491:, and who had accepted this position in 1813 in Prussia, modeled the Prussian customs statutes on those of the former states of the Confederation. The addition of territory to the existing Prussian state made elimination of customs barriers a powerful factor in Prussian politics. The significant differences between "old" Prussia and the newly acquired territories complicated the debate. The "newer" Prussian provinces in the Rhineland and Westphalia, with their developing manufacturing sectors, contended with the heavily agricultural territories of "old" Prussia. The dissimilarities in the two sides of Prussia confirmed regional perceptions for the need for their own political and administrative units, which became an important element of the customs debate. Within "old" Prussia itself, the customs statutes from 1818 reduced domestic customs barriers. After 1818, goods coming into Prussia and leaving Prussia were charged a high tariff. Goods moved freely within the state itself. The Prussian toll was therefore very simple and efficient. Manufactured goods were heavily taxed, especially textiles, and the most important taxes were for food, necessities and luxury goods.
654:). This customs union excluded both Austria and Prussia, primarily because the two major German powers were considered too overbearing. Plans foundered on the differing interests of the affected states. While the economic development in Baden proceeded relatively well, with its long borders and well entrenched infrastructure for trade, economic development in Bavaria lagged well behind it, and the Bavarian regime enacted a protective tariff on goods produced outside its border. The result was a short lived trade agreement between Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. Nevertheless, a second agreement, reached in Stuttgart in 1825, established rapport between Württemberg and Bavaria, with the foundation of the South German Customs Union. In opposition to the Prussian activities,
423:, through which he hoped to wreck the British economy. The combination of war and isolation from Britain's trading system destroyed markets for external raw materials and for manufactured goods, resulting in the near ruin of the Central European economy. Especially hard hit were the trading economies of the Lowlands and Rhineland states, which had relied heavily upon imports of raw materials from throughout the world, and on the export of finished products. The domestic markets in Central Europe were not large enough to sustain consumption of their own production. These problems were dramatically exacerbated by the numerous excise taxes and tolls which were the main source of state income. Reduction in trade meant the near bankruptcy of the smaller states.
563:
434: – confirmed the remapping of Europe, and broadly, the rest of the world, into spheres of influence. Central Europe, or German-speaking Europe, remained largely within the influence of the Austrian Habsburgs, balanced at the periphery by the Russian empire in the east, and the French in the west. Prussia was expected to play some role in these spheres of influence, but the ambiguities of the Austrian and Prussian relationship were unresolved. The German states retained autonomy; however, the old imperial institution of the
518:. On the one hand, adherents to the Malthusian model believed it was dangerous for Britain to rely on imported corn, because lower prices would reduce wages, and landlords and farmers would lose purchasing power. On the other hand, adherents to the Ricardian model thought that Britain could use its capital and population to advantage in a system of free trade. The problems in Britain established precedent for problems in the German states; the British limitation on grain imports, through the
581:
40:
261:
539:
2459:
630:
through the statutes of ten states, study ten tolls and toll barriers, ten times go through the toll barriers, and ten times pay the tolls. Who but the unfortunate has to negotiate such borders? To live with such borders? Where three or four states collide, there one must live his whole life under evil, senseless tolls and toll restrictions. That is no
Fatherland!
617:
their income from the customs. The impasse was overcome through external forces. With the repeal of the
Continental System, the German tradesmen stood in direct conflict with the English industry. A united German Trade and Tradesmens Union demanded protection from English exports. Their spokesman, the economist
662:, Hesse, and other states (Austria, France, Great Britain, and the Netherlands), developed their own economic agreements. While they promised one another not to join the Prussian union, they did develop trade agreements of their own. The Union remained unsuccessful, because it only sought to maintain the
629:
The 38 toll barriers in
Germany cripple domestic traffic and bring more or less the same results: how if every limb of the human body were bound together, so that blood could not flow from one limb to the other? In order to trade from Hamburg to Austria, from Berlin to the Swiss Cantons, one must cut
362:
family territories in southwestern
Central Europe were "mediatized", or given as compensation, to the princes and dukes who had lost territories in the French expansion. Most of the imperial cities, imperial abbeys, and ecclesiastical states and cities were mediatized or secularized in 1803. With the
1386:
on German unification may have been more incidental because it never intended to be a political platform but focused on the economy. As it constituted the main feature of Berlin's "German policy" for many years, Prussian ministers and other government officials became accustomed to think in terms of
509:
These problems were exacerbated by
European wide economic woes following the Napoleonic Wars. Unemployment and high prices, especially for foodstuffs, characterized an economy not yet converted back to peacetime needs. The problem in Britain was particularly severe and the British response created a
616:
Surmounting the domestic customs, and the individual states' dependence on those customs as their primary source of income, proved to be a difficult problem. The myriad of customs barriers restricted trade and hampered the industrial development, but the rulers of the states were reluctant to forgo
378:
created a larger market for German-made farm and handicraft products and promoted commercial unification under fiscally sound economic parameters. While the Union sought to limit trade and commercial barriers between and among member states, it continued to uphold the protectionist barriers against
1394:
may not even have been instrumental in bringing about
Prussia's economic preeminence in Germany. They argue that nothing seems to indicate that industrial investments increased decisively during the period in Prussia, or that the customs union played a significant role in reducing the dominance of
1370:
set the groundwork for the unification of
Germany under Prussian guidance. This traditional view is disputed by historians such as Hans-Joachim Voth who contend that far from allowing Prussia to increase its political influence over the smaller states, the customs union may have had the contrary
499:
acquisitions by territories newly acquired by other states. These states often saw their own interests as conflicting generally and specifically with
Prussian expansionism, and resented Prussian dominance and authority. Furthermore, these newly expanded states, usually referred as "middle-sized
494:
Similarly, in the southwest German states, it became urgent to integrate the newly acquired territories into the states' existing economic systems. The territorial growth of the southwestern middle-sized states, in particular the two
Hessian principalities, but also the growth of Baden and
305:, for example, a shipment was inspected and taxed about 80 times. Each customs inspection at each border slowed the shipment's progress from source to destination, and each assessment on the shipment reduced profit and increased the price of goods, dramatically stifling trade.
