1045:) recognized that it would be difficult for a lay person to do so, and advised the petitioner to trust their sense of the mufti's piety and ideally follow the advice of a single scholar known for exemplary morals. The mufti was often a well-known figure in his neighborhood. Some petitioners could choose among several local muftis, while others had to or chose to travel to receive a fatwa. Judges commonly sent letters to solicit fatwas from prominent jurists in another town or even country. Sunni legal theory generally permits the petioner to obtain a fatwa from multiple jurists on the same query, provided that it addresses a real and not hypothetical situation. Some petitioners sought out a second fatwa because they were unsatisfied with the first, and the two sides in a legal dispute generally each sought to obtain a fatwa that would support their position. Muftis often consulted another mufti on difficult cases, though this practice was not foreseen by legal theory, which saw
1741:
1565:
1441:
1037:
reasoning behind the decision. Queries to muftis were supposed to address real and not hypothetical situations and be formulated in general terms, leaving out names of places and people. Since a mufti was not supposed to inquire into the situation beyond the information included in the query, queries regarding contentious matters were often carefully constructed to elicit the desired response. A mufti's understanding of the query commonly depended on their familiarity with local customs and colloquialisms. In theory, if the query was unclear or not sufficiently detailed for a ruling, the mufti was supposed to state these caveats in their response.
1847:, a group of Middle Eastern Islamic scholars issued a fatwa permitting Muslims serving in the U.S. army to participate in military action against Muslim countries, in response to a query from a U.S. Army Muslim chaplain. This fatwa illustrated two increasingly widespread practices. First, it drew directly on the Quran and hadith without referencing the body of jurisprudence from any of the traditional schools of Islamic law. Secondly, questions from Western Muslims directed to muftis in Muslim-majority countries have become increasingly common, as about one-third of Muslims now live in Muslim-minority countries.
1012:
739:
1803:. Khomeini himself did not call this proclamation a fatwa, and some scholars have argued that it did not qualify as one, since in Islamic legal theory only a court can decide whether an accused is guilty. However, after the proclamation was presented as a fatwa in Western press, this characterization was widely accepted by both its critics and its supporters, and the Rushdie Affair is credited with bringing the institution of fatwa to world attention. Together with later militant fatwas, it has contributed to the popular misconception of the fatwa as a religious death warrant.
1187:
judged to be more convincing. If a party in a dispute was not able to obtain a fatwa supporting their position, they would be unlikely to pursue their case in court, opting for informal mediation instead, or abandoning their claim altogether. Sometimes muftis could be petitioned for a fatwa relating to a court judgment that has already been passed, acting as an informal appeals process, but the extent of this practice and its mechanism varied across history. While in most of the
Islamic world judges were not required to consult muftis by any political authority, in
1862:, and the prevention of harm, to derive fatwas suitable for life in Europe. For example, a 2001 ECRF ruling allowed a woman who had converted to Islam to remain married without requiring her husband's conversion, based in part on the existence of European laws and customs under which women are guaranteed the freedom of religion. Rulings of this kind have been welcomed by some, but also criticized by others as being overly eclectic in legal methodology and having potential to negatively impact the interpretation of sharia in Muslim-majority countries.
1272:), evaluating the reliability of hadith and applying or even developing the appropriate legal methodologies. Starting from around 1200 CE, legal theorists began to accept that muftis of their time may not possess the knowledge and legal skill to perform this activity. In addition, it was felt that the major question of jurisprudence had already been addressed by master jurists of earlier times, so that later muftis only had to follow the legal opinions established within their legal school (
1648:, founded in 1895, which has served to articulate a national vision of Islam through fatwas issued in response to government and private queries. National governments in Muslim-majority countries also instituted councils of senior religious scholars to advise the government on religious matters and issue fatwas. These councils generally form part of the ministry for religious affairs, rather than the justice department, which may have a more assertive attitude toward the executive branch.
1858:(ECFR, founded in 1997). These organizations aim to provide fatwas that address the concerns of Muslim minorities, helping them to comply with sharia, while stressing compatibility of Islam with diverse modern contexts. The FCNA was founded with the goal of developing legal methodologies for adopting Islamic law to life in the West. The ECRF draws on all major schools of Sunni law as well as other traditional legal principles, such as concern for the public good,
1764:. In it Hurgronje denounced his German colleagues, who he felt instigated the jihad proclamation in an irresponsible appeal to an antiquated concept that threatened the project of modernizing the Muslim world. The article was widely circulated in an English translation and its accuracy continues to be debated by historians, who acknowledge both the German influence and the internal political calculations of the Ottoman government underlying the proclamation.
1919:. Networks of muftis are commonly engaged by fatwa websites, so that queries are distributed among the muftis in the network, who still act as individual jurisconsults. In other cases, Islamic jurists of different nationalities, schools of law, and sometimes even denominations (Sunni and Shia), coordinate to issue a joint fatwa, which is expected to command greater authority with the public than individual fatwas. The collective fatwa (sometimes called
1179:
882:
of clarifying and elaborating the laws applied in courts. Instead, modern fatwas have increasingly served to advise the general public on other aspects of sharia, particularly questions regarding religious rituals and everyday life. Modern public fatwas have addressed and sometimes sparked controversies in the Muslim world, and some fatwas in recent decades have gained worldwide notoriety. The legal methodology of modern
1344:, which is reserved for men in the classical sharia system, fatwas could be issued by qualified women as well as men. In practice, the vast majority of jurists who completed the lengthy curriculum in linguistic and religious sciences required to obtain the qualification to issue fatwas were men. Slaves and persons who were blind or mute were likewise theoretically barred from the post of a judge, but not that of mufti.
655:
1756:. The proclamation was supported by a fatwa issued by the Shaykh al-Islam. Contrary to the German hopes that the proclamation would trigger Muslim revolts in British and French colonies, it was either rejected or quietly ignored by their Muslim authorities. It also quickly gave rise to a heated academic debate in Europe. The controversy was sparked by a 1915 article by the prominent Dutch orientalist
1551:). In both political and scholarly sphere, doctrinal controversies between different states, denominations or centers of learning were accompanied by dueling fatwas. Muftis also acted to counteract the influence of judges and secular functionaries. By articulating grievances and legal rights of the population, public fatwas often prompted an otherwise unresponsive court system to provide redress.
