Tariff - Knowledge

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EAEU's uniform tariff schedule as part of its EAEU admission. Until 2022, Armenia was authorised to apply non-EAEU tariff rates, according to Decision No. 113. Some beef, pork, poultry, and dairy products; seed potatoes and peas; olives; fresh and dried fruits; some tea items; cereals, especially wheat and rice; starches, vegetable oils, margarine; some prepared food items, such as infant food; pet food; tobacco; glycerol; and gelatin are included in the list. Membership in the EAEU is forcing Armenia to apply stricter standardisation, sanitary, and phytosanitary requirements in line with EAEU – and, by extension, Russian – standards, regulations, and practices. Armenia has had to surrender control over many aspects of its foreign trade regime in the context of EAEU membership. Tariffs have also increased, granting protection to several domestic industries. Armenia is increasingly beholden to comply with EAEU standards and regulations as post-accession transition periods have, or will soon, end. All Armenian goods circulating in the territory of the EAEU must meet EAEU requirements following the end of relevant transition periods.

2382:. According to him, when they were developing countries themselves, almost all of them actively used interventionist trade and industrial policies to promote and protect infant industries. Instead, they would have encouraged their domestic industries through tariffs, subsidies and other measures. In his view, Britain and the United States have not reached the top of the global economic hierarchy by adopting free trade. In fact, these two countries would have been among the greatest users of protectionist measures, including tariffs. As for the East Asian countries, he points out that the longest periods of rapid growth in these countries do not coincide with extended phases of free trade, but rather with phases of industrial protection and promotion. Interventionist trade and industrial policies would have played a crucial role in their economic success. These policies would have been similar to those used by Britain in the 18th century and the United States in the 19th century. He considers that infant industry protection policy has generated much better growth performance in the developing world than free trade policies since the 1980s. 2198:, considered the first text to express modern protectionist theory, Alexander Hamilton argued that if a country wished to develop a new activity on its soil, it would have to temporarily protect it. According to him, this protection against foreign producers could take the form of import duties or, in rare cases, prohibition of imports. He called for customs barriers to allow American industrial development and to help protect infant industries, including bounties (subsidies) derived in part from those tariffs. He also believed that duties on raw materials should be generally low. Hamilton argued that despite an initial "increase of price" caused by regulations that control foreign competition, once a "domestic manufacture has attained to perfection… it invariably becomes cheaper. He believed that political independence was predicated upon economic independence. Increasing the domestic supply of manufactured goods, particularly war materials, was seen as an issue of national security. And he feared that Britain's policy towards the colonies would condemn the United States to be only producers of agricultural products and raw materials. 2355:

products – which are already profitable because of the volume of production already carried out on their soil – would arrive in the country in large quantities at a lower price than local production. The recipient country's nascent industry would quickly disappear. A firm already established in an industry is more efficient because it is more adapted and has greater production capacity. New firms therefore suffer losses due to a lack of competitiveness linked to their 'apprenticeship' or catch-up period. By being protected from this external competition, firms can therefore establish themselves on their domestic market. As a result, they benefit from greater freedom of manoeuvre and greater certainty regarding their profitability and future development. The protectionist phase is therefore a learning period that would allow the least developed countries to acquire general and technical know-how in the fields of industrial production in order to become competitive on international market.

2734:. Typical analyses find that tariffs tend to benefit domestic producers and government at the expense of consumers, and that the net welfare effects of a tariff on the importing country are negative due to domestic firms not producing more efficiently since there is a lack of external competition. Therefore, domestic consumers are affected since the price is higher due to high costs caused due to inefficient production or if firms aren't able to source cheaper material externally thus reducing the affordability of the products. Normative judgments often follow from these findings, namely that it may be disadvantageous for a country to artificially shield an industry from world markets and that it might be better to allow a collapse to take place. Opposition to all tariff aims to reduce tariffs and to avoid countries discriminating between differing countries when applying tariffs. The diagrams at right show the costs and benefits of imposing a tariff on a good in the domestic economy. 2132: 50: 1963: 2315:

countries have experienced, we would have seen the opposite". "Finally, the chronology of events does not correspond to the thesis of the free traders... The bulk of the contraction of trade occurred between January 1930 and July 1932, that is, before the introduction of protectionist measures, even self-sufficient, in some countries, with the exception of those applied in the United States in the summer of 1930, but with negative effects. very limited. He noted that "the credit crunch is one of the main causes of the trade crunch." "In fact, international liquidity is the cause of the trade contraction. This liquidity collapsed in 1930 (-35.7%) and 1931 (-26.7%). A study by the

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the impression that tariff cuts caused the crash and the reverse generated the recovery. Mr Irwin also methodically debunks the idea that protectionism made America a great industrial power, a notion believed by some to offer lessons for developing countries today. As its share of global manufacturing powered from 23% in 1870 to 36% in 1913, the admittedly high tariffs of the time came with a cost, estimated at around 0.5% of GDP in the mid-1870s. In some industries, they might have sped up development by a few years. But American growth during its protectionist period was more to do with its abundant resources and openness to people and ideas.

2551:. He pointed out that the reduction of wages led to a reduction in national demand which constrained markets. Instead, he proposes the idea of an expansionary policy combined with a tariff system to neutralise the effects on the balance of trade. The application of customs tariffs seemed to him "unavoidable, whoever the Chancellor of the Exchequer might be". Thus, for Keynes, an economic recovery policy is only fully effective if the trade deficit is eliminated. He proposed a 15% tax on manufactured and semi-manufactured goods and 5% on certain foodstuffs and raw materials, with others needed for exports exempted (wool, cotton). 2591:, in which he criticised the argument of the specialisation of economies, which is the basis of free trade. He thus proposed the search for a certain degree of self-sufficiency. Instead of the specialisation of economies advocated by the Ricardian theory of comparative advantage, he prefers the maintenance of a diversity of activities for nations. In it he refutes the principle of peacemaking trade. His vision of trade became that of a system where foreign capitalists compete for new markets. He defends the idea of producing on national soil when possible and reasonable and expresses sympathy for the advocates of 2116: 1987: 2124: 1979: 2713: 1971: 2032:. These included increased tariffs on imported foreign manufactured goods, and export subsidies. These policies were similar to those used by countries such as Japan, Korea and Taiwan after the Second World War. In addition, in its colonies, Great Britain imposed a ban on advanced manufacturing activities that it did not want to see developed. Britain also banned exports from its colonies that competed with its own products at home and abroad, forcing the colonies to leave the most profitable industries in Britain's hands. 2689: 2311:, an economist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, explained that a tariff is an expansionary policy, like a devaluation as it diverts demand from foreign to home producers. He noted that exports were 7 percent of GNP in 1929, they fell by 1.5 percent of 1929 GNP in the next two years and the fall was offset by the increase in domestic demand from tariff. He concluded that contrary the popular argument, contractionary effect of the tariff was small. 6476: 2462:, not free traders: China, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan. Thus, whereas in the 1990s, China and India had the same GDP per capita, China followed a much more mercantilist policy and now has a GDP per capita three times higher than India's. Indeed, a significant part of China's rise on the international trade scene does not come from the supposed benefits of international competition but from the relocations practiced by companies from developed countries. 2298:

negative effect of a decrease in exports will be offset by the expansionary effect of a decrease in imports. Therefore, a trade war does not cause a recession. Furthermore, he points out that the Smoot-Hawley tariff did not cause the Great Depression. The decline in trade between 1929 and 1933 "was almost entirely a consequence of the Depression, not a cause. Trade barriers were a response to the Depression, partly as a consequence of deflation."

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perhaps of agricultural products also, I have become doubtful whether the economic loss of national self-sufficiency is great enough to outweigh the other advantages of gradually bringing the product and the consumer within the ambit of the same national, economic, and financial organization. Experience accumulates to prove that most modern processes of mass production can be performed in most countries and climates with almost equal efficiency.

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the war. A significant shift in policy occurred in 1816, when a new law was introduced to keep the tariff level close to the wartime level – especially protected were cotton, woolen, and iron goods. The American industrial interests that had blossomed because of the tariff lobbied to keep it, and had it raised to 35 percent in 1816. The public approved, and by 1820, America's average tariff was up to 40 percent.

1641: 2637:. He considered that quotas could be more effective than currency depreciation in dealing with external imbalances. Thus, for Keynes, currency depreciation was no longer sufficient and protectionist measures became necessary to avoid trade deficits. To avoid the return of crises due to a self-regulating economic system, it seemed essential to him to regulate trade and stop free trade (deregulation of foreign trade). 6486: 2893:" programme to stimulate and protect domestic manufacturing industry and to combat current account deficits, India has introduced tariffs on several electronic products and "non-essential items". This concerns items imported from countries such as China and South Korea. For example, India's national solar energy programme favours domestic producers by requiring the use of Indian-made solar cells. 2778:

disagreed with the statement, while one third disagreed. None agreed or strongly agreed. Several commented that such tariffs would help a few Americans at the expense of many. This is consistent with the explanation provided above, which is that losses to domestic consumers outweigh gains to domestic producers and government, by the amount of deadweight losses.

3132:(or 'free port'), processed there, then re-exported without being subject to tariffs or duties. According to the 1999 Revised Kyoto Convention, a "'free zone' means a part of the territory of a contracting party where any goods introduced are generally regarded, insofar as import duties and taxes are concerned, as being outside the customs territory". 2350:, the argument made in favour of this category of tariffs was this: should a country wish to develop a new economic activity on its soil, it would have to temporarily protect it. In their view, it is legitimate to protect certain activities by customs barriers in order to give them time to grow, to reach a sufficient size and to benefit from 3557:

One set of reservations concerns distributional effects of trade. Workers are not seen as benefiting from trade. Strong evidence exists indicating a perception that the benefits of trade flow to businesses and the wealthy, rather than to workers, and to those abroad rather than to those in the United

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or sometimes within one country without attracting the usual government taxes and then brought into another country duty-free. Some countries specify 'duty-free allowances' which limit the number or value of duty-free items that one person can bring into the country. These restrictions often apply to

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to developing countries (including China...) according to the GTAP model. However, it has been argued that the models used are actually designed to maximise the positive effects of trade liberalisation, that they are characterised by the absence of taking into account the loss of income caused by the

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During the American Civil War (1861–65), agrarian interests in the South were opposed to any protection, while manufacturing interests in the North wanted to maintain it. The war marked the triumph of the protectionists of the industrial states of the North over the free traders of the South. Abraham

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Evasion of customs duties takes place mainly in two ways. In one, the trader under-declares the value so that the assessable value is lower than actual. In a similar vein, a trader can evade customs duty by understatement of quantity or volume of the product of trade. A trader may also evade duty by

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In the early 1860s, Europe and the United States pursued completely different trade policies. The 1860s were a period of growing protectionism in the United States, while the European free trade phase lasted from 1860 to 1892. The tariff average rate on imports of manufactured goods in 1875 was from