454:, but did not deal with the economic circumstances, nor did it make any effort to achieve economic and trade standardization. Instead, the articles that established the Confederation suggested that trade and transportation questions be discussed at a later date.
596:
At the close of the
Napoleonic Wars, Germany was made up of 39 states, among them four city-states. Having abolished its own internal tariffs in 1818, Prussia began inviting individual states to eliminate tariffs, with the agreements setting the foundation for
625:, later president of the Ducal Ministry in the Grand Duchy of Baden and the author of Baden's 1819 proposed customs initiative with the German Confederation, offered a widely publicized description about the difficulties of surmounting such protections:
522:, blocked economic recovery in the German states, particularly in eastern Prussia, by limiting the amount of grain that could be imported into Britain. Not only did the Corn Laws keep the price of grain in Britain high, they undermined the viability of
613:. It was formed to remove the various obstacles (such as different weights and measures in German states) to economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes, creating a national unity in economic matter at a time when Germany was divided.
372:: first, as a political tool to eliminate Austrian influence in Germany; second, as a way to improve the economies; and third, to strengthen Germany against potential French aggression while reducing the economic independence of smaller states. The
529:
The commercial reform efforts sponsored by Bavaria in 1856 led to the General German Commercial Code in 1861 that was quickly approved by a majority of the confederation. It proved highly successful in reducing barriers and increasing trade.
296:
in Central Europe, there were approximately 1800 customs barriers. Even within the Prussian state itself, there were, at the beginning of the 19th century, more than 67 local customs and tariffs, with as many customs borders. To travel from
1351:
was the most important institutional development for Germany's economic unification during the middle of the 19th century. It had a strong impact on regional development, changing regional fortunes by the opening and closing of markets."
677:
was formed in 1834 as a customs union first of the Duchy of Brunswick and the Kingdom of Hanover, then with the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg in 1836. By 1835, the German Customs Union had expanded to include the majority of the states of the
482:
were leaders in the modernization of the toll system within the German states. In the Prussian case, the experience of the Confederation of the Rhine in removing customs barriers offered an example of how it could be done, and
682:, even Saxony, the Thuringian states, Württemberg and Baden, Bavaria, and the Hessian states. Functionally, it removed many internal customs barriers, while upholding a protectionist tariff system with foreign trade partners.
919:
1451:
418:
offered a semblance of unified effort toward a widespread domestic market for European goods. However, the main purpose of the Continental System was military, not economic. Napoleon wanted a trade embargo against
1371:
effect: many governments used the increased revenue brought by the customs union to try to consolidate their independence. The smaller states entered the customs union for purely fiscal reasons, and as the
2502:
1327:
495:
Württemberg, had split the territorial continuity of Prussia; the Prussian state was no longer linked entirely by territory, but rather was separated from many of its
210:
covered states of approximately 425,000 square kilometres (164,000 sq mi), and had produced economic agreements with several non-German states, including
2497:
196:
trade policy, the unwillingness to split its customs territory into the separate Austrian, Hungarian and Galician-Lodomerian ones, as well as due to opposition of
1590:
924:
344:). This last piece of major legislation enacted by the Holy Roman Empire re-arranged the map of Central Europe, especially in the southwestern territories. The
450:, called for the abolition of domestic tolls and the creation of a German tariff on imports. The mandate from the Vienna Congress, however, established the
442:
to meet in Frankfurt. The Habsburg archdukes, now Emperors of Austria, were to serve as permanent presidents of this institution. Isolated voices, such as
1379:
did not in the least lead to any form of political commitment toward Berlin, as many states remained suspicious of Prussia and generally pro-Austrian.
1187:. At the same time, the original East Prussian cradle of the Prussian statehood as well as Prussian-held Polish- or Kashubian-speaking territories of
576:
Cotta played an important role in the development of the south German customs agreement and also negotiated the Prussian Hessian Customs agreements.
1955:
510:
ripple effect that worsened problems in the German states: In trying to manage the post-war economy, the British government was caught between the
382:
According to economic historian Florian Ploeckl, the commonly accepted view among economic historians is that Prussia was motivated to create
506:), faced problems in integrating their newly acquired territories and populations into an existing political, economic and legal structure.