64:
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now also increasingly likely to be female, and in the modern world Muslim women tend to address muftis directly rather than conveying their query through a male relative as in the past. Since women now represent a significant proportion of students studying
Islamic law and qualifying as muftiyas, their prominence in its interpretation is likely to rise. A fatwa hotline in the
856:, privately issued fatwas historically served to inform Muslim populations about Islam, advise courts on difficult points of Islamic law, and elaborate substantive law. In later times, public and political fatwas were issued to take a stand on doctrinal controversies, legitimize government policies or articulate grievances of the population. During the era of
1057:
of paper containing the query, leaving no documentary trace. However, large collections of ordinary fatwas are preserved in
Ottoman and Indian archives. Mufti manuals contained a number of regulations about the standard format of a fatwa, such as avoiding blank space that could be used for a spurious addition and concluding the fatwa with an expression like
1175:
considered a requirement for qualified jurists to communicate their knowledge through teaching or issuing fatwas. The ideal mufti was conceived as an individual of scholarly accomplishments and exemplary morals, and muftis were generally approached with the respect and deference corresponding to these expectations.
1212:
During the early centuries of Islam, the roles of mufti, author-jurist and judge were not mutually exclusive. A jurist could lead a teaching circle, conduct a fatwa session, and adjudicate court cases in a single day, devoting his night hours to writing a legal treatise. Those who were able to act in
1056:
In theory, fatwas could be delivered orally or in writing, but it is not clear how common oral fatwas were, aside from those issued by an
Ottoman office established specifically for the purpose of issuing oral fatwas. Many routine, written fatwas were delivered directly to the petitioner on the piece
1040:
Fatwas were solicited by men and women from all social classes. A mufti could be an obscure scholar, who occasionally replied to queries from people in his neighborhood, or, at the other extreme, a famous jurist or a powerful state official. The level of technical detail supplied in a fatwa, such as
982:
According to
Islamic doctrine, with Muhammad's death in 632, God ceased to communicate with mankind through revelation and prophets. At that point, the rapidly expanding Muslim community turned to Muhammad's Companions, as the most authoritative voices among them, for religious guidance, and some of
881:
In the modern era, fatwas have reflected changing economic, social and political circumstances, and addressed concerns arising in varied Muslim communities. The spread of codified state laws and
Western-style legal education in the modern Muslim world has displaced muftis from their traditional role
1940:
The social profile of the fatwa petitioner has also undergone considerable changes. Owing to the rise of universal education, those who solicit fatwas have become increasingly educated, which has transformed the traditional mufti–mustafti relationship based on restricted literacy. The questioner is
1932:
other topics, including insurance, sex-change operations, moon exploration, beer drinking, abortion in the case of fatal foetal abnormalities, or males and females sharing workplaces. Public "fatwa wars" have reflected political controversies in the Muslim world, from anti-colonial struggles to the
1907:
publishes an archive of "live fatwa" sessions, whose number approached a thousand by 2007, along with biographies of the muftis. Together with satellite television programs, radio shows and fatwa hotlines offering call-in fatwas, these sites have contributed to the rise of new forms of contemporary
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According to legal theory, it was up to each mufti to decide when he was ready to practice. In practice, an aspiring jurist would normally study for several years with one or several recognized scholars, following a curriculum that included Arabic grammar, hadith, law and other religious sciences.
1186:
Judges generally sought an opinion from a mufti with higher scholarly authority than themselves for difficult cases or potentially controversial verdicts. Fatwas were routinely upheld in courts, and if a fatwa was disregarded, it was usually because another fatwa supporting a different position was
1931:
As the role of fatwas on strictly legal issues has declined in modern times, there has been a relative increase in the proportion of fatwas dealing with rituals and further expansion in purely religious areas like
Quranic exegesis, creed, and Sufism. Modern fatwas also deal with a wide variety of
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groups to justify jihad against rulers of Muslim-majority countries. The Amman
Message recognized eight legitimate schools of Islamic law and prohibited declarations of apostasy against them. The statement also asserted that fatwas can be issued only by properly trained muftis, thereby seeking to
1936:
of the 1990s, when muftis in some countries issued fatwas supporting collaboration with the US-led coalition, while muftis from other countries endorsed the Iraqi call for jihad against the US and its collaborators. In the private sphere, some muftis have begun to resemble social workers, giving
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Although some early theorists argued that muftis should not respond to questions on certain subjects, such as theology, muftis have in practice handled queries relating to a wide range of subjects. This trend continued in modern times, and contemporary state-appointed muftis and institutions for
1651:
While chief muftis of earlier times oversaw a hierarchy of muftis and judges applying traditional jurisprudence, most modern states have adopted
European-influenced legal codes and no longer employ traditional judicial procedures or traditionally trained judges. State muftis generally promote a
1619:
On many other occasions, fatwas served as an effective tool for influencing the political process. For example, in 1904 a fatwa by
Moroccan ulema achieved the dismissal of European experts hired by the Moroccan government, while in 1907 another Moroccan fatwa succeeded in deposing the sultan on
1052:
In theory, a mufti was expected to issue fatwas free of charge. In practice, muftis commonly received support from the public treasury, public endowments or private donations. Taking of bribes was forbidden. Until the 11th or 12th century, the vast majority of jurists held other jobs to support
1881:
Advances in communication technology and the rise of the internet have changed the reception and role of fatwas in modern society. In the pre-modern era, most fatwas issued in response to private queries were read only by the petitioner. Early in the 20th century, the reformist Islamic scholar
1036:
Fatwas are issued in response to a query. They can range from a simple yes/no answer to a book-length treatise. A short fatwa may state a well-known point of law in response to a question from a lay person, while a "major" fatwa may give a judgment on an unprecedented case, detailing the legal
1948:
The vast amount of fatwas produced in the modern world attests to the importance of Islamic authenticity to many Muslims. However, there is little research available to indicate to what extent Muslims acknowledge the authority of various fatwas and heed their rulings in real life. Rather than
1174:
Before the rise of modern education, the study of law was a centerpiece of advanced education in the Islamic world. A relatively small class of legal scholars controlled the interpretation of sharia on a wide range of questions essential to the society, ranging from ritual to finance. It was
1522:
While most fatwas were delivered to an individual or a judge, some fatwas that were public or political in nature played an important role in religious legitimation, doctrinal disputes, political criticism, or political mobilization. As muftis were progressively incorporated into government
1643:
was established in a number of madrasas (law colleges) as a centralized place for issuing of fatwas, and these organizations to a considerable extent replaced independent muftis as religious guides for the general population. Following independence, most Muslim states established national
1248:
manuals, a mufti must be an adult, Muslim, trusted and reliable, of good character and sound mind, an alert and rigorous thinker, trained as a jurist, and not a sinner. On a practical level, the stature of muftis derived from their reputation for scholarly expertise and upright character.
1732:(minority jurisprudence), a recently developed branch of Islamic jurisprudence that aims to address the needs of Muslims living in countries with a non-Muslim majority. Its opponents object that sharia is supposed to determine the interests of Muslims, and not the other way around.
