189:
29:
620:
1104:
1206:
414:
952:
1220:
479:
558:
204:
729:
hazards have increased in both number and magnitude due to climate change. Patterns of river discharge will also be significantly affected by climate change, which in turn will have significant impacts on communities that rely on water fed from alpine sources. Nearly half of mountain areas provide essential or supportive water resources for mainly urban populations, in particular during the dry season and in semiarid areas such as in central Asia.
350:
3382:
3365:
1234:
868:
3348:
748:
1131:
is the highest mountain on Earth, at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft). There are at least 100 mountains with heights of over 7,200 metres (23,622 ft) above sea level, all of which are located in central and southern Asia. The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the
242:
In the United
Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, a mountain is usually defined as any summit at least 2,000 feet (610 m) high, which accords with the official UK government's definition that a mountain, for the purposes of access, is a summit of 2,000 feet (610 m) or higher. In addition,
732:
Alpine ecosystems can be particularly climatically sensitive. Many mid-latitude mountains act as cold climate refugia, with the ecosystems occupying small environmental niches. As well as the direct influence that the change in climate can have on an ecosystem, there is also the indirect one on the
728:
Climate change has started to affect the physical and ecological systems of mountains. In recent decades mountain ice caps and glaciers have experienced accelerating ice loss. The melting of the glaciers, permafrost and snow has caused underlying surfaces to become increasingly unstable. Landslip
974:
of hiking, skiing, and climbing mountains. While mountaineering began as attempts to reach the highest point of unclimbed big mountains it has branched into specializations that address different aspects of the mountain and consists of three areas: rock-craft, snow-craft and skiing, depending on
879:
With limited access to infrastructure, only a handful of human communities exist above 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) of elevation. Many are small and have heavily specialized economies, often relying on industries such as agriculture, mining, and tourism. An example of such a specialized town is
720:
Mountain environments are particularly sensitive to anthropogenic climate change and are currently undergoing alterations unprecedented in last 10,000 years. The effect of global warming on mountain regions (relative to lowlands) is still an active area of study. Observational studies show that
762:
The colder climate on mountains affects the plants and animals residing on mountains. A particular set of plants and animals tend to be adapted to a relatively narrow range of climate. Thus, ecosystems tend to lie along elevation bands of roughly constant climate. This is called
334:
forces surface rock upward, creating a landform higher than the surrounding features. The height of the feature makes it either a hill or, if higher and steeper, a mountain. Major mountains tend to occur in long linear arcs, indicating tectonic plate boundaries and activity.
685:(5.5 °C per kilometre or 3 °F (1.7 °C) per 1000 feet) The actual lapse rate can vary by altitude and by location. Therefore, moving up 100 m (330 ft) on a mountain is roughly equivalent to moving 80 kilometres (45 miles or 0.75° of
827:
The highest known permanently tolerable altitude is at 5,950 metres (19,520 ft). At very high altitudes, the decreasing atmospheric pressure means that less oxygen is available for breathing, and there is less protection against solar radiation
860:. While 7% of the land area of Earth is above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft), only 140 million people live above that altitude and only 20-30 million people above 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) elevation. About half of mountain dwellers live in the
654:. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an
689:) towards the nearest pole. This relationship is only approximate, however, since local factors such as proximity to oceans (such as the Arctic Ocean) can drastically modify the climate. As the altitude increases, the main form of
2523:
Deline, Philip; Gruber, Stephan; Amann, Florian; Bodin, Xavier; et al. (2021). "Ice loss from glaciers and permafrost and related slope instability in high-mountain regions". In
Haeberli, Wilfried; Whiteman, Colin (eds.).
231:
a mountain is defined as "a natural elevation of the earth surface rising more or less abruptly from the surrounding level and attaining an altitude which, relatively to the adjacent elevation, is impressive or notable."
132:
of mountains: different elevations have different plants and animals. Because of the less hospitable terrain and climate, mountains tend to be used less for agriculture and more for resource extraction, such as
284:
Class 7: Isolated inner basins and plateaus less than 25 km (9.7 sq mi) in area that are completely surrounded by Class 1 to 6 mountains, but do not themselves meet criteria for Class 1 to 6
251:
defined a mountain as being 1,000 feet (305 m) or taller, but has abandoned the definition since the 1970s. Any similar landform lower than this height was considered a hill. However, today, the
1163:(4,169 m or 13,678 ft) is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about 2,000 sq mi or 5,200 km) and volume (about 18,000 cu mi or 75,000 km).
278:
Class 5: Elevation between 1,000 and 1,500 m (3,281 and 4,921 ft), with a slope greater than 5 degrees and/or 300 m (984 ft) elevation range within 7 km (4.3 mi).
507:
in the crust: a plane where rocks have moved past each other. When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the other, it can form a mountain. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or
770:
Some plants and animals found in altitudinal zones tend to become isolated since the conditions above and below a particular zone will be inhospitable and thus constrain their movements or
721:
highlands are warming faster than nearby lowlands, but when compared globally, the effect disappears. Precipitation in highland areas is not increasing as quickly as in lowland areas.
658:, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature dependence. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the
2192:
Ver
Straeten, Charles A. (July 2013). "Beneath it all: bedrock geology of the Catskill Mountains and implications of its weathering: Bedrock geology and weathering of the Catskills".
581:(water, wind, ice, and gravity) which gradually wear the uplifted area down. Erosion causes the surface of mountains to be younger than the rocks that form the mountains themselves.
767:. In regions with dry climates, the tendency of mountains to have higher precipitation as well as lower temperatures also provides for varying conditions, which enhances zonation.
708:
in 1947. Biotemperature is the mean temperature; all temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F) are considered to be 0 °C. When the temperature is below 0 °C, plants are
225:
There is no universally accepted definition of a mountain. Elevation, volume, relief, steepness, spacing and continuity have been used as criteria for defining a mountain. In the
289:
Using these definitions, mountains cover 33% of
Eurasia, 19% of South America, 24% of North America, and 14% of Africa. As a whole, 24% of the Earth's land mass is mountainous.
2958:
1865:
Geological evolution of the
Colorado Plateau of eastern Utah and western Colorado, including the San Juan River, Natural Bridges, Canyonlands, Arches, and the Book Cliffs
3252:
444:
of a much greater volume forced downward into the mantle. Thus the continental crust is normally much thicker under mountains, compared to lower lying areas. Rock can
3117:
1639:
647:
of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 K (60 °C; 140 °F), and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.
1730:
1144:
are possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this consideration
643:
hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the
1546:
1167:
is the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area (245 sq mi or 635 km) and volume (1,150 cu mi or 4,793 km).
926:
are fed from mountain sources, with snow acting as a storage mechanism for downstream users. More than half of humanity depends on mountains for water.
281:
Class 6: Elevation between 300 and 1,000 m (984 and 3,281 ft), with a 300 m (984 ft) elevation range within 7 km (4.3 mi).
1368:
650:
However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of
2352:
781:
Altitudinal zones tend to follow a typical pattern. At the highest elevations, trees cannot grow, and whatever life may be present will be of the
712:, so the exact temperature is unimportant. The peaks of mountains with permanent snow can have a biotemperature below 1.5 °C (34.7 °F).