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The Congress passed a tariff act (1789), imposing a 5% flat rate tariff on all imports. Between 1792 and the war with Britain in 1812, the average tariff level remained around 12.5%. In 1812 all tariffs were doubled to an average of 25% in order to cope with the increase in public expenditure due to

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Tariffs can be fixed (a constant sum per unit of imported goods or a percentage of the price) or variable (the amount varies according to the price). Taxing imports means people are less likely to buy them as they become more expensive. The intention is that they buy local products instead, boosting

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applied tariffs on its imports at a rate 0–10 percent. This rate has increased over the years, since in 2009 it was around three percent. Moreover, the tariffs increased significantly on agricultural products rather than on non-agricultural products. Armenia has committed to ultimately adopting the

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In the Daily Mail of 13 March 1931, he called the assumption of perfect sectoral labour mobility "nonsense" since it states that a person made unemployed contributes to a reduction in the wage rate until he finds a job. But for Keynes, this change of job may involve costs (job search, training) and

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Jacques Sapir explains that the crisis has other causes than protectionism. He points out that "domestic production in major industrialized countries is declining...faster than international trade is declining." If this decrease (in international trade) had been the cause of the depression that the

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Political dynamics would lead people to see a link between tariffs and the economic cycle that was not there. A boom would generate enough revenue for tariffs to fall, and when the bust came pressure would build to raise them again. By the time that happened, the economy would be recovering, giving

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was passed by the U.S. Congress in that year in response to British aggression. While not a tariff per se, the Act prohibited the import of all kinds of manufactured imports, resulting in a huge drop in US trade and protests from all regions of the country. However, the embargo also had the effect

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The Republic of Armenia became a WTO member in 2003, which resulted in the Most Favored Country (MFC) benefits from the organisation. Currently, the tariffs of 2.7% implemented in Armenia are the lowest in the entire framework. The country is also a member of the World Customs Organization (WCO),

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in 2015; this resulted in mostly tariff-free trade with other members and an increased number of import tariffs from outside of the customs union. Armenia does not currently have export taxes. In addition, it does not declare temporary imports duties and credit on government imports or pursuant to

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The overall change in welfare = Change in Consumer Surplus + Change in Producer Surplus + Change in Government Revenue = (−A−B−C−D) + A + C = −B−D. The final state after imposition of the tariff is indicated in the second diagram, with overall welfare reduced by

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when monetary authorities decide to intervene in the foreign exchange market to lower the value of the currency against other currencies. This makes local products more competitive and imported products more expensive (Marshall Lerner Condition), increasing exports and decreasing imports, and thus

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held the opinion that the tariffs of 1930 did not cause the Great Depression, instead he blamed the lack of sufficient action on the part of the Federal Reserve. Douglas A. Irwin wrote: "most economists, both liberal and conservative, doubt that Smoot–Hawley played much of a role in the subsequent

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In 1896, the Republican Party platform pledged to "renew and emphasize our allegiance to the policy of protection, as the bulwark of American industrial independence, and the foundation of development and prosperity. This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry. It

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A considerable degree of international specialization is necessary in a rational world in all cases where it is dictated by wide differences of climate, natural resources, native aptitudes, level of culture and density of population. But over an increasingly wide range of industrial products, and

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In the 14th century, Edward III (1312–1377) took interventionist measures, such as banning the import of woollen cloth in an attempt to develop local woollen cloth manufacturing. Beginning in 1489, Henry VII took actions such as increasing export duties on raw wool. The Tudor monarchs, especially

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The Russian Federation adopted more protectionist trade measures in 2013 than any other country, making it the world leader in protectionism. It alone introduced 20% of protectionist measures worldwide and one-third of measures in the G20 countries. Russia's protectionist policies include tariff

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Tariffs do not determine the size of trade deficits: trade balances are driven by consumption. Rather, it is that a strong economy creates rich consumers who in turn create the demand for imports. Industries protected by tariffs expand their domestic market share but an additional effect is that

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That tariffs overall reduce welfare is not a controversial topic among economists. For example, the University of Chicago surveyed about 40 leading economists in March 2018 asking whether "Imposing new U.S. tariffs on steel and aluminum will improve Americans' welfare." About two-thirds strongly

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Despite an intuitive understanding of many of the benefits of free trade, the general public has strong reservations about embracing such a policy. One set of reservations concerns distributional effects of trade. Workers are not seen as benefiting from trade. Strong evidence exists indicating a

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He points out that countries that import more than they export weaken their economies. When the trade deficit increases, unemployment rises and GDP slows down. And surplus countries exert a "negative externality" on their trading partners. They get richer at the expense of others and destroy the

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argues, on the contrary, that the United States developed and rose to the top of the global economic hierarchy by adopting protectionism. In his view, they adopted an interventionist policy to promote and protect their industries through tariffs. It was this protectionist policy that enabled the

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I sympathize, therefore, with those who would minimize, rather than with those who would maximize, economic entanglement among nations. Ideas, knowledge, science, hospitality, travel – these are the things which should have their nature be international. But let goods be homespun whenever it is

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As early as 1930, in a note to the Economic Advisory Council, he doubted the intensity of the gain from specialisation in the case of manufactured goods. While participating in the MacMillan Committee, he admitted that he no longer "believed in a very high degree of national specialisation" and

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to bring the British economy out of the crisis, Keynes indicated that the introduction of tariffs on imports would help to rebalance the trade balance. The committee's report states in a section entitled "import control and export aid", that in an economy where there is not full employment, the

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Sub-Saharan African countries have a lower income per capita in 2003 than 40 years earlier. Per capita income increased by 37% between 1960 and 1980 and fell by 9% between 1980 and 2000. Africa's manufacturing sector's share of GDP decreased from 12% in 1980 to 11% in 2013. In the 1970s, Africa

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takes up similar arguments to allow the conversion of ageing industries. In this case, the aim was to save an activity threatened with extinction by external competition and to safeguard jobs. Protectionism must enable ageing companies to regain their competitiveness in the medium term and, for

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A 2021 study found that across 151 countries over the period 1963–2014, "tariff increases are associated with persistent, economically and statistically significant declines in domestic output and productivity, as well as higher unemployment and inequality, real exchange rate appreciation, and

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writes that protectionism does not lead to recessions. According to him, the decrease in imports (which can be obtained by introducing tariffs) has an expansive effect, that is, it is favourable to growth. Thus, in a trade war, since exports and imports will decrease equally, for everyone, the

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In 1913, following the electoral victory of the Democrats in 1912, there was a significant reduction in the average tariff on manufactured goods from 44% to 25%. However, the First World War rendered this bill ineffective, and new "emergency" tariff legislation was introduced in 1922 after the

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through increased production and productivity gains. This would allow them to become competitive in order to face international competition. Indeed, a company needs to reach a certain production volume to be profitable in order to compensate for its fixed costs. Without protectionism, foreign

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Many American intellectuals and politicians during the country's catching-up period felt that the free trade theory advocated by British classical economists was not suited to their country. They argued that the country should develop manufacturing industries and use government protection and

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According to economic historian Douglas Irwin, a common myth about United States trade policy is that low tariffs harmed American manufacturers in the early 19th century and then that high tariffs made the United States into a great industrial power in the late 19th century. A review by the

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their need to be efficient and cost-effective is reduced. This cost is imposed on (domestic) purchasers of the products of those industries, a cost that is eventually passed on to the end consumer. Finally, other countries must be expected to retaliate by imposing countervailing tariffs, a

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Britain initially did not want to industrialise the American colonies, and implemented policies to that effect (for example, banning high value-added manufacturing activities). Under British rule, America was denied the use of tariffs to protect its new industries. This explains why, after

2863:, and to consider a theoretical optimum tariff rate. However, imposing an optimal tariff will often lead to the foreign country increasing their tariffs as well, leading to a loss of welfare in both countries. When countries impose tariffs on each other, they will reach a position off the 2086:. Lansdowne argued that the threat of retaliatory tariffs was similar to gaining respect in a room of gunmen by pointing a big gun (his exact words were "a gun a little bigger than everyone else's"). The "Big Revolver" became a slogan of the time, often used in speeches and cartoons. 1754:

their country's economy. Tariffs therefore provide an incentive to develop production and replace imports with domestic products. Tariffs are meant to reduce pressure from foreign competition and reduce the trade deficit. They have historically been justified as a means to protect

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Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, used protectionism, subsidies, distribution of monopoly rights, government-sponsored industrial espionage and other means of government intervention to develop the wool industry, leading to England became the largest wool-producing nation in the world.

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The policy from 1860 to 1933 was usually high protective tariffs (apart from 1913 to 1921). After 1890, the tariff on wool did affect an important industry, but otherwise the tariffs were designed to keep American wages high. The conservative Republican tradition, typified by

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refused to "abandon any industry which is unable, for the moment, to survive". He also criticised the static dimension of the theory of comparative advantage, which, in his view, by fixing comparative advantages definitively, led in practice to a waste of national resources.

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The 'dumping' policies of some countries have also largely affected developing countries. Studies on the effects of free trade show that the gains induced by WTO rules for developing countries are very small. This has reduced the gain for these countries from an estimated

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Between 1816 and the end of the Second World War, the United States had one of the highest average tariff rates on manufactured imports in the world. According to Paul Bairoch, the United States was "the homeland and bastion of modern protectionism" during this period.

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Protectionist policies of industrial promotion continued until the mid-19th century. At the beginning of that century, the average tariff on British manufactured goods was about 50%, the highest of all major European countries. Thus, according to economic historian

2522:, deeply convinced of the benefits of free trade. From the crisis of 1929 onwards, noting the commitment of the British authorities to defend the gold parity of the pound sterling and the rigidity of nominal wages, he gradually adhered to protectionist measures. 2058:

in 1846, which was equivalent to free trade in grain. The Corn Acts had been passed in 1815 to restrict wheat imports and to guarantee the incomes of British farmers; their repeal devastated Britain's old rural economy, but began to mitigate the effects of the

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In January 1930, in the Economic Advisory Council, Keynes proposed the introduction of a system of protection to reduce imports. In the autumn of 1930, he proposed a uniform tariff of 10% on all imports and subsidies of the same rate for all exports. In the

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Before the new Constitution took effect in 1788, the Congress could not levy taxes – it sold land or begged money from the states. The new national government needed revenue and decided to depend upon a tax on imports with the

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Other research shows that in the UK in the 2000s, workers in the sectors most affected by the growth in imports from China experienced more work stoppages and lower wages. Once again, these effects were more pronounced among the low-skilled.

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From 1846 to 1861, American tariffs were lowered but this was followed by a series of recessions and the 1857 panic, which eventually led to higher demands for tariffs than President James Buchanan signed in 1861 (Morrill Tariff).

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measures, import restrictions, sanitary measures, and direct subsidies to local companies. For example, the government supported several economic sectors such as agriculture, space, automotive, electronics, chemistry, and energy.

2233:. Once elected, Lincoln raised industrial tariffs and after the war, tariffs remained at or above wartime levels. High tariffs were a policy designed to encourage rapid industrialisation and protect the high American wage rates. 2015:

preceding year 399 BC, Piraeus had documented a tax income of 1,800 in harbor dues. The Athenian government also placed restrictions on the lending of money and transport of grain to only be allowed through the port of Piraeus.