1512:
2517:
141:, it formally started on 1 January 1834. However, its foundations had been in development from 1818 with the creation of a variety of
2507:
2245:
1404:
1721:
Bittschrift des Allgemeinen Deutschen Handels- und Gewerbevereins an die Bundesversammlung vom 20. April 1819 gemäß Friedrich List:
1497:
1438:
The Evolution of the Zollverein: A Study of the Ideals and Institutions Leading to German Economic Unification between 1815 and 1833
354:, i.e. the annexation to larger neighboring territories, of many of the formerly free imperial territories, including most of the
609:
territories, and ensuring economic contact between non-contiguous holdings of the Hohenzollern family, also the ruling family of
31:
363:
final dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, most of the remaining tiny principalities were annexed by larger neighbors.
1532:
1948:
1761:
17:
1330:
in 1888 it negotiated the exemption of an area of 4 square miles at the centre of its port, which remained outside of the
2139:
1413:
1242:
907:
815:
754:
1183:, in which Austria is forced to dissolve the German Confederation and is excluded from its successor, the Prussian-led
2015:
121:
638:
planned to start a customs union among the so-called Third Germany: the middle-sized German states, including itself,
2512:
1734:
1674:
941:
treaties are negotiated and concluded; the treaties act to merge SGCU, PHCU, and CCUTS into a unified customs union.
728:
Baden proposes a customs union organized through the German Confederation. The proposal fails at the Frankfurt Diet.
447:
30:
This article is about the historical German customs union. For the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site in Essen, see
2482:
2275:
1387:
Germany as a whole and to look beyond specifically Prussian benefits when looking for a consensus across Germany.
2438:
2280:
1941:
799:
720:
establishes an internal customs union throughout its state and Hohenzollern territories in southwestern Germany.
2265:
2160:
1234:
788:
621:, feared that the German people would end up as "drawers of water and hewers of wood for Britain". Similarly,
2290:
2048:
669:
In 1834, Baden and Württemberg joined the Prussian union, which was renamed the German Customs Union. The
2487:
2285:
2229:
851:
219:
2250:
1216:
1196:
2320:
2058:
2031:
1184:
1012:
855:
774:
403:
268:. At the turn of the 19th century, this group of territories was transformed into three larger powers:
201:
1417:
which ironically compares the economic advantages of a customs union to the political unity which the
2355:
2270:
2180:
847:
731:
2010:
770:
635:
471:
431:
273:
2433:
2310:
1837:
Ploeckl, Florian (2013-07-01). "The internal impact of a customs union; Baden and the Zollverein".
265:
112:
484:
2492:
2376:
2255:
2189:
2131:
1146:
839:
819:
622:
2169:
2522:
2325:
2300:
2211:
1964:
1361:
1122:
996:
835:
831:
589:
571:
321:
1524:
895:
2305:
1554:
899:
823:
606:
488:
197:
2428:
2350:
2330:
2315:
2198:
2151:
2036:
1418:
976:
784:
705:
679:
647:
639:
475:
467:
451:
325:
281:
269:
255:
152:
89:
2407:
8:
2371:
2295:
2220:
2207:
1372:
1319:
1258:
1180:
1068:
887:
811:
651:
515:
463:
288:
The splintering of territory and states over generations meant that by the 1790s in the
2396:
2083:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1807:
1799:
1479:
1154:
1106:
1090:
1038:
863:
843:
807:
780:
766:
717:
655:
643:
610:
479:
427:
415:
387:
277:
179:
562:
2340:
2260:
2103:
2005:
1811:
1791:
1730:
1670:
1528:
1483:
1471:
1224:
1188:
1150:
960:
891:
803:
659:
350:
resulted in the secularization of many ecclesiastical territories, and the so-called
293:
251:
211:
129:
791:(PHCU). The states that previously joined the Prussian customs system are included.
2121:
2112:
1846:
1824:
1786:
1781:
1773:
1520:
1463:
1077:
324:, there was a general consolidation of the myriad of tiny states in Germany in the
313:
443:
2423:
2402:
2389:
1983:
1978:
1301:
1262:
1130:
980:
827:
743:
355:
289:
183:
173:
164:
was the first instance in history in which independent states consummated a full
2463:
2418:
2382:
1289:
1238:
859:
618:
542:
420:
218:
in 1871, the Empire assumed the control of the customs union. However, not all
165:
1850:
1640:
1467:
406:, and the other satellite creations of Napoleonic France, sought to establish
2476:
2414:
2063:
1795:
1475:
1272:
1165:
1134:
1027:
972:
867:
708:
leaves the question of economic and customs authority to future negotiation.
511:
215:
193:
514:
understanding of the relationship of wages, prices, and population, and the
298:
2335:
2053:
1220:
1212:
1192:
674:
580:
142:
1591:"A Novel Institution: The Zollverein and the Origins of the Customs Union"
1452:"A novel institution: the Zollverein and the origins of the customs union"
39:
2345:
1933:
1867:, Perrin, Paris, 2009, p. 469, p. 880 (notes 8–9).(French translation of
526:
producers in east Prussia, and limited their access to external markets.
457:
430:
in 1814 and 1815, diplomats – principally those from the
366:
Historians have analyzed three Prussian goals in the development of the
151:
included most of the German states. The Zollverein was not part of the
1803:
1305:
1053:
567:
552:
411:
390:
in customs administration, thus leading to substantial fiscal savings.