391:
in the
Philippines. The magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create a mountain: magma that solidifies below ground can still form
97:, which act on time scales of up to tens of millions of years. Once mountain building ceases, mountains are slowly leveled through the action of
1890:"Diagnostic features and processes in the construction and evolution of Oman-, Zagros-, Himalayan-, Karakoram-, and Tibetan type orogenic belts"
1775:
3419:
2250:
3287:
1516:
165:
1668:
2984:
700:
The effect of the climate on the ecology at an elevation can be largely captured through a combination of amount of precipitation, and the
3312:
2565:
Viviroli, D; Kummu, M; Meybeck, M; Kallio, M; Wada, Y (2020). "Increasing dependence of lowland populations on mountain water resources".
2297:
1402:
832:). Above 8,000 metres (26,000 ft) elevation, there is not enough oxygen to support human life. This is sometimes referred to as the "
428:
Fold mountains occur when two plates collide: shortening occurs along thrust faults and the crust is overthickened. Since the less dense
3388:
2267:
2806:
2090:
Ziegler, P.A.; Dèzes, P. (July 2007). "Cenozoic uplift of
Variscan Massifs in the Alpine foreland: Timing and controlling mechanisms".
892:, at 4,150 metres (13,620 ft), which has a highly diverse service and manufacturing economy and a population of nearly 1 million.
3198:
3073:
2962:
239:
states "Some authorities regard eminences above 600 metres (1,969 ft) as mountains, those below being referred to as hills."
371:. At a depth of around 100 km (60 mi), melting occurs in rock above the slab (due to the addition of water), and forms
1952:
Hsü, Kenneth J.; Nachev, Ivan K.; Vuchev, Vassil T. (July 1977). "Geologic evolution of
Bulgaria in light of plate tectonics".
1194:, is another contender. Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 kilometres (6,600 ft) less than that of Everest.
3256:
3083:
2151:
1936:
1905:
1576:
1492:
1442:
1382:
1186:'s tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit of
805:
grow. In the temperate portions of the earth, those forests tend to be needleleaf trees, while in the tropics, they can be
2687:
3336:
3125:
2480:
822:
3412:
1872:
1646:
1348:
1178:
is not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several miles farther from the centre of the Earth. The summit of
1174:
The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because the
1599:
884:, a gold-mining town and the highest elevation human habitation at 5,100 metres (16,700 ft). A counterexample is
3233:
2732:
2541:
2507:
2039:
1847:
1812:
1467:
247:
requirement, such as that the mountain rises 300 metres (984 ft) above the surrounding terrain. At one time the
3240:
the base to peak rise of Denali is the largest of any mountain that lies entirely above sea level, some 18,000 feet.
2940:
662:, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometre (or 5.4 °F (3.0 °C) per 1000 feet) of altitude.
275:
Class 4: Elevation between 1,500 and 2,500 m (4,921 and 8,202 ft), with a slope greater than 2 degrees.
252:
1690:
4035:
2176:
1374:
1315:
248:
1538:
188:
28:
3405:
1307:
1257:
375:
that reaches the surface. When the magma reaches the surface, it often builds a volcanic mountain, such as a
725:
give mixed signals about whether a particular highland area will have increased or decreased precipitation.
180:
from its underwater base at 9,330 m (30,610 ft) and some scientists consider it to be the tallest on earth.
1669:"What is the difference between "mountain", "hill", and "peak"; "lake" and "pond"; or "river" and "creek?""
665:
The presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent
1737:
1252:
690:
2316:
3538:
987:. All require experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge of the terrain to maintain safety.
682:
259:
4040:
1768:
1098:
227:
20:
2856:
2239:
3279:
1487:. The Mountains of England & Wales. Vol. 2 (3rd ed.). Milnthorpe, Cumbria: Cicerone.
678:
536:
244:
1508:
539:
of
Western North America. These areas often occur when the regional stress is extensional and the
1247:
1026:
3302:
2988:
2922:
2724:
2714:
1398:
2720:
2301:
1987:
Becker, Arnfried (June 2000). "The Jura
Mountains — an active foreland fold-and-thrust belt?".
302:
172:
on Mars at 21,171 m (69,459 ft). The tallest mountain including submarine terrain is
1829:
3441:
2798:
2317:"The Holdridge Life Zones of the conterminous United States in relation to ecosystem mapping"
2275:
2023:
1889:
1800:
4008:
3844:
3139:
2650:
2574:
2435:
2328:
2099:
2064:
1996:
1961:
1303:
1179:
771:
764:
701:
666:
659:
316:
3190:
1839:
1833:
907:
supports mountain communities, with some intensive development around attractions such as
619:
8:
3733:
3566:
2315:
Lugo, Ariel E.; Brown, Sandra L.; Dodson, Rusty; Smith, Tom S.; Shugart, Hank H. (1999).
1336:
1175:
3099:
3010:
Kolossov, V (2005). "Border studies: changing perspectives and theoretical approaches".
2688:"Biotic Communities of the Colorado Plateau: C. Hart Merriam and the Life Zones Concept"
2654:
2578:
2439:
2332:
2103:
2068:
2000:
1965:
1171:
is the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area (120 sq mi or 311 km).
903:
being an important component of the economics of some montane societies. More recently,
856:
habitation than lowlands, because of harsh weather and little level ground suitable for
4030:
3175:
Wilhelm Eppacher (1957), Raimund Klebelsberg (ed.), "Berg- und Gipfelkreuze in Tirol",
3027:
2666:
2590:
2547:
2533:
2461:
2396:
2367:
2344:
2217:
2028:
1431:
1262:
1225:
934:
881:
298:
129:
82:
2008:
1687:"What is the difference between lake and pond; mountain and hill; or river and creek?"
1103:
3928:
3884:
3834:
3743:
3708:
3229:
3079:
3031:
2878:
2837:
2780:
2728:
2594:
2551:
2537:
2503:
2465:
2401:
2340:
2209:
2172:
2147:
2076:
2035:
1973:
1932:
1928:
1922:
1901:
1893:
1868:
1843:
1808:
1488:
1463:
1438:
1378:
1344:
1340:
1311:
1164:
1137:
1021:
is also held to be sacred with tens of thousands of Japanese ascending it each year.
655:
644:
494:
429:
368:
142:
2896:
2670:
2610:"Climate change impacts on the Alpine ecosystem: an overview with focus on the soil"
2348:
2221:
2111:
1148:(4,207 m (13,802 ft) above sea level) is the world's tallest mountain and
323:: when portions of the Earth's crust move, crumple, and dive. Compressional forces,
3963:
3859:
3728:
3660:
3054:
3019:
2868:
2829:
2772:
2658:
2621:
2582:
2529:
2451:
2443:
2391:
2381:
2336:
2201:
2107:
2072:
2004:
1969:
1614:
1211:
1014:
996:
722:
705:
640:
566:
528:
457:
433:
44:
1568:
235:
Whether a landform is called a mountain may depend on local usage. John Whittow's
3933:
3854:
3839:
3793:
3773:
3460:
2141:
1124:
916:
742:
540:
508:
504:
473:
396:
364:
320:
102:
673:
and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses (forming
3778:
3475:
3354:
2873:
2833:
1239:
1058:
976:
946:
806:
802:
782:
624:
614:
586:
461:
445:
436:
rocks beneath, the weight of any crustal material forced upward to form hills,
418:
413:
408:
388:
376:
219:
121:
86:
76:
3179:(in German), vol. 178, Innsbruck: Universitätsverlag Wagner, pp. 5–9
3058:
3023:
2776:
2641:
Daubenmire, R.F. (June 1943). "Vegetational Zonation in the Rocky Mountains".
