Sima Qian - Knowledge

1504:. In this regard, Sima was significant as the first Chinese historian to treat the peoples living to the north of the Great Wall like the Xiongnu as human beings who were implicitly the equals of the Middle Kingdom, instead of the traditional approach which had portrayed the Xiongnu as savages who had the appearance of humans, but the minds of animals. In his comments about the Xiongnu, Sima refrained from evoking claims about the innate moral superiority of the Han over the "northern barbarians" that were the standard rhetorical tropes of Chinese historians in this period. Likewise, Sima in his chapter about the Xiongnu condemns those advisors who pursue the "expediency of the moment", that is advise the Emperor to carry policies such as conquests of other nations that bring a brief moment of glory, but burden the state with the enormous financial and often human costs of holding on to the conquered land. Sima was engaging in an indirect criticism of the advisors of the Emperor Wu who were urging him to pursue a policy of aggression towards the Xiongnu and conquer all their land, a policy to which Sima was apparently opposed. 1129:'s rebellion in 91 BC. This is the last record of Sima Qian in contemporary documents. The letter is a reply to a lost letter by Ren An to Sima Qian, perhaps asking Sima Qian to intercede on his behalf as Ren An was facing execution for accusations of being an opportunist and displaying equivocal loyalty to the emperor during the rebellion. In his reply, Sima Qian stated that he is a mutilated man with no influence at court. Some later historians claimed that Sima Qian himself became implicated in the rebellion as a result of his friendship with Ren An and was executed as part of the purge of the crown prince's supporters in court; however, the earliest-attested record of this account dates from the 4th century. Moreover, it has also been pointed out that Sima Qian would have been reluctant to render substantive aid to Ren An, given the severe consequences that he suffered for supporting General Li Ling, as well as Ren An's failure to act on his behalf during the Li Ling affair. Although there are many theories regarding the exact dating as well as the true nature and purpose of the 1589:

morally equal to Chinese customs, at times even morally superior as Zhonghang draws a contrast between the bloody succession struggles in China where family members would murder one another to be Emperor vs. the more orderly succession of the Xiongnu kings. The American historian Tamara Chin wrote that though Zhonghang did exist, the dialogue is merely a "literacy device" for Sima to make points that he could not otherwise make. The favorable picture of the traitor Zhonghang who went over to the Xiongnu who bests the Emperor's loyal envoy in an ethnographic argument about what is the morally superior nation appears to be Sima's way of attacking the entire Chinese court system where the Emperor preferred the lies told by his sycophantic advisors over the truth told by his honest advisors as inherently corrupt and depraved. The point is reinforced by the fact that Sima has Zhonghang speak the language of an idealized Confucian official whereas the Emperor's envoy's language is dismissed as "mere twittering and chatter". Elsewhere in the

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failure, their rise and decay in one hundred and thirty chapters. I wished to examine into all that concerns heaven and man, to penetrate the changes of the past and present, completing all as the work of one family. But before I had finished my rough manuscript, I met with this calamity. It is because I regretted that it had not been completed that I submitted to the extreme penalty without rancor. When I have truly completed this work, I shall deposit it in the Famous Mountain. If it may be handed down to men who will appreciate it, and penetrate to the villages and great cities, then though I should suffer a thousand mutilations, what regret should I have?

1522:, music, religion, hydraulic engineering and economics. The last section dealing with biographies covers individuals judged by Sima to have made a major impact on the course of history, regardless of whether they were of noble or humble birth and whether they were born in the central states, the periphery, or barbarian lands. Unlike traditional Chinese historians, Sima went beyond the androcentric, nobility-focused histories by dealing with the lives of women and men such as poets, bureaucrats, merchants, comedians/jesters, assassins, and philosophers. The treatises section, the biographies sections and the annals section relating to the 2880: 2758: 1487:, and learned much about the early days. How different it was from the stories one hears!" Reflecting the traditional Chinese reverence for age, Sima stated that he preferred to interview the elderly as he believed that they were the most likely to supply him with correct and truthful information about what had happened in the past. During one of this trips, Sima mentioned that he was overcome with emotion when he saw the carriage of Confucius together with his clothes and various other personal items that had belonged to Confucius. 48: 2904: 1471:. When Sima encountered a story that could not be cross-checked with the Confucian classics, he systemically compared the information with other documents. Sima mentioned at least 75 books he used for cross-checking. Furthermore, Sima often questioned people about historical events they had experienced. Sima mentioned after one of his trips across China that: "When I had occasion to pass through Feng and Beiyi I questioned the elderly people who were about the place, visited the old home of 2916: 1437:

the Ch'in dynasty are too far away and the material on them too scanty to permit a detailed account of them here". In the same way, Sima discounted accounts in the traditional records that were "ridiculous" such as the pretense that Prince Tan could via the use of magic make the clouds rain grain and horses grow horns. Sima constantly compared accounts found in the manuscripts with what he considered reliable sources like Confucian classics like the