2950:, signed specifically on July 4, was called the "Second Declaration of Independence" by newspapers because it was intended to be the economic means to achieve the political goal of a sovereign and independent United States. 2358:

According to the economists in favour of protecting industries, free trade would condemn developing countries to being nothing more than exporters of raw materials and importers of manufactured goods. The application of the

2070:, made a speech in the House of Lords in which he defended fiscal retaliation against countries that applied high tariffs and whose governments subsidised products sold in Britain (known as "premium products", later called " 2047:, Britain's technological advance was achieved "behind high and enduring tariff barriers". In 1846, the country's per capita rate of industrialisation was more than twice that of its closest competitors. Even after adopting 2645: (on which free trade is based) which states that the trade deficit does not matter, since trade is mutually beneficial. This also explains his desire to replace the liberalisation of international trade ( 4247: 2167:

subsidies for this purpose, as Britain had done before them. Many of the great American economists of the time, until the last quarter of the 19th century, were strong advocates of industrial protection:

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the areas labeled "societal losses", which correspond to areas B and D in the first diagram. The losses to domestic consumers are greater than the combined benefits to domestic producers and government.

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Trade liberalisation can sometimes result in large and unequally distributed losses and gains, and can, in the short run, cause significant economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors.

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which consisted of protecting industries and developing infrastructure in explicit opposition to the "British system" of free trade. Before 1860 they were always defeated by the low-tariff Democrats.

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highlights the predominant influence of currency instability (which led to the international liquidity crisis) and the sudden rise in transportation costs in the decline of trade during the 1930s.

2093:, Britain finally abandoned free trade in 1932 and reintroduced tariffs on a large scale, noticing that it had lost its production capacity to protectionist countries like the United States and 3075:

misrepresenting traded goods, categorizing goods as items which attract lower customs duties. The evasion of customs duty may take place with or without the collaboration of customs officials.

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Other economists have also highlighted these negative effects of trade with China on American workers in their article “Why are American workers becoming poorer? China, trade and offshoring“.

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independence, the Tariff Act of 1789 was the second bill of the Republic signed by President Washington allowing Congress to impose a fixed tariff of 5% on all imports, with a few exceptions.

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in Ireland. Tariffs on many manufactured goods were also abolished. But while liberalism was progressing in Britain, protectionism continued on the European mainland and in the United States.

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Social dumping: when a state reduces social contributions or maintains very low social standards (for example, in China, labour regulations are less restrictive for employers than elsewhere).

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produced in Europe, a proportion that had risen to 45% by 1830. Per capita industrial production was even higher: in 1830 it was 250% higher than in the rest of Europe, up from 110% in 1800.

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output of their trading partners. John Maynard Keynes believed that the products of surplus countries should be taxed to avoid trade imbalances. Thus he no longer believes in the theory of

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that the United States protected its industry. They pursued a protectionist policy from the beginning of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century, after the Second World War.

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In 2024, Switzerland abolished tariffs on industrial products imported into the country. The Swiss government estimates the move will have economic benefits of 860 million CHF per year.

5678: 2759:(the area above the supply curve but below price) increases by area A, as domestic producers shielded from international competition can sell more of their product at a higher price. 2747:

Domestic suppliers are willing to supply Q2 rather than Q1, a movement along the supply curve due to the higher price, so the quantity imported falls from C1−Q1 to C2−Q2.

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In the post-crisis situation of 1929, Keynes judged the assumptions of the free trade model unrealistic. He criticised, for example, the neoclassical assumption of wage adjustment.

1785:, cause significant economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors, free trade has advantages of lowering costs of goods and services for both producers and consumers. 2367:(e.g., through tariffs on imported products) would therefore be essential for developing countries to industrialise and escape their dependence on the production of raw materials. 2538:, published in the autumn of 1930, he took up the idea of tariffs or other trade restrictions with the aim of reducing the volume of imports and rebalancing the balance of trade. 2007:

enforced a system of levies to raise taxes for the Athenian government. Grain was a key commodity that was imported through the port, and Piraeus was one of the main ports in the

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of launching new, emerging US domestic industries across the board, particularly the textile industry, and marked the beginning of the manufacturing system in the United States.

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Lincoln was a protectionist like Henry Clay of the Whig Party, who advocated the "American system" based on infrastructure development and protectionism. In 1847, he declared:

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puts the burden of revenue on foreign goods; it secures the American market for the American producer. It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman".

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is not always possible. Generally speaking, for Keynes, the assumptions of full employment and automatic return to equilibrium discredit the theory of comparative advantage.

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improving the trade balance. Countries with a weak currency cause trade imbalances: they have large external surpluses while their competitors have large deficits.

5138: 3575: 3415:(April 24, 2015): "Economists are famous for disagreeing with one another.... But economists reach near unanimity on some topics, including international trade." 4994: 2661:

perception that the benefits of trade flow to businesses and the wealthy, rather than to workers, and to those abroad rather than to those in the United States.

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centred on the issue of import restrictions. Keynes and Meade discussed the best choice between quota and tariff. In March 1944 Keynes began a discussion with

4308: 2564:, he envisaged the protection of farmers and certain sectors such as the automobile and iron and steel industries, considering them indispensable to Britain. 3639:(in German). Universidad Francisco Marroquín Biblioteca Ludwig von Mises. Carl Winter's Universitätsbuchhandlung C. F. Wintersche Buchdruckerei. p. 160. 6301: 5215: 3988: 2363:

would lead them to specialise in the production of raw materials and extractive products and prevent them from acquiring an industrial base. Protection of

5253: 6293: 6248: 5641: 4721: 4365:(in English) Antoni Estevadeordal, Brian Frantz and Alan M. Taylor, "The rise and fall of world trade, 1970–1939", National Bureau of Economic Research, 6011: 5706: 2067: 1762:. Tariffs may also be used to rectify artificially low prices for certain imported goods, due to 'dumping', export subsidies or currency manipulation. 6316: 6269: 4729: 5594: 5463: 5416: 3766:. The Cambridge Economic History of Europe from the Decline of the Roman Empire. Vol. 8. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–160. 6217: 6201: 4740: 4631: 3401: 2753:(the area under the demand curve but above price) shrinks by areas A+B+C+D, as domestic consumers face higher prices and consume lower quantities. 6381: 6306: 4571: 4010: 3868: 6406: 5365: 2051:

for most goods, Britain continued to closely regulate trade in strategic capital goods, such as machinery for the mass production of textiles.

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points out that it is the countries that have systematically violated the rules of globalisation that have experienced the strongest growth.

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imposed a 30% tariff on a variety of imported steel products for a period of three years and American steel producers supported the tariff.

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Effects of import tariff, which hurts domestic consumers more than domestic producers are helped. Higher prices and lower quantities reduce

2028:

A protectionist turning point in British economic policy came in 1721, when policies to promote manufacturing industries were introduced by

5534: 3272: 5619: 5023: 6411: 6196: 2443:

argues that these downturns are the result of free trade policies, and elsewhere attributes successes in some African countries such as

6416: 5831: 5391: 4893: 4476: 2530:

introduction of tariffs can improve production and employment. Thus, the reduction of the trade deficit favours the country's growth.

1765:

There is near unanimous consensus among economists that tariffs have a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while

6426: 1192: 5492: 6396: 6391: 6371: 6361: 6356: 6279: 4345: 4215: 3489: 2737:

Imposing an import tariff has the following effects, shown in the first diagram in a hypothetical domestic market for televisions:

1927:'notification; description; definition; announcement; assertion; inventory of fees to be paid' which is the verbal noun of 1057: 1052: 3951:

Smith, Ryan P., "A History of America’s Ever-Shifting Stance on Tariffs: Unpacking a debate as old as the United States itself",

2144:. The policy of the U.S. before 1860 was low tariffs "for revenue only" (since duties continued to fund the national government). 498: 5576: 2106: 3469:

most observers agree that 'he consensus among mainstream economists on the desirability of free trade remains almost universal.'

2241:

was a high tariff, while the Democrats typically called for a lower tariff to help consumers but they always failed until 1913.

6436: 6311: 6191: 4409: 3251: 3012:

Customs duty is calculated on the determination of the 'assess-able value' in case of those items for which the duty is levied

1406: 999: 225: 4534: 4379: 3658: 1842:'set price'. This term was introduced to the Latin-speaking world through contact with the Turks and derives from the 493: 6331: 5956: 5931: 4966: 4919: 3833: 3806: 3599: 3376: 1759: 4513: 4182: 2841:

of another country. In this case, the welfare of the other country grows worse simultaneously, thus the policy is a kind of

6489: 6451: 6441: 6351: 5627: 3796: 2316: 1606: 792: 4654: 3350: 3036:

For the purpose of assessment of customs duty, products are given an identification code that has come to be known as the

6366: 6346: 6336: 6326: 6170: 3687: 3542: 3454: 1481: 4451: 6456: 6446: 6341: 5815: 5791: 3870:

Infant Industry Promotion in Historical Perspective – A Rope to Hang Oneself or a Ladder to Climb With?

3779: 2110: 1683: 1546: 674: 186: 3571: 2762:

Government tax revenue is the import quantity (C2 − Q2) times the tariff price (Pw − Pt), shown as area C.

6421: 6376: 6033: 5936: 5876: 4986: 4419: 4322: 4291: 4096: 3719: 3636:

Etymologisches Wörterbuch der Europäischen (Germanischen, Romanischen und Slavischen) Wörter Orientalischen Ursprungs

3330: 1007: 760: 4594: 3044:

based in Brussels. A 'Harmonized System' code may be from four to ten digits. For example, 17.03 is the HS code for

6520: 6401: 5556: 3733: 3166: 2973: 2744:

Quantity demanded by domestic consumers falls from C1 to C2, a movement along the demand curve due to higher price.

477: 2972:; the state of South Carolina was outraged by the new tariff, and civil war nearly resulted. In the leadup to the 2279:

United States to achieve the fastest economic growth in the world throughout the 19th century and into the 1920s.

6515: 5056:

Diamond, Peter A.; Mirrlees, James A. (1971). "Optimal Taxation and Public Production I: Production Efficiency".

2954: 2909: 2360: 2218: 2188: 1852: 659: 255: 5184: 3984: 2946:

The tariff has been used as a political tool to establish an independent nation; for example, the United States

6274: 5744:

International Convention on the Simplication and Harmonization of Customs Procedures (Revised Kyoto Convention)

5245: 3714:(in German). Max Bürgisser, Bernd Gregor, Elmar Seebold (22. Aufl. ed.). Berlin: De Gruyter. p. 721. 1611: 1330: 5649: 3060:

in each country is responsible for collecting taxes on the import into or export of goods out of the country.