2586:
2424:"Climate Changes and Their Elevational Patterns in the Mountains of the World"
1618:
951:
456:: in asymmetric folding there may also be recumbent and overturned folds. The
269:
Class 2: Elevation between 3,500 and 4,500 m (11,483 and 14,764 ft).
4024:
3864:
3698:
3397:
3157:
2855:
Cook, James D.; Boy, Erick; Flowers, Carol; del Carmen Daroca, Maria (2005).
1273:
1219:
1153:
1132:
surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, but
1128:
1078:
1054:
1022:
1010:
908:
837:
392:
380:
312:
272:
Class 3: Elevation between 2,500 and 3,500 m (8,202 and 11,483 ft).
153:
32:
1433:
Mountain Environments: An Examination of the Physical Geography of Mountains
1073:
goddesses Nanda and Sunanda; it has been off-limits to climbers since 1983.
3849:
3546:
2882:
2841:
2784:
2691:
2626:
2609:
2405:
2213:
1622:
1267:
1141:
1086:
1074:
896:
557:
532:
422:
331:
211:
169:
106:
1736:. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. Archived from
1191:
262:'s definition of "mountainous environment" includes any of the following:
164:, whose summit is 8,850 m (29,035 ft) above mean sea level. The
3628:
3623:
3586:
2447:
1367:
Cooke, Ronald U.; Cooke, Ronald Urwick; Warren, Andrew (1 January 1973).
1168:
1017:. In Japanese culture, the 3,776.24 m (12,389.2 ft) volcano of
956:
930:
912:
857:
829:
810:
524:
516:
203:
68:
3371:
2944:
2456:
2386:
895:
Traditional mountain societies rely on agriculture, with higher risk of
627:
at high latitude and elevation have an alpine climate and barren ground.
478:
255:
concludes that these terms do not have technical definitions in the US.
3829:
3748:
3576:
2662:
2205:
1729:
Blyth, S.; Groombridge, B.; Lysenko, I.; Miles, L.; Newton, A. (2002).
1066:
1050:
1018:
971:
833:
775:
756:
651:
384:
360:
353:
207:
192:
98:
1686:
577:
During and following uplift, mountains are subjected to the agents of
3983:
3874:
3824:
3783:
3693:
3650:
3513:
3492:
3280:"Using GIS to estimate the total volume of Mauna Loa Volcano, Hawaii"
2820:
Moore, Lorna G. (2001). "Human Genetic Adaptation to High Altitude".
1160:
1145:
798:
794:
790:
670:
636:
632:
602:
562:
520:
449:
349:
173:
157:
125:
94:
72:
2528:. Hazards and Disasters (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 501–540.
3943:
3907:
3897:
3788:
3432:
3225:
3045:
Van Houtum, H (2005). "The geopolitics of borders and boundaries".
2608:
Chersich, S; Rejšek, K; Vranová, V; Bordoni, M; Meisina, C (2015).
2422:
Pepin, NC; Arnone, E; Gobiet, A; Haslinger, K; et al. (2022).
2368:"Scientists' warning of the impacts of climate change on mountains"
1077:
is a sacred mountain, as it is believed to be the landing place of
1062:
1038:
1030:
1002:
709:
686:
486:
453:
441:
324:
3668:
1391:
899:
than at lower elevations. Minerals often occur in mountains, with
590:
3869:
3809:
3763:
3753:
3688:
3598:
3482:
2423:
2300:. The United Kingdom Environmental Change Network. Archived from
1183:
1149:
1046:
1042:
904:
889:
885:
867:
598:
582:
578:
570:
552:
437:
344:
327:
308:
199:, whose summit is the point farthest away from the Earth's center
196:
138:
114:
90:
52:
48:
2055:
Chorowicz, Jean (October 2005). "The East African rift system".
3993:
3978:
3973:
3938:
3912:
3892:
3814:
3768:
3758:
3673:
3645:
3635:
3613:
3556:
3528:
3523:
3497:
2854:
1133:
1006:
900:
872:
786:
594:
512:
497:
177:
146:
134:
128:
at similar latitude. These colder climates strongly affect the
56:
266:
Class 1: Elevation greater than 4,500 m (14,764 ft).
3968:
3958:
3948:
3819:
3738:
3718:
3683:
3678:
3640:
3618:
3603:
3593:
3571:
3551:
3518:
3487:
3455:
3428:
3330:
2372:
1159:
The highest mountains are not generally the most voluminous.
1070:
967:
963:
923:
861:
853:
801:
trees, which can withstand cold, dry conditions. Below that,
747:
674:
482:
372:
215:
110:
64:
2607:
1728:
1005:. There are for example a number of sacred mountains within
677:), and releases heat, which changes the lapse rate from the
3988:
3902:
3608:
3581:
3561:
3465:
2123:
2121:
1187:
1082:
980:
694:
490:
161:
60:
47:, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed
2564:
2421:
51:. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a
3953:
3723:
3307:
1867:. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. p. 430.
1640:"What is a "Mountain"? Mynydd Graig Goch and all that..."
1034:
984:
875:
reaches up to 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) in elevation.
752:
3222:
The Finest Peaks: Prominence and Other Mountain Measures
2752:. Microsoft Corporation. 2002 . 60210-442-1635445-74407.
2118:
1029:
of China, is considered to be sacred in four religions:
448:
either symmetrically or asymmetrically. The upfolds are
2763:
West, JB (2002). "Highest permanent human habitation".
1270: – Building in the mountains with food and shelter
1152:, rising about 10,203 m (33,474 ft) from the
841:
2522:
1896:; MP Carlson; JH McBride; JR Martinez Catalán (eds.).
1089:
are often erected on the tops of prominent mountains.
733:
soils from changes in stability and soil development.
605:, are formed from the erosion of an uplifted plateau.
2481:"Carbon Dioxide's Effect on Mountain Climate Systems"
2857:"The influence of high-altitude living on body iron"
2314:
2139:
1201:
2171:(2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. pp. 358–376.
847:
3118:"How Mount Fuji became Japan's most sacred symbol"
2941:"El Alto, Bolivia: A New World Out of Differences"
2526:Snow and Ice-Related Hazards, Risks, and Disasters
2500:Recent Climate Change Impacts on Mountain Glaciers
2027:
1430:
71:) above the surrounding land. A few mountains are
3191:"Nepal and China agree on Mount Everest's height"
2756:
1900:. Geological Society of America. pp. 41 ff.
774:. These isolated ecological systems are known as
4022:
3174:
1366:
669:. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes
631:Climate in the mountains becomes colder at high
1951:
3427:
2238:Goody, Richard M.; Walker, James C.G. (1972).
2233:
2231:
2160:
417:Illustration of mountains that developed on a
16:Large natural elevation of the Earth's surface
3413:
3255:. National Geographic Society. Archived from
3072:Cox, Steven M.; Fulsaas, Kris, eds. (2009) .
2146:(3rd ed.). Belmont: Thomson Books/Cole.
2140:Fraknoi, A.; Morrison, D.; Wolff, S. (2004).
1424:
1422:
1420:
990:
2191:
2089:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1324:
1123:Heights of mountains are typically measured
852:Mountains are generally less preferable for
511:. The intervening dropped blocks are termed
2237:
2228:
2133:
1920:
1805:Science matters: earth and beyond; module 4
1298:Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "Mountain".
