Glacier - Knowledge

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sediments, or if it'll be able to slide. A soft bed, with high porosity and low pore fluid pressure, allows the glacier to move by sediment sliding: the base of the glacier may even remain frozen to the bed, where the underlying sediment slips underneath it like a tube of toothpaste. A hard bed cannot deform in this way; therefore the only way for hard-based glaciers to move is by basal sliding, where meltwater forms between the ice and the bed itself. Whether a bed is hard or soft depends on the porosity and pore pressure; higher porosity decreases the sediment strength (thus increases the shear stress τ

703:. The equilibrium line separates the ablation zone and the accumulation zone; it is the contour where the amount of new snow gained by accumulation is equal to the amount of ice lost through ablation. In general, the accumulation zone accounts for 60–70% of the glacier's surface area, more if the glacier calves icebergs. Ice in the accumulation zone is deep enough to exert a downward force that erodes underlying rock. After a glacier melts, it often leaves behind a bowl- or amphitheater-shaped depression that ranges in size from large basins like the Great Lakes to smaller mountain depressions known as 1706: 1052: 2112: 1290: 7850: 927: 1591: 652:(granular snow). Further crushing of the individual snowflakes and squeezing the air from the snow turns it into "glacial ice". This glacial ice will fill the cirque until it "overflows" through a geological weakness or vacancy, such as a gap between two mountains. When the mass of snow and ice reaches sufficient thickness, it begins to move by a combination of surface slope, gravity, and pressure. On steeper slopes, this can occur with as little as 15 m (49 ft) of snow-ice. 2014: 68: 1209: 36: 1124: 1951: 1869: 1541: 7802: 6509: 6497: 1004: 968: 683: 554: 1756: 2066: 1662: 7824: 419: 6533: 6521: 1197:

conductance, meaning that the basal temperature is also likely to be higher. Bed temperature tends to vary in a cyclic fashion. A cool bed has a high strength, reducing the speed of the glacier. This increases the rate of accumulation, since newly fallen snow is not transported away. Consequently, the glacier thickens, with three consequences: firstly, the bed is better insulated, allowing greater retention of geothermal heat.

763: 1321: 1469: 7813: 1681:, a non-sorted mixture of rock, gravel, and boulders within a matrix of fine powdery material. Terminal or end moraines are formed at the foot or terminal end of a glacier. Lateral moraines are formed on the sides of the glacier. Medial moraines are formed when two different glaciers merge and the lateral moraines of each coalesce to form a moraine in the middle of the combined glacier. Less apparent are 1075:; the resulting shape change reorganises blocks. This reorganises closely packed blocks (a little like neatly folded, tightly packed clothes in a suitcase) into a messy jumble (just as clothes never fit back in when thrown in in a disordered fashion). This increases the porosity. Unless water is added, this will necessarily reduce the pore pressure (as the pore fluids have more space to occupy). 1205:

glaciers are known to reach velocities of up to a kilometre per year. Eventually, the ice will be surging fast enough that it begins to thin, as accumulation cannot keep up with the transport. This thinning will increase the conductive heat loss, slowing the glacier and causing freezing. This freezing will slow the glacier further, often until it is stationary, whence the cycle can begin again.

775:(98 ft) thick to even start flowing, but once its thickness exceeds about 50 m (160 ft) (160 ft), stress on the layer above will exceeds the inter-layer binding strength, and then it'll move faster than the layer below. This means that small amounts of stress can result in a large amount of strain, causing the deformation to become a 1747:; it is estimated to contain about 10,000 drumlins. Although the process that forms drumlins is not fully understood, their shape implies that they are products of the plastic deformation zone of ancient glaciers. It is believed that many drumlins were formed when glaciers advanced over and altered the deposits of earlier glaciers. 2093:. It occurs where previously compressed rock is allowed to return to its original shape more rapidly than can be maintained without faulting. This leads to an effect similar to what would be seen if the rock were hit by a large hammer. Dilation faulting can be observed in recently de-glaciated parts of Iceland and Cumbria. 659:. Under the pressure of the layers of ice and snow above it, this granular ice fuses into denser firn. Over a period of years, layers of firn undergo further compaction and become glacial ice. Glacier ice is slightly more dense than ice formed from frozen water because glacier ice contains fewer trapped air bubbles. 1860:". These are small lakes formed when large ice blocks that are trapped in alluvium melt and produce water-filled depressions. Kettle diameters range from 5 m to 13 km, with depths of up to 45 meters. Most are circular in shape because the blocks of ice that formed them were rounded as they melted. 2164:

system, the spacecraft discovered a massive basin covered in a layer of nitrogen ice on Pluto. A large portion of the basin's surface is divided into irregular polygonal features separated by narrow troughs, interpreted as convection cells fuelled by internal heat from Pluto's interior. Glacial flows

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whose progressively deep layers represent respectively earlier times in Earth's climate history. The researchers apply various instruments to the content of bubbles trapped in the cores' layers in order to track changes in the atmosphere's composition. Temperatures are deduced from differing relative

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or "sheepback" rock. Roches moutonnées may be elongated, rounded and asymmetrical in shape. They range in length from less than a meter to several hundred meters long. Roches moutonnées have a gentle slope on their up-glacier sides and a steep to vertical face on their down-glacier sides. The glacier

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As glaciers flow over bedrock, they soften and lift blocks of rock into the ice. This process, called plucking, is caused by subglacial water that penetrates fractures in the bedrock and subsequently freezes and expands. This expansion causes the ice to act as a lever that loosens the rock by lifting

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The flow of water under the glacial surface can have a large effect on the motion of the glacier itself. Subglacial lakes contain significant amounts of water, which can move fast: cubic kilometres can be transported between lakes over the course of a couple of years. This motion is thought to occur

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and the internal deformation of ice. At the molecular level, ice consists of stacked layers of molecules with relatively weak bonds between layers. When the amount of strain (deformation) is proportional to the stress being applied, ice will act as an elastic solid. Ice needs to be at least 30 m

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In addition to the dry, unglaciated polar regions, some mountains and volcanoes in Bolivia, Chile and Argentina are high (4,500 to 6,900 m or 14,800 to 22,600 ft) and cold, but the relative lack of precipitation prevents snow from accumulating into glaciers. This is because these peaks are

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Ogives or Forbes bands are alternating wave crests and valleys that appear as dark and light bands of ice on glacier surfaces. They are linked to seasonal motion of glaciers; the width of one dark and one light band generally equals the annual movement of the glacier. Ogives are formed when ice from

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show geologic evidence of glacial deposits. The south polar cap is especially comparable to glaciers on Earth. Topographical features and computer models indicate the existence of more glaciers in Mars' past. At mid-latitudes, between 35° and 65° north or south, Martian glaciers are affected by the

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terms a "slow onset" event. Impacts at least partially attributable to sea level rise include for example encroachment on coastal settlements and infrastructure, existential threats to small islands and low-lying coasts, losses of coastal ecosystems and ecosystem services, groundwater salinization,

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At the start of a classic valley glacier is a bowl-shaped cirque, which have escarped walls on three sides but is open on the side that descends into the valley. Cirques are where ice begins to accumulate in a glacier. Two glacial cirques may form back to back and erode their backwalls until only a

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Crevasses can form in several different ways. Transverse crevasses are transverse to flow and form where steeper slopes cause a glacier to accelerate. Longitudinal crevasses form semi-parallel to flow where a glacier expands laterally. Marginal crevasses form near the edge of the glacier, caused by

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Although evidence in favor of glacial flow was known by the early 19th century, other theories of glacial motion were advanced, such as the idea that meltwater, refreezing inside glaciers, caused the glacier to dilate and extend its length. As it became clear that glaciers behaved to some degree as

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Large masses, such as ice sheets or glaciers, can depress the crust of the Earth into the mantle. The depression usually totals a third of the ice sheet or glacier's thickness. After the ice sheet or glacier melts, the mantle begins to flow back to its original position, pushing the crust back up.

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Mean glacial speed varies greatly but is typically around 1 m (3 ft) per day. There may be no motion in stagnant areas; for example, in parts of Alaska, trees can establish themselves on surface sediment deposits. In other cases, glaciers can move as fast as 20–30 m (70–100 ft)

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in Greenland peaks every year in July, August, and September and increased rapidly in the 1990s and 2000s. In a study using data from January 1993 through October 2005, more events were detected every year since 2002, and twice as many events were recorded in 2005 as there were in any other year.

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is increased. These factors will combine to accelerate the glacier. As friction increases with the square of velocity, faster motion will greatly increase frictional heating, with ensuing melting – which causes a positive feedback, increasing ice speed to a faster flow rate still: west Antarctic

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When the bedrock has frequent fractures on the surface, glacial erosion rates tend to increase as plucking is the main erosive force on the surface; when the bedrock has wide gaps between sporadic fractures, however, abrasion tends to be the dominant erosive form and glacial erosion rates become

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The presence of basal meltwater depends on both bed temperature and other factors. For instance, the melting point of water decreases under pressure, meaning that water melts at a lower temperature under thicker glaciers. This acts as a "double whammy", because thicker glaciers have a lower heat

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forces cause them to break apart, opening a crevasse. Crevasses are seldom more than 46 m (150 ft) deep but, in some cases, can be at least 300 m (1,000 ft) deep. Beneath this point, the plasticity of the ice prevents the formation of cracks. Intersecting crevasses can create

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The lowest velocities are near the base of the glacier and along valley sides where friction acts against flow, causing the most deformation. Velocity increases inward toward the center line and upward, as the amount of deformation decreases. The highest flow velocities are found at the surface,

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protrude from their surfaces. The only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of Antarctica and Greenland. They contain vast quantities of freshwater, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 m (230 ft). Portions of an ice sheet or cap that extend into

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have lost ice every year since 1988. A study that investigated the period 1995 to 2022 showed that the flow velocity of glaciers in the Alps accelerates and slows down to a similar extent at the same time, despite large distances. This clearly shows that their speed is controlled by the climate

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involves motion of water in a thin layer. A switch between the two flow conditions may be associated with surging behaviour. Indeed, the loss of sub-glacial water supply has been linked with the shut-down of ice movement in the Kamb ice stream. The subglacial motion of water is expressed in the

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Most of the important processes controlling glacial motion occur in the ice-bed contact—even though it is only a few meters thick. The bed's temperature, roughness and softness define basal shear stress, which in turn defines whether movement of the glacier will be accommodated by motion in the

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Kellerer-Pirklbauer, Andreas; Bodin, Xavier; Delaloye, Reynald; Lambiel, Christophe; Gärtner-Roer, Isabelle; Bonnefoy-Demongeot, Mylène; Carturan, Luca; Damm, Bodo; Eulenstein, Julia; Fischer, Andrea; Hartl, Lea; Ikeda, Atsushi; Kaufmann, Viktor; Krainer, Karl; Matsuoka, Norikazu (2024-03-01).

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Bed softness may vary in space or time, and changes dramatically from glacier to glacier. An important factor is the underlying geology; glacial speeds tend to differ more when they change bedrock than when the gradient changes. Further, bed roughness can also act to slow glacial motion. The

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and is made up of rock grains between 0.002 and 0.00625 mm in size. Abrasion leads to steeper valley walls and mountain slopes in alpine settings, which can cause avalanches and rock slides, which add even more material to the glacier. Glacial abrasion is commonly characterized by

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As the water that rises from the ablation zone moves away from the glacier, it carries fine eroded sediments with it. As the speed of the water decreases, so does its capacity to carry objects in suspension. The water thus gradually deposits the sediment as it runs, creating an

1265:. These glaciers exhibit normal movement until suddenly they accelerate, then return to their previous movement state. These surges may be caused by the failure of the underlying bedrock, the pooling of meltwater at the base of the glacier — perhaps delivered from a 942:

Because ice can flow faster where it is thicker, the rate of glacier-induced erosion is directly proportional to the thickness of overlying ice. Consequently, pre-glacial low hollows will be deepened and pre-existing topography will be amplified by glacial action, while

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The overhanging icefront of the advancing Webber Glacier with waterfalls (Borup Fiord area, Northern Ellesmere Island) on July 20, 1978. Debris rich layers have been sheared and folded into the basal cold glacier ice. The glacier front is 6 km broad and up to 40 m

1269: — or the simple accumulation of mass beyond a critical "tipping point". Temporary rates up to 90 m (300 ft) per day have occurred when increased temperature or overlying pressure caused bottom ice to melt and water to accumulate beneath a glacier. 334:, because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue. The other reason for the blue color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a white color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the created ice's density. 1078:

Pressure may cause compaction and consolidation of underlying sediments. Since water is relatively incompressible, this is easier when the pore space is filled with vapour; any water must be removed to permit compression. In soils, this is an irreversible

1904:. Eskers are composed of sand and gravel that was deposited by meltwater streams that flowed through ice tunnels within or beneath a glacier. They remain after the ice melts, with heights exceeding 100 meters and lengths of as long as 100 km. 1629:

slow. Glaciers in lower latitudes tend to be much more erosive than glaciers in higher latitudes, because they have more meltwater reaching the glacial base and facilitate sediment production and transport under the same moving speed and amount of ice.

