Ashkenazi Jews - Knowledge

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European Jewry and refuted large-scale genetic contributions of Central and Eastern European and Slavic populations to the formation of Ashkenazi Jewry", as the two groups share ancestors in the Middle East about 2500 years ago. The study examines genetic markers spread across the entire genome and finds that the Jewish groups (Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi) share large swaths of DNA, indicating close relationships, and that each studied Jewish group (Iranian, Iraqi, Syrian, Italian, Turkish, Greek and Ashkenazi) has its own genetic signature but is more closely related to the other Jewish groups than to their fellow non-Jewish countrymen. Atzmon's team found that the SNP markers in genetic segments of 3 million DNA letters or longer were 10 times more likely to be identical among Jews than non-Jews. Results of the analysis also tally with biblical accounts of the fate of the Jews. The study also found that with respect to non-Jewish European groups, the population most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews are modern-day Italians. The study speculated that this similarity may be due to inter-marriage and conversions during the Roman Empire. It was also found that any two Ashkenazi Jewish participants shared about as much DNA as fourth or fifth cousins.

8385:'Some sources have been plainly misinterpreted, others point to "virtual" Jews, yet others to single persons not resident in the region. Thus Tyournai, Paris, Nantes, Tours, and Bourges, all localities claimed to have housed communities, have no place in the list of Jewish habitation in their period. In central Gaul Poitiers should be struck from the list, In Bordeaux it is doubtful as to the presence of a community, and only Clermont is likely to have possessed one. Further important places, like Macon, Chalon sur Saône, Vienne, and Lyon, were to be inhabited by Jews only from the Carolingian period onwards. In the south we have a Jewish population in Auch, possibly in Uzès, and in Arles, Narbonne and Marseilles. In the whole of France altogether, eight places stand scrutiny (including two questionable ones), while eight other towns have been found to lack a Jewish presence formerly claimed on insufficient evidence. Continuity of settlement from Late Antiquity throughout the Early Middle Ages is evident only in the south, in Arles and Narbonne, possibly also in Marseilles.... Between the mid-7th and the mid-8th century no sources mention Jews in Frankish lands, except for an epitaph from Narbonne and an inscription from Auch.' Toch, 4434:, or religious law, and different interpretations of the law. Different groups of religious Jews in different geographic areas historically adopted different customs and interpretations. On certain issues, Orthodox Jews are required to follow the customs of their ancestors and do not believe they have the option of picking and choosing. For this reason, observant Jews at times find it important for religious reasons to ascertain who their household's religious ancestors are in order to know what customs their household should follow. These times include, for example, when two Jews of different ethnic background marry, when a non-Jew converts to Judaism and determines what customs to follow for the first time, or when a lapsed or less observant Jew returns to traditional Judaism and must determine what was done in his or her family's past. In this sense, "Ashkenazic" refers both to a family ancestry and to a body of customs binding on Jews of that ancestry. 7759:

villages and 50 fortresses, and killed 580,000 rebels. This article reassesses Cassius Dio's figures by drawing on new evidence from excavations and surveys in Judea, Transjordan, and the Galilee. Three research methods are combined: an ethno-archaeological comparison with the settlement picture in the Ottoman Period, comparison with similar settlement studies in the Galilee, and an evaluation of settled sites from the Middle Roman Period (70–136 CE). The study demonstrates the potential contribution of the archaeological record to this issue and supports the view of Cassius Dio's demographic data as a reliable account, which he based on contemporaneous documentation.

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no one came to retrieve precious legal documents, or bury the dead. Up until this date the Bar Kokhba documents indicate that towns, villages and ports where Jews lived were busy with industry and activity. Afterwards there is an eerie silence, and the archaeological record testifies to little Jewish presence until the Byzantine era, in En Gedi. This picture coheres with what we have already determined in Part I of this study, that the crucial date for what can only be described as genocide, and the devastation of Jews and Judaism within central Judea, was 135 CE and not, as usually assumed, 70 CE, despite the siege of Jerusalem and the Temple's destruction

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the past while most of the remaining minor founders also have a deep European ancestry. The study argued that the great majority of Ashkenazi maternal lineages were not brought from the Near East or the Caucasus, but instead assimilated within Europe, primarily of Italian and Old French origins. The study estimated that more than 80% of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women indigenous to (mainly prehistoric Western) Europe, and only 8% from the Near East, while the origin of the remainder is undetermined. According to the study this "point to a significant role for the conversion of women in the formation of Ashkenazi communities."