1107:Everest is highest from sea level (green),
1053:are made up the 952 metres (3,123 ft)
1001:Mountains often play a significant role in
3420:
3406:
3071:
3044:
2682:
2680:
2640:
2194:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1807:. Pearson South Africa. 2002. p. 75.
1613:(1). Coleraine: University of Ulster: 89.
1417:
1293:
1291:
1289:
585:produce characteristic landforms, such as
3078:(7 ed.). Seattle: The Mountaineers.
2872:
2625:
2455:
2395:
2385:
2166:
2054:
1705:
307:There are three main types of mountains:
3300:
3168:
3075:Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills
3009:
2920:
2750:Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2003
2417:
2415:
1862:
1793:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1102:
950:
933:mountains are often seen as preferable "
866:
746:
618:
556:
477:
412:
348:
202:
187:
27:
3065:
2959:"International Year of Freshwater 2003"
2677:
2478:
1881:
1600:"Listing the Irish hills and mountains"
1482:
1457:
1437:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
1428:
1297:
1286:
816:
515:: these can be small or form extensive
4023:
3219:
3213:
2365:
1986:
1927:(4th ed.). W.H. Freeman. p.
1921:Press, Frank; Siever, Raymond (1985).
1887:
1597:
1539:"A Mountain is a Mountain – isn't it?"
1451:
962:Mountain climbing, or alpinism is the
3401:
3290:from the original on 25 January 2009.
2819:
2712:
2497:
2412:
2127:
1766:
1755:
1330:
361:a plate is pushed below another plate
168:on any planet in the Solar System is
120:High elevations on mountains produce
3337:
3315:from the original on 30 January 2013
3277:
3253:"Mountains: Highest Points on Earth"
3104:Sacred Sites: World Pilgrimage Guide
2762:
2021:
2015:
1838:. Thompson/Delmar Learning. p.
1827:
1821:
1579:from the original on 5 February 2013
1549:from the original on 8 February 2013
1405:from the original on 30 January 2013
1362:
1360:
2921:Finnegan, William (20 April 2015).
2791:
2716:The Great Southwest Nature Factbook
2355:from the original on 28 April 2013.
1519:from the original on 2 October 2013
1509:"Survey turns hill into a mountain"
823:List of highest cities in the world
59:area, and is usually higher than a
13:
2809:from the original on 18 June 2017.
2534:10.1016/B978-0-12-817129-5.00015-9
2479:Derouin, Sarah (7 November 2023).
2366:Knight, Jasper (24 October 2022).
2256:from the original on 29 July 2016.
1898:4-D framework of continental crust
1081:. In Europe and especially in the
467:
319:. All three types are formed from
14:
4052:
3301:Krulwich, Robert (7 April 2007).
3286:. Geological Society of America.
3201:from the original on 3 March 2012
3124:. 6 February 2019. Archived from
2057:Journal of African Earth Sciences
1483:Nuttall, John & Anne (2008).
1357:
975:whether the route chosen is over
940:
715:
402:
152:The highest mountain on Earth is
141:, along with recreation, such as
3380:
3363:
3346:
2341:10.1046/j.1365-2699.1999.00329.x
2077:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019
1781:from the original on 3 June 2012
1462:. London: Penguin. p. 352.
1460:Dictionary of Physical Geography
1232:
1218:
1204:
848:Mountain societies and economies
639:and convection. Sunlight in the
635:, due to an interaction between
464:are examples of fold mountains.
383:. Examples of volcanoes include
243:some definitions also include a
237:Dictionary of Physical Geography
109:, as well as through erosion by
63:, typically rising at least 300
3294:
3271:
3245:
3183:
3150:
3132:
3110:
3092:
3038:
3003:
2977:
2951:
2933:
2914:
2889:
2848:
2813:
2741:
2706:
2634:
2601:
2558:
2516:
2491:
2472:
2359:
2308:
2290:
2260:
2185:
2112:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.12.004
2083:
2048:
2030:CliffsQuickReview Earth Science
1980:
1945:
1914:
1856:
1693:from the original on 9 May 2013
1679:
1661:
1632:
1591:
1561:
1092:
3303:"The 'Highest' Spot on Earth?"
3144:Pilgrimage in Medieval Ireland
2167:Thornbury, William D. (1969).
1801:"Chapter 6: Mountain building"
1531:
1501:
1476:
1375:University of California Press
503:Block mountains are caused by
442:balanced by the buoyancy force
43:is an elevated portion of the
1:
2765:High Altitude Medical Biology
2009:10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00089-5
1399:"The 'Highest' Spot on Earth"
1308:American Geological Institute
1279:
1258:List of ski areas and resorts
1115:from Earth's axis (pink) and
919:live below the poverty line.
183:
1974:10.1016/0040-1951(77)90068-3
1830:"Chapter 8: Plate tectonics"
864:, Central Asia, and Africa.
338:
249:US Board on Geographic Names
7:
2298:"Factors affecting climate"
2169:Principles of geomorphology
2092:Global and Planetary Change
1253:List of peaks by prominence
1197:
218:, the highest point in the
10:
4057:
4006:
2874:10.1182/blood-2004-12-4782
2834:10.1089/152702901750265341
2268:"Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate"
2240:"Atmospheric Temperatures"
1888:Searle, Michael P (2007).
1119:from Earth's centre (blue)
1096:
994:
991:Mountains as sacred places
944:
820:
740:
736:
683:moist adiabatic lapse rate
612:
608:
550:
546:
489:, part of the fault-block
471:
406:
359:Volcanoes are formed when
342:
296:
292:
260:UN Environmental Programme
35:, Earth's highest mountain
18:
4002:
3921:
3883:
3802:
3707:
3659:
3537:
3506:
3448:
3439:
3059:10.1080/14650040500318522
3024:10.1080/14650040500318415
2805:. PBS. 24 February 1998.
2777:10.1089/15270290260512882
2587:10.1038/s41893-020-0559-9
1863:Fillmore, Robert (2010).
1619:10.1080/00750770109555778
1401:. Npr.org. 7 April 2007.
1331:Levin, Harold L. (2010).
1099:List of highest mountains
1013:which was held to be the
955:Mountaineers climbing in
228:Oxford English Dictionary
21:Mountain (disambiguation)
2985:"The Mountain Institute"
2799:"Everest:The Death Zone"
2713:Tweit, Susan J. (1992).
1835:Science of Earth Systems
1828:Butz, Stephen D (2004).
1573:dictionary.reference.com
1370:Geomorphology in Deserts
1111:from its base (orange),
697:and the winds increase.
679:dry adiabatic lapse rate
597:that can contain lakes.
537:Basin and Range Province
245:topographical prominence
2321:Journal of Biogeography
1248:List of mountain ranges
1069:is associated with the
1027:Tibet Autonomous Region
844:are in the death zone.
601:mountains, such as the
432:"floats" on the denser
2721:Alaska Northwest Books
2143:Voyages to the Planets
1598:Wilson, Peter (2001).
1458:Whittow, John (1984).
1429:Gerrard, A.J. (1990).
1333:The Earth Through Time
1120:
1117:Chimborazo is farthest
959:
876:
759:
628:
574:
519:systems. This form of
500:
452:and the downfolds are
425:
356:
303:List of mountain types
222:
200:
166:highest known mountain
36:
4036:Geography terminology
3220:Helman, Adam (2005).