1598:). These fatwas classified countries under European domination as lands of war or unbelief and invoked the legal theory obliging Muslims to wage war against the rulers of these lands or emigrate. A number of such fatwas were issued during the 19th century, including in 1803 by
1531:
and Safavid Iran. Fatwas by the Ottoman chief mufti were also solicited by the rulers to lend religious legitimacy to new social and economic practices, such as financial and penal laws enacted outside of sharia, printing of nonreligious books (1727) and vaccination (1845).
1811:
and four of his associates, proclaiming "jihad against Jews and Crusaders" and calling for killing of American civilians. In addition to denouncing its content, many Islamic jurists stressed that bin Laden was not qualified to either issue a fatwa or declare a jihad.
1705:
New forms of ijtihad have also given rise to fatwas that support such notions as gender equality and banking interest, which are at variance with classical jurisprudence. This is commonly accomplished by application of various traditional legal doctrines such as the
1615:
differed in their technical detail, while the French authorities obtained fatwas from local muftis, stating that Muslims living under the rule of unbelievers were not obligated to fight or emigrate as long as they were granted religious freedom by the authorities.
1483:
While the office of the mufti was gradually subsumed into the state bureaucracy in much of the Sunni Muslim world, Shia religious establishment followed a different path in Iran starting from the early modern era. During Safavid rule, independent Islamic jurists
1110:, and he rarely talked about a subject without quoting the four schools of the imams. Yet, he contradicted the four schools in well-known matters about which he wrote and for which provided arguments from the Koran and the Sunna. He has compiled a work entitled
1462:(religious scholars). Madrasas, which were primarily devoted to the study of law, soon multiplied throughout the Islamic world, helping to spread Islamic learning beyond urban centers and to unite diverse Islamic communities in a shared cultural project.
962:
how to respond to questions from his followers regarding religious and social practices. Several of these verses begin with the phrase "When they ask you concerning ..., say ..." In two cases (4:127, 4:176) this is expressed with verbal forms of the root
890:
in various ways. While the proliferation of contemporary fatwas attests to the importance of Islamic authenticity to many Muslims, little research has been done to determine how much these fatwas affect the beliefs or behavior of the Muslim public.
1535:
At other times muftis wielded their influence independently of the ruler, and several sultans in Morocco and the Ottoman Empire were dethroned as a result of fatwas issued by influential jurists. This happened, for example, to the Ottoman sultan
740:
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bureaucracies in the course of Islamic history, they were often expected to support government policies. Ottoman sultans regularly sought fatwas from the chief mufti for administrative and military initiatives, including fatwas sanctioning
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Before the 11th century CE, anyone who possessed scholarly recognition as an Islamic jurist could issue fatwas. Starting around that time, however, the public office of mufti began to appear alongside the private issuing of fatwas. In
1610:
of northern India issued fatwas stating that Indian Muslims were not obliged to rebel or emigrate. A similar doctrinal controversy occurred in French-ruled Algeria. The fatwas solicited by the Algerian anti-colonial leader
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citations of sources or specification of legal methodologies employed, depended on the technical level of the petitioner. In theory, a petitioner was supposed to verify the mufti's scholarly reputation, but mufti manuals (
1451:
For the first few centuries of Islam, muftis were educated in informal study circles, but beginning in the 11th and 12th centuries, the ruling elites began to establish institutions of higher religious learning known as
1873:, then the chairman of FCNA, which encouraged Muslim citizens to participate in American politics. This branch of jurisprudence has since been developed primarily, but not exclusively for Muslim minorities in the West.
1806:
Many militant and reform movements in modern times have disseminated fatwas issued by individuals who do not possess the qualifications traditionally required of a mufti. A famous example is the fatwa issued in 1998 by
1384:
While both muftis and judges were interpreters of sharia, judicial interpretation centered on evaluating evidence such as testimony and oath, while a mufti investigated textual sources of law (scripture and legal
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Author-jurists collected fatwas by muftis of high scholarly reputation and abstracted them into concise formulations of legal norms that could be used by judges, giving a summary of jurisprudence for a particular
1540:
on the grounds of his insanity. Public fatwas were also used to dispute doctrinal matters, and in some case to proclaim that certain groups or individuals who professed to be Muslim were to be excluded from the
1412:
appointed four muftis, one for each of the four Sunni madhhabs, to appellate courts in provincial capitals. The Ottomans organized muftis into a hierarchical bureaucracy with a chief mufti of the empire called
991:). The concept of fatwa thus developed in Islamic communities under a question-and-answer format for communicating religious knowledge, and took on its definitive form with development of the classical
1722:(necessity), in place of adhering to the letter of scriptural sources. The main argument for this approach is that Islamic law is meant to serve the interest of Muslims and make their lives easier (
1771:
issued a fatwa calling for boycott of Israeli and American products, arguing that buying these goods would strengthen the "enemy" fighting against Muslims in the struggle over Palestine.
1170:
elaborating substantive Islamic law, particularly though a genre of legal literature developed by author-jurists who collected fatwas of prominent muftis and integrated them into books.
1831:
Erroneous and sometimes bizarre fatwas issued by unqualified or eccentric individuals in recent times have sometimes given rise to complaints about a "chaos" in the modern practice of
1774:
Some muftis in the modern era, like the mufti of the Lebanese republic in the mid-20th century and the Grand Mufti of the Sultanate of Oman, were important political leaders. In Iran,
1923:, "collective legal interpretation") is a new historical development, and it is found in such settings as boards of Islamic financial institutions and international fatwa councils.
971:
literature, this three-way relationship between God, Muhammad, and believers, is typically replaced by a two-way consultation, in which Muhammad replies directly to queries from his
1660:
respond to government and private queries on varied issues, including political conflicts, Islamic finance, and medical ethics, contributing to shaping a national Islamic identity.
1369:
A fatwa may deal with rituals, ethical questions, religious doctrines and sometimes even philosophical issues, while court cases dealt with legal matters in the narrow sense.
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who have interpreted the Quran and hadith as supporting suicide bombings, indiscriminate killing of bystanders, and declaration of self-professed Muslims as unbelievers (
1378:
A judge evaluates rival claims of two parties in a dispute in order to reach a verdict, while a fatwa is made on the basis of information provided by a single petitioner.
886:
often diverges from pre-modern practice, particularly so in the West. Emergence of modern media and universal education has transformed the traditional institution of
1381:
Fatwas by prominent jurists were collected in books as sources of precedent, while court decisions were recorded in court registers, but not otherwise disseminated.
1912:. Unlike the concise or technical pre-modern fatwas, fatwas delivered through modern mass media often seek to be more expansive and accessible to the wide public.