2740: 2978: 2961: 2995: 1044:. Since Sima did not have enough money to atone for his "crime", he chose the latter and was then thrown into prison, where he endured three years. He described his pain thus: "When you see the jailer you abjectly touch the ground with your forehead. At the mere sight of his underlings you are seized with terror ... Such ignominy can never be wiped away." Sima called his castration "the worst of all punishments". 2892: 2944: 1280:, which on the surface is a succinct chronology from the events of the reigns of the twelve dukes of Lu from 722 to 484 BC. Many Chinese scholars have and still do view how Confucius ordered his chronology as the ideal example of how history should be written, especially with regards to what he chose to include and to exclude, and his choice of words as indicating moral judgments. Seen in this light, the 751:, first conceived of the ambitious project of writing a complete history of China, but had completed only some preparatory sketches at the time of his death. After inheriting his father's position as court historian in the imperial court, he was determined to fulfill his father's dying wish of composing and putting together this epic work of history. However, in 99 BC, he would fall victim to the 1012: 795:) for his monumental work. However, his magnum opus was completed many years after his tenure as Grand Historian ended in disgrace and after his acceptance of punitive actions against him including imprisonment, castration, and subjection to servility. He was acutely aware of the importance of his work to posterity and its relationship to his own personal suffering. In the postface of the 1073:

have things in my heart which I have not been able to express fully, and I am shamed to think that after I am gone my writings will not be known to posterity. Too numerous to record are the men of ancient times who were rich and noble and whose names have yet vanished away. It is only those who were masterful and sure, the truly extraordinary men, who are still remembered.

1753:, a position which includes aspects of being a historian, a court scribe, calendarist, and court astronomer/astrologer. At that time, the astrologer had an important role, responsible for interpreting and predicting the course of government according to the influence of the Sun, Moon, and stars, as well as other astronomical and geological phenomena such as 1359:

from the humblest beginnings to lead the Six States in the Vertical Alliance, and this is evidence that he possessed an intelligence surpassing the ordinary person. For this reason I have set forth this account of his deeds, arranging them in proper chronological order, so that he may not forever suffer from an evil reputation and be known for nothing else.

1243:(列傳) or 'ordered biographies' chapters containing the biographies of influential non-nobles, sometimes for one prominent individual, but often for two or more people who, in Sima Qian's judgment, played similarly important roles in history. In addition to these namesake categories, there are chapters falling under the categories of 1559:. He intended to discover the patterns and principles of the development of human history. Sima also emphasized, for the first time in Chinese history, the role of individual men in affecting the historical development of China and his historical perception that a country cannot escape from the fate of growth and decay. 1391:, he was very open in treating the reigns of Yin and Huan, the early dukes of Lu; but when he came to the later period of Dukes Ding and Ai, his writing was much more covert. Because in the latter case he was writing about his own times, he did not express his judgements frankly, but used subtle and guarded language. 1255:(世家) chapters, or 'house chronicles', document important events in the histories of the rulers of each of the quasi-independent states of the Zhou dynasty (originally serving as vassals to the Zhou kings), as well as the histories of contemporary aristocratic houses established during the Han dynasty. 1596:

Sima has often been criticized for "historizing" myths and legends as he assigned dates to mythical and legendary figures from ancient Chinese history together with what appears to be suspiciously precise genealogies of leading families over the course of several millennia (including his own where he

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to "hear much but leave to one side that which is doubtful, and speak with due caution concerning the remainder". Reflecting these rigorous analytic methods, Sima declared that he would not write about periods of history where there was insufficient documentation. As such, Sima wrote "the ages before

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was composed and compiled, and gives brief justifications for the inclusion of the major topics, events, and individuals in the work. As part of the background, the postface provides a short sketch of the history of the Sima clan, from legendary times to his father Sima Tan. It also details the dying

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in the north, were defeated and taken captive. Emperor Wu attributed the defeat to Li Ling, with all government officials subsequently condemning him for it. Sima was the only person to defend Li Ling, who had never been his friend but whom he respected. Emperor Wu interpreted Sima's defence of Li as

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After his travels, Sima was chosen to be a Palace Attendant in the government, whose duties were to inspect different parts of the country with Emperor Wu in 122 BC. Sima married young and had one daughter. In 110 BC, at the age of 35, Sima Qian was sent westward on a military expedition against

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were the effective rulers of China during reigns Hui of the Han and Yi of Chu, respectively, so Sima placed both their lives in the basic annals. Likewise, Confucius is included in the fourth section rather the fifth where he properly belonged as a way of showing his eminent virtue. The structure of

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If even the lowest slave and scullion maid can bear to commit suicide, why should not one like myself be able to do what has to be done? But the reason I have not refused to bear these ills and have continued to live, dwelling in vileness and disgrace without taking my leave, is that I grieve that I

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Before his castration, Sima Qian was recorded to have two sons and a daughter. While little is recorded of his sons, his daughter later married Yang Chang (楊敞), and had sons Yang Zhong (楊忠) and Yang Yun (楊惲). It was Yang Yun who hid his grandfather's great work, and decided to release it during the

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into five divisions: the basic annals which comprised the first 12 chapters, the chronological tables which comprised the next 10 chapters, treatises on particular subjects which make up 8 chapters, accounts of the ruling families which take up 30 chapters, and biographies of various eminent people

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Such a moralizing approach to history with the historian high-guiding the good and evil to provide lessons for the present could be dangerous for the historian as it could bring down the wrath of the state onto the historian as happened to Sima himself. As such, the historian had to tread carefully

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To resolve this theodical problem, Sima argued that while the wicked may succeed and the good may suffer in their own life-times, it is the historian who ensures that in the end good triumphs. For Sima, the writing of history was no mere antiquarian pursuit, but was rather a vital moral task as the

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His influence was derived primarily from the following elements of his writing: his skillful depiction of historical characters using details of their speech, conversations, and actions; his innovative use of informal, humorous, and varied language; and the simplicity and conciseness of his style.