5117:, including Ashkenazim, to "women from each local population" whom the Jewish men "took as wives and converted to Judaism". Thus, in 2002, in line with this theory, David Goldstein reported that unlike Ashkenazi male lineages, female lineages "did not seem to be Middle Eastern", and that each community had its own genetic pattern and even that "in some cases the mitochondrial DNA was closely related to that of the host community." This suggested "that Jewish men had arrived from the Middle East, taken wives from the host population and converted them to Judaism, after which there was no further intermarriage with non-Jews." 7450:

a numerically strong Jewish life, on whom they were able to impose their superior culture, including even their tongue (a phenomenon not unknown at other times and places – as for example in, the 16th century, after the arrival of the highly cultured Spanish exiles in the Turkish Empire)?) Does the line of descent of Ashkenazi Jewry of today go back to a quasi-autochthonous Jewry already established in these lands, perhaps even earlier than the time of the earliest Franco-German settlement in the Dark Ages? This is one of the mysteries of Jewish history, which will probably never been solved.

4322:(91%); 900,000 of 1.5 million in Ukraine (60%); and 50–90% of the Jews of other Slavic nations, Germany, Hungary, and the Baltic states, and over 25% of the Jews in France. Sephardi communities suffered similar devastation in a few countries, including Greece, the Netherlands and the former Yugoslavia. As the large majority of the victims were Ashkenazi Jews, their percentage dropped from an estimate of 92% of world Jewry in 1930 to nearly 80% of world Jewry today. The Holocaust also effectively put an end to the dynamic development of the Yiddish language in the 3986: 4745: 7814:

destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.

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although the electoral map changes from one election to another, there are generally several small parties associated with the interests of religious Ashkenazi Jews. The role of religious parties, including small religious parties that play important roles as coalition members, results in turn from Israel's composition as a complex society in which competing social, economic, and religious interests stand for election to the

5992:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. "From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the center of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow." 539: 4079: 3943:. In all of these decisions, the idea that Jews had the know-how and capacity to jump-start the economy, improve revenues, and enlarge trade seems to have played a prominent role. Typically, Jews relocated close to the markets and churches in town centres, where, though they came under the authority of both royal and ecclesiastical powers, they were accorded administrative autonomy. 4041:

their original Eastern European Jewish culture in favor of the Ashkenazi one. However, according to more recent research, mass migrations of Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazi Jews occurred to Eastern Europe, from Central Europe in the west, who due to high birth rates absorbed and largely replaced the preceding non-Ashkenazi Jewish groups of Eastern Europe (whose numbers the demographer

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Ukrainians) showed >90%, while most southern Europeans (Italians, Greeks, Portuguese, Spaniards) showed >85%. Both Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews showed >85% membership in the "southern" group. Referring to the Jews clustering with southern Europeans, the authors state the results were "consistent with a later Mediterranean origin of these ethnic groups".

3472:. Ashkenazi Jews share a significant amount of ancestry with other Jewish populations and derive their ancestry mostly from populations in the Middle East, Southern Europe and Eastern Europe. Other than their origins in ancient Israel, the question of how Ashkenazi Jews came to exist as a distinct community is unknown, and has given rise to several theories. 7850:. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land." 5322:

Eastern Europe are genetically distinct from Western European Ashkenazi". The study concluded that "Western AJ consist of two slightly distinct groups: one that descends from a subset of the original founders , and another that migrated there back from Eastern Europe, possibly after absorbing a limited degree of gene flow".

5169:(GWA study, or GWAS) is an examination of all or most of the genes (the genome) of different individuals of a particular species to see how much the genes vary from individual to individual. These techniques were originally designed for epidemiological uses, to identify genetic associations with observable traits. 7696:

These texts, combined with the relics of those who hid in caves along the western side of the Dead Sea, tells us a great deal. What is clear from the evidence of both skeletal remains and artefacts is that the Roman assault on the Jewish population of the Dead Sea was so severe and comprehensive that

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Was the great Eastern European Jewry of the 19th century preponderantly descended (as is normally believed) from immigrants from the Germanic lands further west who arrived as refugees in the later Middle Ages, bearing with them their culture? Or did these new immigrants find already on their arrival

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Costa, Marta D.; Pereira, Joana B.; Pala, Maria; Fernandes, Verónica; Olivieri, Anna; Achilli, Alessandro; Perego, Ugo A.; Rychkov, Sergei; Naumova, Oksana; Hatina, Jiři; Woodward, Scott R.; Eng, Ken Khong; Macaulay, Vincent; Carr, Martin; Soares, Pedro; Pereira, Luísa; Richards, Martin B. (8 October