2968:

of 1832 arose from the passage of a new tariff by the United States Congress, a few months before that year's

5514: 5283: 4734:"Computational Analysis of Multilateral Trade Liberalization in the Uruguay Round and Doha Development Round" 2074:"). The retaliation was to take the form of threats to impose duties in response to goods from that country. 2011:. A levy of two percent was placed on goods arriving in the market through the docks of Piraeus. Despite the 1616: 580: 49: 5703: 4894:"John Maynard Keynes, "National Self-Sufficiency," the Yale Review, Vol. 22, no. 4 (June 1933), pp. 755–769" 2179:

and his son Henry, who was one of Lincoln's economic advisers. The intellectual leader of this movement was

2131: 6479: 6227: 5869: 5196: 4690:

Ackerman, Frank (2005). "The Shrinking Gains from Trade: A Critical Assessment of Doha Round Projections".

3606:

The 2nd edition of the Oxford English Dictionary gives the same etymology, with a reference dating to 1591.

3232: 3160: 2969: 1747: 1314: 610: 4874: 3863: 1962: 6386: 6160: 6038: 6006: 5602: 5459: 5412: 2374:

argues that most of today's developed countries have developed through policies that are the opposite of

2288: 1556: 1526: 4733: 6026: 5747: 4012:

Infant Industry Promotion in Historical Perspective – A Rope to Hang Oneself or a Ladder to Climb With?

3041: 3021: 2981: 2921:

other international assistance imports. Upon joining Eurasian Economic Union in 2015, led by Russians,

2824:

if it is set to maximise the welfare of the country imposing the tariff. It is a tariff derived by the

2214: 942: 414: 5172: 4567: 2245:

40% to 50% in the United States, against 9% to 12% in continental Europe at the height of free trade.

1978: 5946: 4019: 3881: 3513: 3425: 3219: 2812: 2666: 989: 567: 524: 375: 230: 79: 5361: 6021: 4823: 4623: 2953:

The political impact of tariffs is judged depending on the political perspective; for example, the

2543: 2071: 1843: 1755: 1576: 994: 483: 5335: 6510: 6222: 6110: 2913: 2720: 2650: 2560: 2055: 1883: 1828: 1591: 1531: 1042: 1037: 664: 545: 196: 20: 6264: 5015: 3912: 3823: 2977: 2917: 2727: 2478:

in the 2005 GTAP model. The 2005 LINKAGE version also reduced gains to 90 billion. As for the "

2195: 2156: 2082:, who advocated free trade, and this speech marked a turning point in the group's slide toward 2060: 1937: 1910: 1676: 1501: 1386: 1381: 982: 561: 380: 5616: 4281: 3048:. However, within 17.03, the number 17.03.90 stands for "Molasses (Excluding Cane Molasses)". 6145: 6105: 6063: 5926: 5725: 4510:"Why does Africa struggle to industrialise its economies? | The New Times | Rwanda" 2642: 2416: 2390:

activities that are due to disappear, it allows the conversion of these activities and jobs.

2155:

An attempt at imposing a high tariff was attempted in 1828, but the South denounced it as a "

1581: 1506: 1471: 1456: 1376: 1366: 615: 535: 530: 451: 5580: 6125: 6043: 5387: 4897: 2965: 2704:, surplus lost by consumers and overall. For a more detailed analysis of this diagram, see 2429:

accounted for more than 3% of world manufacturing output, and now accounts for 1.5%. In an

2183:, the first Secretary of the Treasury of the United States (1789–95). Thus, it was against 1986: 1778: 1601: 1566: 1541: 1421: 1401: 573: 250: 111: 2712: 2649:) with a regulatory system aimed at eliminating trade imbalances in his proposals for the 2123: 1781:

can sometimes result in large and unequally distributed losses and gains, and can, in the

8: 6165: 5961: 5911: 5892: 5484: 3151: – Economic policy of regulating trade between states through government regulations 2843: 2802: 2790: 2633:. On this occasion, we see that he has definitely taken a protectionist stance after the 2526: 2508: 2148: 1949: 1922: 1895: 1864: 1837: 1822: 1807: 1725: 1709: 1621: 1521: 1516: 1461: 1446: 1436: 1431: 1426: 1371: 1361: 1356: 1340: 1210: 1156: 964: 472: 4720: 4341: 4211: 3481: 2988:

announced his intention to introduce tariff-based legislation as "a matter of urgency".

2617:

reasonably and conveniently possible, and, above all, let finance be primarily national.

2115: 6243: 5906: 5780: 5065: 4703: 4539: 4144: 3754:

Burke, Susan; Bairoch, Paul (1989). "Chapter I – European trade policy, 1815–1914". In

3303: 3142: 3129: 3105: 2947: 2831: 2455: 2351: 2333: 2180: 2079: 2008: 1596: 1586: 1571: 1561: 1536: 1486: 1451: 1441: 1411: 1396: 1391: 1246: 1161: 954: 918: 839: 718: 436: 74: 3906: 3323:

Peddling Prosperity: Economic Sense and Nonsense in the Age of Diminished Expectations

6088: 5811: 5787: 5114: 4962: 4725: 4415: 4318: 4287: 4092: 4085: 3829: 3802: 3775: 3725: 3715: 3634: 3397: 3326: 3213: 3184: 3037: 3025: 2364: 2075: 2012: 1730: 1669: 1511: 1496: 1491: 1466: 1416: 1216: 932: 884: 824: 740: 681: 393: 360: 166: 4868: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4707: 3876:. Development Theory at the Threshold of the Twenty-first Century. Santiago, Chile: 1970: 1728:

and policy that taxes foreign products to encourage or safeguard domestic industry.

6016: 5916: 5805: 5104: 5096: 4956: 4835: 4770: 4695: 4136: 3767: 3650: 3532: 3444: 2756: 2750: 2697: 2693: 2634: 2347: 2238: 2090: 2000: 1874: 1813: 1551: 1476: 1082: 1047: 1027: 844: 812: 686: 540: 291: 3771: 3596: 3372: 2451:

to their abandonment of free trade and adoption of a "developmental state model".

2398:

States resorting to protectionism invoke unfair competition or dumping practices:

6135: 6068: 6058: 5921: 5775: 5710: 5623: 4859: 4186: 4179: 3603: 3408: 3257: 3208: 3202: 2849: 2766: 2705: 2701: 2519: 2386: 2301: 2094: 1928: 1901: 1798: 1774: 1645: 1261: 1119: 1114: 854: 817: 728: 693: 595: 519: 355: 315: 281: 191: 181: 176: 171: 89: 5852:

Market Access Map, an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements

4787: 4509: 3908:

A Dictionary of Political Phrases and Allusions : With a short bibliography

2991:

Unpopular tariffs are known to have ignited social unrest, for example the 1905

2980:

announced it would undertake a review of Australian car tariffs if elected. The

1869:'list of prices; table of the rates of customs'. This Turkish term is a 6461: 5986: 5723:

Benjamin S. 1997. Meat and Strength: The Moral Economy of a Chilean Food Riot.

5083:

Furceri, Davide; Hannan, Swarnali A; Ostry, Jonathan D; Rose, Andrew K (2021).

3759: 3346: 3178: 2996: 2867:, meaning that both countries' welfare could be increased by reducing tariffs. 2864: 2716: 2688: 2626: 2410:

Tax dumping: some tax haven states have lower corporate and personal tax rates.

2337: 2172: 2168: 2141: 2029: 1204: 1176: 1151: 1012: 859: 654: 590: 488: 426: 330: 325: 308: 286: 3679: 3617: 3517: 3429: 3294:

Krugman, Paul R. (May 1993). "The Narrow and Broad Arguments for Free Trade".

6504: 6121: 6073: 5976: 5951: 5306:"Import duty hike on consumer durables, 'Make in India' drive to get a boost" 5143: 5118: 4817: 4815: 3864: 3755: 3266: 3238: 3154: 3148: 3024:

unless a customs officer determines assess-able value in accordance with the

2985: 2890: 2860: 2592: 2440: 2379: 2371: 2275: 2184: 2083: 2035:

In 1800, Britain, with about 10% of Europe's population, supplied 29% of all

1770: 1735: 1276: 949: 874: 765: 698: 632: 600: 467: 409: 370: 350: 320: 235: 156: 151: 126: 116: 58: 4813: 4811: 4809: 4807: 4805: 4803: 4801: 4799: 4797: 4795: 3729: 2231:"Give us a protective tariff, and we will have the greatest nation on earth" 6321: 6116: 5801: 5100: 4924: 4699: 3196: 2905: 2459: 2435: 2294: 2176: 2159:" and it almost caused a rebellion in South Carolina until it was lowered. 2044: 1827:'mandated price; schedule of taxes and customs' which derives from 1743: 1739: 1657: 1171: 959: 928: 899: 879: 770: 755: 735: 649: 644: 446: 240: 5857:

WTO Tariff Analysis Online – Detailed information on tariff and trade data

4212:"Republican Party Platform of 1896 | the American Presidency Project" 209: 5966: 4792: 3764:

The Industrial Economies: The Development of Economic and Social Policies

3709: 3069: 2837: 2769:, surplus formerly captured by consumers that now is lost to all parties. 2731: 2622: 2463: 2403: 2308: 1166: 909: 869: 787: 723: 669: 605: 431: 421: 365: 245: 146: 141: 99: 84: 6100: 6096: 6078: 6053: 5941: 5445: 5109: 5084: 5069: 4148: 4070:

Kicking Away the Ladder: Development Strategy in Historical Perspective

3307: 3254: – 1947–95 multilateral trade agreement; predecessor to WTO (GATT) 3190: 3015: 2992: 2807: 2646: 2479: 2375: 2210: 2048: 1766: 1705: 1271: 1241: 1124: 1109: 1032: 969: 937: 889: 864: 849: 750: 745: 713: 639: 345: 340: 161: 121: 67: 5861: 4767:"Why are American Workers getting Poorer? China, Trade and Offshoring" 3878:

United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean

3537: 3449: 2567: 1724:

for the government, import duties can also be a form of regulation of

6048: 5981: 5362:"India to raise import tariffs on electronic and communication items" 5193:, p. 76 (by the Japanese ed.), Chap. 5 ｢雇用−関税｣命題の政治経済学的評価. 4840: 4766: 4314: 3964:

Robert V. Remini, "Martin Van Buren and the Tariff of Abominations."