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who became an advisor to the Xiongnu kings. Sima provides a long dialogue between Zhonghang and an envoy sent by the Emperor Wen of China during which the latter disparages the Xiongnu as "savages" whose customs are barbaric while Zhonghang defends the Xiongnu customs as either justified and/or as

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as an official history covering only those of high rank. The work also covers people of the lower classes and is therefore considered a "veritable record" of the darker side of the dynasty. In Sima's time, literature and history were not seen as separate disciplines as they are now, and Sima wrote

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and his two brothers all achieved fame among the feudal lords as itinerant strategists. Their policies laid great stress upon stratagems and shifts of power. But because Su Qin died a traitor's death, the world has united in scoffing at him and has been loath to study his policies ... Su Qin arose

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is portrayed as a good leader whereas in the section dealing with his rival Xiang Yu, the Emperor is portrayed unflatteringly. Likewise, the chapter on Xiang presents him in a favorable light whereas the chapter on Gaozu portrays him in more darker colors. At the end of most of the chapters, Sima

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Despite his very large debts to Confucian tradition, Sima was an innovator in four ways. To begin with, Sima's work was concerned with the history of the known world. Previous Chinese historians had focused on only one dynasty and/or region. Sima's history of 130 chapters began with the legendary

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were good men or not? They clung to righteousness and were pure in their deeds yet they starved to death ... Robber Zhi day after day killed innocent men, making mincemeat of their flesh ... But in the end he lived to a great old age. For what virtue did he deserve this? ... I find myself in much

868:, alternatively "grand scribe" or "grand astrologer") at the imperial court. The grand historian was a relatively low-ranking official whose main duty was to formulate the yearly calendar, identifying which days were ritually auspicious or inauspicious, and present it to the emperor prior to the 1512:

was further very novel in Chinese historiography by examining historical events outside of the courts, providing a broader history than the traditional court-based histories had done. Lastly, Sima broke with the traditional chronological structure of Chinese history. Sima instead had divided the

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I too have ventured not to be modest but have entrusted myself to my useless writings. I have gathered up and brought together the old traditions of the world which were scattered and lost. I have examined the deeds and events of the past and investigated the principles behind their success and

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It distinguishes what is suspicious and doubtful, clarifies right and wrong, and settles points which are uncertain. It calls good good and bad bad, honours the worthy, and condemns the unworthy. It preserves states which are lost and restores the perishing family. It brings to light what was

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Sima also broke new ground by using more sources like interviewing witnesses, visiting places where historical occurrences had happened, and examining documents from different regions and/or times. Before Chinese historians had tended to use only reign histories as their sources. The

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some "barbarian" tribes. That year, his father fell ill due to the distress of not being invited to attend the Imperial Feng Sacrifice. Suspecting that his time was running out, he summoned his son back home to take over the historical work he had begun. Sima Tan wanted to follow the

872:. His other duties included traveling with the emperor for important rituals and recording daily events both at the court and around the country. By his account, by the age of ten Sima was able to "read the old writings" and was considered to be a promising scholar. Sima grew up in a 1621:

is respected as a model of biographical literature with high literary value and still stands as a textbook for the study of classical Chinese. Sima's works were influential to Chinese writing, serving as ideal models for various types of prose within the neo-classical ("renaissance"

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which are the last 70 chapters. The annals follow the traditional Chinese pattern of court-based histories of the lives of various emperors and their families. The chronological tables are graphs recounting the political history of China. The treatises are essays on topics such as

1838:(馮 = 仌 + 馬), respectively, to hide their origins while continuing to secretly offer sacrifices to the Sima ancestors. To this day, people living in the village with surnames Feng and Tong are forbidden from intermarrying on the grounds that the relationship would be incestuous. 1555:

usually wrote a commentary in which he judged how the individual lived up to traditional Chinese values like filial piety, humility, self-discipline, hard work and concern for the less fortunate. Sima analyzed the records and sorted out those that could serve the purpose of

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words of Sima Tan, tearfully exhorting the author to compose the present work, and contains a biographical sketch of the author himself. The postface concludes with a self-referential description of the postface as the 70th and last of the Ordered Biographies chapters.

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According to local legend, Sima Qian had two sons, the older named Sima Lin (司馬臨) and younger named Sima Guan (司馬觀), who fled the capital to Xu Village (徐村) in what is now Shanxi province during the Li Ling affair, for fear of falling victim to

1190:) has defined the quality and style from then onwards. Before Sima, histories were written as certain events or certain periods of history of states; his idea of a general history affected later historiographers like Zheng Qiao (鄭樵) in writing 1579:

in a very literary style, making extensive use of irony, sarcasm, juxtaposition of events, characterization, direct speech and invented speeches, which led the American historian Jennifer Jay to describe parts of the

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sent an expedition to search for and ennoble a male-line descent of Sima Qian as 史通子 ("Viscount of Historical Mastery"), although it was not recorded who received this title of nobility. A Qing dynasty stele 重修太史廟記

1399:, such as where Sima placed his section on Confucius's use of indirect criticism in the part of the book dealing with the Xiongnu "barbarians" might indicate his disapproval of the foreign policy of the Emperor Wu. 1262:

consist of 12 Basic Annals, 10 Tables, 8 Treatises, 30 House Chronicles, and 70 Ordered Biographies. The last of the Ordered Biographies is the postface. This final chapter details the background of how the