983:
them are reported to have issued pronouncements on a wide range of subjects. The generation of Companions was in turn replaced in that role by the generation of
1500:
further claimed to act collectively as deputies of the imam. According to this doctrine, every Muslim is supposed to choose and follow a high-ranking living
1767:
Several boycott fatwas were issued in modern times, such as the one issued by Iraqi ulema in 1933, calling on Muslims to boycott Zionist products. In 2004
1425:), was among the most powerful state officials. Scribes reviewed queries directed to Ottoman muftis and rewrote them to facilitate issuing of fatwas. In
1865:
The needs of Western Muslims have given rise to a new branch of Islamic jurisprudence which has been termed the jurisprudence of (Muslim) minorities (
1949:
reflecting the actual conduct or opinions of Muslims, these fatwas may instead represent a collection of opinions on what Muslims "ought to think".
1900:
issued a fatwa allowing interest banking, the ruling was vigorously debated in the Egyptian press by both religious scholars and lay intellectuals.
1819:
was a statement, signed in 2005 in Jordan by nearly 200 prominent Islamic jurists, which served as a "counter-fatwa" against a widespread use of
1388:
In the classical legal system, judges were civil servants appointed by the ruler, while muftis were private scholars and not appointed officials.
1372:
The authority of a court judgment applies only to the specific court case, while a fatwa applies to all cases that fit the premises of the query.
1579:
1209:
and Baber Johansen has shown that fatwa compilations could, and sometimes did, have a significant impact on the development of Islamic law.
1164:
managing information about Islam by providing legal advice to Muslim populations as well as counseling them in matters of ritual and ethics;
1740:
3040:
2642:
1664:
3008:
2830:
2813:
2777:
2678:
1683:, i.e. deriving legal rulings based on an independent analysis rather than conformity with the opinions of earlier legal authorities (
1201:(legal school). Author-jurists sought out fatwas that reflected the social conditions of their time and place, often opting for later
1122:(legal opinions) according to a specific school, rather he bases these on the proof he has ascertained himself. He supported the pure
2903:
2425:
G. Rabil, Robert (2014). "1: The Creed, Ideology, and Manhaj (Methodology) of Salafism: A Historical and Contemporaneous Framework".
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The mufti and the judge play different roles in the classical sharia system, with corresponding differences between a fatwa and a
1855:
438:
1564:
2695:
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A fatwa is made on the basis of information provided in the request, while a judge actively investigates the facts of the case.
1244:
The basic prerequisite for issuing fatwas under the classical legal theory was religious knowledge and piety. According to the
2984:
Jihad and Islam in World War I: Studies on the Ottoman Jihad on the Centenary of Snouck Hurgronje's "Holy War Made in Germany"
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Powers, David S. (2017). "Fatwā, premodern". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).
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Gräf, Bettina (2017). "Fatwā, modern media". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).
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In some states, such as Muslim Spain, muftis were assigned to courts in advisory roles. In Muslim Spain jurists also sat on a
1266:, i.e., a jurist who is capable of deriving legal rulings directly from the scriptural sources through independent reasoning (
1224:(piety, fear of God), particularly in Sufi literature. Fatwas may allow a choice between lenient and strict interpretation of
1191:
this practice was mandatory, so that a judicial decision was considered invalid without prior approval by a legal specialist.
3050:
2434:
325:
2846:
Messick, Brinkley (2017). "Fatwā, modern". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).
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responded to thousands of queries from around the Muslim world on a variety of social and political topics in the regular
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Tyan, E.; Walsh, J.R. (2012). "Fatwā". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).
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themselves. These were generally lower- and middle-class professions such as tanning, manuscript copying or small trade.
992:
1850:
Institutions devoted specifically to issuing fatwas to Western Muslims have been established in the West, including the
2991:
2934:
2874:
2802:
2766:
2745:
1903:
In the internet age, a large number of websites has appeared offering fatwas to readers around the world. For example,
1945:
provides access to either male or female muftis, allowing women to request fatwas from female Islamic legal scholars.
1779:
503:
826:) in response to a question posed by a private individual, judge or government. A jurist issuing fatwas is called a
103:
1752:
On November 14, 1914 the Ottoman sultan proclaimed a jihad to mark the official entry of the Ottoman Empire into
1691:), in the 20th century many muftis began to assert their independence from traditional schools of jurisprudence.
1583:
685:
2761:. Vol. 4: Islamic Cultures and Societies to the End of the Eighteenth Century. Cambridge University Press.
1297:
school of jurisprudence, which was predominant for a time during the early modern era, hold a different view on
3035:
2972:
2667:
850:
630:
1232:) to circumvent a stricter interpretation, while such strategies may not be acceptable from the standpoint of
1851:
1510:, whose fatwas are considered binding, unlike fatwas in Sunni Islam. Thus, in contrast to Sunni muftis, Shia
374:
1663:
There exists no international Islamic authority to settle differences in interpretation of Islamic law. An
1631:, which prohibited smoking as long as the British tobacco monopoly was in effect, also achieved its goals.
1444:
406:
838:. Fatwas have played an important role throughout Islamic history, taking on new forms in the modern era.
453:
280:
1061:(God knows best). Nonetheless, fatwas took on a variety of forms depending on the local legal culture.
1025:(principles of jurisprudence), while more practical guidelines for muftis were found in manuals called
493:
1286:
became distinguished, and legal theorists classified jurists into three or more levels of competence.
1440:
1103:
907:, whose meanings include 'youth, newness, clarification, explanation'. A number of terms related to
588:
300:
1471:(council) advising the ruler. Muftis were additionally appointed to other public functions, such as
1645:
1528:
1409:
520:
320:
1778:
used proclamations and fatwas to introduce and legitimize a number of institutions, including the
17:
1897:
1253:
The teacher would decide when the student was ready to issue fatwas by giving him a certificate (
115:
1744:
Fatwa supporting the Ottoman proclamation of jihad in 1914, read by the Custodian Of The Fatwa (
1492:. Under the Usuli doctrine that prevailed among Twelver Shias in the 18th century and under the
1728:
791:
569:
335:
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564:
389:
173:
128:
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2821:
2785:
2686:
2338:
1942:
1844:
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in West Africa. The unrealistic nature of these fatwas was soon recognized and in 1870 the
857:
2755:
Hallaq, Wael B. (2010). "Islamic Law: History and Transformation". In Robert Irwin (ed.).