2040:, rising temperatures increase glacier melt, exposing more of earth's land and sea surface (which is darker than glacier ice), allowing sunlight to warm the surface rather than being reflected back into space. Reference glaciers tracked by the 2375:

Brown, Molly Elizabeth; Ouyang, Hua; Habib, Shahid; Shrestha, Basanta; Shrestha, Mandira; Panday, Prajjwal; Tzortziou, Maria; Policelli, Frederick; Artan, Guleid; Giriraj, Amarnath; Bajracharya, Sagar R.; Racoviteanu, Adina (November 2010).

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glacial valley or glacial trough, as it is sometimes called. The erosion that creates glacial valleys truncates any spurs of rock or earth that may have earlier extended across the valley, creating broadly triangular-shaped cliffs called

1583:. Glaciers produce these when they contain large boulders that carve long scratches in the bedrock. By mapping the direction of the striations, researchers can determine the direction of the glacier's movement. Similar to striations are 295:

that is especially important for plants, animals and human uses when other sources may be scant. However, within high-altitude and Antarctic environments, the seasonal temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater.

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Sediment degradation by abrasion and fracture decreases the size of particles, which tends to decrease pore space. However, the motion of the particles may disorder the sediment, with the opposite effect. These processes also generate

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Glaciers are broken into zones based on surface snowpack and melt conditions. The ablation zone is the region where there is a net loss in glacier mass. The upper part of a glacier, where accumulation exceeds ablation, is called the

1653:". They range in size from pebbles to boulders, but as they are often moved great distances, they may be drastically different from the material upon which they are found. Patterns of glacial erratics hint at past glacial motions. 1103:) can affect the friction between the glacier and the bed. High fluid pressure provides a buoyancy force upwards on the glacier, reducing the friction at its base. The fluid pressure is compared to the ice overburden pressure, p 259:

has more glacial ice than any other country outside the polar regions. Glaciers cover about 10% of Earth's land surface. Continental glaciers cover nearly 13 million km (5 million sq mi) or about 98% of

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includes both temperate and polar ice, depending on the depth beneath the surface and position along the length of the glacier. In a similar way, the thermal regime of a glacier is often described by its basal temperature. A

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are asymmetrical, canoe-shaped hills made mainly of till. Their heights vary from 15 to 50 meters, and they can reach a kilometer in length. The steepest side of the hill faces the direction from which the ice advanced

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if the ice were a viscous fluid, it was argued that "regelation", or the melting and refreezing of ice at a temperature lowered by the pressure on the ice inside the glacier, was what allowed the ice to deform and flow.

2764:. A Proceedings Volume of the Fifth Annual Geomorphology Symposia Series, held at Binghamton, New York, September 26–28, 1974. Binghamton, NY, State University of New York, pp. 41–87. (Publications in Geomorphology)) 1250:. Friction makes the ice at the bottom of the glacier move more slowly than ice at the top. In alpine glaciers, friction is also generated at the valley's sidewalls, which slows the edges relative to the center. 4287: 1587:, lines of crescent-shape depressions in the rock underlying a glacier. They are formed by abrasion when boulders in the glacier are repeatedly caught and released as they are dragged along the bedrock. 735:

or observing terminus behavior. Healthy glaciers have large accumulation zones, more than 60% of their area is snow-covered at the end of the melt season, and they have a terminus with a vigorous flow.

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Abrasion occurs when the ice and its load of rock fragments slide over bedrock and function as sandpaper, smoothing and polishing the bedrock below. The pulverized rock this process produces is called

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Based on current national pledges, global average temperature increase is projected to cause loss of ~half of Earth's glaciers by 2100 and raise sea level by ~115 mm (not counting rise from melting

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the reduction in speed caused by friction of the valley walls. Marginal crevasses are largely transverse to flow. Moving glacier ice can sometimes separate from the stagnant ice above, forming a

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Koppes, Michéle; Hallet, Bernard; Rignot, Eric; Mouginot, Jérémie; Wellner, Julia Smith; Boldt, Katherine (2015). "Observed latitudinal variations in erosion as a function of glacier dynamics".

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where glaciers cannot form because they receive little snowfall despite the bitter cold. Cold air, unlike warm air, is unable to transport much water vapor. Even during glacial periods of the

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A less-technical treatment of all aspects, with photographs and firsthand accounts of glaciologists' experiences. All images of this book can be found online (see Weblinks: Glaciers-online)

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and space for snow accumulation in the winter, which in turn creates a ridge. Sometimes ogives consist only of undulations or color bands and are described as wave ogives or band ogives.

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Below the equilibrium line, glacial meltwater is concentrated in stream channels. Meltwater can pool in proglacial lakes on top of a glacier or descend into the depths of a glacier via

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The permanent snow cover necessary for glacier formation is affected by factors such as the degree of slope on the land, amount of snowfall and the winds. Glaciers can be found in all

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reach above 6,500 m (21,330 ft). Between 19˚N and 19˚S, however, precipitation is higher, and the mountains above 5,000 m (16,400 ft) usually have permanent snow.

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island territories. Extensive glaciers are found in Antarctica, Argentina, Chile, Canada, Pakistan, Alaska, Greenland and Iceland. Mountain glaciers are widespread, especially in the

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Near the equilibrium line on some glaciers, a superimposed ice zone develops. This zone is where meltwater refreezes as a cold layer in the glacier, forming a continuous mass of ice.

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With 7,253 known glaciers, including 543 in the Chitral Valley, there is more glacial ice in Pakistan than anywhere on Earth outside the polar regions, according to various studies.

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Davies, Damon; Bingham, Robert G.; King, Edward C.; Smith, Andrew M.; Brisbourne, Alex M.; Spagnolo, Matteo; Graham, Alastair G. C.; Hogg, Anna E.; Vaughan, David G. (4 May 2018).

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roughness of the bed is a measure of how many boulders and obstacles protrude into the overlying ice. Ice flows around these obstacles by melting under the high pressure on their

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Wendleder, Anna; Bramboeck, Jasmin; Izzard, Jamie; Erbertseder, Thilo; d'Angelo, Pablo; Schmitt, Andreas; Quincey, Duncan J.; Mayer, Christoph; Braun, Matthias H. (5 March 2024).

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The stress–strain relationship of plastic flow (teal section): a small increase in stress creates an exponentially greater increase in strain, which equates to deformation speed.

747:. A slight cooling led to the advance of many alpine glaciers between 1950 and 1985, but since 1985 glacier retreat and mass loss has become larger and increasingly ubiquitous. 4483:

Holt, J. et al. 2008. Radar Sounding Evidence for Ice within Lobate Debris Aprons near Hellas Basin, Mid-Southern Latitudes of Mars. Lunar and Planetary Science XXXIX. 2441.pdf

1697:. In modern geology, the term is used more broadly and is applied to a series of formations, all of which are composed of till. Moraines can also create moraine-dammed lakes. 2329: 1032:. Bergschrunds resemble crevasses but are singular features at a glacier's margins. Crevasses make travel over glaciers hazardous, especially when they are hidden by fragile 6233: 1639:: material directly deposited from glacial ice. Till includes a mixture of undifferentiated material ranging from clay size to boulders, the usual composition of a moraine. 947:, which protrude above ice sheets, barely erode at all – erosion has been estimated as 5 m per 1.2 million years. This explains, for example, the deep profile of 590:

is above or at freezing at the interface and is able to slide at this contact. This contrast is thought to a large extent to govern the ability of a glacier to effectively

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also have huge expanses of continental glaciers. The volume of glaciers, not including the ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland, has been estimated at 170,000 km.

4954: 387:, meaning "ice". The processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial. The process of glacier establishment, growth and flow is called 1632:

Material that becomes incorporated in a glacier is typically carried as far as the zone of ablation before being deposited. Glacial deposits are of two distinct types:

851: 541:. Most tidewater glaciers calve above sea level, which often results in a tremendous impact as the iceberg strikes the water. Tidewater glaciers undergo centuries-long 1242:

The formation of supraglacial lakes at Baltoro Glacier in April 2018 (top) had substantially accelerated its melting and motion in the following summer months (bottom)

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Glaciers, which can be hundreds of thousands of years old, are used to track climate change over long periods of time. Researchers melt or crush samples from glacier

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created by meltwater. When the glacial ice occupies a valley, it can form terraces or kames along the sides of the valley. Long, sinuous glacial deposits are called

1258:. Glacial speed is affected by factors such as slope, ice thickness, snowfall, longitudinal confinement, basal temperature, meltwater production, and bed hardness. 991:

develop in the fracture zone. Crevasses form because of differences in glacier velocity. If two rigid sections of a glacier move at different speeds or directions,

6077: 1151:. The more variable the amount of melting at surface of the glacier, the faster the ice will flow. Basal sliding is dominant in temperate or warm-based glaciers. 648:) – which collects and compresses through gravity the snow that falls into it. This snow accumulates and the weight of the snow falling above compacts it, forming 920: 897: 200:, as it slowly flows and deforms under stresses induced by its weight. As it moves, it abrades rock and debris from its substrate to create landforms such as 6250: 1831:

abrades the smooth slope on the upstream side as it flows along, but tears rock fragments loose and carries them away from the downstream side via plucking.

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Glaciers are present on every continent and in approximately fifty countries, excluding those (Australia, South Africa) that have glaciers only on distant

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Very fine glacial sediments or rock flour is often picked up by wind blowing over the bare surface and may be deposited great distances from the original

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Plaut, J. et al. 2008. Radar Evidence for Ice in Lobate Debris Aprons in the Mid-Northern Latitudes of Mars. Lunar and Planetary Science XXXIX. 2290.pdf

2286: 184:) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving downhill under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its 5681: 4156: 1876:

When a glacier's size shrinks below a critical point, its flow stops and it becomes stationary. Meanwhile, meltwater within and beneath the ice leaves

4303:"Acceleration and interannual variability of creep rates in mountain permafrost landforms (rock glacier velocities) in the European Alps in 1995–2022" 5549: 3903:

Dühnforth, Miriam; Anderson, Robert S.; Ward, Dylan; Stock, Greg M. (2010-05-01). "Bedrock fracture control of glacial erosion processes and rates".

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Kessler, Mark A.; Anderson, Robert S.; Briner, Jason P. (2008). "Fjord insertion into continental margins driven by topographic steering of ice".

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are formed by the deposition of material from a glacier and are exposed after the glacier has retreated. They usually appear as linear mounds of

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The percolation zone is an area with some surface melt, causing meltwater to percolate into the snowpack. This zone is often marked by refrozen

3696: 2820: 2475: 264:'s 13.2 million km (5.1 million sq mi), with an average thickness of ice 2,100 m (7,000 ft). Greenland and 5195: 3327:

Fricker, A.; Scambos, T.; Bindschadler, R.; Padman, L. (Mar 2007). "An Active Subglacial Water System in West Antarctica Mapped from Space".

2529: 2500: 5428: 4945: 1043:. Streams within or beneath a glacier flow in englacial or sub-glacial tunnels. These tunnels sometimes reemerge at the glacier's surface. 75:

contains more glacial ice than any other country on earth outside the polar regions. At 62 kilometres (39 mi) in length, the pictured

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is of French origin. It was coined by peasants to describe alluvial embankments and rims found near the margins of glaciers in the French

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of 41°46′09″ N is the southernmost glacial mass in Europe. Mainland Australia currently contains no glaciers, although a small glacier on

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Lorrain, Reginald D.; Fitzsimons, Sean J. (2011). "Cold-Based Glaciers". In Singh, Vijay P.; Singh, Pratap; Haritashya, Umesh K. (eds.).

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and moves mostly as a single unit over the plastic-flowing lower section. When a glacier moves through irregular terrain, cracks called

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The wet snow zone is the region where all of the snow deposited since the end of the previous summer has been raised to 0 °C.

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mode of the water molecule. (Liquid water appears blue for the same reason. The blue of glacier ice is sometimes misattributed to

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McKinnon, W. B.; et al. (1 June 2016). "Convection in a volatile nitrogen-ice-rich layer drives Pluto's geological vigour".

4280:. World Glacier Monitoring Service ("under the auspices of: ISC (WDS), IUGG (IACS), UN environment, UNESCO, WMO"). January 2023. 1987:

concentrations of respective gases, confirming that for at least the last million years, global temperatures have been linked to

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it. Thus, sediments of all sizes become part of the glacier's load. If a retreating glacier gains enough debris, it may become a

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rather than elastic. Then, the glacier will begin to deform under its own weight and flow across the landscape. According to the

3729: 1894:. Some kames form when meltwater deposits sediments through openings in the interior of the ice. Others are produced by fans or 5786: 5749: 5603: 5588: 5507: 5156: 5100: 4351: 3435: 1107:, given by ρgh. Under fast-flowing ice streams, these two pressures will be approximately equal, with an effective pressure (p 3798: 2337: 6445: 5583: 4834: 4789: 4757: 4730: 4703: 4675: 4628: 4390: 3595: 3255: 2943: 2742: 2438: 2269: 959:

came up with the essentially correct explanation in the 1840s, although it was several decades before it was fully accepted.