1003:. In 105 BC, Sima was among the scholars chosen to reform the calendar. As a senior imperial official, Sima was also in the position to offer counsel to the emperor on general affairs of state. 1406:, Sima initiated a new writing style by presenting history in a series of biographies. His work extends over 130 chapters—not in historical sequence, but divided into particular subjects, including 1640:) as well as the vernacular novel of the late imperial period. Sima had immense influence on historiography not only in China, but also in Japan and Korea. For centuries afterwards, the 1605:

dealing with the ancient past are not totally true, at least Sima wrote down what he believed to be true. In particular, archaeological finds have confirmed the basic accuracy of the

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that are speculated to be authored by Sima Tan or based on his notes. Fueled by his father's inspiration, Sima Qian spent much of the subsequent decade authoring and compiling the

1418:—on music, ceremonies, calendars, religion, economics, and extended biographies. Sima's work influenced the writing style of other histories outside of China as well, such as the 1140:

stated that there are no reliable records establishing when Sima Qian died. He and most modern historians believe that Sima Qian spent his last days as a scholar in reclusion (

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Sima portrayed the Xiongnu less favorably, so the debate was almost certainly more Sima's way of criticizing the Chinese court system and less genuine praise for the Xiongnu.

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to complete his histories, rather than commit suicide as was expected of a gentleman-scholar who had been disgraced by being castrated. As Sima Qian himself explained in his

784:)—variously translated as 'court historian', 'scribe', 'astronomer', or 'astrologer'—later generations would accord him with the honorific title of "Lord Grand Historian" ( 1636:

period. The great use of characterisation and plotting also influenced fiction writing, including the classical short stories of the middle and late medieval period (Tang-

1161: 827:, pointing out that their authors all suffered great personal misfortunes before their lasting monumental works could come to fruition. Sima Qian is also depicted in the 1395:

Bearing this in mind, not everything that Sima wrote should be understood as conveying didactical moral lessons. But several historians have suggested that parts of the

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an attack on his brother-in-law, Li Guangli, who had also fought against the Xiongnu without much success, and sentenced Sima to death. At that time, execution could be

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In 126 BC, around the age of 20, Sima Qian began an extensive tour around China as it existed in the Han dynasty. He started his journey from the imperial capital,

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traces the descent of the Sima family from legendary emperors in the distant past). However, archaeological discoveries in recent decades have confirmed aspects of the

959: 1133:, one common interpretation suggests that the letter, in part, tacitly expressed a refusal to play an active role in securing a reduced punishment for Ren An. 2763: 2065:(High school textbook) (1st ed.). New York, NY: Britannica Educational Publishing in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC. pp. 112–116. 759:. Given the choice of being executed or castrated, he chose the latter in order to finish his historical work. Although he is universally remembered for the 999:

and completed it before 91 BC, probably around 94 BC. Three years after the death of his father, Sima Qian assumed his father's previous position as

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allowed Sima to tell the same stories in different ways, which allowed him to pass his moral judgements. For example, in the basic annals section, the

2800: 1251:(書) or 'treatises', consisting of essays giving a historical perspective on various topics like music, ritual, or economics. Most importantly, the 989:, there is a short essay on the six philosophical schools that is explicitly attributed to Sima Tan. Otherwise, there are only fragments of the 3080: 3055: 1644:

was regarded as the greatest history book written in Asia. Sima is little known in the English-speaking world as a full translation of the

1526:(as a former dynasty, there was more freedom to write about the Qin than there was about the reigning Han dynasty) that make up 40% of the 1428:. Sima adopted a new method in sorting out the historical data and a new approach to writing historical records. At the beginning of the 1118:), a court archivist position reserved for eunuchs with considerable status and with higher pay than his previous position of historian. 1082:僕竊不遜，近自託於無能之辭，網羅天下放失舊聞，考之行事，綜其終始，稽其成敗興壞之理 ... 凡百三十篇，亦欲以究天人之際，通古今之變，成一家之言。草創未就，適會此禍，惜其不成，是以就極刑而無慍色。僕誠已著此書，藏諸名山，傳之其人通邑大都，則僕償前辱之責，雖萬被戮，豈有悔哉！ 3035: 3030: 853:). He was probably born around 145 BC, although some sources say he was born about 135 BC. In about 136 BC, his father 3065: 2717:

Moloughney, B. "From Biographical History to Historical Biography: A Transformation in Chinese Historical Writings" pages 1–30 from

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Some people say "It is Heaven's way, without distinction of persons, to keep the good perpetually supplied." Can we say then that

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as reading more like a historical novel than a work of history. For an example, Sima tells the story of a Chinese eunuch named

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historian would "preserve memory", and thereby ensure the ultimate victory of good over evil. Along these lines, Sima wrote:

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It appears that Sima Tan was only able to put together an outline of the work before he died. The postface of the completed

2793: 763:, surviving works indicate that he was also a gifted poet and prose writer, and he was instrumental in the creation of the 764: 2932: 1688:

Sima's famous letter to his friend Ren An about his sufferings during the Li Ling Affair and his perseverance in writing

1239:(本紀) or 'basic annals' chapters containing the biographies of the sovereigns ('sons of heaven') organized by dynasty and 2476: 2452: 2110: 2070: 1929: 2678:

Durrant S. W. "Self as the Intersection of Tradition: The Autobiographical Writings of Ssu-Ch'ien" pages 33–40 from