1167:
advising courts of law on finer points of Islamic law, in response to queries from judges;
8:
1892:
1870:
1757:
1354:
875:
678:
574:
208:
108:
1011:
1799:
1783:
1775:
598:
555:
525:
508:
483:
428:
384:
96:
2987:
2968:
2953:
2930:
2870:
2798:
2762:
2741:
2663:
2430:
1768:
1695:
1489:
639:
603:
550:
463:
423:
285:
35:
31:
2893:
2855:
2723:
1694:
The most notorious result of disregarding classical jurisprudence are the fatwas of
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2920:
2912:
2889:
2851:
2719:
1330:
755:
749:
711:
448:
443:
394:
379:
364:
273:
152:
1112:
Politics According to Divine Law for Establishing Order for Sovereign and Subjects
3045:
3030:
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2793:
Hendrickson, Jocelyn (2013). "Fatwa". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.).
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1808:
1621:
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accusation that he failed to mount a defense against French aggression. The 1891
1612:
1603:
1599:
1568:
1404:
866:
acted as independent scholars in the classical legal system. Over the centuries,
782:
705:
583:
399:
359:
348:
330:
233:
178:
91:
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as a transaction between one qualified jurist and one "unqualified" petitioner.
1958:
1828:
delegitimize fatwas issued by militants who lack the requisite qualifications.
1794:
1790:
939:
671:
543:
530:
488:
433:
47:
3024:
2511:
1816:
1687:). While in the past muftis were associated with a particular school of law (
1628:
1572:
1493:
1363:
1202:
1065:
608:
513:
473:
860:, fatwas played a part in mobilizing resistance against foreign aggressors.
1430:
1426:
1290:
1205:
which were at variance with the doctrine of early authorities. Research by
1021:
958:. On a number of occasions, the Quranic text instructs the Islamic prophet
659:
615:
352:
84:
73:
1679:
Modern fatwas have been marked by an increased reliance on the process of
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school. According to the Usulis, fatwas can be based on valid conjecture (
2731:
1904:
1883:
1753:
1206:
984:
411:
369:
293:
2925:
1182:
Page from a compilation of fatwas from Safavid Persia, late 17th century
1160:
Fatwas have played three important roles in the classical legal system:
1262:
During the first centuries of Islam, it was assumed that a mufti was a
1188:
1154:
1107:
1095:
1019:
The legal theory of the fatwa was formulated in the classical texts of
416:
1506:
1178:
1144:
967:, which signify asking for or giving an authoritative answer. In the
846:
315:
1969:
1652:
vision of Islam that is compatible with state law of their country.
1213:
all four capacities were regarded as the most accomplished jurists.
1933:
1824:
1472:
1399:
1216:
From the standpoint of morality and religious obligation, the term
1149:
1127:
959:
874:
jurists in Iran asserted an autonomous authority starting from the
870:
muftis were gradually incorporated into state bureaucracies, while
625:
593:
307:
241:
2658:
Berkey, Jonathan (2004). "Education". In Richard C. Martin (ed.).
1963:
1714:
1708:
1537:
1453:
1362:
A fatwa is nonbinding (unless issued by a government judge in an
1333:, and that fatwas should reflect only knowledge that is certain (
1294:
1268:
1197:
1086:
458:
135:
2429:. Washington, DC, USA: Georgetown University Press. p. 27.
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2269:
2267:
2265:
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2255:
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2182:
2180:
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2176:
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2168:
2166:
2164:
2162:
1937:
advice on various personal issues encountered in everyday life.
2427:
Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism
2239:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2227:
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2221:
2160:
2158:
2156:
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2150:
2148:
2146:
2144:
2142:
1869:). The term is believed to have been coined in a 1994 fatwa by
1547:
1274:
1228:
on a certain matter, or they may employ legalistic stratagems (
1123:
1080:
972:
968:
911:
derive from the same root. A jurist issuing fatwas is called a
817:
478:
468:
257:
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217:
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80:
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2123:
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2103:
2101:
2099:
2097:
1542:
1524:
1467:
1458:
1302:
1255:
1090:(legal schools). Explaining Ibn Taymiyya's approach to issue
1074:
955:
913:
867:
863:
828:
822:
773:
764:
729:
620:
498:
189:
147:
140:
63:
55:
2218:
2139:
1644:
organizations devoted to issuing fatwas. One example is the
1514:
gradually achieved increasing independence from the state.
1325:. In contrast, Akhbaris hold that all Shia Muslims must be
871:
249:
157:
2837:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Archived from
2820:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Archived from
2587:
2585:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2094:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2010:
1896:. In the late 20th century, when the Grand Mufti of Egypt
2450:
2448:
2446:
2008:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1859:
1402:, the rulers appointed a head of the local ulama, called
720:
2547:
2499:
1915:
Modern media have also facilitated cooperative forms to
2795:
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought
2574:
2564:
2562:
2465:
2463:
2408:
2406:
2051:
2049:
2047:
1084:, rather than being restrained by the mechanism of the
2909:
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Legal History
2812:
Masud, Muhammad Khalid; Kéchichian, Joseph A. (2009).
2608:
2606:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2443:
2319:
2317:
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1987:
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in an effort to secure support and cooperation of the
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2292:
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2288:
2286:
2284:
2084:
1735:
1726:). This form of ijtihad is particularly prominent in
1366:), while a court decision is binding and enforceable.
770:
761:
726:
717:
2964:
Between God and the Sultan: A History of Islamic Law
2559:
2460:
2403:
2391:
2082:
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811:
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767:
723:
2597:
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2314:
758:
714:
2902:
2523:
2487:
2358:
2281:
1139:The classical institution of fatwa is similar to
2829:Messick, Brinkley; Kéchichian, Joseph A. (2009).
2828:
2784:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
2685:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
2676:
2275:
2212:
2061:
1639:Under European colonial rule, the institution of
1102:"He was well informed of the legal views of the
3022:
2618:
1313:, and every Muslim who is not qualified to be a
2811:
2696:"The fatwa hotline: 'We have heard everything'"
2677:Dallal, Ahmad S.; Hendrickson, Jocelyn (2009).
2133:
816:) is a legal ruling on a point of Islamic law (
1517:
1408:, who also functioned as the chief mufti. The
917:. The person who asks for a fatwa is known as
2647:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
932:In older English language works the spelling
679:
3015:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
2911:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
2835:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
2818:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
2782:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
2683:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
1582:, several fatwas were issued drawing on the
1337:) and based on the traditions of the Imams.
1239:
1116:Removing the Reproach from the Learned Imams
805:
2792:
2775:
2591:
2038:
1347:
2869:(Kindle ed.). Oneworld Publications.
2660:Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World
1671:, but its legal opinions are not binding.