2567:Nature Sustainability
2498:Pelto, Mauri (2016).
2428:Reviews of Geophysics
1894:Robert D. Hatcher Jr.
1190:'s tallest mountain,
1127:. Using this metric,
1106:
954:
870:
750:
622:
560:
481:
440:or mountains must be
416:
352:
206:
191:
31:
4009:Geographical feature
3845:Volcanic crater lake
2897:"Alps – The economy"
2627:10.17221/47/2015-JFS
2448:10.1029/2020RG000730
2022:Ryan, Scott (2006).
1673:US Geological Survey
1304:Alexandria, Virginia
1109:Mauna Kea is highest
937:" between polities.
922:Most of the world's
817:Mountains and humans
765:altitudinal zonation
667:heat of vaporization
660:adiabatic lapse rate
569:represent an eroded
253:US Geological Survey
83:Mountains are formed
75:, but most occur in
55:in having a limited
19:For other uses, see
3284:98th Annual Meeting
3278:Kaye, G.D. (2002).
3128:on 9 February 2019.
3122:National Geographic
2655:1943BotRv...9..325D
2579:2020NatSu...3..917V
2440:2022RvGeo..6000730P
2387:10.7717/peerj.14253
2333:1999JBiog..26.1025L
2130:, pp. 474–478.
2104:2007GPC....58..237Z
2069:2005JAfES..43..379C
2001:2000Tectp.321..381B
1966:1977Tectp..40..245H
1337:Hoboken, New Jersey
1300:Glossary of Geology
1176:figure of the Earth
1113:Cayambe is farthest
723:Climate simulations
105:and other forms of
2923:"Tears of the Sun"
2694:on 14 January 2013
2663:10.1007/BF02872481
2206:10.1111/nyas.12221
1263:Lists of mountains
1226:Environment portal
1121:
960:
935:natural boundaries
882:La Rinconada, Peru
877:
836:". The summits of
760:
704:, as described by
629:
593:, and bowl-shaped
575:
501:
426:
357:
299:Mountain formation
223:
201:
37:
4018:
4017:
3929:Artificial island
3835:Submarine volcano
3744:Continental shelf
3711:coastal landforms
3507:Continental plain
3442:List of landforms
3177:Schlern-Schriften
3164:. 11 August 2015.
3085:978-0-89886-828-9
2965:on 7 October 2006
2822:High Alt Med Biol
2249:. Prentice-Hall.
2153:978-0-534-39567-4
1938:978-0-7167-1743-0
1907:978-0-8137-1200-0
1494:978-1-85284-037-2
1444:978-0-262-07128-4
1384:978-0-520-02280-5
1165:Mount Kilimanjaro
1138:Mount Kilimanjaro
789:. Just below the
785:type, resembling
656:adiabatic process
645:greenhouse effect
583:Glacial processes
430:continental crust
330:and intrusion of
143:mountain climbing
4048:
3964:Land reclamation
3860:Volcanic plateau
3422:
3415:
3408:
3399:
3398:
3393:
3385:
3384:
3383:
3376:
3368:
3367:
3366:
3359:
3351:
3350:
3349:
3339:
3325:
3324:
3322:
3320:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3208:
3206:
3197:. 8 April 2010.
3187:
3181:
3180:
3172:
3166:
3165:
3162:Complete Pilgrim
3154:
3148:
3147:
3136:
3130:
3129:
3114:
3108:
3107:
3096:
3090:
3089:
3069:
3063:
3062:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2987:. Archived from
2981:
2975:
2974:
2972:
2970:
2961:. Archived from
2955:
2949:
2948:
2943:. Archived from
2937:
2931:
2930:
2918:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2893:
2887:
2886:
2876:
2867:(4): 1441–1446.
2852:
2846:
2845:
2817:
2811:
2810:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2760:
2754:
2753:
2745:
2739:
2738:
2710:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2699:
2690:. Archived from
2684:
2675:
2674:
2643:Botanical Review
2638:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2562:
2556:
2555:
2520:
2514:
2513:
2495:
2489:
2488:
2476:
2470:
2469:
2459:
2419:
2410:
2409:
2399:
2389:
2363:
2357:
2356:
2327:(5): 1025–1038.
2312:
2306:
2305:
2304:on 16 July 2011.
2294:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2274:. Archived from
2264:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2244:
2235:
2226:
2225:
2189:
2183:
2182:
2164:
2158:
2157:
2137:
2131:
2125:
2116:
2115:
2098:(1–4): 237–269.
2087:
2081:
2080:
2063:(1–3): 379–410.
2052:
2046:
2045:
2033:
2019:
2013:
2012:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1960:(3–4): 245–256.
1949:
1943:
1942:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1885:
1879:
1878:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1788:
1786:
1780:
1773:
1764:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1742:
1735:
1731:"Mountain Watch"
1726:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1656:
1654:
1649:on 30 March 2013
1645:. Archived from
1636:
1630:
1629:
1627:
1621:. Archived from
1604:
1595:
1589:
1588:
1586:
1584:
1565:
1559:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1543:www.go4awalk.com
1535:
1529:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1436:
1426:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1395:
1389:
1388:
1364:
1355:
1354:
1335:(9th ed.).
1328:
1322:
1321:
1302:(4th ed.).
1295:
1242:
1237:
1236:
1235:
1228:
1223:
1222:
1214:
1212:Mountains portal
1209:
1208:
1207:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1015:home of the gods
997:Sacred mountains
706:Leslie Holdridge
641:visible spectrum
567:Upstate New York
535:valley, and the
458:Balkan Mountains
73:isolated summits
4056:
4055:
4051:
4050:
4049:
4047:
4046:
4045:
4021:
4020:
4019:
4014:
4011:
3998:
3934:Artificial reef
3917:
3879:
3855:Volcanic island
3840:Volcanic crater
3798:
3794:Volcanic island
3774:Mid-ocean ridge
3710:
3703:
3655:
3533:
3502:
3444:
3435:
3426:
3396:
3392:from Wikisource
3386:
3381:
3379:
3369:
3364:
3362:
3352:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3338:sister projects
3335:at Knowledge's
3329:
3328:
3318:
3316:
3299:
3295:
3276:
3272:
3262:
3260:
3251:
3250:
3246:
3236:
3218:
3214:
3204:
3202:
3189:
3188:
3184:
3173:
3169:
3156:
3155:
3151:
3140:"Mount Brandon"
3138:
3137:
3133:
3116:
3115:
3111:
3098:
3097:
3093:
3086:
3070:
3066:
3043:
3039:
3008:
3004:
2994:
2992:
2983:
2982:
2978:
2968:
2966:
2957:
2956:
2952:
2947:on 16 May 2015.
2939:
2938:
2934:
2919:
2915:
2905:
2903:
2895:
2894:
2890:
2853:
2849:
2818:
2814:
2797:
2796:
2792:
2761:
2757:
2747:
2746:
2742:
2735:
2711:
2707:
2697:
2695:
2686:
2685:
2678:
2639:
2635:
2620:(11): 496–514.
2606:
2602:
2573:(11): 917–928.