3070: 736:, during which Sima wrote. As the first universal history of the world as it was known to the ancient Chinese, the 2786: 3025: 1854:) erected in the nearby county seat Han City (韓城) claims that the title was given to the grandson of Sima Lin. 1692:

is today regarded as a highly admired example of literary prose style, studied widely in China even today. The

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was traditionally said to have drowned himself. He then went to seek the burial place of the legendary rulers

431: 349: 149: 3060: 3050: 3045: 1827: 1706:) This quote has become one of the most well known in all of Chinese literature. In modern times, Chairman 1496:

Yellow Emperor and extended to his own time, and covered not only China, but also neighboring nations like

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affair for speaking out in defense of the general, who was blamed for an unsuccessful campaign against the

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calendar. This is the first Chinese calendar whose full method of calculation (暦法) has been preserved.

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Hardy, G. R. "Can an Ancient Chinese historian Contribute to Modern Western Theory?" pages 20–38 from

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was written by Sima Qian in reply to Ren An in response to the latter's involvement in Crown Prince

974: 2950: 2896: 1220:, but historians regard Sima's work as their model, which stands as the "official format" of the 819: 1917: 1700:; for others it is as insignificant as a goose down. The difference is what they use it for." ( 1192: 964: 916: 715: 29: 3020: 1150:) after leaving the Han court, perhaps dying around the same time as Emperor Wu in 87/86 BC. 1284:

are a moral guide to the proper way of living. Sima took this view himself as he explained:

2521:"Defamiliarizing the Foreigner: Sima Qian's Ethnography and Han-Xiongnu Marriage Diplomacy" 2137:(2008). ""Key Words," Authorial Intent, and Interpretation: Sima Qian's Letter to Ren An". 1551: 1110:

Upon his release from prison in 97/96 BC, Sima Qian continued to serve in the Han court as

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When Sima placed his subjects was often his way of expressing obliquely moral judgements.

1322:或曰：天道無親，常與善人。若伯夷、叔齊，可謂善人者非邪。積仁絜行如此而餓死。... 盜蹠日殺不辜，肝人之肉 ... 竟以壽終。是遵何德哉。 ... 余甚惑焉，儻所謂天道，是邪非邪。 8: 2984: 2842: 1814: 1348:蘇秦兄弟三人，皆游說諸侯以顯名，其術長於權變。而蘇秦被反閒以死，天下共笑之，諱學其術。 ... 夫蘇秦起閭閻，連六國從親，此其智有過人者。吾故列其行事，次其時序，毋令獨蒙惡聲焉。 2611: 1309:

as being in the same tradition as he explained in his introduction to chapter 61 of the

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served as a model for official history-writing for subsequent Chinese dynasties and the

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Kroll, J. L. "Ssu-ma Ch'ien Literary Theory and Literary Practice" pages 313-325 from

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contains the quote, "Men have always had but one death. For some it is as weighty as

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and often expressed his judgements in a circuitous way designed to fool the censor.

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Although the style and form of Chinese historical writings varied through the ages,

2744: 2532: 1770: 1711: 1457: 1221: 896: 869: 454: 172: 2471:. Zhang xue cheng, (1972- ), 张学成, (1972- ). Bei jing: Jiu zhou chu ban she. 2011. 1731:. All but one, the "Rhapsody in Lament for Gentlemen who do not Meet their Time" ( 2778: 1065:且夫臧獲婢妾猶能引決，況若僕之不得已乎。所以隱忍苟活，函糞土之中而不辭者，恨私心有所不盡，鄙沒世而文采不表於後也。古者富貴而名摩滅，不可勝記，唯俶儻非常之人稱焉。 932: 928: 876:

environment, and Sima always regarded his historical work as an act of Confucian

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Masterworks of Asian Literature in Comparative Perspective: A Guide for Teaching

1247:(表) or 'tables', containing graphical chronologies of royalty and nobility, and 2772: 1831: 1330: 1202: 908: 729: 728:

covering more than two thousand years beginning from the rise of the legendary

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A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)

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general Sima Cuo (司馬錯), the commander of Qin army in the state's conquest of

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have aroused the most interest from historians and are the only parts of the

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Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature: A Reference Guide, Part Two

2536: 2810: 2591:(2014). "Sima Qian 司馬遷". In Knechtges, David R.; Chang, Tai-ping (eds.). 1946: 1870: 1798: 1779: 1775: 1750: 1723: 1523: 1484: 1424: 1216: 1137: 904: 884: 806: 711: 648: 384: 65: 2544: 2520: 2158: 1047:

In 96 BC, on his release from prison, Sima chose to live on as a palace

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Dubs, H. H. "History and Historians under the Han" pages 213-218 from

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for Emperor Wu and means "supreme beginning"), a modification of the

1697: 1519: 1411: 1210:

history of dynasties, was codified in the second dynastic history by

948: 873: 842: 551: 273: 2260: 2258: 2256: 2254: 2252: 2186: 2857: 2837: 2832: 2822: 2422: 2420: 2335: 2333: 2331: 2329: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2321: 2250: 2248: 2246: 2244: 2242: 2240: 2238: 2236: 2234: 2232: 2219: 2217: 2215: 2213: 2211: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2203: 2201: 2176: 2174: 2172: 2170: 2168: 1794: 1566:, which was written under the supervision of the imperial dynasty, 1542: 1480: 1476: 1415: 888: 854: 846: 748: 572: 475: 294: 193: 114: 70: 3001: 2646:

Allen, J. R. "An Introductory Study of Narrative Structure in the

2020: 2018: 2016: 2014: 2012: 1432:, Sima declared himself a follower of Confucius's approach in the 1023:

In 99 BC, Sima became embroiled in the Li Ling affair, where

2630:

Peace and Peril. Sima Qian's portrayal of Han - Xiongnu relations

1761:, which depended on revising and upholding an accurate calendar. 1501: 1472: 1463: 1032: 1024: 940: 912: 892: 850: 824: 814: 756: 752: 639: 610: 375: 332: 2417: 2318: 2229: 2198: 2165: 1835: 1371:

declared that he was writing in this tradition where he stated:

1228:

comprises 130 chapters consisting of half a million characters.