1118:.... For some years now he has not issued
832:, and the act of issuing fatwas is called
686:
672:
2943:
2924:
2649:. Oxford University Press. Archived from
2055:
1789:Khomeini's most publicized fatwa was the
1488:) claimed the authority to represent the
1068:was known for his methodology of issuing
938:, from Turkish, is used, relating to the
929:refers to soliciting and issuing fatwas.
2520:, pp. 1856–1881 (Kindle locations).
2424:
1926:
1739:
1563:
1439:
1177:
1010:
2981:
2845:
2693:
2612:
2553:
2541:
2308:
1876:
1856:European Council for Fatwa and Research
1559:
820:) given by a qualified Islamic jurist (
27:Nonbinding legal opinion in Islamic law
14:
3023:
2900:
2883:
2754:
2730:
2657:
2640:
2529:
2493:
2481:
2454:
2412:
2385:
2373:
2088:
1634:
998:
921:. The act of issuing fatwas is called
2960:
2862:
2568:
2517:
2505:
2469:
2397:
2323:
1838:
2917:10.1093/acref/9780195134056.001.0001
2713:
2624:
1674:
1554:
1890:section of his Cairo-based journal
1669:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
1003:
806:
802:
786:
24:
3041:Arabic words and phrases in Sharia
2758:The New Cambridge History of Islam
2694:Ghafour, Hamida (20 August 2016).
1736:Political fatwas and controversies
1665:International Islamic Fiqh Academy
1586:between lands under Islamic rule (
25:
3062:
3002:
1780:Council of the Islamic Revolution
1433:the chief mufti had the title of
1278:). At that point, the notions of
1134:
858:mass European/Christian invasions
2954:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0219
1964:Schools of Islamic jurisprudence
1854:(FCNA, founded in 1986) and the
1478:
1033:(etiquette of the mufti/fatwa).
754:
710:
653:
62:
2894:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27048
2866:Shi'I Islam: A Beginner's Guide
2856:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27049
2724:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27050
2645:. In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.).
2418:
1762:Heilige Oorlog Made in Germany
1392:
1301:from the currently predominant
1072:through direct research of the
2797:. Princeton University Press.
2740:. Cambridge University Press.
2737:An Introduction to Islamic Law
2329:
1015:Turkish mufti (1687 engraving)
894:
13:
1:
2833:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
2831:"Fatwā. Process and Function"
2816:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
2780:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
2778:"Law. Minority Jurisprudence"
2776:Hendrickson, Jocelyn (2009).
2681:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
2276:Messick & Kéchichian 2009
2213:Dallal & Hendrickson 2009
1976:
1852:Fiqh Council of North America
3051:Islamic courts and tribunals
3017:, via Oxford Islamic Studies
2907:. In Stanley N. Katz (ed.).
1981:
1445:Ulugh Beg Madrasa, Samarkand
7:
2986:. Leiden University Press.
2967:. Oxford University Press.
2662:. MacMillan Reference USA.
2641:Berger, Maurits S. (2014).
2134:Masud & Kéchichian 2009
1952:
1845:September 11, 2001, attacks
1584:classical legal distinction
1518:Public and political fatwas
903:comes from the Arabic root
812:
797:
237:("Stories of the Prophets")
10:
3067:
3013:– multi-part article from
2982:Zürcher, Erik Jan (2016).
2814:"Fatwā. Concepts of Fatwā"
2633:
2336:"Corps de Droit Ottoman".
1317:should become a follower (
954:can be traced back to the
945:
29:
1240:Qualifications of a mufti
1220:has been contrasted with
1843:In the aftermath of the
1712:(objectives) of sharia,
1602:in India and in 1804 by
1417:at the top. The Ottoman
1348:Fatwa vs. court judgment
1066:Taqi al-Din Ibn Taymiyya
1064:The 14th century jurist
326:Medieval Islamic science
2961:Vikør, Knut S. (2005).
2948:(2nd ed.). Brill.
2901:Swartz, Merlin (2009).
2888:(3rd ed.). Brill.
2850:(3rd ed.). Brill.
2718:(3rd ed.). Brill.
1797:to death for his novel
2946:Encyclopaedia of Islam
2886:Encyclopaedia of Islam
2863:Momen, Moojan (2015).
2848:Encyclopaedia of Islam
2716:Encyclopaedia of Islam
1749:
1718:(public interest) and
1575:
1448:
1183:
1132:
1016:
336:Succession to Muhammad
3036:Islamic jurisprudence
2841:on November 20, 2015.
2824:on November 20, 2015.
2689:on November 20, 2015.
2679:"Fatwā. Modern usage"
2056:Tyan & Walsh 2012
1927:Social role of fatwas
1823:(excommunication) by
1743:
1624:fatwa by the Iranian
1567:
1545:(a practice known as
1504:bearing the title of
1443:
1181:
1100:
1014:
993:theory of Islamic law
2346:. Stevens and Sons:
2339:Law Quarterly Review
1943:United Arab Emirates
1877:Role of modern media
1646:Egyptian Dar al-Ifta
1590:) and lands of war (
1578:Early in the era of
1560:Anti-colonial fatwas
375:Association football
2508:, pp. 152–154.
1871:Taha Jabir Alalwani
1758:C. Snouck Hurgronje
1696:militant extremists
1667:was created by the
1635:Modern institutions
1580:Western colonialism
1340:Unlike the post of
999:In pre-modern Islam
950:The origins of the
136:Profession of Faith
109:Day of Resurrection
30:For the films, see
2788:on March 26, 2016.
2653:on April 17, 2019.
1839:Fatwas in the West
1800:The Satanic Verses
1784:Iranian Parliament
1776:Ayatollah Khomeini
1750:
1576:
1449:
1358:(court decision):
1309:) arrived through
1184:
1017:
2556:, pp. 14–18.
2436:978-1-62616-116-0
1867:fiqh al-aqallīyāt
1769:Yusuf al-Qaradawi
1729:fiqh al-aqallīyāt
1675:Legal methodology
1555:In the modern era
1543:Islamic community
1473:market inspectors
795:
696:
695:
36:Fatwa (2018 film)
32:Fatwa (2006 film)
16:(Redirected from
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2710:
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2673:
2654:
2628:
2622:
2616:
2610:
2595:
2592:Hendrickson 2009
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2551:
2545:
2539:
2533:
2527:
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2458:
2457:, pp. 9–11.
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2053:
2042:
2039:Hendrickson 2013
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1571:fatwa issued by
1507:marja' al-taqlid
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2354:. October 1905.