2563:
2559:
2544:
2521:
2517:
2510:
2496:
2492:
2477:
2473:
2420:
2413:
2364:
2360:
2313:
2309:
2296:
2295:
2291:
2281:
2279:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2253:
2242:
2236:
2229:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2165:
2161:
2154:
2138:
2134:
2126:
2119:
2088:
2084:
2053:
2049:
2042:
2020:
2016:
1985:
1981:
1950:
1946:
1939:
1919:
1915:
1908:
1886:
1882:
1875:
1861:
1857:
1850:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1784:
1782:
1778:
1771:
1765:
1756:
1746:
1744:
1740:
1733:
1727:
1706:
1696:
1694:
1685:
1684:
1680:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1652:
1650:
1638:
1637:
1633:
1628:on 10 May 2013.
1625:
1607:Irish Geography
1602:
1596:
1592:
1582:
1580:
1567:
1566:
1562:
1552:
1550:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1522:
1520:
1507:
1506:
1502:
1495:
1481:
1477:
1470:
1456:
1452:
1445:
1427:
1418:
1408:
1406:
1397:
1396:
1392:
1385:
1365:
1358:
1351:
1329:
1325:
1318:
1296:
1287:
1282:
1238:
1233:
1231:
1224:
1217:
1210:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1125:above sea level
1116:
1112:
1108:
1101:
1095:
1059:Irish Catholics
999:
993:
949:
943:
917:mountain people
915:. About 80% of
850:
825:
819:
807:broadleaf trees
803:montane forests
793:, one may find
745:
743:Montane ecology
739:
718:
617:
611:
587:pyramidal peaks
555:
549:
523:can be seen in
476:
474:Block mountains
470:
468:Block mountains
411:
405:
397:Navajo Mountain
365:mid-ocean ridge
347:
341:
321:plate tectonics
305:
297:Main articles:
295:
186:
122:colder climates
87:tectonic forces
77:mountain ranges
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4054:
4044:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4016:
4015:
4013:
4012:
4003:
4000:
3999:
3997:
3996:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3925:
3923:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3889:
3887:
3881:
3880:
3878:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3806:
3804:
3800:
3799:
3797:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3779:Oceanic trench
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3715:
3713:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3671:
3665:
3663:
3657:
3656:
3654:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3626:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3590:
3589:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3543:
3541:
3535:
3534:
3532:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3510:
3508:
3504:
3503:
3501:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3479:
3478:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3452:
3450:
3446:
3445:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3425:
3424:
3417:
3410:
3402:
3395:
3394:
3377:
3375:from Wikiquote
3360:
3331:
3327:
3326:
3293:
3270:
3259:on 3 July 2010
3244:
3234:
3212:
3182:
3167:
3149:
3146:. 6 June 2016.
3131:
3109:
3091:
3084:
3064:
3053:(4): 672–679.
3037:
3018:(4): 606–632.
3002:
2991:on 9 July 2006
2976:
2950:
2932:
2927:The New Yorker
2913:
2888:
2847:
2828:(2): 257–279.
2812:
2790:
2771:(4): 401–407.
2755:
2740:
2733:
2705:
2676:
2649:(6): 325–393.
2633:
2600:
2557:
2542:
2515:
2508:
2490:
2471:
2411:
2358:
2307:
2289:
2278:on 3 June 2016
2259:
2227:
2184:
2177:
2159:
2152:
2132:
2117:
2082:
2047:
2040:
2014:
1995:(4): 381–406.
1989:Tectonophysics
1979:
1954:Tectonophysics
1944:
1937:
1913:
1906:
1880:
1874:978-1607810049
1873:
1855:
1848:
1820:
1813:
1792:
1767:Panos (2002).
1754:
1743:on 11 May 2008
1704:
1678:
1660:
1631:
1590:
1560:
1530:
1500:
1493:
1475:
1468:
1450:
1443:
1416:
1390:
1383:
1356:
1350:978-0470387740
1349:
1343:. p. 83.
1323:
1316:
1284:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1277:
1276:
1271:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1244:
1243:
1240:Ecology portal
1229:
1215:
1199:
1196:
1097:Main article:
1094:
1091:
1087:summit crosses
995:Main article:
992:
989:
947:Mountaineering
945:Main article:
942:
941:Mountaineering
939:
909:national parks
849:
846:
818:
815:
741:Main article:
738:
735:
717:
716:Climate change
714:
702:biotemperature
625:northern Urals
615:Alpine climate
613:Main article:
610:
607:
551:Main article:
548:
545:
483:Pirin Mountain
472:Main article:
469:
466:
462:Jura Mountains
421:that has been
409:Fold mountains
407:Main article:
404:
403:Fold mountains
401:
393:dome mountains
389:Mount Pinatubo
377:shield volcano
343:Main article:
340:
337:
332:igneous matter
294:
291:
287:
286:
282:
279:
276:
273:
270:
267:
220:European Union
185:
182:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4053:
4042:
4041:Earth's crust
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4028:
4026:
4010:
4005:
4004:
4001:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3982:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3926:
3924:
3920:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3890:
3888:
3886:
3882:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3865:Volcanic plug
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3807:
3805:
3801:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3712:
3706:
3700:
3699:Tunnel valley
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3658:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3621:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3588:
3585:
3584:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3544:
3542:
3540:
3536:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3509:
3505:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3477:
3474:
3473:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3453:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3423:
3418:
3416:
3411:
3409:
3404:
3403:
3400:
3391:
3390:
3378:
3374:
3373:
3361:
3357:
3356:
3344:
3343:
3340:
3334:
3314:
3310:
3309:
3304:
3297:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3274:
3258:
3254:
3248:
3241:
3237:
3235:1-4122-3664-9
3231:
3228:. p. 9.