2827: 2775:, article by Carrie Gracie in BBC News Magazine, 7 October 2012 2009: 1661: 1653: 1609:

including the reigns and locations of tombs of ancient rulers.

1419: 1407: 1355: 1211: 1126: 1048: 810: 1922:

The Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing Volume 2

1852:

Records of the Renovation of the Temple of the Grand Historian

732:

and the formation of the first Chinese polity to the reign of

2926: 1497: 1334:

perplexity. Is this so-called "Way of Heaven" right or wrong?

900: 773:

As his position in the imperial court was "Grand Historian" (

725: 618: 354: 340: 1768:, Sima Qian was involved in the creation of the 104 BC 1011: 2657:

Allen, J. R. "Records of the Historian" pages 259–271 from

944: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1993: 1991: 1785:

The minor planet "12620 Simaqian" is named in his honour.

1570:

was a privately written history since he refused to write

951:, where he studied ritual and other traditional subjects. 1727:), which are listed in the bibliographic treatise of the 660: 591: 577: 563: 396: 313: 299: 285: 1160: 542: 264: 2381: 2369: 2357: 2306: 2270: 1988: 1960: 1031:, two military officers who led a campaign against the 2042: 2868: 1367:

Sima himself in the conclusion to chapter 110 of the

1206:. The Chinese historical form of dynasty history, or 858: 785: 774: 516: 500: 480: 466: 238: 222: 198: 184: 857:

was appointed to the position of "grand historian" (

2405: 2393: 2345: 2294: 2282: 2030: 1235:format refers to the organization of the work into 939:, Jiangsu) to see the grave of Han dynasty general 770:, which was officially promulgated in 104 BC. 2808: 2595:. Leiden, South Holland: Brill. pp. 959–965. 1490: 1271: 2578: 2438: 2426: 2339: 2264: 2223: 2192: 2180: 2096: 2024: 1601:, and suggested that even if the sections of the 1153: 3012: 935:, Hunan). He then went north to Huaiyin (modern 16:Chinese historian and writer (c. 145 – c. 86 BC) 1793:Sima Qian is the son of court astrologer (太史令) 1820: 2794: 2652:Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews 2139:Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews 1732: 1701: 1675: 1665: 1623: 1378: 1346: 1320: 1291: 1080: 1063: 863: 790: 779: 689: 436: 422: 154: 140: 2689:, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970. 2559: 1978: 1293:夫春秋 ... 別嫌疑，明是非，定猶豫，善善惡惡，賢賢賤不肖，存亡國，繼絕世，補敝起廢。 2445:The Letter to Ren An and Sima Qian's Legacy 2105:. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 2103:The letter to Ren An and Sima Qian's legacy 2063:Classical Authors : 500 BCE to 1100 CE 2061:Kuiper, Kathleen, ed. (2014). "Sima Qian". 1276:Sima was greatly influenced by Confucius's 1096:Sima Qian, "Letter to Ren An" (96 BC; 836: 710:) was a Chinese historian during the early 2801: 2787: 2756: 2616:. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. 1660:as "the historians' most perfect song, a ' 1301:neglected and restores what was abandoned. 46: 2587: 2133: 2003: 1982: 1966: 2706:Li, W. Y. "The Idea of Authority in the 2680:Journal of the American Oriental Society 2668:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961. 2664:Beasley, W. G. & Pulleyblank, E. G. 1924:. FitzRoy Dearborn. pp. 1093–1094. 1740: 1534:that have been translated into English. 1159: 1105: 1010: 978:, the first chronicle in the history of 958: 954: 2613:Ssu-ma Ch'ien: Grand Historian of China 1745:Sima and his father both served as the 1683: 1648:in English has not yet been completed. 94:Astronomer, astrologer, historian, poet 3013: 2609: 2060: 2048: 2036: 1652:Even the 20th-century literary critic 1380:孔氏著春秋，隱桓之閒則章，至定哀之際則微，為其切當世之文而罔褒，忌諱之辭也。 695: 593: 518: 315: 240: 3081:Prisoners sentenced to death by China 2782: 2092: 2090: 1911: 1909: 1907: 1905: 1903: 1901: 1899: 1897: 1895: 1714:in which he paid tribute to a fallen 3056:Chinese prisoners sentenced to death 2933: 2773:Sima Qian: China's 'grand historian' 2518: 2411: 2399: 2387: 2375: 2363: 2351: 2312: 2300: 2288: 2276: 1944: 1915: 1672:Outline of Chinese Literary History 744:in general until the 20th century. 13: 2712:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 2622: 2579:Hughes-Warrington, Marnie (2000). 2525:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 2447:. University of Washington Press. 2097:Durrant, Stephen W.; Li, Wai-yee; 2087: 1892: 1721:Sima Qian wrote eight rhapsodies ( 1612: 14: 3092: 3036:1st-century BC Chinese historians 3031:2nd-century BC Chinese historians 2725: 1830:. They changed their surnames to 1019:(1368–1644) portrait of Sima Qian 1006: 841:Sima Qian was born at Xiayang in 714:. He is considered the father of 3066:Han dynasty government officials 2993: 2976: 2959: 2942: 2914: 2902: 2890: 2878: 1774:Calendar 太初暦 (太初 became the new 2461: 2439:Durrant, Stephen; Li, Wai-yee; 2432: 2127: 1864: 1491:Innovations and unique features 1272:Influences and works influenced 1136:The early-20th-century scholar 661: 640: 619: 592: 578: 564: 543: 397: 376: 355: 341: 314: 300: 286: 265: 2682:, Volume 106, Issue # 1, 1986. 2519:Chin, Tamara (December 2010). 2054: 1938: 1385: 1376: 1353: 1344: 1327: 1318: 1298: 1289: 1184:Records of the Grand Historian 1173:Records of the Grand Historian 1155:Records of the Grand Historian 1146: 1141: 1087: 1078: 1070: 1061: 996:Records of the Grand Historian 891:), then went south across the 738:Records of the Grand Historian 721:Records of the Grand Historian 517: 501: 482: 481: 467: 437: 423: 239: 223: 200: 199: 185: 155: 141: 104:Records of the Grand Historian 1: 2714:, Volume 54, Issue # 2, 1994. 2696:, Volume 33, Issue # 1, 1994. 2675:, Volume 20, Issue # 2, 1961. 2666:Historians of China and Japan 2581:Fifty Key Thinkers on History 1880: 1873:: "絕不可考......然視為與武帝相終始，當無大誤。" 700: 83: 58: 3041:1st-century BC Chinese poets 1885: 1710:paraphrased this quote in a 7: 2741:Works by or about Sima Qian 2701:Altorientalische Forshungen 2560:de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). 1821:Unsubstantiated descendants 975:Annals of Spring and Autumn 859: 786: 775: 10: 3097: 2721:, Volume 4, Issue 1, 1992. 2687:Traditional Historiography 2654:, Volume 3, Issue 1, 1981. 2511: 1170: 943:, then continued north to 18: 2818: 1797:, who is a descendant of 1788: 1733: 1703:人固有一死，或重于泰山，或輕于鴻毛，用之所趨異也。 1702: 1676: 1666: 1624: 1387:When Confucius wrote the 1379: 1347: 1321: 1292: 1177: 1081: 1064: 864: 791: 780: 690: 679: 675: 654: 647: 633: 626: 609: 602: 585: 571: 557: 550: 534: 527: 510: 494: 474: 460: 453: 448: 444: 430: 416: 411: 390: 383: 369: 362: 348: 331: 324: 307: 293: 279: 272: 256: 249: 232: 216: 192: 178: 171: 166: 162: 148: 134: 129: 125: 121: 110: 98: 90: 79: 54: 45: 38: 2673:Journal of Asian Studies 2443:; Ess, Hans van (2018). 