260:
233:
169:
2093:
1326:
was stronger, in that no individual state had a veto. When eventually
1318:
The original customs union was not ended in 1866 with outbreak of the
538:
2444:
1498:"Germany - The age of Metternich and the era of unification, 1815–71"
1292:
join the customs union, seventeen years after political unification.
519:
399:
1777:
1366:
According to economic historians Helmut Böhme and H.-U. Wehler, the
1015:
is agreed to in order to standardise currency conversion within the
1081:("Lesser Germany") solution for political unification is proposed.
359:
1285:
1030:
throughout the southwestern states, Saxony and parts of Prussia.
903:
879:
27 May: Commercial alliance between the SGCU and PHCU is formed.
602:
407:
302:
236:
was a state independent of the German Empire, it remained in the
229:
182:
was the primary driver behind the creation of the customs union.
58:
1334:. Bremen (which includes Bremerhaven) had a similar agreement.
317:
309:
125:
1667:"The Age of Reform, 1815–1870," The Oxford history of England
330:
Principal Conclusion of the Extraordinary Imperial Delegation
1322:, but a substantial reorganization emerged in 1867. The new
393:
1555:
Das Armutsproblem im deutschen Vormärz bei Friedrich List
1440:(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1949) pp. 9–10.
1172:, linking the German members to the Scandinavian market.
802:(CGCU) is formed by central and northern German states (
458:
Problems with unifying the customs and toll agreements
2503:
Intergovernmental organizations established by treaty
1560:
Kölner Vorträge zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte
1355:
920:
Customs and Commercial Union of the Thuringian States
1631:, 2. Auflage, Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 1983, p. 257.
1511:
Harmsen, Robert; Högenauer, Anna-Lena (2020-02-28),
666:, not to fix the problems created by toll barriers.
601:cementing strong economic ties between the various
462:Prussia and the central and southwestern states of
335:
Hauptschluss der außerordentlichen Reichsdeputation
1199:are formally incorporated into the confederation.
487:, who until 1811 had been the Finance Minister in
1923:, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1949.
1149:with Denmark over the autonomy of the duchies of
168:without the simultaneous creation of a political
2474:
1729:4. Auflage. Leske+Budrich, Opladen 1994, S. 166
1510:
549:(1839 oil painting by Caroline Hövemeyer at the
132:within their territories. Organized by the 1833
2498:1834 establishments in the German Confederation
1211:is reconstituted with its territory enlarge by
1949:
963:is introduced to facilitate revenue-sharing.
438:was converted to the form of a Confederation
414:sought to secure his hegemony in Europe, the
402:toward economic unity had mixed success. The
1723:Schriften, Reden Briefe, Bd. 1, Berlin 1929.
1669:13, 2nd Ed., Oxford : Clarendon Press,
501:
373:
367:
345:
339:
333:
237:
223:
205:
187:
159:
146:
134:
101:
27:Economic union of German states (1834–1919)
1963:
1956:
1942:
398:During the Napoleonic Era, efforts in the
320:, Austrian and German forces, and annexed
1916:Winter 1991, vol. 53(2) pp. 285–302.
1785:
1405:August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben
1390:According to revisionist historians, the
1908:David T. Murphy, "Prussian aims for the
1818:
1571:David T. Murphy, "Prussian aims for the
1517:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics
1071:. Propositions are made for a political
918:Some of the states of the CGCU form the
579:
561:
537:
259:
38:
1836:
1643:bei documentarchiv.de. See also Hahn,
1588:
1525:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1041
1449:
1375:were to demonstrate, membership in the
394:Initial efforts at a single-toll system
77: Austrian possessions outside the
32:Zollverein Coal Mine Industrial Complex
14:
2475:
1759:
1689:
1395:agriculture in the kingdom's economy.
1168:signs a free trade agreement with the
145:among the German states. By 1866, the
1937:
1699:, Volume 21, W-X-Y-Z, 1973, page 501.
1300:The German Empire is replaced by the
111:
1328:Hamburg acceded to the Customs Union
280:. (The territories which became the
200:to the idea. By the founding of the
1762:"The Luxemburg Chamber of Deputies"
1513:"Luxembourg and the European Union"
746:joins the Prussian customs system.
734:joins the Prussian customs system.
264:Map of the south German states and
24:
2016:States of the German Confederation
1895:
1456:Journal of Institutional Economics
1356:Role in the unification of Germany
1342:
757:joins the Prussian Customs Union.
533:
25:
2534:
2518:Organizations established in 1834
1766:American Political Science Review
1579:Winter 1991, Vol. 53#2 pp 285–302
232:for example). Conversely, though
2457:
1839:Explorations in Economic History
1725:, found in Manfred Görtenmaker:
1708:Friedrich List, found in Wehler,
1629:Lexikon der deutschen Geschichte
1398:
1921:The Evolution of the Zollverein
1883:
1874:
1857:
1830:
1753:
1740:
1727:Deutschland im 19. Jahrhundert.
1715:
1702:
1680:
1659:
1650:
1634:
957:comes formally into existence.