3227:
3223:
3216:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3186:
3178:
3171:
3163:
3159:
3153:
3145:
3141:
3135:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3113:
3105:
3101:
3100:"Mt. Olympus"
3095:
3087:
3081:
3077:
3076:
3068:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3041:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3006:
2990:
2986:
2980:
2964:
2960:
2954:
2946:
2942:
2936:
2928:
2924:
2917:
2902:
2898:
2892:
2884:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2851:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2816:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2794:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2759:
2751:
2744:
2736:
2734:0-88240-434-2
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2717:
2709:
2693:
2689:
2683:
2681:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2637:
2628:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2604:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2561:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2543:9780128171295
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2519:
2511:
2509:9781119068143
2505:
2501:
2494:
2486:
2482:
2475:
2467:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2418:
2416:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2374:
2369:
2362:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2311:
2303:
2299:
2293:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2263:
2252:
2248:
2241:
2234:
2232:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2188:
2180:
2174:
2170:
2163:
2155:
2149:
2145:
2144:
2136:
2129:
2124:
2122:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2086:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2051:
2043:
2041:0-471-78937-2
2037:
2032:
2031:
2025:
2024:"Figure 13-1"
2018:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1948:
1940:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1925:
1917:
1909:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1884:
1876:
1870:
1866:
1859:
1851:
1849:0-7668-3391-7
1845:
1841:
1837:
1836:
1831:
1824:
1816:
1814:0-7986-6059-7
1810:
1806:
1802:
1796:
1777:
1770:
1769:"High Stakes"
1763:
1761:
1759:
1739:
1732:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1692:
1688:
1682:
1674:
1670:
1664:
1648:
1644:
1641:
1635:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1601:
1594:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1564:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1534:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1496:
1490:
1486:
1479:
1471:
1469:0-14-051094-X
1465:
1461:
1454:
1446:
1440:
1435:
1434:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1404:
1400:
1394:
1386:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1363:
1361:
1352:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1327:
1319:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1285:
1275:
1274:Seven Summits
1272:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1245:
1241:
1230:
1227:
1221:
1216:
1213:
1202:
1195:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1172:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1157:
1155:
1154:Pacific Ocean
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1130:
1129:Mount Everest
1126:
1105:
1100:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1055:Mount Brandon
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1023:Mount Kailash
1020:
1016:
1012:
1011:Mount Olympus
1008:
1004:
998:
988:
986:
982:
978:
973:
969:
965:
958:
953:
948:
938:
936:
932:
927:
925:
920:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
893:
891:
887:
883:
874:
869:
865:
863:
859:
855:
845:
843:
839:
838:Mount Everest
835:
831:
824:
814:
812:
809:growing in a
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
779:
777:
773:
768:
766:
758:
754:
749:
744:
734:
730:
726:
724:
713:
711:
707:
703:
698:
696:
692:
691:precipitation
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
663:
661:
657:
653:
648:
646:
642:
638:
634:
626:
621:
616:
606:
604:
600:
596:
592:
589:, knife-edge
588:
584:
580:
572:
568:
564:
559:
554:
544:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
499:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
475:
465:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
424:
420:
415:
410:
400:
398:
394:
390:
387:in Japan and
386:
382:
381:stratovolcano
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
355:
351:
346:
336:
333:
329:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
304:
300:
290:
283:
280:
277:
274:
271:
268:
265:
264:
263:
261:
256:
254:
250:
246:
240:
238:
233:
230:
229:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
198:
194:
190:
181:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
154:Mount Everest
150:
148:
144:
140:
136:
131:
127:
123:
118:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
45:Earth's crust
42:
34:
33:Mount Everest
30:
26:
22:
3850:Volcanic dam
3547:Alluvial fan
3470:
3387:
3370:
3358:from Commons
3353:
3332:
3317:. Retrieved
3306:
3296:
3283:
3273:
3263:19 September
3261:. Retrieved
3257:the original
3247:
3239:
3221:
3215:
3203:. Retrieved
3194:
3185:
3176:
3170:
3161:
3158:"Nanda Devi"
3152:
3143:
3134:
3126:the original
3121:
3112:
3103:
3094:
3074:
3067:
3050:
3046:
3040:
3015:
3011:
3005:
2993:. Retrieved
2989:the original
2979:
2967:. Retrieved
2963:the original
2953:
2945:the original
2935:
2926:
2916:
2904:. Retrieved
2900:
2891:
2864:
2860:
2850:
2825:
2821:
2815:
2802:
2793:
2768:
2764:
2758:
2749:
2743:
2715:
2708:
2696:. Retrieved
2692:the original
2646:
2642:
2636:
2617:
2613:
2603:
2570:
2566:
2560:
2525:
2518:
2499:
2493:
2484:
2474:
2457:2318/1842344
2431:
2427:
2377:
2371:
2361:
2324:
2320:
2310:
2302:the original
2292:
2280:. Retrieved
2276:the original
2271:
2262:
2246:
2197:
2193:
2187:
2168:
2162:
2142:
2135:
2095:
2091:
2085:
2060:
2056:
2050:
2029:
2017:
1992:
1988:
1982:
1957:
1953:
1947:
1923:
1916:
1897:
1883:
1864:
1858:
1834:
1823:
1804:
1795:
1783:. Retrieved
1745:. Retrieved
1738:the original
1695:. Retrieved
1681:
1672:
1663:
1651:. Retrieved
1647:the original
1643:Metric Views
1642:
1634:
1623:the original
1610:
1606:
1593:
1581:. Retrieved
1572:
1563:
1551:. Retrieved
1542:
1533:
1521:. Retrieved
1512:
1503:
1484:
1478:
1459:
1453:
1432:
1407:. Retrieved
1393:
1369:
1332:
1326:
1299:
1268:Mountain hut
1173:
1158:
1142:Nanga Parbat
1122:
1093:Superlatives
1075:Mount Ararat
1000:
961:
928:
921:
897:crop failure
894:
878:
871:The city of
851:
826:
780:
769:
761:
731:
727:
719:
699:
664:
649:
630:
576:
543:is thinned.
502:
427:
358:
354:Fuji volcano
306:
288:
257:
241:
236:
234:
226:
224:
212:Aosta Valley
170:Olympus Mons
151:
119:
107:mass wasting
81:
40:
38:
25:
3709:Oceanic and
3449:Mountainous
3047:Geopolitics
3012:Geopolitics
2723:. pp.
2614:J. For. Sci
2247:Atmospheres
1785:17 February
1747:17 February
1697:11 February
1169:Mount Logan
1051:pilgrimages
957:South Tyrol
931:geopolitics
913:ski resorts
858:agriculture
811:rain forest
797:forests of
776:sky islands
525:East Africa
517:rift valley
399:in the US.
4025:Categories
4007:See also:
3922:Artificial
3830:Lava field
3749:Coral reef
3577:Floodplain
3372:Quotations
2995:7 December
2969:7 December
2901:Britannica
2698:30 January
2380:: e14253.
2178:0471861979
2128:Levin 2010
1653:3 February
1583:3 February
1569:"mountain"
1553:3 February
1523:3 February
1317:0922152349
1280:References
1180:Chimborazo
1079:Noah's Ark
1067:Nanda Devi
1019:Mount Fuji
972:profession
834:death zone
821:See also:
799:needleleaf
757:Swiss Alps
751:An alpine
652:convection
633:elevations
450:anticlines
395:, such as
385:Mount Fuji
363:, or at a
285:mountains.
208:Mont Blanc
193:Chimborazo
184:Definition
130:ecosystems
101:, through
99:weathering
67:(980
4031:Mountains
3984:Reservoir
3875:Wall rock
3825:Lava dome
3784:Peninsula
3694:Ice field
3651:Waterfall
3514:Ice sheet
3493:Tableland
3433:landforms
3205:22 August
3032:143213848
2595:220375949
2552:234301790
2502:. Wiley.
2466:247008935
2034:. Wiley.
1192:Huascarán
1161:Mauna Loa
1146:Mauna Kea
1063:Himalayan
1025:, in the
795:subalpine
791:tree line
772:dispersal
671:saturated
637:radiation
603:Catskills
563:Catskills
521:landscape
454:synclines
339:Volcanoes
325:isostatic
174:Mauna Kea
158:Himalayas
126:sea level
95:volcanism
3944:Building
3908:Sandhill
3898:Dry lake
3803:Volcanic
3789:Seamount
3471:Mountain
3333:Mountain
3319:21 March
3313:Archived
3288:Archived
3226:Trafford
3199:Archived
3195:BBC News
2883:15870179
2842:11443005
2807:Archived
2785:12631426
2748:"Tree".
2671:10413001
2406:36312749
2353:Archived
2349:11733879
2272:tpub.com
2251:Archived
2222:19940868
2214:23895551
2200:: 1–29.
1776:Archived
1691:Archived
1689:. USGS.