3867:(Faculty of Economics and Politics, University of Cambridge) (2001). 3109: 3084: 1782: 1104: 1022: 1017: 708: 703: 514: 441: 131: 5216:"Russia Leads the World in Protectionist Trade Measures, Study Says" 5205:, p. 93 (in 83–94 by the Japanese ed.), Chap. 6 最適関税、報復および国際協力. 4568:"U.S. tech group urges global action against Chinese 'mercantilism'" 4140: 3904: 3622:. Cornell University Library. London : W.H. Allen. p. 178. 6175: 4774: 3117: 2961: 2444: 2419:: when environmental regulations are less stringent than elsewhere. 2036: 1870: 1266: 1234: 923: 913: 834: 829: 802: 775: 585: 335: 276: 271: 104: 5275: 2995:

in Chile that developed in protest against tariffs applied to the

2291:

in the United States did not greatly worsen the Great Depression:

6129: 5577:"Thomas Jefferson – under George Washington by America's History" 4111: 3097: 3092: 3083:

Many countries allow a traveller to bring goods into the country

3057: 2922: 2901: 2825: 2518:

At the beginning of his career, Keynes was an economist close to

2502: 2004: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1077: 904: 807: 797: 136: 94: 5181:, pp. 8–35 (in 8–45 by the Japanese ed.), Chap.2 保護：全般的な背景. 4477:"Africa needs an active industrial policy to sustain its growth" 2811:

is often the best policy, however levying a tariff is sometimes

3518:"Free Trade: Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart" 3430:"Free Trade: Why Are Economists and Noneconomists So Far Apart" 2683: 2454:

The poor countries that have succeeded in achieving strong and

2448: 1640: 1286: 1097: 1092: 894: 782: 5639: 4765:

Ebenstein, Avraham; Harrison, Ann; McMillan, Margaret (2015).

4380:"International trade - Arguments for and against interference" 4127:

Luthin, Reinhard H. (1944). "Abraham Lincoln and the Tariff".

2066:

On June 15, 1903, the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs,

5846: 5554: 5336:"India doubles import tax on textile products, may hit China" 4283:

Peddling Protectionism: Smoot-Hawley and the Great Depression

4114:

The Age of Enterprise: A Social History of Industrial America

3113: 2856:, so any tariff worsens the welfare of the original country. 2430: 1857: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1281: 1256: 1251: 1198: 1070: 27: 4888: 4886: 2930:

resulting in a harmonised system for tariff classification.

2513: 1900:'set price, receipt'. The Persian term derives from 3985:"Kicking Away the Ladder: The 'Real' History of Free Trade" 3402:

Economists Actually Agree on This: The Wisdom of Free Trade

3101: 3088: 5535:"Switzerland scraps tariffs on industrial product imports" 2741:

Price rises from world price Pw to higher tariff price Pt.

1954:'to know; to be able; to recognise; to find out'. 5851: 4954: 4883: 4764: 2852:

through the origin point, the original country is in the

2490: 1701: 41: 5512: 5440:[Contract dated 10.10.2014. Customs documents]. 5037: 4950: 4948: 4946: 1812:'set price' which is itself a descendant of the 4270:. blogs.nytimes.com/2016/03/04/the-mitt-hawley-fallacy/ 3262:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2984:

made a similar commitment, while independent candidate

1966:

Average tariff rates for selected countries (1913–2007)

5856: 5842:

MFN Trade Weighted Average Tariff by country 2008–2012

5151: 5082: 5740:"Specific Annex D: Customs Warehouses and Free Zones" 5515:"Switzerland to abolish industrial tariffs from 2024" 5413:"Armenia – Country Commercial Guide – Import Tariffs" 5246:"Russia was most protectionist nation in 2013: study" 4943: 4824:"J.M. Keynes, le libre-échange et le protectionnisme" 4199:

President McKinley: Architect of the American Century

4043: 3940:

Modern Tariff History: Germany, United States, France

3747: 2781:

Tariffs are more inefficient than consumption taxes.

2730:

theorists tend to view tariffs as distortions to the

1888: 1001:

European Union Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base

4652: 3031: 3002: 2960:

Tariffs can emerge as a political issue prior to an

2700:

by A and government revenue by C. Areas B and D are

2263:

Clashing over Commerce: A History of US Trade Policy

1942: 1915: 6249:

Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf

5640:Sid Marris and Dennis Shanahan (November 9, 2007). 5132: 5130: 5128: 4876:

Les fondements non neoclassiques du protectionnisme

2908:, established its custom service in 1992 after the 2793:that would lead to increased world-wide inflation. 2568:

The critique of the theory of comparative advantage

2282: 1982:

Average tariff rates in Spain and Italy (1860–1910)