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therefore suggest that these results reflect a history of mixing between genetically distinct populations in Europe. However, it is possible that Ashkenazim's high heterozygocity was due to a relaxation of marriage prescription in their ancestors, while the low heterozygocity in te Middle East is due

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identified two major groups: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews, by using "principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent (IBD) analysis". "The IBD segment sharing and the proximity of European Jews to each other and to southern European populations suggested similar origins for

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mtDNA pool" originating in the Middle East in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. The rest of Ashkenazi mtDNA reportedly originated from about 150 women, most of whom were also likely of Middle Eastern origin. Specifically, although haplogroup K is common throughout western Eurasia, its global distribution

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where the proportion reaches 50%, found a "rich variation of haplogroup R1a outside of Europe which is phylogenetically separate from the typically European R1a branches", and concludes that the particular R1a-Y2619 sub-clade is evidence for a local origin, and that this validates the "Middle Eastern

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per generation over an estimated 80 generations, with "relatively minor contribution of European Y chromosomes to the Ashkenazim," and the total admixture estimate "very similar to Motulsky's average estimate of 12.5%". This supported the finding that "Diaspora Jews from Europe, Northwest Africa, and

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to Israel, or immigration to North America, and other English-speaking areas such as South Africa; and Europe (particularly France) and Latin America, the geographic isolation that gave rise to Ashkenazim have given way to mixing with other cultures, and with non-Ashkenazi Jews who, similarly, are no

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summarized the demographic history of Ashkenazi Jews in the last thousand years. He noted that at the end of the 11th century, 97% of world Jewry was Sephardic and 3% Ashkenazi; in the mid-17th century, "Sephardim still outnumbered Ashkenazim three to two"; by the end of the 18th century, "Ashkenazim

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Ashkenazi Jews often name newborn children after deceased family members, but not after living relatives. Sephardi Jews, in contrast, often name their children after the children's grandparents, even if those grandparents are still living. A notable exception to this generally reliable rule is among

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questioned the inclusion of all Yiddish speaking Jews as Ashkenazim in descent, suggesting that upon the arrival of Ashkenazi Jews from central Europe to Eastern Europe, from the Middle Ages to the 16th century, there were a substantial number of non-Ashkenazim Jews already there who later abandoned

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The authors found no affinity in Ashkenazim with north Caucasus populations, as well as no greater affinity in Ashkenazim to south Caucasus or Anatolian populations than that found in non-Ashkenazi Jews and non-Jewish Middle Easterners (such as the Kurds, Iranians, Druze and Lebanese). The greatest

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Thus, analysis of Ashkenazi Jews together with a large sample from the region of the Khazar Khaganate corroborates the earlier results that Ashkenazi Jews derive their ancestry primarily from populations of the Middle East and Europe, that they possess considerable shared ancestry with other Jewish

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found that Ashkenazi Jews display a frequency of haplogroup K in their maternal DNA, suggesting an ancient Near Eastern matrilineal origin, similar to the results of the Behar study in 2006. Fernández noted that this observation clearly contradicts the results of the 2013 study led by Richards that

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A 2013 study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA by a team led by Martin B. Richards agreed with the older hypothesis of the origin. It tested all 16,600 DNA units of mtDNA, and found that the four main female Ashkenazi founders had descent lines that were established in Europe 10,000 to 20,000 years in

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suggests "that Ashkenazim branched off from other Jews around the time of the destruction of the First Temple, 2,500 years ago ... flourished during the Roman Empire but then went through a 'severe bottleneck' as they dispersed, reducing a population of several million to just 400 families who left

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Behar, Doron M.; Metspalu, Mait; Baran, Yael; Kopelman, Naama M.; Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Gladstein, Ariella; Tzur, Shay; Sahakyan, Havhannes; Bahmanimehr, Ardeshir; Yepiskoposyan, Levon; Tambets, Kristiina; Khusnutdinova, Elza K.; Kusniarevich, Aljona; Balanovsky, Oleg; Balanovsky, Elena; Kovacevic,

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Behar, Doron M.; Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Metspalu, Mait; Metspalu, Ene; Rosset, Saharon; Parik, Jüri; Rootsi, Siiri; Chaubey, Gyaneshwer; Kutuev, Ildus; Yudkovsky, Guennady; Khusnutdinova, Elza K.; Balanovsky, Oleg; Semino, Ornella; Pereira, Luisa; Comas, David; Gurwitz, David; Bonne-Tamir, Batsheva;