4497: 2586: 2078:, which proceeds very slowly after the melting of the ice sheet or glacier, is currently occurring in measurable amounts in 6467: 5423: 5418: 4905: 4465:

Head, J. et al. 2005. Tropical to mid-latitude snow and ice accumulation, flow and glaciation on Mars. Nature: 434. 346–350

487:; they tend to be thin with limited slopes and reduced velocities. Narrow, fast-moving sections of an ice sheet are called 4415:, Third International Conference on Mars Polar Science and Exploration, Alberta, Canada, October 13–17, 2003 (pdf 970 Kb)" 5948: 5726: 5544: 5476: 5466: 5449: 5356: 5163: 5481: 2139:. As on Earth, many glaciers are covered with a layer of rocks which insulates the ice. A radar instrument on board the 6571: 6377: 6238: 6195: 5691: 1115:) of 30 kPa; i.e. all of the weight of the ice is supported by the underlying water, and the glacier is afloat. 6304: 6180: 5997: 5200: 4009: 2702: 2594: 2316: 1965: 7176: 6537: 6175: 6155: 6102: 6054: 5116: 4281: 2041: 1994:

Human activities in the industrial era have increased the concentration of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping

6294: 6245: 5671: 5633: 5578: 5048: 3507: 1767:, produced by eroding water. During glaciation, these valleys are often widened, deepened and smoothed to form a 2131:

thin Martian atmosphere. Because of the low atmospheric pressure, ablation near the surface is solely caused by

610: 212:. Although a glacier may flow into a body of water, it forms only on land and is distinct from the much thinner 6826: 6362: 5646: 5403: 4901: 3479:"The Brúarjökull Project: Sedimentary environments of a surging glacier. The Brúarjökull Project research idea" 2612:

Bindschadler, R.A.; Scambos, T.A. (1991). "Satellite-image-derived velocity field of an Antarctic ice stream".

2132: 1940: 1713:, Wisconsin, in an area with one of the highest concentration of drumlins in the world. The curved path of the 744: 312: 4202: 7209: 6472: 6007: 5539: 783:, the relationship between stress and strain, and thus the rate of internal flow, can be modeled as follows: 534: 530: 6455: 6127: 5656: 5651: 5556: 5433: 4990: 4174: 2854: 789: 7259: 4959: 1399:. Oceanic islands with glaciers include Iceland, several of the islands off the coast of Norway including 1023:

impede flow. In this case, the impediment appears to be some distance from the near margin of the glacier.

351: 6806: 5666: 5519: 2673: 2140: 691:

A glacier originates at a location called its glacier head and terminates at its glacier foot, snout, or

300: 1689:, which often blankets the surface underneath the glacier downslope from the equilibrium line. The term 598:

at rock from the surface below. Glaciers which are partly cold-based and partly warm-based are known as

7840: 6745: 6525: 6289: 6092: 6049: 5822: 5744: 5598: 4922: 3099: 1823:

Passage of glacial ice over an area of bedrock may cause the rock to be sculpted into a knoll called a

1454:

except from 20° to 27° north and south of the equator where the presence of the descending limb of the

644:) – a typically armchair-shaped geological feature (such as a depression between mountains enclosed by 3540: 2165:

were also observed near Sputnik Planitia's margins, appearing to flow both into and out of the basin.

1776:. Within glacial valleys, depressions created by plucking and abrasion can be filled by lakes, called 1127:

A cross-section through a glacier. The base of the glacier is more transparent as a result of melting.

7606: 6394: 6069: 6044: 6017: 5979: 5896: 5714: 5561: 5524: 5274: 5043: 5038: 5033: 3830: 3238:

Boulton, Geoffrey S. (2006). "Glaciers and their Coupling with Hydraulic and Sedimentary Processes".

2119: 2003: 714:

The dry snow zone is a region where no melt occurs, even in the summer, and the snowpack remains dry.

5909: 3705: 1276:

occur. These are large scale earthquakes that have seismic magnitudes as high as 6.1. The number of

513:

are glaciers that terminate in the sea, including most glaciers flowing from Greenland, Antarctica,

7885: 6781: 6404: 6399: 6389: 6330: 6170: 5676: 5641: 5534: 5461: 5302: 5131: 5067: 5028: 2824: 2669: 2479: 2291: 1924: 1238: 627: 17: 4083:

Rounce, David R.; Hock, Regine; Maussion, Fabien; Hugonnet, Romain; et al. (5 January 2023).

2504: 1416: 7361: 6831: 6513: 6435: 6345: 6087: 6059: 5739: 5398: 5376: 4983: 4969: 2898: 2525: 2037: 1615:

Shape, abundance and hardness of rock fragments contained in the ice at the bottom of the glacier

1302:

an icefall is severely broken up, increasing ablation surface area during summer. This creates a

1055:

Erosion rates of subglacial sediment caused by the motion of different glaciers across the world

542: 509: 275:

on Earth, holding with ice sheets about 69 percent of the world's freshwater. Many glaciers from

586:

is below freezing at the ice-ground interface and is thus frozen to the underlying substrate. A

7880: 7415: 7091: 6740: 6564: 6112: 5932: 5874: 5791: 5776: 5661: 5307: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 4219:

Wunderling, Nico; Willeit, Matteo; Donges, Jonathan F.; Winkelmann, Ricarda (27 October 2020).

2374: 1352: 1040: 835: 320: 24: 4445: 4302: 3869: 3674: 2767: 1019:); such crevasses often form near the edge of a glacier where interactions with underlying or 7114: 6821: 6501: 6147: 6024: 5832: 5292: 5215: 4501: 4446:"Martian glaciers: did they originate from the atmosphere? ESA Mars Express, 20 January 2006" 4001: 3886: 3884: 3698:

Retreat of the Irian Jaya Glaciers from 2000 to 2002 as Measured from IKONOS Satellite Images

2806:

Benson, C.S., 1961, "Stratigraphic studies in the snow and firn of the Greenland Ice Sheet",

2694: 1956: 1705: 1666: 1552: 1051: 858: 780: 667: 619: 595: 2524: 2057:

and compounding damage from tropical cyclones, flooding, storm surges, and land subsidence.

655:

In temperate glaciers, snow repeatedly freezes and thaws, changing into granular ice called

7816: 7697: 7249: 6857: 6340: 6218: 5879: 5454: 5381: 4876: 4651: 4541: 4314: 4232: 4096: 4050: 3959: 3914: 3455: 3399: 3336: 3280: 3217: 3205: 3133: 3063: 3028: 3000: 2978:

Easterbrook, Don J., Surface Processes and Landforms, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1999

2863: 2623: 2111: 2075: 1714: 776: 732: 7823: 7254: 4410: 4064: 4016: 3881: 2845:

Paul, Frank; Kääb, Andreas; Maisch, Max; Kellenberger, Tobias; Haeberli, Wilfried (2004).

573:

is always below the freezing threshold from the surface to its base, although the surface

8: 7870: 7702: 7051: 6878: 6796: 6357: 6132: 5366: 5361: 2228: 2144: 1744: 1649:

Larger pieces of rock that are encrusted in till or deposited on the surface are called "

1489: 1380: 1289: 904: 881: 671: 465:. Ice caps have an area less than 50,000 km (19,000 sq mi) by definition. 231:

on every continent other than the Australian mainland, including Oceania's high-latitude

4545: 4318: 4236: 4100: 3963: 3918: 3403: 3340: 3284: 3209: 3137: 3067: 3032: 3004: 2867: 2846: 2627: 2017: 1255: 930:

Differential erosion enhances relief, as clear in this incredibly steep-sided Norwegian

7805: 7340: 6883: 6680: 6185: 6117: 6034: 5884: 5849: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5371: 4849:

A comprehensive reference on the physical principles underlying formation and behavior.

4565: 4531: 4413:

Martian Polar Ice Sheets and Mid-Latitude Debris-Rich Glaciers, and Terrestrial Analogs

4253: 4220: 4178: 4157:"Climate at the core: how scientists study ice cores to reveal Earth's climate history" 4130: 3983: 3368: 3304: 2949: 2647: 2409: 2192: 1959:

in Washington photographs from 1928 to 2003 showing the recent rapid glacier retreating

1568: 1556: 1545: 1455: 1396: 1348: 1277: 1273: 956: 413: 327: 6978: 4084: 3754: 2089:

A geomorphological feature created by the same process on a smaller scale is known as

1825: 569:

is at a melting point throughout the year, from its surface to its base. The ice of a

437:

form on the crests and slopes of mountains. A glacier that fills a valley is called a

7875: 7202: 7166: 7129: 6953: 6670: 6557: 6419: 6082: 5827: 5593: 5386: 5349: 5136: 5090: 4840: 4830: 4795: 4785: 4763: 4753: 4736: 4726: 4709: 4699: 4681: 4671: 4624: 4557: 4386: 4330: 4258: 4170: 4134: 4122: 3975: 3930: 3905: 3780: 3733: 3591: 3360: 3352: 3296: 3251: 2953: 2939: 2738: 2639: 2614: 2598: 2434: 2428: 2413: 2394: 2377: 2312: 2265: 2233: 2115: 2033: 1881: 1857: 1580: 1516:, though extraordinarily cold, had such light snowfall that glaciers could not form. 1388: 1266: 1089: 700: 430:

Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior.

423: 276: 4865: 4569: 3372: 2651: 662:

Glacial ice has a distinctive blue tint because it absorbs some red light due to an

7854: 7581: 7171: 7071: 6968: 6898: 6760: 6639: 6462: 6029: 6012: 5953: 5844: 5608: 5332: 5205: 5141: 4884: 4549: 4493: 4322: 4248: 4240: 4112: 4104: 3987: 3967: 3950: 3922: 3855: 3802: 3551: 3522: 3407: 3344: 3308: 3288: 3243: 3213: 3151: 3141: 3071: 3036: 3008: 2931: 2871: 2757: 2730: 2631: 2399: 2389: 2174: 2106: 2102: 1917: 1885: 1777: 1376: 1315: 1303: 1225:

involves liquid water moving through pipe-like conduits, like a sub-glacial river;

692: 526: 522: 131: 96: 90: 4085:"Global glacier change in the 21st century: Every increase in temperature matters" 2378:"HIMALA: Climate Impacts on Glaciers, Snow, and Hydrology in the Himalayan Region" 1230:

surface topography of ice sheets, which slump down into vacated subglacial lakes.

979:

The top 50 m (160 ft) of a glacier are rigid because they are under low

7231: 7066: 7041: 6923: 6836: 6725: 6414: 6335: 6299: 6228: 6202: 6190: 6107: 6039: 5914: 5771: 5393: 5344: 5322: 3547: 3514: 3465: 2734: 2729:. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer Netherlands. pp. 157–161. 2635: 2186: 1923:

deposits may be very deep, even hundreds of meters, as in areas of China and the

1773: 1768: 1764: 1650: 1513: 1509: 1428: 1344: 1262: 1148: 992: 718: 591: 292: 287:

store water as ice during the colder seasons and release it later in the form of

125: 76: 3611: 2224:"Pakistan has more glaciers than almost anywhere on Earth. But they are at risk" 7786: 7776: 7586: 7008: 6958: 6943: 6816: 6801: 6730: 6715: 6649: 6634: 6367: 6223: 6165: 6160: 6002: 5891: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5471: 5408: 5146: 5126: 5085: 5006: 4933: 4826: 4778: 4664: 4326: 4244: 3478: 3271:

Schoof, C. (2010). "Ice-sheet acceleration driven by melt supply variability".