1577:Archived
1547:Archived
1517:Archived
1513:BBC News
1403:Archived
1198:See also
1065:peak of
1039:Buddhism
1031:Hinduism
1009:such as
1003:religion
693:becomes
687:latitude
487:Bulgaria
460:and the
438:plateaus
309:volcanic
124:than at
115:glaciers
103:slumping
85:through
41:mountain
3885:Aeolian
3870:Volcano
3810:Caldera
3764:Isthmus
3754:Estuary
3734:Channel
3689:Glacier
3661:Glacial
3599:Meander
3567:Channel
3539:Fluvial
3483:Plateau
2906:13 July
2725:209–210
2651:Bibcode
2575:Bibcode
2436:Bibcode
2397:9610668
2329:Bibcode
2100:Bibcode
2065:Bibcode
1997:Bibcode
1962:Bibcode
1485:England
1409:31 July
1184:Ecuador
1156:floor.
1150:volcano
1047:Ireland
1043:Jainism
905:tourism
890:Bolivia
886:El Alto
755:in the
737:Ecology
710:dormant
681:to the
609:Climate
599:Plateau
595:cirques
579:erosion
571:plateau
553:Erosion
547:Erosion
495:Rhodope
369:hotspot
345:Volcano
293:Geology
197:Ecuador
156:in the
139:logging
91:erosion
53:plateau
49:bedrock
3994:Tunnel
3979:Quarry
3974:Polder
3939:Bridge
3913:Tundra
3893:Desert
3815:Geyser
3769:Lagoon
3759:Island
3674:Cirque
3646:Valley
3636:Strait
3614:Rapids
3587:island
3557:Canyon
3529:Tundra
3524:Steppe
3498:Valley
3232:
3082:
3030:
2881:
2840:
2783:
2731:
2669:
2593:
2550:
2540:
2506:
2464:
2404:
2394:
2347:
2220:
2212:
2175:
2150:
2038:
1935:
1904:
1871:
1846:
1811:
1491:
1466:
1441:
1381:
1347:
1314:
1134:Denali
1061:. The
1041:, and
1007:Greece
924:rivers
901:mining
873:La Paz
787:tundra
783:alpine
675:clouds
591:arêtes
529:Vosges
527:, the
513:graben
509:horsts
505:faults
498:massif
434:mantle
423:thrust
328:uplift
315:, and
178:Hawaii
147:skiing
135:mining
111:rivers
65:metres
57:summit
3969:Levee
3959:Ditch
3949:Canal
3820:Guyot
3739:Coast
3719:Atoll
3684:Fjord
3679:Esker
3669:Arête
3641:Swamp
3629:mouth
3624:delta
3619:River
3604:Oasis
3594:Levee
3572:Cliff
3552:Beach
3519:Plain
3488:Ridge
3476:range
3456:Butte
3429:Earth
3389:Texts
3355:Media
3028:S2CID
2861:Blood
2667:S2CID
2591:S2CID
2548:S2CID
2462:S2CID
2434:(1).
2373:PeerJ
2345:S2CID
2282:2 May
2254:(PDF)
2243:(PDF)
2218:S2CID
1924:Earth
1892:. In
1779:(PDF)
1772:(PDF)
1741:(PDF)
1734:(PDF)
1626:(PDF)
1603:(PDF)
1341:Wiley
1071:Hindu
1045:. In
968:hobby
964:sport
862:Andes
854:human
541:crust
533:Rhine
379:or a
373:magma
317:block
216:Italy
93:, or
3989:Road
3903:Dune
3729:Cape
3609:Pond
3582:Lake
3562:Cave
3466:Hill
3461:Flat
3321:2009
3265:2010
3230:ISBN
3207:2010
3080:ISBN
2997:2006
2971:2006
2908:2022
2879:PMID
2838:PMID
2803:Nova
2781:PMID
2729:ISBN
2700:2010
2538:ISBN
2504:ISBN
2402:PMID
2284:2016
2210:PMID
2198:1298
2173:ISBN
2148:ISBN
2036:ISBN
1933:ISBN
1902:ISBN
1869:ISBN
1844:ISBN
1809:ISBN
1787:2009
1749:2009
1699:2013
1655:2013
1585:2013
1555:2013
1525:2013
1489:ISBN
1464:ISBN
1439:ISBN
1411:2012
1379:ISBN
1345:ISBN
1312:ISBN
1188:Peru
1140:and
1083:Alps
981:snow
977:rock
840:and
753:mire
695:snow
623:The
561:The
531:and
491:Rila
446:fold
419:fold
313:fold
301:and
258:The
162:Asia
145:and
137:and
113:and
61:hill
3954:Dam
3724:Bay
3431:'s
3308:NPR
3055:doi
3020:doi
2869:doi
2865:106
2830:doi
2773:doi
2659:doi
2622:doi
2583:doi
2530:doi
2485:Eos
2452:hdl
2444:doi
2392:PMC
2382:doi
2337:doi
2202:doi
2108:doi
2073:doi
2005:doi
1993:321
1970:doi
1929:413
1840:136
1615:doi
1057:by
1035:Bon
985:ice
983:or
970:or
929:In
911:or
565:in
367:or
210:in
176:in
160:of
4027::
3311:.
3305:.
3282:.
3238:.
3224:.
3193:.
3160:.
3142:.
3120:.
3102:.
3051:10
3049:.
3026:.
3016:10
3014:.
2925:.
2899:.
2877:.
2863:.
2859:.
2836:.
2824:.
2801:.
2779:.
2767:.
2727:.
2719:.
2679:^
2665:.
2657:.
2645:.
2618:61
2616:.
2612:.
2589:.
2581:.
2569:.
2546:.
2536:.
2483:.
2460:.
2450:.
2442:.
2432:60
2430:.
2426:.
2414:^
2400:.
2390:.
2378:10
2376:.
2370:.
2351:.
2343:.
2335:.
2325:26
2323:.
2319:.
2270:.
2245:.
2230:^
2216:.
2208:.
2196:.
2120:^
2106:.
2096:58
2094:.
2071:.
2061:43
2059:.
2026:.
2003:.
1991:.
1968:.
1958:40
1956:.
1931:.
1842:.
1832:.
1803:.
1774:.
1757:^
1707:^
1671:.
1611:34
1609:.
1605:.
1575:.
1571:.
1545:.
1541:.
1515:.
1511:.
1419:^
1377:.
1373:.
1359:^
1339::
1310:.
1306::
1288:^
1182:,
1136:,
1085:,
1049:,
1037:,
1033:,
979:,
966:,
888:,
842:K2
830:UV
813:.
778:.
485:,
311:,
214:,
195:,
149:.
117:.
89:,
79:.
69:ft
39:A
3421:e
3414:t
3407:v
3341::
3323:.
3267:.
3209:.
3106:.
3088:.
3061:.
3057::
3034:.
3022::
2999:.
2973:.
2929:.
2910:.
2885:.
2871::
2844:.
2832::
2826:2
2787:.
2775::
2769:3
2737:.
2702:.
2673:.
2661::
2653::
2647:9
2630:.
2624::
2597:.
2585::
2577::
2571:3
2554:.
2532::
2512:.
2487:.
2468:.
2454::
2446::
2438::
2408:.
2384::
2339::
2331::
2286:.
2224:.
2204::
2181:.
2156:.
2114:.
2110::
2102::
2079:.
2075::
2067::
2044:.
2011:.
2007::
1999::
1976:.
1972::
1964::
1941:.
1910:.
1877:.
1852:.
1817:.
1789:.
1751:.
1701:.
1675:.
1657:.
1617::
1587:.
1557:.
1527:.
1497:.
1472:.
1447:.
1413:.
1387:.
1353:.
1320:.
828:(
573:.
493:-
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