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Behar, Doron M.; Saag, Lauri; Karmin, Monika; Gover, Meir G.; Wexler, Jeffrey D.; Sanchez, Luisa Fernanda; Greenspan, Elliott; Kushniarevich, Alena; Davydenko, Oleg; Sahakyan, Hovhannes; Yepiskoposyan, Levon; Boattini, Alessio; Sarno, Stefania; Pagani, Luca; Carmi, Shai; Tzur, Shay; Metspalu, Ene;

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Scholars have long doubted the historical accuracy of Cassius Dio's account of the consequences of the Bar Kokhba War (Roman History 69.14). According to this text, considered the most reliable literary source for the Second Jewish Revolt, the war encompassed all of Judea: the Romans destroyed 985

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who had migrated westward from modern Russia and Ukraine into modern France and Germany (as opposed to the currently held theory that Jews migrated from France and Germany into Eastern Europe). The hypothesis is not corroborated by historical sources, and is unsubstantiated by genetics, but it is

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found evidence among Ashkenazim of mixed European and Levantine origins. The authors found Ashkenazi had the greatest affinity and shared ancestry firstly with other Jewish groups from southern Europe, Syria, and North Africa, and secondly with both southern Europeans (such as Italians) and modern

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As of 2020, 63% of American Jews are Ashkenazim. A disproportionate amount of Ashkenazi Americans are religious compared to American Jews of other racial groups. They live in large populations in the states of New York, California, Florida, and New Jersey. The majority of American Ashkenazi Jewish

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wrote that "no date or origin can be assigned to the numerous settlements eventually known in the west, and some may have been founded as a result of the dispersal of Palestinian Jews after the revolts of AD 66–70 and 132–135, but it is reasonable to conjecture that many, such as the settlement in

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Behar, Doron M.; Ene Metspalu; Toomas Kivisild; Alessandro Achilli; Yarin Hadid; Shay Tzur; Luisa Pereira; Antonio Amorim; Lluı's Quintana-Murci; Kari Majamaa; Corinna Herrnstadt; Neil Howell; Oleg Balanovsky; Ildus Kutuev; Andrey Pshenichnov; David Gurwitz; Batsheva Bonne-Tamir; Antonio Torroni;

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The cultural and intellectual reorientation of the Jewish minority was closely linked with its struggle for equal rights and social acceptance. While earlier generations had used solely the Yiddish and Hebrew languages among themselves, ... the use of Yiddish was now gradually abandoned, and

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There are many references to Ashkenazi Jews in the literature of medical and population genetics. Indeed, much awareness of "Ashkenazi Jews" as an ethnic group or category stems from the large number of genetic studies of disease, including many that are well reported in the media, that have been

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A 2018 study, referencing the popular theory of Ashkenazi Jewish (AJ) origins in "an initial settlement in Western Europe (Northern France and Germany), followed by migration to Poland and an expansion there and in the rest of Eastern Europe", tested "whether Ashkenazi Jews with recent origins in

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of Speyer, Worms, and Mainz. The cluster of cities contain the earliest Jewish settlements north of the Alps, and played a major role in the formation of Ashkenazi Jewish religious tradition, along with Troyes and Sens in France. Nonetheless, Jewish life in Germany persisted, while some Ashkenazi

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in 433, the garrison populations were withdrawn to Italy, and only a few, enigmatic traces remain of a possible Jewish presence in the area some centuries later. No evidence has yet been found of a Jewish presence in antiquity in Germany beyond its Roman border, nor in Eastern Europe. In Gaul and

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found at least two related but genetically distinct Jewish groups: one closely related to Middle Eastern populations and especially similar to modern Ashkenazi Jews from France and Germany and modern Sephardic Jews from Turkey; the other group had a substantial contribution from Eastern European

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found an admixture of Middle-Eastern and European ancestry in Ashkenazi Jews: with the European component comprising ≈50%–70% (estimated at "possibly 60%") and largely being of a southern European source and a minority eastern European, and the remainder (estimated at possibly ≈40%) being Middle

5013:, meaning they descend from a larger population whose numbers were greatly reduced but recovered through a few founding individuals. Although the Jewish people, in general, were present across a wide geographical area as described, genetic research by Gil Atzmon of the Longevity Genes Project at 4379:

Ashkenazi Jews have played a prominent role in the economy, media, and politics of Israel since its founding. During the first decades of Israel as a state, strong cultural conflict occurred between Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jews (mainly east European Ashkenazim). The roots of this conflict, which