953:treaties enter into force; the
800:Central German Commercial Union
410:in European trade. By 1806, as
358:. Considerable portions of the
69: Areas included until 1866
1627:. In: Gerhard Taddey (Hrsg.):
1617:
1600:
1582:
1565:
1546:
1504:
1490:
1443:
1430:
1145:Prussia and Austria engage in
789:Prussian-Hessian Customs Union
646:, and the two Hessian states (
13:
1:
2291:Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust
1562:– volume 13, Köln 1971, S. 4.
1424:
1347:According to one study, "The
341:Reichsdeputationshauptschluss
245:
2508:Germany–Luxembourg relations
214:. After the founding of the
7:
2439:Schleswig–Holstein question
2286:Friedrich Daniel Bassermann
1697:The World Book Encyclopedia
1665:Woodward, E.L., Sir (1962)
1519:, Oxford University Press,
1137:to standardise currencies.
787:(Hesse-Darmstadt) form the
685:
328:. This was also called the
322:territories up to the Rhine
10:
2539:
2321:Karl August von Hardenberg
2059:North German Confederation
2032:Confederation of the Rhine
1359:
1185:North German Confederation
1013:Dresden Coinage Convention
775:South German Customs Union
404:Confederation of the Rhine
249:
202:North German Confederation
88: Borders of the 1828
29:
2454:
2364:
2238:
2072:
2049:German Empire (1848–1849)
2024:
1971:
1928:German History, 1770–1866
1851:10.1016/j.eeh.2013.05.001
1589:Ploeckl, Florian (2019).
1468:10.1017/S1744137420000387
1450:Ploeckl, Florian (2020).
1337:
1125:is concluded between the
848:Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
732:Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
2513:Legal history of Germany
2434:Greater Austria proposal
1710:Gesellschaftsgeschichte,
1217:Lauenburg and Bütow Land
1197:Lauenburg and Bütow Land
779:14 February: By treaty,
500:states" (or, in German,
266:province of Hohenzollern
220:states within the Empire
113:[ˈtsɔlfɛɐ̯ˌʔaɪn]
2483:19th century in Germany
2377:Austro-Prussian rivalry
2190:"Blood and Iron" speech
2161:Greater Poland uprising
2132:Frankfurter Wachensturm
1787:2027/hvd.32044082331042
1695:”Zollverein”, entry in
1612:Gesellschaftsgeschichte
1421:had failed to achieve.
1414:Der deutsche Zollverein
983:(10 December) join the
765:18 January: By treaty,
623:Karl Friedrich Nebenius
2390:Das Lied der Deutschen
2326:Klemens von Metternich
2301:Johann Gottlieb Fichte
2011:Kingdom of Württemberg
1965:Unification of Germany
1362:Unification of Germany
1123:Vienna Monetary Treaty
832:Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
632:
593:
577:
559:
502:
374:
368:
346:
340:
334:
285:
238:
224:
206:
192:because of its highly
188:
186:was excluded from the
160:
158:The foundation of the
147:
135:
102:
96:
2306:Johann Gustav Droysen
2276:Frederick William III
1865:Histoire de la Prusse
1760:Putnam, Ruth (1920).
900:Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
794:24 September: By the
704:Establishment of the
627:
583:
565:
541:
485:Hans, Count von Bülow
338:, usually called the
326:Mediatization of 1803
263:
198:Prince von Metternich
120:, was a coalition of
42:
2429:German reunification
2351:Wilhelm von Humboldt
2316:John, King of Saxony
2281:Frederick William IV
2230:Treaty of Versailles
2199:Second Schleswig War
2170:Punctation of Olmütz
2152:Frankfurt Parliament
2037:German Confederation
1625:Deutscher Zollverein
1610:, p. 111f.; Wehler,
1419:German Confederation
1243:Mecklenburg-Strelitz
1075:economic union. The
908:Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
785:Grand Duchy of Hesse
755:Mecklenburg-Schwerin
706:German Confederation
680:German Confederation
452:German Confederation
386:in order to achieve
282:Grand Duchy of Hesse
256:German mediatisation
153:German Confederation
118:German Customs Union
90:German Confederation
18:German Customs Union
2296:Heinrich von Gagern
2221:Franco-Prussian War
2208:Austro-Prussian War
1889:Clark, pp. 469–470.
1863:Christopher Clark,
1409:Unpolitische Lieder
1320:Austro-Prussian War
1284:The city-states of
1259:Franco-Prussian War
1181:Austro-Prussian War
301:in East Prussia to
2488:Economy of Prussia
2464:Germany portal
2397:Die Wacht am Rhein
2181:Dresden Conference
2084:Congress of Vienna
2001:Kingdom of Prussia
1996:Kingdom of Hanover
1991:Kingdom of Bavaria
1926:James J. Sheehan,
1552:Friedrich Seidel:
1411:, a song entitled
1407:published, in his
1382:The impact of the
1235:Schleswig-Holstein
594:
590:German unification
578:
560:
448:Freiherr vom Stein
428:Congress of Vienna
416:Continental System
388:economies of scale
347:Reichshauptschluss
286:
97:
2470:
2469:
2408:Lützow Free Corps
2341:Otto von Bismarck
2261:Eduard von Simson
2104:Wartburg Festival
2006:Kingdom of Saxony
1919:Arnold H. Price,
1901:W. O. Henderson,
1656:Berding, p. 535f.
1534:978-0-19-022863-7
1500:. Britannica.com.