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1955:
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1841:
1809:Osama bin Laden
1738:
1677:
1637:
1622:tobacco protest
1604:Usman dan Fodio
1600:Shah Abdul Aziz
1594:) or unbelief (
1569:Tobacco protest
1562:
1557:
1520:
1481:
1419:shaykh al-Islam
1415:shaykh al-islam
1405:shaykh al-Islam
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1141:jus respondendi
1137:
1126:and the way of
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331:Spread of Islam
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235:Qisas al-Anbiya
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3003:External links
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2993:978-9087282394
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2936:978-0195134056
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2876:978-1780747873
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2804:978-0691134840
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2571:, p. 142.
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1959:List of fatwas
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1921:ijtihād jamāʿī
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1241:
1238:
1203:legal opinions
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1171:
1168:
1165:
1136:
1135:Role of fatwas
1133:
1094:, his student
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2832:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2810:
2806:
2800:
2796:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2774:
2770:
2764:
2760:
2759:
2753:
2749:
2743:
2739:
2738:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2712:
2701:
2697:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2675:
2671:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2639:
2638:
2626:
2621:
2614:
2609:
2607:
2605:
2603:
2601:
2593:
2588:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2578:
2570:
2565:
2563:
2555:
2550:
2544:, p. 56.
2543:
2538:
2531:
2526:
2519:
2514:
2507:
2502:
2495:
2490:
2483:
2478:
2471:
2466:
2464:
2456:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2438:
2432:
2428:
2421:
2415:, p. 13.
2414:
2409:
2407:
2399:
2394:
2387:
2382:
2375:
2370:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2362:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2340:
2332:
2325:
2320:
2318:
2310:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2285:
2277:
2272:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2262:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2254:
2252:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2236:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2214:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2177:
2175:
2173:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2147:
2145:
2143:
2135:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2100:
2098:
2090:
2085:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2077:
2075:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2057:
2052:
2050:
2048:
2040:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1986:
1972:
1971:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1950:
1946:
1944:
1938:
1935:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1913:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1863:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1848:
1846:
1836:
1834:
1829:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1817:Amman Message
1813:
1810:
1804:
1802:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1772:
1770:
1765:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1747:
1742:
1733:
1731:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1716:
1711:
1710:
1703:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1661:
1659:
1653:
1649:
1647:
1642:
1632:
1630:
1629:Mirza Shirazi
1627:
1623:
1617:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1574:
1573:Mirza Shirazi
1570:
1566:
1552:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1533:
1530:
1526:
1515:
1513:
1509:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1494:Qajar dynasty
1491:
1487:
1479:In Shia Islam
1476:
1474:
1470:
1469:
1463:
1461:
1460:
1455:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1411:
1407:
1406:
1401:
1387:
1383:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1364:Islamic state
1361:
1360:
1359:
1357:
1356:
1345:
1343:
1338:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1276:
1271:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1258:
1257:
1250:
1247:
1246:adab al-mufti
1237:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1199:
1192:
1190:
1180:
1176:
1169:
1166:
1163:
1162:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1152:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1099:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1088:
1083:
1082:
1077:
1076:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1060:
1054:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1043:adab al-mufti
1038:
1034:
1032:
1031:adab al-fatwa
1028:
1027:adab al-mufti
1024:
1023:
1013:
1007:
996:
994:
990:
986:
980:
978:
974:
970:
966:
961:
957:
953:
943:
941:
937:
936:
930:
928:
924:
920:
916:
915:
910:
906:
902:
892:
889:
885:
879:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
859:
855:
854:
848:
844:
839:
837:
836:
831:
830:
825:
824:
819:
814:
799:
793:
784:
778:
751:
741:
734:
707:
701:
689:
684:
682:
677:
675:
670:
669:
667:
666:
661:
651:
650:
649:
648:
641:
638:
637:
632:
629:
627:
624:
623:
622:
619:
617:
614:
610:
607:
605:
602:
601:
600:
597:
595:
592:
590:
587:
585:
582:
581:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
562:
561:
560:
557:
554:
552:
549:
548:
545:
540:
539:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
515:
512:
511:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
499:Proselytizing
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
418:
415:
413:
410:
409:
408:
407:Denominations
405:
401:
398:
397:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
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357:
354:
350:
345:
344:
337:
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
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319:
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314:
313:
310:
309:
305:
303:
302:
298:
296:
295:
291:
290:
287:
284:
282:
279:
278:
275:
270:
269:
262:
260:
256:
254:
252:
248:
247:
243:
240:
238:
236:
232:
230:
228:
224:
222:
220:
216:
215:
211:
210:
205:
204:
199:
198:
194:
192:
191:
187:
186:
180:
177:
175:
172:
171:
167:
166:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
145:
142:
139:
137:
134:
133:
130:
125:
124:
117:
114:
113:
110:
107:
105:
102:
101:
98:
95:
93:
90:
89:
86:
82:
79:
78:
75:
70:
69:
65:
61:
60:
57:
54:
53:
49:
45:
44:
41:
37:
33:
19:
3014:
3009:
2983:
2963:
2945:
2926:10261/117259
2908:
2885:
2865:
2847:
2839:the original
2834:
2822:the original
2817:
2794:
2786:the original
2781:
2757:
2736:
2715:
2705:15 September
2703:. Retrieved
2700:The Guardian
2699:
2687:the original
2682:
2659:
2651:the original
2646:
2620:
2613:Ghafour 2016
2554:Zürcher 2016
2549:
2542:Zürcher 2016
2537:
2525:
2513:
2501:
2489:
2477:
2426:
2420:
2393:
2388:, p. 9.
2381:
2343:
2337:
2331:
2309:Messick 2017
1968:
1947:
1939:
1930:
1920:
1916:
1914:
1909:
1902:
1891:
1887:
1880:
1866:
1864:
1860:local custom
1849:
1842:
1832:
1830:
1820:
1814:
1805:
1798:
1791:proclamation
1788:
1773:
1766:
1761:
1751:
1745:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1713:
1707:
1704:
1699:
1693:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1678:
1662:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1640:
1638:
1625:
1618:
1613:Abd al-Qadir
1607:
1595:
1591:
1588:dar al-Islam
1587:
1577:
1546:
1534:
1529:Mamluk Egypt
1521:
1511:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1485:
1482:
1466:
1464:
1457:
1450:
1434:
1431:Safavid Iran
1427:Mughal India
1422:
1418:
1414:
1403:
1396:
1393:Institutions
1385:literature).