5837:Effectively applied tariff by Country 2008 to 2012 5779: 5169:Almost all real-life examples may be in this case. 4163:Tariff Wars and the Politics of Jacksonian America 4084: 3123: 2068:Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne 6270:Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa 5704:Primeros movimientos sociales chileno (1890–1920) 4504: 4502: 4267: 3572:"Here's why everyone is arguing about free trade" 3205: – Taxes on top of the tax of imported goods 3157: – Restrictions limiting international trade 3046:molasses from the extraction or refining of sugar 2629:after the latter had written an article entitled 6502: 6218:Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia 6202:South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation 5125: 4087:Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes 3296:American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings 3269: – Method to cut and harmonize tariff rates 3241: – Proposal on agricultural import controls 2621:Later, Keynes had a written correspondence with 2327: 2054:Free trade in Britain began in earnest with the 5055: 4917: 4535:"Macroeconomic effects of Chinese mercantilism" 4468: 3905:Hugh Montgomery; Philip George Cambray (1906). 3711:Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache 3235: – Total effect of entire tariff structure 2859:It is possible to levy a tariff as a political 2848:. If the offer curve of the other country is a 2209:In the 19th century, statesmen such as Senator 4692:Research in Agricultural and Applied Economics 4499: 4407: 3145: – Financial penalties applied by nations 3007: 2503:John Maynard Keynes, tariffs and trade deficit 2402:Monetary manipulation: a currency undergoes a 2343:Das nationale System der politischen Oekonomie 2322: 1734:are among the most widely used instruments of 5877: 5617:Andrew Jackson & the Nullification Crisis 5438:"Договор от 10.10.2014. Таможенные документы" 4788:http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp1411.pdf 3983:Chang, Ha-Joon; Gershman, John (2003-12-30). 3982: 2785:insignificant changes to the trade balance." 2583:In July 1933, he published an article in the 2393: 2135:US Trade Balance and Trade Policy (1895–2015) 1677: 5800: 5555:Federal Council (Switzerland) (2024-01-02). 5043: 4980: 4978: 4240:"A historian on the myths of American trade" 3753: 3339: 3273:United States International Trade Commission 3193: – Tariff to equalise externality costs 2889:From 2017, as part of the promotion of its " 2684:Neoclassical analysis in favor of free trade 2678: 2341: 6197:Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership 4286:. Princeton University Press. p. 116. 4168: 3828:. Cambridge University Press. p. 253. 3013: 5884: 5870: 4987:"The Basics Of Tariffs and Trade Barriers" 4411:Free Trade: Myth, Reality and Alternatives 4336: 4334: 4112:Thomas C. Cochran, William Miller (1942). 3508: 3506: 3187: – Most-favored-nation reference rate 3128:Products may sometimes be imported into a 2870: 2287:Most economists hold the opinion that the 1684: 1670: 5136: 5108: 4975: 4839: 4067: 4063: 4061: 4059: 4057: 4055: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3615: 3569: 3536: 3448: 3181: – Tax based on value of transaction 2514:The turning point of the Great Depression 2423: 1193:Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy 6280:West African Economic and Monetary Union 5774: 5717: 5671:"Candidate wants car tariff cuts halted" 5202: 5190: 5178: 5157: 4689: 4685: 4683: 4681: 3859: 3857: 3855: 3853: 3851: 3849: 3847: 3845: 3632: 3597:The Online Etymology Dictionary: tariff. 3525:Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review 3437:Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review 2711: 2687: 2671:Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review 2385:In the second half of the 20th century, 2130: 2122: 2114: 1985: 1977: 1969: 1961: 5891: 5642:"PM rulses out more help for car firms" 5513:Greater Geneva Bern area (2024-01-15). 4746:from the original on September 22, 2017 4565: 4331: 4176:The Tariff History of the United States 4082: 4003: 3955:, 18 April 2018, retrieved 5 April 2023 3821: 3619:The student's Arabic-English dictionary 3503: 3418: 3325:. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 3320: 3293: 3245: 2253:Republicans returned to power in 1921. 2213:continued Hamilton's themes within the 2107:History of tariffs in the United States 1990:Average levels of duties, 1875 and 1913 6503: 6192:Association of Southeast Asian Nations 6012:UN Conference on Trade and Development 5847:World Bank's site for Trade and Tariff 5681:from the original on November 13, 2010 4872: 4821: 4126: 4052: 3971: 3794: 3379:from the original on December 15, 2016 3353:from the original on November 18, 2016 3252:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 2912:. When Armenia became a member of the 2525:On 5 November 1929, when heard by the 2491:Deindustrialization and wage deflation 2127:Average tariff rates in US (1821–2016) 5957:Import substitution industrialization 5865: 5579:. americashistory.org. Archived from 4984: 4678: 4487:from the original on 29 November 2018 4474: 4306: 4279: 4234: 4232: 3842: 3707: 3512: 3424: 3040:code. This code was developed by the 2941: 2723:(PPP) versus import taxes, by country 2317:National Bureau of Economic Research 2119:Average tariff rates (France, UK, US) 1760:import substitution industrialisation 6485: 6211:Europe, Central Asia, and North Asia 5557:"Swiss industrial tariffs abolished" 4955:Krugman, Paul; Wells, Robin (2005). 4624:"Learning from Chinese Mercantilism" 3570:Rosenfeld, Everett (11 March 2016). 3051: 1847: 1720:of goods. Besides being a source of 16:Goods and services import/export tax 6171:Central American Integration System 5693: 4879:(Thesis). Université Bordeaux – IV. 4434:Ndulu, World Bank, 2007, p. 33 3680:"tariffa in Vocabolario - Treccani" 2336:at the end of the 18th century, by 2332:Postulated in the United States by 1932: 1905: 1878: 13: 5368:from the original on 18 April 2019 5342:from the original on 18 April 2019 5316:from the original on 14 April 2019 5286:from the original on 30 March 2019 5256:from the original on 12 April 2019 5226:from the original on 14 April 2019 4653:Professor Dani Rodik (June 2002). 4634:from the original on 30 April 2023 4574:from the original on 26 March 2023 4566:Martina, Michael (16 March 2017). 4547:from the original on 30 March 2020 4229: 3616:Steingass, Francis Joseph (1884). 3578:from the original on 12 March 2016 3078: 2696:by areas A+B+C+D, while expanding 2111:Protectionism in the United States 14: 6532: 6034:International Chamber of Commerce 5937:Export-oriented industrialization 5825: 5595:"Behind the Steel-Tariff Curtain" 4595:"Why Do All Roads Lead To China?" 4310:Lessons from the Great Depression 3482:"Trade Within Europe | IGM Forum" 3226: 3032:Harmonized System of Nomenclature 3003:Additional information on tariffs 2796: 2482:", it would have brought in only 1994: 1974:Tariff rates in Japan (1870–1960) 1008:Global minimum corporate tax rate 6484: 6475: 6474: 5085:"The Macroeconomy After Tariffs" 4592: 4342:"Ignorants ou faussaires ?" 3987:. Institute for Policy Studies. 3260: – Regional trade agreement 3167:List of countries by tariff rate 2974:2007 Australian Federal election 2554:In 1932, in an article entitled 2283:Tariffs and the Great Depression 2100: 2019: 1651: 1639: 478:Base erosion and profit shifting 48: 5754:from the original on 2021-09-01 5732: 5677:. Melbourne. October 29, 2007. 5663: 5633: 5609: 5601:. March 8, 2002. Archived from 5587: 5569: 5548: 5527: 5506: 5495:from the original on 2023-01-07 5477: 5466:from the original on 2022-12-04 5452: 5430: 5419:from the original on 2021-12-28 5405: 5394:from the original on 2019-09-13 5380: 5354: 5328: 5298: 5268: 5238: 5208: 5163: 5076: 5049: 5026:from the original on 2018-03-12 5008: 4997:from the original on 2020-11-12 4932:from the original on 2017-08-30 4911: 4848:from the original on 2021-05-06 4781: 4758: 4714: 4667:from the original on 2017-02-14 4646: 4616: 4605:from the original on 2023-05-03 4586: 4559: 4527: 4516:from the original on 2020-06-07 4475:Chang, Ha-Joon (15 July 2012). 4437: 4428: 4401: 4390:from the original on 2020-06-03 4372: 4359: 4348:from the original on 2022-11-01 4300: 4273: 4261: 4250:from the original on 2017-11-26 4218:from the original on 2017-11-14 4204: 4191: 4155: 4120: 4105: 4091:. University of Chicago Press. 4076: 4037: 3991:from the original on 2017-09-02 3958: 3945: 3932: 3919: 3898: 3825:The Economics of Ancient Greece 3815: 3788: 3736:from the original on 2022-05-07 3701: 3690:from the original on 2021-09-10 3672: 3661:from the original on 2021-09-10 3643: 3626: 3609: 3590: 3548:from the original on 2017-12-07 3492:from the original on 2017-01-13 3460:from the original on 2017-12-07 3124:Deferment of tariffs and duties 3087:. These goods may be bought at 2955:2002 United States steel tariff 2910:dissolution of the Soviet Union 2547:, he wrote an article entitled 2361:theory of comparative advantage 2189:theory of comparative advantage 256:Optimal capital income taxation 6275:Southern African Customs Union 5089:The World Bank Economic Review 4918:Joseph Stiglitz (2010-05-05). 4445:"Challenges of African Growth" 4129:The American Historical Review 4044:Dorfman & Tugwell (1960). 3798:Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece 3563: 3474: 3391: 3375:. IGM Forum. October 4, 2016. 3365: 3314: 3287: 3216: – Combined trade barrier 3163: – Type of trade barriers 2933: 2673:, September/October 2004, p. 2 1331:List of countries by tax rates 1: 5630:, 2023. Accessed 2023-08-08. 5137:Editorial (4 November 2023). 4512:. The New Times. 2016-08-13. 3927:The Federalist Era: 1789–1801 3772:10.1017/chol9780521225045.002 3349:. IGM Forum. March 13, 2012. 3280: 2997:cattle imports from Argentina 2916:, it was given access to the 2549:Proposal for a Tariff Revenue 2474:in the 2003 LINKAGE model to 2328:Protection of infant industry 761:Natural resources consumption 6432:Telecommunications equipment 6237:Middle East and North Africa 6228:European Union Customs Union 5364:. Reuters. 11 October 2018. 5058:The American Economic Review 5016:"Steel and Aluminum Tariffs" 4655:"After Neoliberalism, What?" 3942:(3rd ed. 1920) pp. 133–265. 3651:"Etimologia : tariffa;" 3233:Effective rate of protection 3161:Non-tariff barriers to trade 2854:condition of a small country 1858: 1788: 1748:non-tariff barriers to trade 611:United States as a tax haven 7: 6161:Andean Community of Nations 6039:Bilateral investment treaty 6007:International Monetary Fund 4920:"Reform the euro or bin it" 4694:. Working Paper No. 05-01. 4369:, Cambridge, November 2002 4165:(2017) covers 1816 to 1861. 3911:. S. Sonnenschein. p. 3135: 3008:Calculation of customs duty 2458:are those that have become 2323:Arguments favouring tariffs 1943: 1916: 1889: 10: 6537: 6027:International Trade Centre 5768: 5748:World Customs Organization 5485:"Import and Export Regime" 5460:"Armenia – Trade Barriers" 5390:. export.gov. 2015-01-02. 5388:"Armenia – Import Tariffs" 5338:. Reuters. 7 August 2018. 5044:Krugman & Wells (2005) 4280:Irwin, Douglas A. (2011). 3966:American Historical Review 3222: – Controlled pricing 3067: 3063: 3058:national customs authority 3042:World Customs Organization 2896: 2631:Quotas versus depreciation 2506: 2394:Protection against dumping 2104: 1957: 525:Offshore financial centres 415:Repatriation tax avoidance 25: 18: 6470: 6302:Aircraft & Spacecraft 6292: 6257: 6236: 6210: 6184: 6153: 6144: 6087: 5995: 5947:Foreign exchange reserves 5899: 5415:. trade.gov. 2022-07-31. 3708:Kluge, Friedrich (1989). 3321:Krugman, Paul R. (1994). 3275: – Government agency 3220:Telecommunications tariff 2875: 2679:Arguments against tariffs 2610:National Self-Sufficiency 2597:National Self-Sufficiency 2589:National Self-Sufficiency 2556:The Pro- and Anti-Tariffs 1773:has a positive effect on 990:Financial transaction tax 80:Property tax equalization 6022:World Trade Organization 5139:"Trade wars: episode II" 4769:. Working Paper Series. 3172: 2884: 2835:of that country and the 2585:New Statesman and Nation 2544:New Statesman and Nation 2541:On 7 March 1931, in the 2487:end of tariff barriers. 1336:Tax revenue to GDP ratio 995:Currency transaction tax 581:Liechtenstein tax affair 26:Not to be confused with 6521:International economics 6223:Eurasian Economic Union 6111:Repeal of the Corn Laws 5804:; Wells, Robin (2005). 