1436:Arnold H. Price,
1403:In 1840 the poet
1316:
1315:
1225:Province of Posen
1189:Province of Posen
910:) join the SGCU.
294:Holy Roman Empire
252:Holy Roman Empire
222:were part of the
130:economic policies
124:formed to manage
16:(Redirected from
2530:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2411:
2227:
2218:
2205:
2196:
2187:
2178:
2167:
2158:
2149:
2142:
2128:
2122:Hambach Festival
2119:
2113:Carlsbad Decrees
2110:
2101:
2090:
2081:
1987:
1958:
1951:
1944:
1935:
1934:
1890:
1887:
1881:
1878:
1872:
1861:
1855:
1854:
1834:
1828:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1789:
1757:
1751:
1744:
1738:
1719:
1713:
1706:
1700:
1693:
1687:
1684:
1678:
1663:
1657:
1654:
1648:
1638:
1632:
1621:
1615:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1595:
1586:
1580:
1569:
1563:
1550:
1544:
1543:
1542:
1541:
1508:
1502:
1501:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1447:
1441:
1434:
1078:Kleindeutschland
1069:1848 Revolutions
928:
796:Treaty of Kassel
690:
689:
557:
505:
377:
371:
349:
343:
337:
332:(or, in German,
314:Second Coalition
284:are also shown.)
241:
227:
209:
191:
163:
150:
138:
115:
110:
105:
87:
76:
68:
56:
49:
21:
2538:
2537:
2533:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2528:
2527:
2473:
2472:
2471:
2466:
2458:
2456:
2450:
2424:German question
2405:
2403:Flag of Germany
2372:Alsace–Lorraine
2360:
2246:Baron von Stein
2234:
2225:
2216:
2212:Peace of Prague
2203:
2194:
2185:
2176:
2165:
2156:
2147:
2140:
2126:
2117:
2108:
2099:
2088:
2079:
2068:
2020:
1984:Austria-Hungary
1981:
1979:Austrian Empire
1967:
1962:
1898:
1896:Further reading
1893:
1888:
1884:
1879:
1875:
1862:
1858:
1835:
1831:
1823:
1819:
1778:10.2307/1943854
1758:
1754:
1745:
1741:
1720:
1716:
1707:
1703:
1694:
1690:
1686:Woodward, p. 61
1685:
1681:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1651:
1639:
1635:
1622:
1618:
1605:
1601:
1593:
1587:
1583:
1570:
1566:
1551:
1547:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1509:
1505:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1448:
1444:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1401:
1364:
1358:
1345:
1343:Economic impact
1340:
1302:Weimar Republic
1263:Alsace-Lorraine
975:(20 February),
922:
906:(an exclave of
898:(an exclave of
894:join the PHCU;
744:Duchy of Anhalt
688:
648:Hesse-Darmstadt
575:
572:Johann F. Cotta
558:
548:
546:
536:
534:1820s and 1830s
516:Ricardian model
468:Hesse-Darmstadt
460:
396:
356:imperial cities
258:
248:
108:
95:
92:
85:
81:
74:
70:
66:
62:
54:
43:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2536:
2526:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2493:Customs unions
2490:
2485:
2468:
2467:
2455:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2448:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2419:Lesser Germany
2412:
2400:
2393:
2386:
2383:Burschenschaft
2379:
2374:
2368:
2366:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2271:Franz Joseph I
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2242:
2240:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2232:
2223:
2214:
2201:
2192:
2183:
2174:
2173:
2172:
2163:
2154:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2124:
2115:
2106:
2086:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2069:
2067:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2039:
2034:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2021:
2019:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1975:
1973:
1969:
1968:
1961:
1960:
1953:
1946:
1938:
1932:
1931:
1924:
1917:
1912:, 1828–1833",
1906:
1903:The Zollverein
1897:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1882:
1880:Clark, p. 470.
1873:
1856:
1845:(3): 387–404.
1829:
1817:
1772:(4): 607–634.
1752:
1748:Deutscher Bund
1739:
1714:
1701:
1688:
1679:
1658:
1649:
1633:
1616:
1599:
1581:
1575:, 1828–1833",
1564:
1545:
1533:
1503:
1489:
1462:(2): 305–319.
