49:
43:
38:
34:
27:
26:
21:
3003:Hanyu Pinyin
2993:Romanization
2900:Semi-cursive
2809:
2745:Old Mandarin
2702:Stroke count
2629:
2622:
2544:Old National
2387:Unclassified
1292:Southwestern
1125:Northeastern
1107:Major groups
1096:
1036:
1014:
1004:
1000:
974:
950:
927:
900:
880:
857:
834:
808:
796:
784:
772:
760:
748:
736:
724:
712:
700:
688:
676:
664:
635:
630:, p. 3.
623:
611:
599:
587:
580:Alves (2009)
575:
533:
524:
518:
477:
471:
447:
423:
406:
400:
394:
388:
382:
376:
373:Trần dynasty
370:
358:
354:in 1428, and
345:
336:
324:
314:
304:
285:
275:
264:
241:
212:Jiang Gongfu
171:
134:
118:
108:
102:
92:
31:
23:
3072:Xiao'erjing
2934:Punctuation
2927:Traditional
2880:Oracle bone
2864:Logographic
2760:Proto-Hakka
2735:Eastern Han
2730:Old Chinese
2592:Classifiers
2559:Northern Wu
2487:Singaporean
1693: [
1681: [
1669: [
1657: [
1645: [
484:communicate
365:Qing empire
307:Song empire
271:Khuông Việt
132:in Europe.
99:Han dynasty
3110:Categories
3023:Wade–Giles
2922:Simplified
2817:Vernacular
2810:in Vietnam
2663:Simplified
2650:Biaoxingma
2597:Honorifics
2532:Historical
2477:Philippine
2467:Sichuanese
2394:Badong Yao
2098:Shao–Jiang
1969:Philippine
1777:Xiangxiang
1772:Shuangfeng
1517:Taizhou Wu
1300:Sichuanese
883:, Mouton,
511:References
451:Lê Quý Đôn
439:Nguyễn Huệ
434:Ming China
278:Lý dynasty
244:Han empire
200:See also:
37:Vietnamese
2961:Taiwanese
2951:Cantonese
2795:Classical
2755:Proto-Min
2690:Microsoft
2549:Cantonese
2525:Phonology
2506:Cantonese
2497:Singdarin
2482:Malaysian
2472:Taiwanese
2376:Rongjiang
2366:Yongjiang
2362:Southern
2347:Northern
2321:Luo–Guang
2230:Hong Kong
2225:Guangzhou
2181:Taiwanese
2174:Changting
2108:Zhanjiang
2022:Zhongshan
1989:Malaysian
1984:Singapore
1949:Zhangzhou
1901:Zhongshan
1794:Yong–Quan
1690:Jing-Zhan
1620:Xuancheng
1597:Jiangshan
1476:Changzhou
1397:Junjiahua
1250:Guanzhong
1133:Changchun
426:Hồ Quý Ly
256:Wang Mang
115:Sima Qian
3045:Bopomofo
2974:Phonetic
2966:Two-cell
2895:Clerical
2805:in Japan
2800:Adoption
2788:Official
2779:Literary
2654:Boshiamy
2631:Xiehouyu
2587:Numerals
2564:Mandarin
2492:Standard
2452:Standard
2326:Qin–Lian
2316:Yong–Xun
2301:Gao–Yang
2247:Jiujiang
2235:Malaysia
2169:Tingzhou
2120:Wenchang
2081:Jianyang
2071:Northern
2030:Sanxiang
1944:Quanzhou
1927:Southern
1896:Manjiang
1760:Changsha
1720:Nanchang
1715:Chang–Du
1612:Xuanzhou
1602:Qingtian
1556:Wencheng
1502:Jiangyin
1497:Jinxiang
1487:Shaoxing
1481:Hangzhou
1461:Shanghai
1402:Qinjiang
1310:Minjiang
1282:Xinjiang
1240:Dongping
1204:Jiaoliao
1143:Shenyang
1116:Mandarin
948:(1988),
922:(2011),
879:(1977),
855:(1966),
399:and the
367:in 1789.