1353:
1351:
1341:
1339:
1334:
1331:Twelve Imams
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1298:
1291:Twelver Shia
1288:
1283:
1279:
1273:
1267:
1263:
1261:
1254:
1251:
1245:
1243:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1215:
1211:
1196:
1193:
1189:Muslim Spain
1185:
1173:
1159:
1148:
1140:
1138:
1119:
1115:
1114:and a book
1111:
1101:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1069:
1063:
1059:allahu a'lam
1058:
1055:
1051:
1046:
1042:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1026:
1022:usul al-fiqh
1020:
1018:
1005:
988:
981:
976:
964:
951:
949:
934:
933:
931:
926:
922:
918:
912:
908:
904:
900:
898:
887:
883:
880:
862:
852:
842:
840:
834:
833:
827:
821:
699:
697:
616:Islamophobia
395:Demographics
390:Circumcision
306:
299:
292:
258:
250:
234:
226:
218:
207:
201:
195:
188:
40:
2530:Berkey 2004
2494:Swartz 2009
2482:Hallaq 2010
2455:Hallaq 2009
2413:Hallaq 2009
2386:Hallaq 2009
2374:Powers 2017
2089:Berger 2014
1905:IslamOnline
1884:Rashid Rida
1793:condemning
1754:World War I
1746:Fetva Emini
1641:dar al-ifta
1596:dar al-kufr
1592:dar al-harb
1490:hidden imam
1447:(est. 1422)
1423:şeyhülislam
1207:Wael Hallaq
1004:Process of
925:. The term
895:Terminology
841:Resembling
631:Laws of war
294:Ahl al-Bayt
179:Foundations
3025:Categories
2974:0195223985
2669:0028662695
2569:Vikør 2005
2518:Momen 2015
2506:Vikør 2005
2470:Vikør 2005
2398:Vikør 2005
2324:Vikør 2005
1977:References
1155:Jewish law
1106:and their
1104:companions
1096:Al-Dhahabi
985:Successors
973:Companions
484:Philosophy
221:(exegesis)
158:Pilgrimage
148:Almsgiving
2625:Gräf 2017
1982:Citations
1760:, titled
1512:mujtahids
1498:mujtahids
1486:mujtahids
1327:muqallids
1145:Roman law
1128:Salafiyah
1108:followers
899:The word
851:rabbinic
847:Roman law
792:romanized
604:terrorism
556:Criticism
509:Sexuality
479:Mysticism
449:Festivals
429:Education
424:Economics
360:Academics
316:Caliphate
129:Practices
2734:(2009).
1953:See also
1934:Gulf War
1893:Al-Manar
1825:jihadist
1782:and the
1626:mujtahid
1527:against
1502:mujtahid
1454:madrasas
1400:Khurasan
1323:mujtahid
1319:muqallid
1315:mujtahid
1284:mujtahid
1264:mujtahid
1150:responsa
1147:and the
1098:writes:
1087:madhhabs
960:Muhammad
919:mustafti
853:responsa
640:Glossary
626:Jihadism
599:Violence
594:Islamism
565:Muhammad
551:Apostasy
494:Politics
444:Feminism
439:Exorcism
400:Diaspora
385:Children
380:Calendar
308:Rashidun
286:Muhammad
281:Timeline
242:Mathnawi
104:Prophets
48:a series
46:Part of
2904:"Mufti"
2643:"Fatwa"
2634:Sources
1715:maslaha
1709:maqasid
1689:madhhab
1681:ijtihad
1538:Murad V
1421:(Turk.
1410:Mamluks
1329:of the
1321:) of a
1311:ijtihad
1295:Akhbari
1269:ijtihad
1198:madhhab
989:tabi'un
946:Origins
794::
521:Slavery
504:Science
459:Madrasa
454:Finance
365:Animals
353:society
349:Culture
321:Imamate
301:Sahabah
274:History
244:(Poems)
229:(creed)
153:Fasting
81:Oneness
74:Beliefs
3046:Fatwas
3031:Sharia
2990:
2971:
2933:
2873:
2801:
2765:
2744:
2666:
2433:
1970:Nāzila
1821:takfir
1724:taysīr
1720:darura
1700:takfir
1685:taqlid
1548:takfir
1496:, the
1293:, the
1289:Among
1275:taqlid
1226:sharia
1120:fatwas
1092:fatwas
1081:Hadith
1075:Qur'an
1070:fatwas
977:sahaba
969:hadith
864:Muftis
818:sharia
813:fatāwā
783:Arabic
575:Hadith
489:Poetry
469:Mosque
434:Ethics
259:Sharia
227:Aqidah
219:Tafsir
203:Hadith
197:Sunnah
141:Prayer
92:Angels
3010:Fatwa
1888:fatwa
1608:ulama
1525:jihad
1468:shura
1459:ulema
1303:Usuli
1280:mufti
1256:ijaza
1234:taqwa
1230:hiyal
1222:taqwa
1218:fatwa
1124:Sunna
1047:futya
1006:iftāʾ
965:f-t-y
956:Quran
952:fatwa
935:fetva
927:futyā
923:iftāʾ
914:mufti
909:fatwa
905:f-t-w
901:fatwa
868:Sunni
835:ifta'
829:mufti
823:faqih
807:فتاوى
798:fatwā
736:
700:fatwa
621:Jihad
570:Quran
531:Women
474:Music
412:Sunni
261:(law)
209:Sirah
190:Quran
174:Texts
56:Islam
18:Fatwā
2988:ISBN
2969:ISBN
2931:ISBN
2871:ISBN
2799:ISBN
2763:ISBN
2742:ISBN
2707:2019
2664:ISBN
2431:ISBN
1917:ifta
1910:ifta
1833:ifta
1815:The
1658:ifta
1435:sadr
1429:and
1355:qada
1342:qadi
1335:qatʿ
1307:zann
1299:ifta
1282:and
1078:and
888:ifta
884:ifta
872:Shia
849:and
787:فتوى
514:LGBT
417:Shia
351:and
251:Fiqh
34:and
2950:doi
2921:hdl
2913:doi
2890:doi
2852:doi
2720:doi
2352:444
2348:443
1702:).
1259:).
1153:in
1143:in
1029:or
979:).
845:in
803:pl.
609:war
370:Art
85:God
83:of
3027::
2929:.
2919:.
2698:.
2599:^
2576:^
2561:^
2462:^
2445:^
2405:^
2360:^
2344:21
2342:.
2316:^
2283:^
2220:^
2141:^
2096:^
2063:^
2046:^
1989:^
1835:.
1786:.
1475:.
1437:.
1236:.
1157:.
1130:".
995:.
942:.
878:.
810:,
801:;
789:,
785::
781:;
774:ɑː
765:ɑː
752::
750:US
746:;
730:ɑː
708::
706:UK
698:A
206:,
50:on
2996:.
2977:.
2956:.
2952::
2939:.
2923::
2915::
2896:.
2892::
2879:.
2858:.
2854::
2807:.
2771:.
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2496:.
2439:.
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2311:.
2278:.
2215:.
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702:(
687:e
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212:)
200:(
38:.
20:)
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