1442:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1400:
1397:
1373:events of 1866
1360:Main article:
1357:
1354:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1314:
1313:
1298:
1294:
1293:
1282:
1278:
1277:
1257:Following the
1255:
1251:
1250:
1239:Saxe-Lauenburg
1232:
1228:
1227:
1205:
1201:
1200:
1178:
1174:
1173:
1163:
1159:
1158:
1143:
1139:
1138:
1119:
1115:
1114:
1103:
1099:
1098:
1087:
1083:
1082:
1066:
1062:
1061:
1051:
1047:
1046:
1036:
1032:
1031:
1025:
1021:
1020:
1009:
1005:
1004:
993:
989:
988:
970:
966:
965:
947:
943:
942:
935:
931:
930:
916:
912:
911:
885:
881:
880:
877:
873:
872:
840:Saxe-Meiningen
820:Saxe-Altenburg
763:
759:
758:
752:
748:
747:
741:
737:
736:
726:
722:
721:
714:
710:
709:
702:
698:
697:
694:
687:
684:
619:Friedrich List
547:
543:Friedrich List
535:
532:
459:
456:
395:
392:
247:
244:
166:economic union
94:
93:
84:
82:
73:
71:
65:
63:
53:
50:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2535:
2524:
2523:Pan-Germanism
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2465:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2416:
2415:Pan-Germanism
2413:
2409:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2398:
2394:
2392:
2391:
2387:
2385:
2384:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2363:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2311:Archduke John
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2243:
2241:
2237:
2231:
2224:
2222:
2215:
2213:
2209:
2202:
2200:
2193:
2191:
2184:
2182:
2175:
2171:
2164:
2162:
2155:
2153:
2146:
2145:
2144:
2138:
2134:
2133:
2125:
2123:
2116:
2114:
2107:
2105:
2098:
2097:
2096:
2095:
2087:
2085:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2065:
2064:German Empire
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1954:
1952:
1947:
1945:
1940:
1939:
1936:
1929:
1925:
1922:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1904:
1900:
1899:
1886:
1877:
1870:
1866:
1860:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1826:
1821:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1749:
1743:
1736:
1735:3-8100-1336-6
1732:
1728:
1724:
1718:
1711:
1705:
1698:
1692:
1683:
1676:
1675:0-19-821711-0
1672:
1668:
1662:
1653:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1630:
1626:
1623:Rudolf Renz:
1620:
1613:
1609:
1603:
1592:
1585:
1578:
1574:
1568:
1561:
1557:
1556:
1549:
1536:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1507:
1499:
1493:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1446:
1439:
1433:
1429:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1415:
1410:
1406:
1399:In literature
1396:
1393:
1388:
1385:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1363:
1353:
1350:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1280:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1273:German Empire
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1253:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1229:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1203:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1166:Sweden-Norway
1164:
1161:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1141:
1140:
1136:
1135:Liechtenstein
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1089:7 September:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1079:
1074:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1033:
1029:
1028:Potato blight
1026:
1023:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1007:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
991:
990:
986:
982:
979:(12 May) and
978:
974:
973:Hesse-Homburg
971:
968:
967:
964:
962:
961:German census
956:
952:
948:
945:
944:
940:
936:
933:
932:
926:
921:
917:
914:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
886:
883:
882:
878:
875:
874:
871:
869:
868:Hesse-Homburg
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
792:
790:
786:
782:
776:
772:
768:
764:
761:
760:
756:
753:
750:
749:
745:
742:
739:
738:
735:
733:
727:
724:
723:
719:
715:
712:
711:
707:
703:
700:
699:
695:
692:
691:
683:
681:
676:
672:
667:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
631:
626:
624:
620:
614:
612:
608:
604:
600:
591:
587:
582:
573:
569:
564:
555:
554:
551:Heimatmuseum
544:
540:
531:
527:
525:
521:
517:
513:
507:
504:
503:Mittelstaaten
498:
492:
490:
486:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
455:
453:
449:
445:
444:Joseph Görres
441:
437:
433:
429:
424:
422:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
391:
389:
385:
380:
376:
370:
364:
361:
357:
353:
352:mediatization
348:
342:
336:
331:
327:
323:
319:
316:, made up of
315:
312:defeated the
311:
306:
304:
300:
295:
291:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
262:
257:
253:
243:
240:
235:
231:
226:
221:
217:
216:German Empire
213:
212:Sweden–Norway
208:
204:in 1867, the
203:
199:
195:
194:protectionist
190:
185:
181:
177:
175:
171:
167:
162:
156:
155:(1815-1866).
154:
149:
144:
143:custom unions
140:
137:
131:
127:
123:
122:German states
119:
114:
106:
104:
91:
83:
80:
72:
64:
60:
52:
51:
47:
41:
37:
33:
19:
2443:
2395:
2388:
2381:
2336:Napoleon III
2256:Christian IX
2210: /
2130:
2092:
2054:Erfurt Union
2042:
2041:
1927:
1920:
1913:
1909:
1902:
1885:
1876:
1869:Iron Kingdom
1868:
1864:
1859:
1842:
1838:
1832:
1820:
1769:
1765:
1755:
1747:
1742:
1726:
1722:
1717:
1712:v.2, p. 133.
1709:
1704:
1696:
1691:
1682:
1666:
1661:
1652:
1644:
1636:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1614:v.2, p. 126.
1611:
1607:
1602:
1584:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1559:
1558:. Found in:
1553:
1548:
1538:, retrieved
1516:
1506:
1492:
1459:
1455:
1445:
1437:
1432:
1412:
1408:
1402:
1391:
1389:
1383:
1381:
1376:
1367:
1365:
1348:
1346:
1331:
1323:
1317:
1309:
1270:
1266:
1246:
1221:West Prussia
1213:East Prussia
1208:
1193:West Prussia
1169:
1147:a border war
1126:
1121:24 January:
1110:
1094:
1076:
1072:
1057:
1042:
1016:
1000:
984:
958:
954:
950:
938:
888:Hesse-Kassel
812:Hesse-Kassel
795:
793:
778:
730:25 October:
729:
675:Steuerverein
670:
668:
663:
652:Hesse-Kassel
633:
628:
615:
607:Hohenzollern
598:
595:
585:
550:
545:, economist.