2786: 2454: 2180: 2049: 1999: 1995: 1988: 1928: 1856:. Outwash plains and valley trains are usually accompanied by basins known as " 1841: 1808: 1792: 1682: 1524: 1444: 1012: 740: 388: 331: 316: 280: 232: 228: 3247: 3076: 3055: 2935: 2021: 1072: 468:

Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km (19,000 sq mi) are called

185: 52: 7864: 7601: 7553: 7538: 7406: 7139: 7081: 7061: 7056: 7003: 6998: 6983: 6928: 6811: 6786: 6665: 6440: 6372: 6097: 5919: 5904: 5839: 5734: 4818: 4334: 3934: 3587: 3356: 2237: 2161: 2065: 1804: 1735: 1710: 1590: 1440: 1420: 1408: 1200:

Secondly, the increased pressure can facilitate melting. Most importantly, τ

1132: 1016: 514: 502: 284: 6873: 4888: 4799: 4767: 4740: 4713: 4685: 4346: 4344: 4169:

Reviewed by Erich Osterberg and David Anderson. Applied instruments include

4108: 3526: 3412: 3388:"Velocity variations and hydrological drainage at Baltoro Glacier, Pakistan" 3387: 3348: 3146: 3121: 2404: 7611: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7411: 7381: 7195: 7019: 6948: 6705: 6700: 6644: 6325: 6122: 5766: 5756: 5413: 5297: 5210: 4561: 4396: 4262: 4126: 3979: 3784: 3364: 3300: 2643: 2152: 2013: 1877: 1812: 1584: 1564: 1493: 1485: 1412: 1332: 1294: 1140: 615: 518: 355: 224: 67: 4964: 4938: 4221:"Global warming due to loss of large ice masses and Arctic summer sea ice" 1480:

Even at high latitudes, glacier formation is not inevitable. Areas of the

1092:; the resultant meltwater is then forced into the cavity arising in their 926: 7781: 7687: 7571: 7543: 7533: 7528: 7466: 7451: 7436: 7421: 7345: 7309: 7134: 7013: 6993: 6988: 6973: 6933: 6791: 6675: 6352: 5869: 5861: 5121: 4844: 4341: 3555: 2876: 2083: 2079: 1895: 1392: 1384: 1324: 1213: 1208: 1136: 1033: 1029: 489: 484: 308: 304: 272: 236: 35: 7717: 4553: 4498:"Pluto updates from AGU and DPS: Pretty pictures from a confusing world" 4277: 4117: 3971: 3292: 3092:"Moulin 'Blanc': NASA Expedition Probes Deep Within a Greenland Glacier" 2810:, U.S. Army Snow, Ice and Permafrost Res Establ., Corps of Eng., 120 pp. 1750: 1272:

In glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one km per year,

1123: 721:, glands, and layers. The snowpack also never reaches the melting point. 478:. Several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only 7771: 7651: 7636: 7596: 7591: 7471: 7446: 7396: 7371: 7275: 7161: 7144: 7124: 7076: 6710: 6624: 6384: 5761: 4872: 4647: 4299: 3508:"Seasonality and Increasing Frequency of Greenland Glacial Earthquakes" 2007: 1950: 1575: 1497: 1459: 1003: 558: 498: 396: 392: 366: 261: 248: 60: 4619:. Routledge Fundamentals of Physical Geography Series (3rd ed.). 3156: 2847:"Rapid disintegration of Alpine glaciers observed with satellite data" 1888:". Glacial deposits that take the shape of hills or mounds are called 1868: 1807:. If multiple cirques encircle a single mountain, they create pointed 1645:: sediments deposited by water. These deposits are stratified by size. 1605:

The rate of glacier erosion varies. Six factors control erosion rate:

1540: 1175:

is the basal shear stress, a function of bed temperature and softness.

967: 710:

The accumulation zone can be subdivided based on its melt conditions.

682: 553: 7743: 7733: 7712: 7641: 7486: 7461: 7441: 7376: 7366: 7335: 7330: 7295: 6750: 6690: 6619: 6614: 6609: 5339: 4928: 4620: 3926: 1972: 1788: 1661: 1595: 1521: 1501: 1473: 1462: 1432: 1404: 1383:. In New Guinea, small, rapidly diminishing, glaciers are located on 1360: 1340: 1144: 1143:

and allowing the glacier to slide over the terrain on which it sits.

649: 494: 470: 461: 449:. A large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, mountain range, or 288: 265: 240: 220: 40: 4909: 3040: 3012: 2787:"What causes the blue color that sometimes appears in snow and ice?" 1755: 1729:), while a longer slope is left in the ice's direction of movement ( 418: 299:

Since glacial mass is affected by long-term climatic changes, e.g.,

291:

as warmer summer temperatures cause the glacier to melt, creating a

16:

This article is about the geological formation. For other uses, see

7753: 7748: 7738: 7707: 7671: 7666: 7656: 7508: 7456: 7431: 7290: 7285: 7104: 7099: 6852: 6776: 6685: 4536: 4194: 3385: 2760:"Processes and patterns of glacial erosion", (In Coates, D.R. ed., 2557: 1983: 1451: 1436: 1400: 1372: 1368: 1247: 1216:, a prominent subglacial lake beneath the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. 1166:

is the driving stress, and α the ice surface slope in radians.

1093: 1008: 988: 980: 756: 663: 631: 574: 545:

that are much less affected by climate change than other glaciers.

347: 256: 252: 193: 72: 30:

Persistent body of ice that is moving downhill under its own weight

7827: 6913: 3550:

Tsai, V. C. and G. Ekström (2007). J. Geophys. Res., 112, F03S22,

1800: 1780:. If a glacial valley runs into a large body of water, it forms a 1599: 645: 7763: 7661: 7631: 7576: 7566: 7391: 7325: 7320: 7305: 7280: 7046: 7036: 6963: 6735: 6720: 6629: 6604: 5317: 4975: 4218: 3458:

The Evolution of a Glacier Surge Observed with the ERS Satellites

2287:"Millions at risk as melting Pakistan glaciers raise flood fears" 2198: 2136: 2025: 1913: 1853: 1849: 1721: 1674: 1505: 1320: 944: 771: 762: 538: 537:. As the ice reaches the sea, pieces break off or calve, forming 479: 455: 450: 213: 205: 189: 56: 4804:

A textbook for undergraduates avoiding mathematical complexities

4163:. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 3326: 1787:

Typically glaciers deepen their valleys more than their smaller

1468: 939:

representing the sum of the velocities of all the layers below.

7692: 7315: 6918: 6599: 6594: 6320: 4585:"Probing the Mysterious Glacial Flow on Pluto's Frozen 'Heart'" 3019:

Kleman, John (2008). "Geomorphology: Where glaciers cut deep".

1884:

and clusters, remain after the glacier melts and are known as "

1481: 1424: 1071:

Movement of the overlying glacier may cause the bed to undergo

972: 731:

The health of a glacier is usually assessed by determining the

704: 635: 201: 2990: 2048:

Water runoff from melting glaciers causes global sea level to

1407:

to the far north, New Zealand and the subantarctic islands of

239:. Between latitudes 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the 176: 152: 114: 7646: 7561: 7476: 7401: 7235: 7228: 7109: 6938: 6755: 6234:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

5327: 4939:

Photo project tracks changes in Himalayan glaciers since 1921

4814:

A textbook devoted to explaining the geography of our planet.

2157: 1920: 1900: 1781: 1364: 1336: 1261:

A few glaciers have periods of very rapid advancement called

997: 948: 931: 407: 377: 244: 209: 197: 1934: 1880:

alluvial deposits. These deposits, in the forms of columns,

23:"Ice river" redirects here. For the Chinese ski course, see 7481: 7426: 7386: 7119: 6888: 6695: 6549: 3536: 3534: 3095: 2565: 2143:

found ice under a thin layer of rocks in formations called

2127: 2053: 1890: 1694: 1678: 1356: 1099:

As well as affecting the sediment stress, fluid pressure (p

656: 432: 426:

in Peru is the second-largest glaciated area in the tropics

173: 167: 149: 108: 4361:. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2022. 4082: 3947: 3902: 3056:"A short history of scientific investigations on glaciers" 2844: 1844:. When this phenomenon occurs in a valley, it is called a 1763:

Before glaciation, mountain valleys have a characteristic

1246:

The speed of glacial displacement is partly determined by

216:

and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water.

111: 7218: 6410:

Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

3878:, pp. 263–264, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes. 3730:"Hawaiian Glaciers Reveal Clues to Global Climate Change" 2776:, pp. 260–262, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes. 1618:

Relative ease of erosion of the surface under the glacier

1147:

may be produced by pressure-induced melting, friction or

161: 143: 137: 102: 4267:

Source mentions ice-albedo and melt-elevation feedbacks.

4150: 4148: 4146: 4144: 3704:. Portland, Maine, USA. pp. 147–157. Archived from 3531: 1551:

Glaciers erode terrain through two principal processes:

899:= a constant between 2–4 (typically 3 for most glaciers) 4862:

Vanishing Ice: Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Rising Seas

4214: 4212: 3694: 3501: 7187: 3119: 745:

glaciers around the Earth have retreated substantially

315:

are considered among the most sensitive indicators of

219:

On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast

7838: 6251:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

4883:

12 May 2017, Vol. 356, Issue 6338, pp. 580–581,

4141: 4025:, pp. 271, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes. 1751:

Glacial valleys, cirques, arêtes, and pyramidal peaks

907: 884: 861: 838: 792: 170: 146: 4965:

Mountain glaciers and their role in the Earth system

4654:, which was accessed in the version of 24 July 2005. 4209: 4073:, p. 264, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes. 3893:, p. 263, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes. 2925: 2069:

Isostatic pressure by a glacier on the Earth's crust

1717:

is evident in the orientation of the various mounds.

164: 140: 105: 4752:. University of British Columbia Press, UCL Press. 4382:

Global Warming Cycles: Ice Ages and Glacial Retreat

2921: 2919: 2917: 2821:"Glacier change and related hazards in Switzerland" 2611: 2189: – Artificial process used for making glaciers 1624:

Permeability and water pressure at the glacier base

493:. In Antarctica, many ice streams drain into large 247:, and a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, 158: 134: 99: 4777: 4663: 4189: 4187: 3053: 2330:"170'000 km cube d'eau dans les glaciers du monde" 2177: – Landform created by the action of glaciers 914: 891: 868: 845: 818: 638:landform (alternatively known as a corrie or as a 548: 497:. Some drain directly into the sea, often with an 395:. Glaciers are important components of the global 3196:Clarke, G. K. C. (2005). "Subglacial processes". 2724: 2503:. American Meteorological Society. Archived from 755:"Ice flow" redirects here. For floating ice, see 7862: 6451:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 4076: 3517:, Ekström, G., M. Nettles, and V.C. Tsai (2006) 3195: 2914: 2433:(5 ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 883. 2311:National Geographic Almanac of Geography, 2005, 1139:by the presence of liquid water, reducing basal 1067:Porosity may vary through a range of methods. 4184: 326:A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, 192:. It acquires distinguishing features, such as 4720: 3322: 3320: 3318: 3233: 3231: 3229: 3227: 3191: 3189: 3187: 2974: 2972: 2528:, Department of Geography and Geology (2015). 2388:(4). International Mountain Society: 401–404. 2259: 337: 255:in Iran. With more than 7,000 known glaciers, 223:(also known as "continental glaciers") in the 79:is one of the world's longest alpine glaciers. 7203: 6565: 5196:History of climate change policy and politics 4991: 4486: 4270: 3856:"On the Zoogeography of the Holarctic Region" 3671:, National Mapping Fab, Geoscience Australia" 3650: 3379: 3198:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 3185: 3183: 3181: 3179: 3177: 3175: 3173: 3171: 3169: 3167: 2352:"Ice, Snow, and Glaciers and the Water Cycle" 2002:. Human influence is the principal driver of 4694:Benn, Douglas I.; Evans, David J.A. (1999). 4670:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 4661: 4515: 3018: 2720: 2718: 2476:"Retreat of Alaskan glacier Juneau icefield" 1458:lowers precipitation so much that with high 1423:. During glacial periods of the Quaternary, 1118: 391:. The corresponding area of study is called 5313:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 4902:"Global Glacier Changes: Facts and Figures" 4576: 3829:. July 28, 2017. p. 15. Archived from 3695:Kincaid, Joni L.; Klein, Andrew G. (2004). 3581: 3566: 3315: 3224: 2986: 2984: 2969: 2264:. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 2260:Post, Austin; LaChapelle, Edward R (2000). 962: 639: 381: 370: 359: 7210: 7196: 6572: 6558: 6532: 6520: 5977: 4998: 4984: 4492: 4043: 3801:. Beringia.com. 1999-04-12. Archived from 3264: 3164: 3113: 2530:"Morphological Classification of Glaciers" 1834: 1439:also had large alpine glaciers, while the 1184:, the shear stress, is the lower of τ 408:Classification by size, shape and behavior 6272: 6078:Adaptation strategies on the German coast 5221:United Nations Climate Change conferences 4723:Glacial Geology: Ice Sheets and Landforms 4693: 4535: 4252: 4116: 4034: 3732:. Geology.com. 2007-01-26. Archived from 3411: 3155: 3145: 3075: 2875: 2715: 2403: 2393: 1935:Retreat of glaciers due to climate change 1811:; particularly steep examples are called 1327:in New Zealand finishes near a rainforest 911: 888: 865: 842: 815: 5782:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation 4817: 4521: 4352:"IPCC AR6 WGII Summary for Policymakers" 3240:Glacier Science and Environmental Change 2981: 2899:"Recent Global Glacier Retreat Overview" 2253: 2110: 2064: 2012: 1872:Landscape produced by a receding glacier 1867: 1803:is left. This structure may result in a 1754: 1704: 1660: 1594:Glacially plucked granitic bedrock near 1589: 1539: 1467: 1319: 1288: 1237: 1207: 1192:. It controls the rate of plastic flow. 1122: 1050: 1002: 966: 925: 761: 681: 609: 552: 417: 319:and are a major source of variations in 271:Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of 66: 46: 34: 6138:National Adaptation Programme of Action 5927:Land use, land-use change, and forestry 4747: 4614: 4582: 4070: 4022: 3890: 3875: 3673:. Ga.gov.au. 2010-11-18. Archived from 3237: 2773: 2658: 2426: 2217: 2215: 1743:. One of these fields is found east of 1733:). Drumlins are found in groups called 1314:Further information on this topic: 1046: 770:Glaciers move downhill by the force of 7863: 5787:Economics of climate change mitigation 5750:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard) 5273: 5101:Scientific consensus on climate change 4807: 4775: 4662:Hambrey, Michael; Alean, Jürg (2004). 4378: 3755:"French Colonies – Crozet Archipelago" 3669:Australian Landforms and their History 3270: 3218:10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122621 2727:Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers 2201: – Accumulation of ice in a river 1621:Thermal conditions at the glacier base 634:. A glacier usually originates from a 7191: 6553: 6446:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 6271: 5976: 5712: 5272: 5184: 5065: 5017: 4979: 4972:– Before/After Images by Simon Oberli 4721:Bennett, M.R.; Glasser, N.F. (1996). 4639: 4368:from the original on 22 January 2023. 4284:from the original on 29 January 2023. 4167:from the original on 28 January 2023. 4154: 3633:"10 Countries With The Most Glaciers" 2579: 2284: 2221: 983:. This upper section is known as the 819:{\displaystyle \Sigma =k\tau ^{n},\,} 63:(3.768 m), second highest in Austria. 7812: 6468:Representative Concentration Pathway 5419:Tipping points in the climate system 5095:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere 4906:United Nations Environment Programme 4035:Benn, Douglas; Evans, David (1998). 3799:"Yukon Beringia Interpretive Center" 2212: 2060: 1818: 6239:Nationally determined contributions 5949:Individual action on climate change 5164:World energy supply and consumption 4039:. London: Arnold. pp. 324–326. 3774: 2928:Dynamics of Ice Sheets and Glaciers 2695:"What types of glaciers are there?" 2096: 1863: 1135:, where the base of the glacier is 577:may experience seasonal melting. A 13: 6378:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis 5005: 4864:(Columbia University Press, 2019) 4854: 4810:Introduction to Physical Geography 4646:This article draws heavily on the 3122:"How dynamic are ice-stream beds?" 2368: 1931:can be important in this process. 1530: 996:isolated peaks in the ice, called 922:= a temperature-dependent constant 839: 793: 59:. The mountain to the left is the 14: 7897: 6305:Satellite temperature measurement 5910:forestry for carbon sequestration 5201:History of climate change science 4894: 4010:National Snow and Ice Data Center 3612:"Glossary of Glacier Terminology" 3541:"Analysis of Glacial Earthquakes" 2703:National Snow and Ice Data Center 2595:National Snow and Ice Data Center 2455:"Glossary of Glacier Terminology" 2382:Mountain Research and Development 2195: – Geomorphology of glaciers 1907: 39:Glacier of the Geikie Plateau in 7848: 7822: 7811: 7801: 7800: 7177:Template:Periglacial environment 6531: 6519: 6508: 6507: 6495: 6156:Climate Change Performance Index 4929:Glacial structures – photo atlas 4772:An undergraduate-level textbook. 4205:from the original on 2019-12-21. 3757:. Discoverfrance.net. 2010-12-09 3567:Summerfield, Michael A. (1991). 2887:from the original on 2007-06-04. 2546:from the original on 2017-08-12. 2395:10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-10-00071.1 2042:World Glacier Monitoring Service 1964: 1949: 1544:Diagram of glacial plucking and 1254:per day, such as in Greenland's 130: 95: 6295:Instrumental temperature record 6246:Sustainable Development Goal 13 4607: 4583:Umurhan, O. (January 8, 2016). 4477: 4468: 4459: 4438: 4427:from the original on 2008-02-27 4403: 4372: 4293: 4028: 3994: 3941: 3896: 3848: 3816: 3791: 3768: 3747: 3722: 3688: 3659: 3625: 3604: 3584:Surface Processes and Landforms 3575: 3560: 3492: 3471: 3449: 3420: 3084: 3047: 2966:W.S.B. Paterson, Physics of ice 2960: 2926:Greve, R.; Blatter, H. (2009). 2891: 2838: 2813: 2800: 2779: 2751: 2687: 2605: 2550: 2537:www.uwsp.edu/Pages/default.aspx 2518: 2493: 2468: 2036:with glaciers. For example, in 2010:of which glaciers are a part. 1848:. When the deposition is in an 1759:Features of a glacial landscape 1159:= ρgh sin α 549:Classification by thermal state 350:from French and goes back, via 227:, but glaciers may be found in 6363:Climate variability and change 5713: 5404:Retreat of glaciers since 1850 4784:. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. 4615:Huggett, Richard John (2011). 4307:Environmental Research Letters 4195:"The Causes of Climate Change" 4155:Dusto, Amy (28 January 2023). 2447: 2420: 2344: 2322: 2305: 2278: 1941:Retreat of glaciers since 1850 535:Southern Patagonian Ice Fields 1: 6473:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways 6008:Climate emergency declaration 4617:Fundamentals Of Geomorphology 4175:scanning electron microscopes 2478:. Nichols.edu. Archived from 2336:. Aug 6, 2015. Archived from 2205: 2183: – Geological phenomenon 1852:, the sediments are known as 1643:Fluvial and outwash sediments 1492:in Antarctica are considered 561:is an advancing polar glacier 543:cycles of advance and retreat 6579: 6456:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 5682:Middle East and North Africa 5018: 4908:(UNEP). 2008. Archived from 3098:. 2006-12-11. Archived from 2855:Geophysical Research Letters 2735:10.1007/978-90-481-2642-2_72 2666:"Description of Ice Streams" 2636:10.1126/science.252.5003.242 1998:in the air, causing current 1609:Velocity of glacial movement 1309: 677: 605: 7: 5185: 4951:The Mountains of California 4379:Casper, Julie Kerr (2010). 4002:"Glacial Landforms: Trough" 3614:. Pubs.usgs.gov. 2012-06-20 3062:. Special issue (S1): 4–5. 3054:Clarke, Garry K.C. (1987). 2168: 2141:Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 1700: 1656: 1447:were completely glaciated. 338:Etymology and related terms 71:With 7,253 known glaciers, 10: 7902: 6290:Global surface temperature 6181:Popular culture depictions 6093:Ecosystem-based adaptation 5823:Carbon capture and storage 5745:Carbon offsets and credits 5066: 4923:Global Environment Outlook 4877:Saying goodbye to glaciers 4812:. Wm. C. Brown Publishers. 4652:Spanish-language Knowledge 4245:10.1038/s41467-020-18934-3 3586:(2 ed.). New Jersey: 3582:Easterbrook, D.J. (1999). 2430:Cassell's Latin Dictionary 2100: 1938: 1535: 1313: 1131:Glaciers may also move by 853:= shear strain (flow) rate 754: 594:, as sliding ice promotes 411: 51:The Taschachferner in the 22: 15: 7795: 7762: 7726: 7680: 7624: 7607:Short-track speed skating 7552: 7504: 7495: 7354: 7268: 7242: 7225: 7157: 7090: 7029: 6906: 6897: 6866: 6845: 6769: 6658: 6587: 6502:Climate change portal 6489: 6428: 6395:Extreme event attribution 6313: 6282: 6278: 6267: 6211: 6146: 6068: 6018:School Strike for Climate 5990: 5986: 5972: 5941: 5897:Climate-smart agriculture 5858: 5815: 5725: 5721: 5708: 5632: 5495: 5442: 5285: 5281: 5268: 5191: 5180: 5109: 5078: 5074: 5061: 5044:Climate change adaptation 5039:Climate change mitigation 5034:Effects of climate change 5024: 5013: 4955:California Legacy Project 4776:Knight, Peter G. (1999). 4748:Hambrey, Michael (1994). 4725:. John Wiley & Sons. 4037:Glaciers & Glaciation 3248:10.1002/9780470750636.ch2 3077:10.3189/S0022143000215785 2936:10.1007/978-3-642-03415-2 2501:"Glossary of Meteorology" 2222:Craig, Tim (2016-08-12). 2120:Ismenius Lacus quadrangle 2086:region of North America. 1387:. Africa has glaciers on 1284: 1119:Basal melting and sliding 846:{\displaystyle \Sigma \,} 750: 640: 330:, as large quantities of 6405:Global warming potential 6212:International agreements 5859:Preserving and enhancing 5303:Arctic methane emissions 5225:Years in climate change 5132:Greenhouse gas emissions 5029:Causes of climate change 4934:NOW on PBS "On Thin Ice" 4327:10.1088/1748-9326/ad25a4 3521:, 311, 5768, 1756–1758, 2670:British Antarctic Survey 1925:Midwestern United States 1799:narrow ridge, called an 1417:Grande Terre (Kerguelen) 1233: 1212:Location and diagram of 963:Fracture zone and cracks 674:of bubbles in the ice.) 630:of snow and ice exceeds 626:Glaciers form where the 402: 18:Glacier (disambiguation) 7217: 6436:Climate change scenario 6088:Disaster risk reduction 5740:Carbon emission trading 5550:U.S. insurance industry 5530:Civilizational collapse 5377:sea surface temperature 4889:10.1126/science.aam9625 4808:Walley, Robert (1992). 