42:Văn ngôn
2944:Braille
2905:Cursive
2855:Scripts
2722:History
2712:ZhengMa
2658:Cangjie
2624:Chengyu
2579:Grammar
2554:Hokkien
2511:Hokkien
2419:Waxiang
2399:Danzhou
2371:Guandao
2356:Younian
2351:Tongdao
2340:Pinghua
2280:Taishan
2196:Raoping
2164:Huizhou
2154:Meixian
2130:Banqiao
2103:Leizhou
2093:Pu–Xian
2088:Central
2076:Jian'ou
2051:Longyan
1999:Teochew
1936:Hokkien
1911:Nanlang
1867:Fu–Ning
1847:Changle
1829:Houguan
1820:Eastern
1767:Loushao
1755:Changyi
1737:Da–Tong
1732:Ying–Yi
1678:Yanzhou
1546:Wenzhou
1539:Oujiang
1530:Tiantai
1525:Taizhou
1434:Zhi–Yan
1381:Nantong
1376:Nanjing
1351:Gui–Liu
1341:Nanping
1336:Kunming
1262:Luoyang
1217:Qingdao
1189:Tianjin
1166:Beijing
1158:Beijing
951:Chinese
196:History
188:chữ Nôm
181:chữ Nho
175:chữ Hán
167:lexicon
104:Mencius
54:Hán văn
3013:Postal
3008:MPS II
2885:Bronze
2765:Ba–Shu
2685:Google
2680:Pinyin
2616:Idioms
2429:Yeheni
2311:Wu–Hua
2306:Goulou
2285:Xinhui
2262:Dapeng
2257:Weitou
2242:Xiguan
2217:Yuehai
2186:Sixian
2125:Haikou
2115:Hainan
2046:Zhenan
2012:Haklau
2007:Swatow
1979:Penang
1964:Taiwan
1959:Chawan
1906:Longdu
1875:Ningde
1852:Gutian
1842:Fuqing
1837:Fuzhou
1799:Qiyang
1782:Wugang
1727:Yi–Liu
1654:Xiu-Yi
1642:Ji-She
1592:Quzhou
1584:Chu–Qu
1574:Jinhua
1566:Wuzhou
1551:Rui'an
1492:Ningbo
1466:Suzhou
1356:Wuming
1327:Zigong
1315:Leshan
1277:Lanyin
1272:Dungan
1267:Xuzhou
1245:Gangou
1222:Weihai
1212:Dalian
1171:Taiwan
1138:Harbin
1045:
1022:
981:
958:
934:
908:
887:
865:
841:
214:in 758
158:Hán tự
107:, the
51:古文 or
48:Cổ văn
3077:Nüshu
2781:forms
2695:Sogou
2642:Input
2516:Hakka
2454:forms
2294:Other
2252:Shiqi
2191:Hailu
2159:Wuhua
2146:Hakka
2064:Other
2039:Other
1974:Pedan
1889:Other
1880:Fu'an
1857:Matsu
1789:Ji–Xu
1747:Xiang
1697:]
1685:]
1673:]
1666:Qi-De
1661:]
1649:]
1507:Shadi
1453:Taihu
1407:Gyami
1390:Other
1346:Wuhan
1255:Xi'an
1194:Jinan
997:(PDF)
282:Hanoi
224:stele
152:Hànzì
130:Latin
79:Japan
75:Korea
71:China
3038:Yale
3028:EFEO
2890:Seal
2675:Dayi
2272:Siyi
1954:Amoy
1471:Wuxi
1368:Huai
1181:Jilu
1043:ISBN
1020:ISBN
979:ISBN
956:ISBN
932:ISBN
906:ISBN
885:ISBN
863:ISBN
839:ISBN
344:the
113:and
97:and
77:and
45:文言,
2770:Gan
2670:CKC
2537:Old
2414:She
2404:Mai
2208:Yue
1811:Min
1707:Gan
1634:Hui
1483:(?)
1421:Jin
1148:Taz
430:Nôm
357:an
117:'s
3112::
1695:zh
1683:zh
1671:zh
1659:zh
1647:zh
1444:Wu
1005:61
1003:,
999:,
647:^
560:^
545:^
507:.
457:,
409:.
323:a
302:.
273:.
169:.
146:漢字
39::
1080:e
1073:t
1066:v
1051:.
1028:.
987:.
964:.
940:.
914:.
893:.
871:.
847:.
695:.
333:,
149:(
35:(
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