528:
523:
508:
496:
493:
464:Hesse-Kassel
461:
439:
435:
432:Great Powers
425:
397:
383:
381:
365:
351:
329:
307:
287:
242:until 1919.
228:until 1888 (
178:
157:
133:
117:
100:
98:
78:
45:
36:
2346:Robert Blum
2143:Revolutions
1645:Zollverein,
1308:leaves the
1275:is formed.
995:2 January:
949:1 January:
937:March–May:
923: [
852:Reuss-Greiz
824:Saxe-Coburg
816:Saxe-Weimar
771:Württemberg
636:Württemberg
472:Württemberg
379:outsiders.
274:Württemberg
48:, 1834–1919
2477:Categories
2043:Zollverein
1914:Historian,
1910:Zollverein
1641:Bundesakte
1608:Fallstudie
1577:Historian,
1573:Zollverein
1540:2020-03-05
1425:References
1392:Zollverein
1384:Zollverein
1377:Zollverein
1368:Zollverein
1349:Zollverein
1332:Zollverein
1324:Zollverein
1310:Zollverein
1306:Luxembourg
1267:Zollverein
1265:joins the
1247:Zollverein
1209:Zollverein
1170:Zollverein
1127:Zollverein
1111:Zollverein
1109:joins the
1095:Zollverein
1093:joins the
1058:Zollverein
1056:joins the
1054:Luxembourg
1043:Zollverein
1041:joins the
1017:Zollverein
1001:Zollverein
999:joins the
985:Zollverein
955:Zollverein
951:Zollverein
939:Zollverein
896:Königsberg
856:Reuss-Gera
664:status quo
599:Zollverein
586:Zollverein
568:lithograph
553:Reutlingen
512:Malthusian
489:Westphalia
412:Napoleon I
384:Zollverein
375:Zollverein
369:Zollverein
299:Königsberg
292:-speaking
250:See also:
246:Background
239:Zollverein
234:Luxembourg
225:Zollverein
207:Zollverein
189:Zollverein
170:federation
161:Zollverein
148:Zollverein
136:Zollverein
109:pronounced
103:Zollverein
79:Zollverein
46:Zollverein
2445:Sonderweg
2356:Wilhelm I
2331:Ludwig II
2251:Charles I
2217:1870–1871
2177:1850-1851
2148:1848–1849
2089:1815–1848
2080:1814–1815
1812:147639497
1796:0003-0554
1746:Angelow,
1606:Fischer,
1484:211238300
1476:1744-1374
1245:join the
1155:Schleswig
1107:Oldenburg
1105:1 March:
1039:Brunswick
1011:30 July:
997:Frankfurt
929:(CCUTS).
864:Oldenburg
844:Brunswick
836:Frankfurt
773:form the
696:Event(s)
671:Tax Union
634:In 1820,
520:Corn Laws
436:Reichstag
400:Rhineland
1930:(1993).
1905:(1959).
1871:(2006)).
1825:Columbia
1750:, S. 63.
1677:, p. 61.
1223:and the
1195:and the
1151:Holstein
1129:states,
783:and the
777:(SGCU).
716:26 May:
686:Timeline
603:Prussian
360:Habsburg
139:treaties
2365:Related
2266:Franz I
2094:Vormärz
1982:(later
1804:1943854
1286:Hamburg
1131:Austria
1091:Hanover
1065:1848–49
1024:1840–47
904:Ostheim
808:Hanover
781:Prussia
767:Bavaria
718:Prussia
656:Hanover
644:Bavaria
611:Prussia
480:Bavaria
426:At the
421:Britain
408:autarky
318:Russian
303:Cologne
278:Bavaria
230:Hamburg
184:Austria
180:Prussia
126:tariffs
61:in 1834
59:Prussia
44:German
2239:People
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2206:
2197:
2188:
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2102:
2091:
2082:
2073:Events
2025:Unions
1972:States
1810:
1802:
1794:
1733:
1673:
1647:p. 15.
1531:
1482:
1474:
1338:Impact
1290:Bremen
1215:, the
981:Nassau
902:) and
892:Saxony
866:, and
860:Bremen
828:Nassau
804:Saxony
798:, the
660:Saxony
566:1803s
524:Junker
478:, and
310:France
290:German
116:), or
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75:
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57:
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1808:S2CID
1800:JSTOR
1594:(PDF)
1480:S2CID
1207:The
977:Baden
927:]
640:Baden
497:newer
476:Baden
440:Diet,
308:When
270:Baden
174:union
2226:1871
2204:1866
2195:1864
2186:1862
2166:1850
2157:1848
2141:1848
2127:1833
2118:1832
2109:1819
2100:1817
1792:ISSN
1731:ISBN
1671:ISBN
1529:ISBN
1472:ISSN
1297:1919
1288:and
1281:1888
1271:The
1254:1871
1241:and
1231:1868
1204:1867
1177:1866
1162:1865
1153:and
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1133:and
1118:1857
1102:1852
1086:1851
1050:1842
1035:1841
1008:1838
992:1836
969:1835
946:1834
934:1833
915:1833
890:and
884:1831
876:1829
769:and
762:1828
751:1826
740:1821
725:1819
713:1818
701:1815
693:Date
650:and
605:and
588:and
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466:and
446:and
276:and
254:and
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959:A
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