4696:Glaciers and Glaciation 4385:. Infobase Publishing. 4109:10.1126/science.abo1324 3527:10.1126/science.1122112 3498:Meier & Post (1969) 3432:www.geo.hunter.cuny.edu 3413:10.5194/tc-18-1085-2024 3349:10.1126/science.1136897 3147:10.5194/tc-12-1615-2018 3017:Non-technical summary: 2558:"Sea Level and Climate" 2526:University of Wisconsin 2034:positive feedback loops 2032:Global warming creates 1916:deposition site. These 1835:Alluvial stratification 1665:Glacial moraines above 1520:located near or in the 1472:Black ice glacier near 1096:, where it re-freezes. 869:{\displaystyle \tau \,} 441:, or alternatively, an 188:over many years, often 6429:Research and modelling 6113:Nature-based solutions 5933:Nature-based solutions 5875:Carbon dioxide removal 5792:Fossil fuel divestment 5777:Climate risk insurance 5687:Small island countries 5308:Arctic sea ice decline 4970:GletscherVergleiche.ch 4278:"Global Glacier State" 2823:. UNEP. Archived from 2427:Simpson, D.P. (1979). 2285:Staff (June 9, 2020). 2126:The polar ice caps of 2123: 2070: 2029: 2018:Ice lagoon Jökulsárlón 1873: 1760: 1718: 1670: 1602: 1548: 1477: 1353:Scandinavian Mountains 1328: 1298: 1243: 1217: 1128: 1056: 1024: 1007:Shear or herring-bone 976: 935: 916: 893: 870: 847: 820: 767: 688: 623: 562: 427: 382: 371: 360: 80: 64: 44: 25:Ice River (ski course) 7115:Giant current ripples 6390:Earth's energy budget 6273:Background and theory 6161:Climate crisis (term) 5833:Fossil fuel phase-out 5727:Economics and finance 5692:by individual country 5634:By country and region 5609:Security and conflict 5604:Psychological impacts 5293:Abrupt climate change 5216:Charles David Keeling 5049:By country and region 4648:corresponding article 4502:The Planetary Society 4448:. Esa.int. 2006-01-20 4411:"Kargel, J.S. et al.: 4225:Nature Communications 3775:Collins, Henry Hill. 3060:Journal of Glaciology 2762:Glacial Geomorphology 2114: 2068: 2016: 1957:South Cascade Glacier 1939:Further information: 1871: 1758: 1708: 1664: 1593: 1543: 1471: 1323: 1292: 1241: 1211: 1126: 1054: 1006: 970: 929: 917: 894: 871: 848: 821: 765: 685: 620:Perito Moreno Glacier 613: 556: 421: 412:Further information: 70: 50: 38: 6219:Glasgow Climate Pact 5880:Carbon sequestration 5455:Mass mortality event 4960:Dynamics of Glaciers 4953:by John Muir, 1894. 4943:Short radio episode 4750:Glacial Environments 4496:(21 December 2015). 3824:"Earth History 2001" 3590:, Inc. p. 546. 3569:Global Geomorphology 3556:10.1029/2006JF000596 2877:10.1029/2004GL020816 2145:lobate debris aprons 2076:post-glacial rebound 1715:Laurentide Ice Sheet 1612:Thickness of the ice 1293:Forbes bands on the 1047:Subglacial processes 905: 882: 859: 836: 790: 743:'s end around 1850, 733:glacier mass balance 476:continental glaciers 313:glacial mass changes 7703:Iceman (occupation) 7052:Moraine-dammed lake 6879:Subglacial eruption 6358:Climate sensitivity 6133:The Adaptation Fund 5589:Infectious diseases 5496:Social and economic 4946:California Glaciers 4823:Physics of Glaciers 4554:10.1038/nature18289 4546:2016Natur.534...82M 4319:2024ERL....19c4022K 4237:2020NatCo..11.5177W 4101:2023Sci...379...78R 4053:. Britannica Online 3972:10.1038/nature15385 3964:2015Natur.526..100K 3919:2010Geo....38..423D 3777:Europe and the USSR 3456:T. Strozzi et al.: 3404:2024TCry...18.1085W 3341:2007Sci...315.1544F 3335:(5818): 1544–1548. 3293:10.1038/nature09618 3285:2010Natur.468..803S 3210:2005AREPS..33..247C 3138:2018TCry...12.1615D 3068:1987JGlac..33S...4C 3033:2008NatGe...1..343K 3005:2008NatGe...1..365K 2868:2004GeoRL..3121402P 2628:1991Sci...252..242B 2587:"Types of Glaciers" 2340:on August 17, 2017. 2229:The Washington Post 2052:, a phenomenon the 2038:ice–albedo feedback 2022:Vatnajökull Glacier 2020:at the foot of the 1745:Rochester, New York 1490:McMurdo Dry Valleys 1381:last glacial period 1379:was present in the 1278:glacial earthquakes 1274:glacial earthquakes 1221:in two main modes: 915:{\displaystyle k\,} 892:{\displaystyle n\,} 672:Rayleigh scattering 365:, derived from the 7255:Crystalline phases 6884:Subglacial volcano 6867:Volcanic relations 5929:(LULUCF and AFOLU) 5901:Forest management 5885:Direct air capture 5850:Sustainable energy 5807:Net zero emissions 5802:Low-carbon economy 5797:Green Climate Fund 5584:Indigenous peoples 5487:Plant biodiversity 5275:Effects and issues 4921:, a report in the 4640:General references 4288:chart on Wikimedia 4179:gas chromatographs 4171:mass spectrometers 3656:Grunewald, p. 129. 3546:2008-10-07 at the 3513:2008-10-07 at the 3464:2014-11-11 at the 2193:Glacier morphology 2124: 2071: 2030: 1874: 1761: 1719: 1671: 1603: 1581:glacial striations 1569:Timpanogos Glacier 1549: 1478: 1456:Hadley circulation 1397:Rwenzori Mountains 1329: 1299: 1244: 1218: 1129: 1057: 1025: 977: 971:Ice cracks in the 936: 912: 889: 866: 843: 816: 768: 689: 624: 588:warm-based glacier 584:cold-based glacier 563: 557:Webber Glacier on 510:Tidewater glaciers 428: 414:Glacier morphology 235:countries such as 81: 65: 45: 7836: 7835: 7817:Wikimedia Commons 7620: 7619: 7185: 7184: 7153: 7152: 6671:Accumulation zone 6547: 6546: 6485: 6484: 6481: 6480: 6420:Radiative forcing 6263: 6262: 6259: 6258: 6083:Adaptive capacity 5968: 5967: 5964: 5963: 5828:Energy transition 5704: 5703: 5700: 5699: 5424:Tropical cyclones 5350:Urban heat island 5264: 5263: 5176: 5175: 5172: 5171: 5137:Carbon accounting 5091:Greenhouse effect 5057: 5056: 4860:Gornitz, Vivien. 4836:978-0-08-013972-2 4791:978-0-7487-4000-0 4759:978-0-7748-0510-0 4732:978-0-471-96344-8 4705:978-0-470-23651-2 4677:978-0-521-82808-6 4630:978-0-203-86008-3 4494:Lakdawalla, Emily 4392:978-0-8160-7262-0 3958:(7571): 100–103. 3597:978-0-13-860958-0 3279:(7325): 803–806. 3257:978-0-470-75063-6 3242:. pp. 2–22. 3021:Nature Geoscience 2993:Nature Geoscience 2945:978-3-642-03414-5 2789:. Webexhibits.org 2744:978-90-481-2641-5 2440:978-0-304-52257-6 2271:978-0-295-97910-6 2116:Protonilus Mensae 2091:dilation-faulting 2061:Isostatic rebound 1819:Roches moutonnées 1778:paternoster lakes 1669:, Alberta, Canada 1389:Mount Kilimanjaro 1297:glacier in France 1267:supraglacial lake 781:Glen–Nye flow law 701:accumulation zone 567:temperate glacier 523:Ellesmere Islands 483:water are called 424:Quelccaya Ice Cap 376:, and ultimately 332:water appear blue 7893: 7853: 7852: 7851: 7844: 7826: 7815: 7814: 7804: 7803: 7502: 7501: 7212: 7205: 7198: 7189: 7188: 7072:Terminal moraine 6904: 6903: 6640:Piedmont glacier 6574: 6567: 6560: 6551: 6550: 6535: 6534: 6523: 6522: 6511: 6510: 6500: 6499: 6498: 6463:Paleoclimatology 6280: 6279: 6269: 6268: 6030:Ecological grief 6013:Climate movement 5988: 5987: 5974: 5973: 5954:Plant-based diet 5845:Renewable energy 5723: 5722: 5710: 5709: 5545:Economic impacts 5477:Invasive species 5333:Coastal flooding 5283: 5282: 5270: 5269: 5206:Svante Arrhenius 5182: 5181: 5152:from agriculture 5142:Carbon footprint 5127:Greenhouse gases 5076: 5075: 5063: 5062: 5015: 5014: 5000: 4993: 4986: 4977: 4976: 4920: 4918: 4917: 4848: 4825:(3rd ed.). 4819:Paterson, W.S.B. 4813: 4803: 4783: 4771: 4744: 4717: 4689: 4669: 4634: 4601: 4600: 4598: 4596: 4580: 4574: 4573: 4539: 4519: 4513: 4512: 4510: 4508: 4490: 4484: 4481: 4475: 4472: 4466: 4463: 4457: 4456: 4454: 4453: 4442: 4436: 4435: 4433: 4432: 4426: 4419: 4407: 4401: 4400: 4376: 4370: 4369: 4367: 4356: 4348: 4339: 4338: 4297: 4291: 4285: 4274: 4268: 4266: 4256: 4216: 4207: 4206: 4199:climate.nasa.gov 4191: 4182: 4168: 4152: 4139: 4138: 4120: 4080: 4074: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4059: 4058: 4051:"Kettle geology" 4047: 4041: 4040: 4032: 4026: 4020: 4014: 4013: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3945: 3939: 3938: 3927:10.1130/G30576.1 3900: 3894: 3888: 3879: 3873: 3867: 3866: 3864: 3863: 3852: 3846: 3845: 3843: 3841: 3836:on March 3, 2016 3835: 3828: 3820: 3814: 3813: 3811: 3810: 3795: 3789: 3788: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3763: 3762: 3751: 3745: 3744: 3742: 3741: 3726: 3720: 3719: 3717: 3716: 3710: 3703: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3682: 3663: 3657: 3654: 3648: 3647: 3645: 3644: 3629: 3623: 3622: 3620: 3619: 3608: 3602: 3601: 3579: 3573: 3572: 3564: 3558: 3538: 3529: 3505: 3499: 3496: 3490: 3489: 3487: 3486: 3475: 3469: 3453: 3447: 3446: 3444: 3443: 3434:. Archived from 3424: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3398:(3): 1085–1103. 3383: 3377: 3376: 3324: 3313: 3312: 3268: 3262: 3261: 3235: 3222: 3221: 3193: 3162: 3161: 3159: 3149: 3132:(5): 1615–1628. 3117: 3111: 3110: 3108: 3107: 3088: 3082: 3081: 3079: 3051: 3045: 3044: 3016: 2988: 2979: 2976: 2967: 2964: 2958: 2957: 2923: 2912: 2911: 2909: 2908: 2903: 2895: 2889: 2888: 2886: 2879: 2851: 2842: 2836: 2835: 2833: 2832: 2817: 2811: 2804: 2798: 2797: 2795: 2794: 2783: 2777: 2771: 2765: 2755: 2749: 2748: 2722: 2713: 2712: 2710: 2709: 2691: 2685: 2684: 2682: 2681: 2672:. Archived from 2662: 2656: 2655: 2622:(5003): 242–46. 2609: 2603: 2602: 2597:. Archived from 2583: 2577: 2576: 2574: 2573: 2554: 2548: 2547: 2545: 2534: 2522: 2516: 2515: 2513: 2512: 2497: 2491: 2490: 2488: 2487: 2472: 2466: 2465: 2463: 2462: 2451: 2445: 2444: 2424: 2418: 2417: 2407: 2405:2060/20110015312 2397: 2372: 2366: 2365: 2363: 2362: 2348: 2342: 2341: 2326: 2320: 2309: 2303: 2302: 2300: 2299: 2282: 2276: 2275: 2257: 2251: 2250: 2245: 2244: 2219: 2175:Glacial landform 2107:Sputnik Planitia 2103:Glaciers on Mars 2097:On other planets 1996:greenhouse gases 1991:concentrations. 1968: 1953: 1886:glacial deposits 1864:Glacial deposits 1709:Drumlins around 1651:glacial erratics 1391:in Tanzania, on 1377:Mount Kosciuszko 1316:List of glaciers 1256:Jakobshavn Isbræ 921: 919: 918: 913: 898: 896: 895: 890: 875: 873: 872: 867: 852: 850: 849: 844: 825: 823: 822: 817: 811: 810: 666:of the infrared 643: 642: 579:subpolar glacier 527:Southeast Alaska 447:mountain glacier 385: 374: 363: 352:Franco-Provençal 305:mean temperature 183: 182: 179: 178: 175: 172: 169: 166: 163: 160: 155: 154: 151: 148: 145: 142: 139: 136: 129: 121: 120: 117: 116: 113: 110: 107: 104: 101: 94: 7901: 7900: 7896: 7895: 7894: 7892: 7891: 7890: 7886:Montane ecology 7861: 7860: 7859: 7849: 7847: 7839: 7837: 7832: 7791: 7758: 7722: 7676: 7616: 7548: 7497: 7491: 7362:Albedo feedback 7350: 7264: 7250:Amorphous solid 7238: 7221: 7216: 7186: 7181: 7149: 7086: 7067:Sevetti moraine 7025: 6979:Roche moutonnée 6924:Cirque stairway 6893: 6862: 6841: 6765: 6726:Lateral moraine 6654: 6583: 6578: 6548: 6543: 6496: 6494: 6477: 6424: 6415:Orbital forcing 6309: 6274: 6255: 6229:Paris Agreement 6207: 6203:Warming stripes 6142: 6108:Managed retreat 6103:Loss and damage 6064: 5998:Business action 5982: 5960: 5937: 5860: 5854: 5811: 5772:Climate finance 5717: 5696: 5628: 5491: 5467:Extinction risk 5443:Flora and fauna 5438: 5399:Permafrost thaw 5394:Ozone depletion 5323:Extreme weather 5277: 5260: 5187: 5168: 5105: 5070: 5053: 5020: 5009: 5004: 4915: 4913: 4900: 4897: 4857: 4855:Further reading 4852: 4837: 4792: 4760: 4733: 4706: 4678: 4642: 4637: 4631: 4610: 4605: 4604: 4594: 4592: 4581: 4577: 4530:(7605): 82–85. 4520: 4516: 4506: 4504: 4491: 4487: 4482: 4478: 4473: 4469: 4464: 4460: 4451: 4449: 4444: 4443: 4439: 4430: 4428: 4424: 4417: 4409: 4408: 4404: 4393: 4377: 4373: 4365: 4354: 4350: 4349: 4342: 4298: 4294: 4276: 4275: 4271: 4217: 4210: 4193: 4192: 4185: 4153: 4142: 4095:(6627): 78–83. 4081: 4077: 4069: 4065: 4056: 4054: 4049: 4048: 4044: 4033: 4029: 4021: 4017: 4000: 3999: 3995: 3946: 3942: 3901: 3897: 3889: 3882: 3874: 3870: 3861: 3859: 3854: 3853: 3849: 3839: 3837: 3833: 3826: 3822: 3821: 3817: 3808: 3806: 3797: 3796: 3792: 3779:. p. 263. 