5786:. Macmillan Press Ltd. 5782:Trade Theory and Policy 4408:Graham Dunkley (2013). 4384:Encyclopedia Britannica 3633:Lokotsch, Karl (1927). 2904:, a country located in 2871:Modern tariff practices 2721:purchasing power parity 2651:Bretton Woods Agreement 2289:Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act 2056:repeal of the Corn Laws 1043:Permanent establishment 1038:Exchange of Information 546:Financial Secrecy Index 197:Medical savings account 21:Tariff (disambiguation) 6516:International taxation 6265:East African Community 6146:Regional organizations 5276:"Home – Make In India" 4828:L'Actualité Économique 4700:10.22004/AG.ECON.15580 4180:5th ed. 1910 is online 3795:Wilson, Nigel (2013). 3014: 2978:Australian Labor Party 2918:Eurasian Customs Union 2820:A tariff is called an 2724: 2709: 2676: 2619: 2606: 2424:Free trade and poverty 2342: 2272: 2196:Report on Manufactures 2157:Tariff of Abominations 2136: 2128: 2120: 1991: 1983: 1975: 1967: 1832: 1817: 1802: 943:Vehicle miles traveled 562:Ireland as a tax haven 376:Private tax collection 6106:The Wealth of Nations 6064:Special economic zone 5927:Comparative advantage 5726:Cultural Anthropology 5537:. Reuters. 2024-01-02 4457:on September 15, 2012 4046:Early American Policy 3968:63.4 (1958): 903–917. 3199: – Trade barrier 2728:Neoclassical economic 2715: 2691: 2658: 2643:comparative advantage 2614: 2601: 2417:Environmental dumping 2267: 2261:of Irwin's 2017 book 2134: 2126: 2118: 1999:In the city state of 1989: 1981: 1973: 1965: 1769:and the reduction of 1708:of a country or by a 616:Panama as a tax haven 568:Ireland v. Commission 536:Conduit and sink OFCs 531:Offshore magic circle 452:Unreported employment 6126:Economic nationalism 6044:Economic integration 5599:Business Week Online 5252:. 30 December 2013. 5101:10.1093/wber/lhab016 4873:Maurin, Max (2013). 4822:Maurin, Max (2011). 4732:(December 8, 2002). 4543:. 31 December 2009. 3953:Smithsonian Magazine 3822:Michell, H. (2014). 3246:Trade liberalisation 3020:. This is often the 2966:Nullification Crisis 2706:Free trade#Economics 1779:trade liberalisation 1607:United Arab Emirates 1349:Individual Countries 1058:Foreign revenue rule 855:Inheritance (estate) 574:Leprechaun economics 19:For other uses, see 6382:Integrated circuits 6166:Caribbean Community 5962:Net capital outflow 5912:Balance of payments 5893:International trade 5448:on January 7, 2023. 5222:. 10 January 2014. 2844:beggar thy neighbor 2803:economic efficiency 2791:lose-lose situation 2527:Macmillan Committee 2509:John Maynard Keynes 2149:Embargo Act of 1807 2089:In response to the 2078:had split from the 1710:supranational union 1646:Business portal 1341:Tax rates in Europe 1211:Tax Justice Network 1157:Dhammika Dharmapala 665:Airport improvement 473:Transfer mispricing 264:Distribution of Tax 36:Part of a series on 6294:Exports by product 6244:Arab Customs Union 5907:Absolute advantage 5729:, 12, pp. 234–268. 5714:. Memoria Chilena. 5709:2012-03-08 at the 5622:2023-08-08 at the 5489:investinarmenia.am 5022:. March 12, 2018. 4985:Radcliffe, Brent. 4540:The New York Times 4307:Temin, P. (1989). 4185:2023-01-07 at the 4178:. 8th ed. (1931); 3929:(1960), pp. 14–15, 3602:2012-10-04 at the 3413:The New York Times 3407:2019-07-16 at the 3143:Economic sanctions 3130:free economic zone 2948:Tariff Act of 1789 2942:Political analysis 2832:indifference curve 2765:Areas B and D are 2725: 2710: 2702:dead-weight losses 2608:He also writes in 2456:sustainable growth 2352:economies of scale 2334:Alexander Hamilton 2181:Alexander Hamilton 2137: 2129: 2121: 2009:east Mediterranean 1992: 1984: 1976: 1968: 1731:Protective tariffs 1247:Eight per thousand 1162:James R. Hines Jr. 1053:European Union FTT 75:Government revenue 6498: 6497: 6288: 6287: 6258:Subsaharan Africa 6089:Political economy 5310:indiainfoline.com 4968:978-0-7167-5229-5 4726:Alan V. Deardorff 4722:Drusilla K. Brown 4201:(2017) pp. 70–83. 4197:Robert W. Merry, 4161:William K. Bolt, 3925:John C. Miller, 3835:978-1-107-41911-7 3808:978-1-136-78799-7 3538:10.20955/r.86.1-6 3450:10.20955/r.86.1-6 3398:N. Gregory Mankiw 3214:Tariff-rate quota 3185:Bound tariff rate 3052:Customs authority 3038:Harmonized System 3026:Harmonized System 3022:transaction value 2970:federal elections 2767:deadweight losses 2536:Treatise on Money 2365:infant industries 2340:in his 1841 book 2076:Liberal unionists 2013:Peloponnesian War 1953: 1941: 1926: 1914: 1899: 1887: 1868: 1856: 1841: 1826: 1811: 1797:derives from the 1793:The English term 1756:infant industries 1694: 1693: 1629: 1628: 1225: 1224: 1217:Tax Policy Center 965:Negative (income) 741:Environmental tax 623: 622: 541:Financial centres 361:Tax investigation 299: 298: 167:Tax harmonization 6528: 6488: 6487: 6478: 6477: 6151: 6150: 6017:World Bank Group 5917:Balance of trade 5886: 5879: 5872: 5863: 5862: 5832:Types of Tariffs 5821: 5797: 5785: 5776:El-Agraa, Ali M. 5762: 5761: 5760: 5759: 5736: 5730: 5721: 5715: 5701: 5697: 5691: 5690: 5688: 5686: 5667: 5661: 5660: 5658: 5657: 5648:. 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Stern 4719: 4715: 4688: 4679: 4670: 4668: 4664: 4657: 4651: 4647: 4637: 4635: 4622: 4621: 4617: 4608: 4606: 4591: 4587: 4577: 4575: 4564: 4560: 4550: 4548: 4533: 4532: 4528: 4519: 4517: 4508: 4507: 4500: 4490: 4488: 4473: 4469: 4460: 4458: 4454: 4447: 4443: 4442: 4438: 4433: 4429: 4422: 4406: 4402: 4393: 4391: 4378: 4377: 4373: 4364: 4360: 4351: 4349: 4340: 4339: 4332: 4325: 4305: 4301: 4294: 4278: 4274: 4266: 4262: 4253: 4251: 4238: 4237: 4230: 4221: 4219: 4210: 4209: 4205: 4196: 4192: 4187:Wayback Machine 4174:F.W. Taussig,. 4173: 4169: 4160: 4156: 4141:10.2307/1850218 4125: 4121: 4110: 4106: 4099: 4081: 4077: 4068:Ha-Joon Chang. 4066: 4053: 4042: 4038: 4028: 4026: 4025:on 8 March 2021 4022: 4015: 4009: 4008: 4004: 3994: 3992: 3981: 3972: 3963: 3959: 3950: 3946: 3937: 3933: 3924: 3920: 3903: 3899: 3890: 3888: 3884: 3873: 3862: 3843: 3836: 3820: 3816: 3809: 3793: 3789: 3782: 3760:Pollard, Sidney 3752: 3748: 3739: 3737: 3722: 3706: 3702: 3693: 3691: 3678: 3677: 3673: 3664: 3662: 3649: 3648: 3644: 3631: 3627: 3614: 3610: 3604:Wayback Machine 3595: 3591: 3581: 3579: 3568: 3564: 3551: 3549: 3545: 3520: 3511: 3504: 3495: 3493: 3480: 3479: 3475: 3463: 3461: 3457: 3432: 3423: 3419: 3409:Wayback Machine 3396: 3392: 3382: 3380: 3373:"Import Duties" 3371: 3370: 3366: 3356: 3354: 3345: 3344: 3340: 3333: 3319: 3315: 3292: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3261: 3258:Free-trade area 3248: 3229: 3209:List of tariffs 3203:Import surtaxes 3175: 3138: 3126: 3081: 3079:Duty-free goods 3072: 3066: 3054: 3034: 3010: 3005: 2944: 2936: 2899: 2887: 2878: 2873: 2799: 2686: 2681: 2675: 2665: 2595:. He notes in 2570: 2558:, published in 2520:Alfred Marshall 2516: 2511: 2505: 2493: 2483: 2475: 2471: 2426: 2396: 2387:Nicholas Kaldor 2330: 2325: 2302:Milton Friedman 2285: 2219:American System 2171:who influenced 2113: 2103: 2022: 1997: 1960: 1844:Ottoman Turkish 1791: 1775:economic growth 1704:imposed by the 1690: 1652: 1650: 1638: 1631: 1630: 1317: 1307: 1306: 1262:Fiscus Judaicus 1237: 1227: 1226: 1185:Advocacy groups 1138: 1130: 1129: 1120:Trade agreement 1115:Free-trade zone 1073: 1063: 1062: 1000: 985: 975: 974: 635: 625: 624: 596:Paradise Papers 437:Debtors' prison 396: 386: 385: 356:Tax preparation 316:Revenue service 311: 301: 300: 212: 202: 201: 182:Double taxation 177:Tax withholding 172:Tax competition 90:Non-tax revenue 70: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6534: 6524: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6511:Customs duties 6496: 6495: 6493: 6492: 6482: 6471: 6468: 6467: 6465: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6307:Aircraft parts 6304: 6298: 6296: 6290: 6289: 6286: 6285: 6283: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6261: 6259: 6255: 6254: 6252: 6251: 6246: 6240: 6238: 6234: 6233: 6231: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6214: 6212: 6208: 6207: 6205: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6188: 6186: 6182: 6181: 6179: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6157: 6155: 6148: 6142: 6141: 6139: 6138: 6133: 6119: 6114: 6093: 6091: 6085: 6084: 6082: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6030: 6029: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6003: 6001: 5996: 5993: 5992: 5990: 5989: 5987:Trading nation 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5903: 5901: 5897: 5896: 5889: 5888: 5881: 5874: 5866: 5860: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5827: 5826:External links 5824: 5823: 5822: 5817:978-0716752295 5816: 5807:Macroeconomics 5798: 5793:978-0333360200 5792: 5770: 5767: 5764: 5763: 5731: 5716: 5692: 5662: 5646:The Australian 5632: 5608: 5586: 5583:on 2012-07-08. 5568: 5547: 5526: 5505: 5476: 5451: 5429: 5404: 5379: 5353: 5327: 5297: 5267: 5237: 5207: 5195: 5183: 5171: 5162: 5150: 5124: 5095:(2): 361–381. 5075: 5048: 5036: 5020:igmchicago.org 5007: 4974: 4967: 4958:Microeconomics 4942: 4910: 4882: 4858: 4791: 4780: 4775:10.3386/w21027 4757: 4713: 4677: 4645: 4615: 4585: 4558: 4526: 4498: 4467: 4436: 4427: 4420: 4400: 4371: 4358: 4344:. March 2009. 4330: 4323: 4299: 4292: 4272: 4268:http://krugman 4260: 4228: 4203: 4190: 4167: 4154: 4135:(4): 609–629. 4119: 4104: 4097: 4075: 4051: 4036: 4002: 3970: 3957: 3944: 3938:Percy Ashley, 3931: 3918: 3897: 3841: 3834: 3814: 3807: 3787: 3781:978-0521225045 3780: 3756:Mathias, Peter 3746: 3720: 3700: 3686:(in Italian). 3671: 3657:(in Italian). 3642: 3625: 3608: 3589: 3562: 3514:Poole, William 3502: 3486:igmchicago.org 3473: 3426:Poole, William 3417: 3390: 3364: 3338: 3331: 3313: 3302:(3): 362–366. 3285: 3284: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3276: 3270: 3264: 3255: 3247: 3244: 3243: 3242: 3236: 3228: 3227:Trade dynamics 3225: 3224: 3223: 3217: 3211: 3206: 3200: 3194: 3188: 3182: 3179:Ad valorem tax 3174: 3171: 3170: 3169: 3164: 3158: 3152: 3146: 3139: 3137: 3134: 3125: 3122: 3080: 3077: 3068:Main article: 3065: 3062: 3053: 3050: 3033: 3030: 3009: 3006: 3004: 3001: 2943: 2940: 2935: 2932: 2898: 2895: 2886: 2883: 2877: 2874: 2872: 2869: 2865:contract curve 2822:optimal tariff 2798: 2797:Optimal tariff 2795: 2771: 2770: 2763: 2760: 2754: 2748: 2745: 2742: 2717:GDP per capita 2685: 2682: 2680: 2677: 2663: 2627:Marcus Fleming 2569: 2566: 2515: 2512: 2507:Main article: 2504: 2501: 2492: 2489: 2425: 2422: 2421: 2420: 2414: 2411: 2408: 2395: 2392: 2338:Friedrich List 2329: 2326: 2324: 2321: 2305:contraction". 2284: 2281: 2274:The Economist 2173:Friedrich List 2169:Daniel Raymond 2142:Tariff of 1789 2102: 2099: 2095:Weimar Germany 2030:Robert Walpole 2021: 2018: 2003:, the port of 1996: 1995:Ancient Greece 1993: 1959: 1956: 1829:Medieval Latin 1790: 1787: 1771:trade barriers 1692: 1691: 1689: 1688: 1681: 1674: 1666: 1663: 1662: 1661: 1660: 1648: 1633: 1632: 1627: 1626: 1625: 1624: 1619: 1614: 1612:United Kingdom 1609: 1604: 1599: 1594: 1589: 1584: 1579: 1574: 1569: 1564: 1559: 1554: 1549: 1544: 1539: 1534: 1529: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1509: 1504: 1499: 1494: 1489: 1484: 1479: 1474: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1454: 1449: 1444: 1439: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1364: 1359: 1351: 1350: 1346: 1345: 1344: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1325: 1324: 1318: 1313: 1312: 1309: 1308: 1305: 1304: 1299: 1294: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1269: 1264: 1259: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1238: 1233: 1232: 1229: 1228: 1223: 1222: 1221: 1220: 1214: 1208: 1205:Tax Foundation 1202: 1196: 1187: 1186: 1182: 1181: 1180: 1179: 1177:Gabriel Zucman 1174: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1152:Mihir A. Desai 1146: 1145: 1139: 1136: 1135: 1132: 1131: 1128: 1127: 1122: 1117: 1112: 1107: 1102: 1101: 1100: 1095: 1085: 1080: 1074: 1069: 1068: 1065: 1064: 1061: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1045: 1040: 1035: 1030: 1025: 1020: 1015: 1013:Robin Hood tax 1010: 1005: 997: 992: 986: 981: 980: 977: 976: 973: 972: 967: 962: 957: 955:Excess profits 952: 947: 946: 945: 940: 935: 926: 921: 907: 902: 897: 892: 887: 882: 877: 872: 867: 862: 857: 852: 847: 842: 840:Gross receipts 837: 832: 827: 822: 821: 820: 815: 810: 805: 800: 795: 790: 780: 779: 778: 773: 768: 763: 758: 753: 748: 738: 733: 732: 731: 726: 721: 716: 711: 706: 701: 691: 690: 689: 679: 678: 677: 672: 667: 657: 652: 647: 642: 636: 631: 630: 627: 626: 621: 620: 619: 618: 613: 608: 603: 598: 593: 