2427:Hughes-Warrington (2000) 2340:Hughes-Warrington (2000) 2265:Hughes-Warrington (2000) 2224:Hughes-Warrington (2000) 2193:Hughes-Warrington (2000) 2181:Hughes-Warrington (2000) 2101:; Ess, Hans van (2016). 2025:Hughes-Warrington (2000) 1920:. In Boyd, Kelly (ed.). 1857: 1469:Spring and Autumn Annals 1389:Spring and Autumn Annals 1282:Spring and Autumn Annals 1278:Spring and Autumn Annals 903:), where he visited the 837:Early life and education 418:Traditional Chinese 136:Traditional Chinese 3071:Historians from Shaanxi 2661:, Armonk: Sharpe, 1994. 2636:XIII), Turnhout, 2016, 2610:Watson, Burton (1958). 963:Portrait of Sima Qian ( 724:, a general history of 432:Simplified Chinese 150:Simplified Chinese 2499:: CS1 maint: others ( 1916:Jay, Jennifer (1999). 1828:familial extermination 1664:' without the rhyme" ( 1393: 1361: 1336: 1303: 1168: 1103: 1020: 968: 965:National Palace Museum 716:Chinese historiography 3026:2nd-century BC births 2710:" pages 345-405 from 2537:10.1353/jas.2010.0004 1741:Astronomer/astrologer 1422:(Korean) history the 1373: 1341: 1315: 1286: 1163: 1106:Later years and death 1057: 1014: 962: 955:As Han court official 2583:. London: Routledge. 1684:Other literary works 747:Sima Qian's father, 656:Baxter–Sagart (2014) 392:Baxter–Sagart (2014) 3061:Han dynasty eunuchs 3051:Chinese astrologers 3046:Ancient astrologers 2650:" pages 31–61 from 2589:Knechtges, David R. 2195:, pp. 292–293. 2135:Knechtges, David R. 1979:de Crespigny (2007) 1945:Moon (2012-08-18). 1040:either by money or 3076:Poets from Shaanxi 2750:Works by Sima Qian 2732:Works by Sima Qian 2719:East Asian History 2694:History and Theory 2390:, p. 333-334. 2378:, p. 328-329. 2366:, p. 325-326. 2315:, p. 311-354. 2279:, p. 318-319. 1751:Former Han dynasty 1628:) movement of the 1169: 1164:The first page of 1021: 980:Chinese literature 969: 947:, the hometown of 845:(near present-day 2866: 2865: 2736:Project Gutenberg 2703:, Volume 4, 1976. 2642:978-2-503-53083-3 2634:Silk Road Studies 2602:978-90-04-19240-9 2571:978-90-04-15605-0 2564:. Leiden: Brill. 2051:, pp. 57–67. 1841:According to the 1764:Before compiling 734:Emperor Wu of Han 708: 86 BC 683: 682: 671: 670: 559:Yale Romanization 455:Standard Mandarin 407: 406: 281:Yale Romanization 173:Standard Mandarin 3088: 3006: 2998: 2997: 2996: 2989: 2981: 2980: 2979: 2972: 2964: 2963: 2962: 2955: 2947: 2946: 2945: 2935: 2919: 2918: 2907: 2906: 2905: 2897:China/Categories 2895: 2894: 2893: 2883: 2882: 2881: 2874: 2803: 2796: 2789: 2780: 2779: 2764:Significance of 2760: 2745:Internet Archive 2617: 2606: 2584: 2575: 2556: 2505: 2504: 2498: 2490: 2465: 2459: 2458: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2415: 2409: 2403: 2397: 2391: 2385: 2379: 2373: 2367: 2361: 2355: 2349: 2343: 2337: 2316: 2310: 2304: 2298: 2292: 2286: 2280: 2274: 2268: 2262: 2227: 2221: 2196: 2190: 2184: 2178: 2163: 2162: 2131: 2125: 2124: 2094: 2085: 2084: 2058: 2052: 2046: 2040: 2034: 2028: 2022: 2007: 2004:Knechtges (2014) 2001: 1986: 1983:Knechtges (2014) 1981:, p. 1222; 1976: 1970: 1967:Knechtges (2014) 1964: 1958: 1957: 1955: 1954: 1942: 1936: 1935: 1913: 1874: 1868: 1736: 1735: 1705: 1704: 1694:Letter to Ren An 1679: 1678: 1669: 1668: 1627: 1626: 1386: 1382: 1381: 1377: 1354: 1350: 1349: 1345: 1328: 1324: 1323: 1319: 1313:where he wrote: 1299: 1295: 1294: 1290: 1222:history of China 1148: 1143: 1131:Letter to Ren An 1123:Letter to Ren An 1101: 1088: 1084: 1083: 1079: 1071: 1067: 1066: 1062: 1053:Letter to Ren An 897:Changsha Kingdom 867: 866: 862: 833:by Jin Guliang. 794: 793: 789: 783: 782: 778: 709: 705: 702: 698: 693: 692: 667: 666: 665: 643: 642: 622: 621: 598: 597: 596: 581: 580: 567: 566: 546: 545: 523: 522: 521: 506: 505: 504: 490: 489: 488: 486: 470: 469: 446: 445: 440: 439: 426: 425: 403: 402: 401: 379: 378: 358: 357: 344: 343: 320: 319: 318: 303: 302: 289: 288: 268: 267: 245: 244: 243: 228: 227: 226: 212: 211: 210: 208: 204: 188: 187: 164: 163: 158: 157: 144: 143: 85: 74: 60: 50: 36: 35: 3096: 3095: 3091: 3090: 3089: 3087: 3086: 3085: 3011: 3010: 3009: 2999: 2994: 2992: 2988:from Wikisource 2982: 2977: 2975: 2965: 2960: 2958: 2948: 2943: 2941: 2938: 2934:sister projects 2931:at Knowledge's 2925: 2913: 2903: 2901: 2891: 2889: 2879: 2877: 2869: 2867: 2862: 2814: 2807: 2728: 2685:Cardner, C. S. 2625: 2623:Further reading 2620: 2603: 2572: 2514: 2509: 2508: 2492: 2491: 2479: 2469:Shi ji zong lun 2467: 2466: 2462: 2455: 2437: 2433: 2425: 2418: 2410: 2406: 2398: 2394: 2386: 2382: 2374: 2370: 2362: 2358: 2350: 2346: 2338: 2319: 2311: 2307: 2299: 2295: 2287: 2283: 2275: 2271: 2263: 2230: 2222: 2199: 2191: 2187: 2179: 2166: 2132: 2128: 2113: 2095: 2088: 2073: 2059: 2055: 2047: 2043: 2035: 2031: 2023: 2010: 2002: 1989: 1977: 1973: 1965: 1961: 1952: 1950: 1943: 1939: 1932: 1914: 1893: 1888: 1883: 1878: 1877: 1869: 1865: 1860: 1834:(同 = 丨+ 司) and 1823: 1791: 1743: 1686: 1615: 1613:Literary figure 1493: 1464:Book of Changes 1446:Book of History 1384: 1383: 1375: 1352: 1351: 1343: 1326: 1325: 1317: 1297: 1296: 1288: 1274: 1180: 1175: 1158: 1108: 1102: 1095: 1092: 1086: 1085: 1077: 1076: 1075: 1074: 1069: 1068: 1060: 1009: 957: 933:Ningyuan County 929:Jiuyi Mountains 907:site where the 839: 707: 703: 538: 502: 484: 260: 224: 206: 202: 75: 68: 62: 41: 34: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3094: 3084: 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