3773: 3769: 3760: 3758: 3753: 3752: 3748: 3739: 3737: 3728: 3727: 3723: 3714: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3693: 3689: 3680: 3678: 3665: 3664: 3660: 3655: 3651: 3642: 3640: 3631: 3630: 3626: 3617: 3615: 3610: 3609: 3605: 3598: 3580: 3576: 3565: 3561: 3548:Wayback Machine 3539: 3532: 3515:Wayback Machine 3506: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3484: 3482: 3477: 3476: 3472: 3466:Wayback Machine 3454: 3450: 3441: 3439: 3426: 3425: 3421: 3384: 3380: 3325: 3316: 3269: 3265: 3258: 3236: 3225: 3194: 3165: 3118: 3114: 3105: 3103: 3090: 3089: 3085: 3052: 3048: 3041:10.1038/ngeo210 3013:10.1038/ngeo201 2989: 2982: 2977: 2970: 2965: 2961: 2946: 2924: 2915: 2906: 2904: 2901: 2897: 2896: 2892: 2884: 2849: 2843: 2839: 2830: 2828: 2819: 2818: 2814: 2805: 2801: 2792: 2790: 2785: 2784: 2780: 2772: 2768: 2756: 2752: 2745: 2723: 2716: 2707: 2705: 2693: 2692: 2688: 2679: 2677: 2664: 2663: 2659: 2610: 2606: 2585: 2584: 2580: 2571: 2569: 2556: 2555: 2551: 2543: 2532: 2523: 2519: 2510: 2508: 2499: 2498: 2494: 2485: 2483: 2474: 2473: 2469: 2460: 2458: 2453: 2452: 2448: 2441: 2425: 2421: 2373: 2369: 2360: 2358: 2350: 2349: 2345: 2328: 2327: 2323: 2310: 2306: 2297: 2295: 2283: 2279: 2272: 2258: 2254: 2242: 2240: 2220: 2213: 2208: 2187:Glacier growing 2171: 2109: 2101:Main articles: 2099: 2063: 1980: 1979: 1978: 1977: 1976: 1969: 1961: 1960: 1954: 1943: 1937: 1929:Katabatic winds 1910: 1866: 1837: 1826:roche moutonnée 1821: 1809:pyramidal peaks 1793:hanging valleys 1774:truncated spurs 1753: 1703: 1683:ground moraines 1659: 1538: 1533: 1531:Glacial geology 1514:northern Alaska 1345:Rocky Mountains 1318: 1312: 1287: 1236: 1203: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1174: 1165: 1158: 1149:geothermal heat 1121: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1063: 1049: 965: 906: 903: 902: 883: 880: 879: 860: 857: 856: 837: 834: 833: 806: 802: 791: 788: 787: 760: 753: 680: 618:located on the 608: 551: 416: 410: 405: 340: 229:mountain ranges 157: 133: 124: 123: 98: 89: 88: 77:Baltoro Glacier 31: 28: 21: 12: 11: 5: 7899: 7889: 7888: 7883: 7878: 7873: 7858: 7857: 7834: 7833: 7831: 7830: 7819: 7808: 7796: 7793: 7792: 7790: 7789: 7787:Snowball Earth 7784: 7779: 7777:Little Ice Age 7774: 7768: 7766: 7760: 7759: 7757: 7756: 7751: 7746: 7741: 7736: 7730: 7728: 7724: 7723: 7721: 7720: 7715: 7710: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7684: 7682: 7678: 7677: 7675: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7628: 7626: 7622: 7621: 7618: 7617: 7615: 7614: 7609: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7587:Figure skating 7584: 7579: 7574: 7569: 7564: 7558: 7556: 7550: 7549: 7547: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7505: 7499: 7493: 7492: 7490: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7372:Circle or disc 7369: 7364: 7358: 7356: 7352: 7351: 7349: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7272: 7270: 7266: 7265: 7263: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7246: 7244: 7240: 7239: 7226: 7223: 7222: 7215: 7214: 7207: 7200: 7192: 7183: 7182: 7180: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7158: 7155: 7154: 7151: 7150: 7148: 7147: 7142: 7137: 7132: 7127: 7122: 7117: 7112: 7107: 7102: 7096: 7094: 7088: 7087: 7085: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7069: 7064: 7059: 7054: 7049: 7044: 7039: 7033: 7031: 7027: 7026: 7024: 7023: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6959:Hanging valley 6956: 6954:Glacial striae 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6910: 6908: 6901: 6895: 6894: 6892: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6870: 6868: 6864: 6863: 6861: 6860: 6855: 6849: 6847: 6843: 6842: 6840: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6817:Periglaciation 6814: 6809: 6807:Outburst flood 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6779: 6773: 6771: 6767: 6766: 6764: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6731:Medial moraine 6728: 6723: 6718: 6716:Glacier tongue 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6668: 6662: 6660: 6656: 6655: 6653: 6652: 6650:Valley glacier 6647: 6642: 6637: 6635:Outlet glacier 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6591: 6589: 6585: 6584: 6577: 6576: 6569: 6562: 6554: 6545: 6544: 6542: 6541: 6529: 6517: 6505: 6490: 6487: 6486: 6483: 6482: 6479: 6478: 6476: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6459: 6458: 6448: 6443: 6438: 6432: 6430: 6426: 6425: 6423: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6381: 6380: 6370: 6368:Cloud feedback 6365: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6349: 6348: 6343: 6338: 6333: 6323: 6317: 6315: 6311: 6310: 6308: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6286: 6284: 6276: 6275: 6265: 6264: 6261: 6260: 6257: 6256: 6254: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6242: 6241: 6236: 6226: 6224:Kyoto Protocol 6221: 6215: 6213: 6209: 6208: 6206: 6205: 6200: 6199: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6178: 6176:Media coverage 6173: 6168: 6166:Climate spiral 6163: 6158: 6152: 6150: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6074: 6072: 6066: 6065: 6063: 6062: 6057: 6055:Public opinion 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6021: 6020: 6010: 6005: 6003:Climate action 6000: 5994: 5992: 5984: 5983: 5970: 5969: 5966: 5965: 5962: 5961: 5959: 5958: 5957: 5956: 5945: 5943: 5939: 5938: 5936: 5935: 5930: 5924: 5923: 5922: 5917: 5915:REDD and REDD+ 5912: 5907: 5899: 5894: 5892:Carbon farming 5889: 5888: 5887: 5882: 5872: 5866: 5864: 5856: 5855: 5853: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5836: 5835: 5825: 5819: 5817: 5813: 5812: 5810: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5753: 5752: 5742: 5737: 5731: 5729: 5719: 5718: 5706: 5705: 5702: 5701: 5698: 5697: 5695: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5638: 5636: 5630: 5629: 5627: 5626: 5624:Water security 5621: 5619:Water scarcity 5616: 5614:Urban flooding 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5575: 5574: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5553: 5552: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5516: 5515: 5510: 5499: 5497: 5493: 5492: 5490: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5472:Forest dieback 5469: 5464: 5459: 5458: 5457: 5446: 5444: 5440: 5439: 5437: 5436: 5431: 5426: 5421: 5416: 5411: 5409:Sea level rise 5406: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5390: 5389: 5384: 5382:stratification 5379: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5354: 5353: 5352: 5347: 5337: 5336: 5335: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5300: 5295: 5289: 5287: 5279: 5278: 5266: 5265: 5262: 5261: 5259: 5258: 5257: 5256: 5251: 5246: 5241: 5236: 5231: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5192: 5189: 5188: 5178: 5177: 5174: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5166: 5161: 5160: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5147:Carbon leakage 5144: 5139: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5113: 5111: 5107: 5106: 5104: 5103: 5098: 5088: 5086:Climate system 5082: 5080: 5072: 5071: 5059: 5058: 5055: 5054: 5052: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5025: 5022: 5021: 5011: 5010: 5007:Climate change 5003: 5002: 4995: 4988: 4980: 4974: 4973: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4896: 4895:External links 4893: 4892: 4891: 4869: 4868: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4850: 4835: 4827:Pergamon Press 4815: 4805: 4790: 4773: 4758: 4745: 4731: 4718: 4704: 4691: 4676: 4658: 4657: 4656: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4635: 4629: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4603: 4602: 4589:blogs.nasa.gov 4575: 4514: 4485: 4476: 4467: 4458: 4437: 4402: 4391: 4371: 4340: 4292: 4269: 4208: 4201:. NASA. 2019. 4183: 4140: 4075: 4063: 4042: 4027: 4015: 3993: 3940: 3913:(5): 423–426. 3895: 3880: 3868: 3847: 3815: 3790: 3767: 3746: 3721: 3687: 3667:"C.D. Ollier: 3658: 3649: 3624: 3603: 3596: 3574: 3571:. p. 269. 3559: 3530: 3500: 3491: 3470: 3448: 3419: 3392:The Cryosphere 3378: 3314: 3263: 3256: 3223: 3204:(1): 247–276. 3163: 3126:The Cryosphere 3112: 3083: 3046: 2980: 2968: 2959: 2944: 2913: 2890: 2862:(21): L21402. 2837: 2812: 2799: 2778: 2766: 2750: 2743: 2714: 2686: 2657: 2604: 2601:on 2010-04-17. 2578: 2562:USGS FS 002-00 2549: 2517: 2492: 2467: 2446: 2439: 2419: 2367: 2343: 2321: 2304: 2277: 2270: 2252: 2210: 2209: 2207: 2204: 2203: 2202: 2196: 2190: 2184: 2181:Glacial motion 2178: 2170: 2167: 2098: 2095: 2062: 2059: 2000:global warming 1989:carbon dioxide 1970: 1963: 1962: 1955: 1948: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1944: 1936: 1933: 1909: 1908:Loess deposits 1906: 1865: 1862: 1842:alluvial plain 1836: 1833: 1820: 1817: 1752: 1749: 1736:drumlin fields 1702: 1699: 1685:, also called 1658: 1655: 1647: 1646: 1640: 1626: 1625: 1622: 1619: 1616: 1613: 1610: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1525:Atacama Desert 1445:Crozet Islands 1311: 1308: 1286: 1283: 1235: 1232: 1201: 1194: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1167: 1163: 1160: 1156: 1120: 1117: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1085: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1061: 1048: 1045: 1013:Emmons Glacier 964: 961: 924: 923: 910: 900: 887: 877: 864: 854: 841: 827: 826: 814: 809: 805: 801: 798: 795: 752: 749: 741:Little Ice Age 739:Following the 729: 728: 725: 722: 715: 679: 676: 607: 604: 550: 547: 443:alpine glacier 439:valley glacier 409: 406: 404: 401: 339: 336: 317:climate change 285:polar climates 233:oceanic island 29: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7898: 7887: 7884: 7882: 7881:Bodies of ice 7879: 7877: 7874: 7872: 7869: 7868: 7866: 7856: 7846: 7845: 7842: 7829: 7825: 7820: 7818: 7809: 7807: 7798: 7797: 7794: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7769: 7767: 7765: 7761: 7755: 7752: 7750: 7747: 7745: 7742: 7740: 7737: 7735: 7732: 7731: 7729: 7725: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7685: 7683: 7679: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7629: 7627: 7625:Constructions 7623: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7602:Speed skating 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7559: 7557: 7555: 7551: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7506: 7503: 7500: 7494: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7417: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7359: 7357: 7353: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7311: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7273: 7271: 7267: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7247: 7245: 7241: 7237: 7233: 7230: 7224: 7220: 7213: 7208: 7206: 7201: 7199: 7194: 7193: 7190: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7159: 7156: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7097: 7095: 7093: 7092:Glaciofluvial 7089: 7083: 7082:Veiki moraine 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7062:Rogen moraine 7060: 7058: 7057:Pulju moraine 7055: 7053: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7042:Erratic block 7040: 7038: 7035: 7034: 7032: 7028: 7022: 7021: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7004:Tunnel valley 7002: 7000: 6999:Trough valley 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6929:Crag and tail 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6911: 6909: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6896: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6871: 6869: 6865: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6850: 6848: 6844: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6812:Overdeepening 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6787:Basal sliding 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6774: 6772: 6768: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6679: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6666:Ablation zone 6664: 6663: 6661: 6657: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6592: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6575: 6570: 6568: 6563: 6561: 6556: 6555: 6552: 6540: 6539: 6530: 6528: 6527: 6518: 6516: 6515: 6506: 6504: 6503: 6492: 6491: 6488: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6457: 6454: 6453: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6441:Climate model 6439: 6437: 6434: 6433: 6431: 6427: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6379: 6376: 6375: 6374: 6373:Cloud forcing 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6328: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6318: 6316: 6312: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6287: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6270: 6266: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6231: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6216: 6214: 6210: 6204: 6201: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6183: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6153: 6151: 6149: 6148:Communication 6145: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6128:Vulnerability 