591:Offshore Leaks 588: 583: 578: 577: 576: 571: 556: 555: 554:Major examples 551: 550: 549: 548: 543: 538: 533: 528: 522: 517: 509: 508: 504: 503: 502: 501: 496: 491: 489:Dutch Sandwich 486: 481: 475: 470: 462: 461: 457: 456: 455: 454: 449: 444: 439: 434: 429: 427:Tax resistance 424: 419: 418: 417: 404: 403: 397: 392: 391: 388: 387: 384: 383: 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 331:Taxable income 328: 326:Tax assessment 323: 318: 312: 307: 306: 303: 302: 297: 296: 295: 294: 289: 284: 279: 274: 266: 265: 261: 260: 259: 258: 253: 248: 243: 238: 233: 228: 220: 219: 218:General Theory 213: 208: 207: 204: 203: 200: 199: 194: 189: 187:Representation 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 134: 129: 124: 119: 114: 109: 108: 107: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 71: 66: 65: 62: 61: 54: 53: 45: 44: 38: 37: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6533: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6508: 6506: 6491: 6483: 6481: 6473: 6472: 6469: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6417:Photovoltaics 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6299: 6297: 6295: 6291: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6262: 6260: 6256: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6241: 6239: 6235: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6215: 6213: 6209: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6189: 6187: 6183: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6158: 6156: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6143: 6137: 6134: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6122:Protectionism 6120: 6118: 6115: 6112: 6108: 6107: 6102: 6098: 6095: 6094: 6092: 6090: 6086: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6074:Trade barrier 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6028: 6025: 6024: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6004: 6002: 5997:Organizations 5994: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5977:Trade justice 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5952:Globalization 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5904: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5887: 5882: 5880: 5875: 5873: 5868: 5867: 5864: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5829: 5819: 5813: 5809: 5808: 5803: 5802:Krugman, Paul 5799: 5795: 5789: 5784: 5783: 5777: 5773: 5772: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5735: 5728: 5727: 5720: 5713: 5712: 5708: 5705: 5696: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5666: 5652:on 2007-11-09 5651: 5647: 5643: 5636: 5629: 5628:The Hermitage 5625: 5621: 5618: 5612: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5590: 5582: 5578: 5572: 5558: 5551: 5536: 5530: 5516: 5509: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5480: 5465: 5461: 5455: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5433: 5418: 5414: 5408: 5393: 5389: 5383: 5367: 5363: 5357: 5341: 5337: 5331: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5301: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5271: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5241: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5211: 5204: 5199: 5192: 5187: 5180: 5175: 5166: 5160:, p. 26. 5159: 5154: 5146: 5145: 5144:The Economist 5140: 5133: 5131: 5129: 5120: 5116: 5111: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5079: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5052: 5045: 5040: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5011: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4981: 4979: 4970: 4964: 4960: 4959: 4951: 4949: 4947: 4931: 4927: 4926: 4921: 4914: 4900:on 2011-05-15 4899: 4895: 4889: 4887: 4878: 4877: 4869: 4867: 4865: 4863: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4818: 4816: 4814: 4812: 4810: 4808: 4806: 4804: 4802: 4800: 4798: 4796: 4789: 4784: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4761: 4742: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4717: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4686: 4684: 4682: 4663: 4656: 4649: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4619: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4593:Pham, Peter. 4589: 4573: 4569: 4562: 4546: 4542: 4541: 4536: 4530: 4515: 4511: 4505: 4503: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4471: 4453: 4446: 4440: 4431: 4423: 4421:9781848136755 4417: 4414:. Zed Books. 4413: 4412: 4404: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4375: 4368: 4367:Working Paper 4362: 4347: 4343: 4337: 4335: 4326: 4324:9780262261197 4320: 4316: 4312: 4311: 4303: 4295: 4293:9781400888429 4289: 4285: 4284: 4276: 4269: 4264: 4249: 4245: 4244:The Economist 4241: 4235: 4233: 4217: 4213: 4207: 4200: 4194: 4188: 4184: 4181: 4177: 4171: 4164: 4158: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4123: 4115: 4108: 4100: 4098:9780226034621 4094: 4089: 4088: 4079: 4071: 4064: 4062: 4060: 4058: 4056: 4047: 4040: 4021: 4014: 4013: 4006: 3990: 3986: 3979: 3977: 3975: 3967: 3961: 3954: 3948: 3941: 3935: 3928: 3922: 3914: 3910: 3909: 3901: 3887:on 2021-03-08 3883: 3879: 3872: 3871: 3866: 3865:Ha-Joon Chang 3860: 3858: 3856: 3854: 3852: 3850: 3848: 3846: 3837: 3831: 3827: 3826: 3818: 3810: 3804: 3801:. Routledge. 3800: 3799: 3791: 3783: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3750: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3721:3-11-006800-1 3717: 3713: 3712: 3704: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3675: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3646: 3638: 3637: 3629: 3621: 3620: 3612: 3605: 3601: 3598: 3593: 3577: 3573: 3566: 3559: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3507: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3477: 3470: 3456: 3451: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3431: 3427: 3421: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3403: 3399: 3394: 3378: 3374: 3368: 3352: 3348: 3342: 3334: 3332:9780393312928 3328: 3324: 3317: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3290: 3286: 3274: 3271: 3268: 3267:Swiss Formula 3265: 3259: 3256: 3253: 3250: 3249: 3240: 3239:Tariffication 3237: 3234: 3231: 3230: 3221: 3218: 3215: 3212: 3210: 3207: 3204: 3201: 3198: 3195: 3192: 3189: 3186: 3183: 3180: 3177: 3176: 3168: 3165: 3162: 3159: 3156: 3155:Trade barrier 3153: 3150: 3149:Protectionism 3147: 3144: 3141: 3140: 3133: 3131: 3121: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3076: 3071: 3061: 3059: 3049: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3029: 3027: 3023: 3018: 3017: 3000: 2998: 2994: 2989: 2987: 2986:Nick Xenophon 2983: 2982:Liberal Party 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2958: 2956: 2951: 2949: 2939: 2931: 2927: 2924: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2894: 2892: 2891:Make in India 2882: 2868: 2866: 2862: 2861:policy choice 2857: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2845: 2840: 2839: 2834: 2833: 2827: 2823: 2818: 2816: 2815: 2810: 2809: 2804: 2794: 2792: 2786: 2782: 2779: 2775: 2768: 2764: 2761: 2758: 2755: 2752: 2749: 2746: 2743: 2740: 2739: 2738: 2735: 2733: 2729: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2690: 2672: 2668: 2667:William Poole 2662: 2657: 2654: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2638: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2618: 2613: 2611: 2605: 2600: 2598: 2594: 2593:protectionism 2590: 2586: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2565: 2563: 2562: 2557: 2552: 2550: 2546: 2545: 2539: 2537: 2531: 2528: 2523: 2521: 2510: 2500: 2496: 2488: 2481: 2472:$ 539 billion 2467: 2465: 2461: 2460:mercantilists 2457: 2452: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2441:Ha-Joon Chang 2438: 2437: 2432: 2418: 2415: 2412: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2400: 2399: 2391: 2388: 2383: 2381: 2380:laissez-faire 2377: 2373: 2372:Ha-Joon Chang 2368: 2366: 2362: 2356: 2353: 2349: 2344: 2339: 2335: 2320: 2318: 2312: 2310: 2306: 2303: 2299: 2296: 2292: 2290: 2280: 2277: 2276:Ha-Joon Chang 2271: 2266: 2264: 2260: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2240: 2234: 2232: 2226: 2222: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2197: 2192: 2190: 2186: 2185:David Ricardo 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2164: 2160: 2158: 2153: 2150: 2145: 2143: 2133: 2125: 2117: 2112: 2108: 2101:United States 2098: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2085: 2084:protectionism 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2064: 2062: 2057: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2040: 2038: 2033: 2031: 2026: 2020:Great Britain 2017: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1988: 1980: 1972: 1964: 1955: 1951: 1945: 1939: 1930: 1924: 1918: 1912: 1903: 1897: 1891: 1885: 1876: 1872: 1866: 1860: 1854: 1845: 1839: 1834: 1830: 1824: 1819: 1815: 1809: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1786: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1763: 1761: 1758:and to allow 1757: 1751: 1749: 1745: 1744:export quotas 1741: 1740:import quotas 1738:, along with 1737: 1736:protectionism 1733: 1732: 1727: 1726:foreign trade 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1687: 1682: 1680: 1675: 1673: 1668: 1667: 1665: 1664: 1659: 1649: 1647: 1642: 1637: 1636: 1635: 1634: 1623: 1620: 1618: 1617:United States 1615: 1613: 1610: 1608: 1605: 1603: 1600: 1598: 1595: 1593: 1590: 1588: 1585: 1583: 1580: 1578: 1575: 1573: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1560: 1558: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1548: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1538: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1528: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1518: 1515: 1513: 1510: 1508: 1505: 1503: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1493: 1490: 1488: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1478: 1475: 1473: 1470: 1468: 1465: 1463: 1460: 1458: 1455: 1453: 1450: 1448: 1445: 1443: 1440: 1438: 1435: 1433: 1430: 1428: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1415: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1354: 1353: 1352: 1348: 1347: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1332: 1329: 1328: 1327: 1326: 1323:All Countries 1322: 1321: 1316: 1311: 1310: 1303: 1300: 1298: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1277:Tolerance tax 1275: 1273: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1258: 1255: 1253: 1250: 1248: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1239: 1236: 1231: 1230: 1218: 1215: 1212: 1209: 1206: 1203: 1200: 1197: 1194: 1191: 1190: 1189: 1188: 1184: 1183: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1149: 1148: 1147: 1143: 1142: 1134: 1133: 1126: 1123: 1121: 1118: 1116: 1113: 1111: 1108: 1106: 1103: 1099: 1096: 1094: 1091: 1090: 1089: 1086: 1084: 1081: 1079: 1076: 1075: 1072: 1067: 1066: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1039: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1029: 1026: 1024: 1021: 1019: 1016: 1014: 1011: 1009: 1006: 1003: 998: 996: 993: 991: 988: 987: 984: 983:International 979: 978: 971: 968: 966: 963: 961: 958: 956: 953: 951: 948: 944: 941: 939: 936: 934: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 916: 915: 911: 908: 906: 903: 901: 898: 896: 893: 891: 888: 886: 885:Resource rent 883: 881: 878: 876: 873: 871: 868: 866: 863: 861: 858: 856: 853: 851: 848: 846: 843: 841: 838: 836: 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 819: 816: 814: 811: 809: 806: 804: 801: 799: 796: 794: 791: 789: 786: 785: 784: 781: 777: 774: 772: 769: 767: 764: 762: 759: 757: 754: 752: 749: 747: 744: 743: 742: 739: 737: 734: 730: 727: 725: 722: 720: 717: 715: 712: 710: 707: 705: 702: 700: 697: 696: 695: 692: 688: 685: 684: 683: 682:Capital gains 680: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 662: 661: 658: 656: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 638: 637: 634: 629: 628: 617: 614: 612: 609: 607: 604: 602: 601:Panama Papers 599: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 584: 582: 579: 575: 572: 570: 569: 565: 564: 563: 560: 559: 558: 557: 553: 552: 547: 544: 542: 539: 537: 534: 532: 529: 526: 523: 521: 518: 516: 513: 512: 511: 510: 506: 505: 500: 497: 495: 492: 490: 487: 485: 482: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 468:Tax inversion 466: 465: 464: 463: 459: 458: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 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