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6116: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6104: 6101: 6099: 6098:Flood control 6096: 6094: 6091: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6075: 6073: 6071: 6067: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6019: 6016: 6015: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5995: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5975: 5971: 5955: 5952: 5951: 5950: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5940: 5934: 5931: 5928: 5925: 5921: 5920:reforestation 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5905:afforestation 5903: 5902: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5877: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5867: 5865: 5863: 5857: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5840:Nuclear power 5838: 5834: 5831: 5830: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5820: 5818: 5814: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5751: 5748: 5747: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5735:Carbon budget 5733: 5732: 5730: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5711: 5707: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5639: 5637: 5635: 5631: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5573: 5572:Mental health 5570: 5569: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5551: 5548: 5547: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5514: 5513:United States 5511: 5509: 5506: 5505: 5504: 5501: 5500: 5498: 5494: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5456: 5453: 5452: 5451: 5448: 5447: 5445: 5441: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5367:deoxygenation 5365: 5363: 5362:acidification 5360: 5359: 5358: 5355: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5342: 5341: 5338: 5334: 5331: 5330: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5290: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5271: 5267: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5226: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5193: 5190: 5183: 5179: 5165: 5162: 5158: 5157:from wetlands 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5117:Deforestation 5115: 5114: 5112: 5108: 5102: 5099: 5096: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5083: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5064: 5060: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5026: 5023: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5001: 4996: 4994: 4989: 4987: 4982: 4981: 4978: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4947: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925:(GEO) series. 4924: 4912:on 2018-12-25 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4898: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4871: 4870: 4867: 4866:online review 4863: 4859: 4858: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4787: 4782: 4781: 4774: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4755: 4751: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4728: 4724: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4701: 4697: 4692: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4673: 4668: 4667: 4660: 4659: 4655: 4653: 4649: 4644: 4643: 4632: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4613: 4612: 4590: 4586: 4579: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4518: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4489: 4480: 4471: 4462: 4447: 4441: 4423: 4416: 4414: 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2788: 2782: 2775: 2770: 2763: 2759: 2758:Boulton, G.S. 2754: 2746: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2721: 2719: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2690: 2676:on 2009-02-11 2675: 2671: 2667: 2661: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2616: 2608: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2582: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2553: 2542: 2538: 2531: 2527: 2521: 2507:on 2012-06-23 2506: 2502: 2496: 2482:on 2017-10-23 2481: 2477: 2471: 2456: 2450: 2442: 2436: 2432: 2431: 2423: 2415: 2411: 2406: 2401: 2396: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2371: 2357: 2353: 2347: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2325: 2318: 2317:0-7922-3877-X 2314: 2308: 2294: 2293: 2288: 2281: 2273: 2267: 2263: 2256: 2249: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2230: 2225: 2218: 2216: 2211: 2200: 2197: 2194: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2176: 2173: 2172: 2166: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2154: 2148: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2129: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2108: 2104: 2094: 2092: 2087: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2067: 2058: 2055: 2051: 2046: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1992: 1990: 1985: 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5298:Anoxic event 5211:James Hansen 4950: 4944: 4914:. Retrieved 4910:the original 4880: 4861: 4822: 4809: 4779: 4749: 4722: 4695: 4665: 4645: 4616: 4608:Bibliography 4593:. Retrieved 4588: 4578: 4527: 4523: 4517: 4505:. Retrieved 4488: 4479: 4470: 4461: 4450:. Retrieved 4440: 4429:. Retrieved 4412: 4405: 4397:Google Books 4395:– via 4381: 4374: 4358: 4310: 4306: 4295: 4272: 4228: 4224: 4198: 4160: 4118:10852/108771 4092: 4088: 4078: 4071:Huggett 2011 4066: 4055:. Retrieved 4045: 4036: 4030: 4023:Huggett 2011 4018: 4005: 3996: 3955: 3949: 3943: 3910: 3904: 3898: 3891:Huggett 2011 3876:Huggett 2011 3871: 3860:. Retrieved 3850: 3838:. Retrieved 3831:the original 3818: 3807:. Retrieved 3803:the original 3793: 3776: 3770: 3759:. Retrieved 3749: 3738:. Retrieved 3734:the original 3724: 3713:. Retrieved 3706:the original 3697: 3690: 3679:. Retrieved 3675:the original 3668: 3661: 3652: 3641:. Retrieved 3639:. 2023-07-11 3636: 3627: 3616:. Retrieved 3606: 3583: 3577: 3568: 3562: 3518: 3503: 3494: 3483:. Retrieved 3473: 3457: 3451: 3440:. 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Retrieved 2227: 2156:flew by the 2153:New Horizons 2151: 2150:In 2015, as 2149: 2125: 2090: 2088: 2072: 2047: 2031: 1993: 1981: 1911: 1899: 1889: 1875: 1846:valley train 1845: 1838: 1824: 1822: 1797: 1786: 1762: 1740: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1720: 1690: 1686: 1672: 1648: 1642: 1637:Glacial till 1636: 1631: 1627: 1604: 1573: 1565:rock glacier 1561: 1550: 1518: 1486:Banks Island 1479: 1449: 1333:subantarctic 1330: 1300: 1295:Mer de Glace 1271: 1260: 1252: 1245: 1226: 1222: 1219: 1199: 1195: 1162:where τ 1141:shear stress 1130: 1098: 1086: 1066: 1058: 1038: 1034:snow bridges 1026: 984: 978: 957:James Forbes 953: 941: 937: 828: 777:plastic flow 769: 738: 730: 709: 697: 690: 661: 654: 628:accumulation 625: 622:in Argentina 616:glacier cave 599: 587: 583: 578: 570: 566: 564: 508: 507: 488: 475: 469: 467: 460: 454: 446: 442: 438: 431: 429: 380: 369: 358: 356:Vulgar Latin 343: 341: 328:appears blue 325: 298: 293:water source 270: 218: 84: 82: 32: 7782:Pleistocene 7496:Ice-related 7407:Frost heave 7341:Stalactites 7135:Outwash fan 7130:Kettle hole 7014:Valley step 6994:Trough lake 6974:Ribbon lake 6934:Finger lake 6676:Bergschrund 6353:Carbon sink 6331:atmospheric 6196:video games 5870:Blue carbon 5503:Agriculture 5482:Marine life 5429:Water cycle 5387:temperature 5122:Fossil fuel 4873:Moon, Twila 4595:January 24, 4231:(1): 5177. 4161:climate.gov 2262:Glacier ice 2133:sublimation 2084:Great Lakes 2080:Scandinavia 1789:tributaries 1667:Lake Louise 1567:, like the 1476:, Argentina 1393:Mount Kenya 1385:Puncak Jaya 1363:glacier in 1325:Fox Glacier 1214:Lake Vostok 1030:bergschrund 600:polythermal 525:in Canada, 495:ice shelves 490:ice streams 485:ice shelves 309:cloud cover 273:fresh water 237:New Zealand 53:Ötztal Alps 7871:Glaciology 7865:Categories 7828:Wiktionary 7772:Glaciology 7727:Other uses 7597:Ice racing 7592:Ice hockey 7567:Iceboating 7498:activities 7269:Formations 7260:Superionic 7162:Glaciology 7145:Urstromtal 7125:Kame delta 7077:Till plain 6874:Jökulhlaup 6832:Starvation 6711:Ice divide 6625:Ice stream 6385:Cryosphere 6346:permafrost 6118:Resilience 6070:Adaptation 6045:Litigation 6035:Governance 5980:adaptation 5762:Carbon tax 5715:Mitigation 5652:Antarctica 5540:Disability 4916:2014-11-10 4698:. Arnold. 4537:1903.05571 4507:24 January 4452:2013-01-04 4431:2013-01-04 4057:2009-03-12 3862:2013-01-04 3809:2013-01-04 3761:2013-01-04 3740:2013-01-04 3715:2009-01-05 3681:2013-01-04 3643:2024-07-03 3618:2013-01-04 3485:2013-01-04 3442:2014-02-06 3428:"Glaciers" 3157:2164/10495 3106:2009-01-05 3027:(6): 343. 2999:(6): 365. 2907:2013-01-04 2831:2009-01-05 2793:2013-01-04 2708:2017-08-12 2680:2009-01-26 2572:2009-01-05 2511:2013-01-04 2486:2009-01-05 2461:2017-03-13 2361:2021-05-25 2298:2020-06-09 2292:Al Jazeera 2243:2020-09-04 2206:References 2008:cryosphere 1973:ice sheets 1878:stratified 1576:rock flour 1504:, lowland 1498:Quaternary 1488:, and the 1484:, such as 1463:snow lines 1460:insolation 1367:Mountain, 1355:, and the 1227:sheet flow 1188:and τ 1137:lubricated 1090:stoss side 719:ice lenses 559:Grant Land 529:, and the 499:ice tongue 471:ice sheets 397:cryosphere 393:glaciology 389:glaciation 367:Late Latin 361:glaciārium 262:Antarctica 249:New Guinea 221:ice sheets 61:Wildspitze 7855:Mountains 7539:Sculpture 7355:Phenomena 6907:Erosional 6899:Landforms 6770:Processes 6751:Randkluft 6746:Penitente 6691:Dirt cone 6620:Ice shelf 6615:Ice sheet 6610:Ice field 6400:Feedbacks 6171:Education 5672:Caribbean 5667:Australia 5594:Migration 5557:Fisheries 5508:Livestock 5434:Wildfires 5340:Heat wave 4621:Routledge 4335:1748-9326 4135:255441012 4006:nsidc.org 3935:0091-7613 3858:. Wku.edu 3357:0036-8075 2954:128734526 2699:nsidc.org 2591:nsidc.org 2414:129545865 2319:, p. 149. 2238:0190-8286 2045:change. 1984:ice cores 1765:"V" shape 1596:Mariehamn 1571:in Utah. 1522:hyperarid 1502:Manchuria 1474:Aconcagua 1452:latitudes 1433:Mauna Kea 1405:Jan Mayen 1361:Snezhnika 1341:Himalayas 1310:Geography 1223:pipe flow 1145:Meltwater 1073:dilatancy 1009:crevasses 989:crevasses 863:τ 840:Σ 804:τ 794:Σ 678:Structure 606:Formation 462:ice field 354:, to the 342:The word 321:sea level 289:meltwater 277:temperate 266:Patagonia 241:Himalayas 194:crevasses 190:centuries 41:Greenland 7876:Glaciers 7806:Category 7764:Ice ages 7718:Yakhchāl 7698:Icehouse 7524:Climbing 7519:Blocking 7514:Blasting 7432:Hair ice 7382:Crystals 7167:Category 7105:Diluvium 7100:Alpentor 7009:U-valley 6853:Ice core 6822:Plucking 6777:Ablation 6761:Terminus 6686:Crevasse 6681:Blue ice 6581:Glaciers 6526:Glossary 6514:Category 6336:biologic 6050:Politics 5942:Personal 5647:Americas 5520:Children 5286:Physical 5079:Overview 5019:Overview 4881:Science, 4821:(1994). 4800:42656957 4780:Glaciers 4768:30512475 4741:33359888 4714:38329570 4686:54371738 4666:Glaciers 4570:30903520 4562:27251279 4422:Archived 4363:Archived 4282:Archived 4263:33110092 4203:Archived 4165:Archived 4127:36603094 3980:26432248 3840:July 28, 3544:Archived 3511:Archived 3462:Archived 3373:35995169 3365:17303716 3301:21150994 2882:Archived 2652:17336434 2644:17769268 2541:Archived 2169:See also 2147:(LDAs). 2082:and the 1882:terraces 1769:U-shaped 1722:Drumlins 1701:Drumlins 1675:moraines 1673:Glacial 1657:Moraines 1557:abrasion 1553:plucking 1546:abrasion 1437:Tenerife 1401:Svalbard 1373:latitude 1369:Bulgaria 1349:Caucasus 1248:friction 1094:lee side 1079:process. 981:pressure 945:nunataks 876:= stress 829:where: 757:Ice floe 693:terminus 664:overtone 632:ablation 596:plucking 575:snowpack 539:icebergs 531:Northern 480:nunataks 435:glaciers 348:loanword 257:Pakistan 253:Zard-Kuh 206:moraines 186:ablation 73:Pakistan 7688:Cutting 7662:Pykrete 7582:Cycling 7577:Curling 7572:Cricket 7544:Skating 7534:Rafting 7529:Fishing 7509:Bathing 7452:Nucleus 7437:Jacking 7416:sea ice 7414: ( 7346:Volcano 7310:calving 7308: ( 7306:Iceberg 7301:Glacier 7047:Moraine 7037:Drumlin 6964:Nunatak 6827:Retreat 6792:Calving 6736:Moraine 6721:Icefall 6659:Anatomy 6630:Ledoyom 6605:Ice cap 6341:oceanic 6191:fiction 6040:Justice 5991:Society 5599:Poverty 5318:Drought 5186:History 5110:Sources 4650:in the 4542:Bibcode 4359:ipcc.ch 4315:Bibcode 4254:7591863 4233:Bibcode 4097:Bibcode 4089:Science 3988:4461215 3960:Bibcode 3915:Bibcode 3906:Geology 3785:1573476 3519:Science 3481:. 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