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traders from North Africa who had contacts with their Ashkenazi brethren and had visited each other from time to time in each's domain appear to have begun to settle in the north, especially along the Rhine, often in response to new economic opportunities and at the invitation of local Christian

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A 2013 trans-genome study carried out by 30 geneticists, from 13 universities and academies, from nine countries, assembling the largest data set available to date, for assessment of Ashkenazi Jewish genetic origins found no evidence of Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews. The authors concluded:

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matters. In this respect, a religiously Ashkenazi Jew is an Israeli who is more likely to support certain religious interests in Israel, including certain political parties. These political parties result from the fact that a portion of the Israeli electorate votes for Jewish religious parties;

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study may come from their ethnic endogamy (ethnic inbreeding), which allowed them to "mine" their ancestral gene pool in the context of relative reproductive isolation from European neighbors, and not from clan endogamy (clan inbreeding). Consequently, their higher diversity compared to Middle

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populations to represent the reference to world Jewry ancestor genome, 35% to 55% of the modern Ashkenazi genome may be of European origin, and that European "admixture is considerably higher than previous estimates by studies that used the Y chromosome" with this reference point. The authors

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In an ethnic sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is one whose ancestry can be traced to the Jews who settled in Central Europe. For roughly a thousand years, the Ashkenazim were a reproductively isolated population in Europe, despite living in many countries, with little inflow or outflow from migration,

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can be identified in manners of speech, in styles of humor, in patterns of association. Broadly speaking, a Jew is one who associates culturally with Jews, supports Jewish institutions, reads Jewish books and periodicals, attends Jewish movies and theater, travels to Israel, visits historical

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In the generations after emigration from the west, Jewish communities in places like Poland, Russia, and Belarus enjoyed a comparatively stable socio-political environment. A thriving publishing industry and the printing of hundreds of biblical commentaries precipitated the development of the

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were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been

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used over 5,000 autosomal SNPs to demonstrate European genetic substructure. The results showed "a consistent and reproducible distinction between 'northern' and 'southern' European population groups". Most northern, central, and eastern Europeans (Finns, Swedes, English, Irish, Germans, and

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who lived between 1226 and 1286 CE, who stated by the time of the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, as many as six million Jews were already living in the Roman Empire, a conclusion which has been contested as highly exaggerated. The 13th-century author Bar Hebraeus gave a figure of

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Some Jewish immigration from southern Europe to Eastern Europe continued into the early modern period. During the 16th century, as conditions for Italian Jews worsened, many Jews from Venice and the surrounding area migrated to Poland and Lithuania. During the 16th and 17th centuries, some

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The answer to why there was so little assimilation of Jews in central and eastern Europe for so long would seem to lie in part in the probability that the alien surroundings in central and eastern Europe were not conducive, though there was some assimilation. Furthermore, Jews lived almost

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With their national aspirations crushed and widespread devastation in Judea, despondent Jews migrated out of Judea in the aftermath of both revolts, and many settled in southern Europe. In contrast to the earlier Assyrian and Babylonian captivities, the movement was by no means a singular,

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showed that Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews share overall Near Eastern paternal ancestries. In comparison with data available from other relevant populations in the region, Jews were found to be more closely related to groups in the north of the Fertile Crescent. The study also found Eu 19

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Though never exceeding 3 percent of the American population, Jews account for 37 percent of the winners of the U.S. National Medal of Science, 25 percent of the American Nobel Prize winners in literature, 40 percent of the American Nobel Prize winners in science and economics, and so

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resemble each other more closely than they resemble their non-Jewish neighbors." "Past research found that 50%–80% of DNA from the Ashkenazi Y chromosome, which is used to trace the male lineage, originated in the Near East," Richards said. The population has subsequently spread out.

4837:, while many Ashkenazi Jews do not. This is not because of different interpretations of the law; rather, slaughterhouses could not find adequate skills for correct removal of the sciatic nerve and found it more economical to separate the hindquarters and sell them as non-kosher meat. 7884: 7392:

Doron M. Behar; Mait Metspalu; Yael Baran; Naama M. Kopelman; Bayazit Yunusbayev; Ariella Gladstein; Shay Tzur; Hovhannes Sahakyan; Ardeshir Bahmanimehr; Levon Yepiskoposyan; Kristiina Tambets; Elza K. Khusnutdinova; Alena Kushniarevich; Oleg Balanovsky; Elena Balanovsky (2013).

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have all been used to refer to the group of peoples comprising the Germanic tribes, which include such peoples as Goths, whether Ostrogoths or Visigoths, Vandals and Franks, Burgundians, Alans, Langobards, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Suebi and Alamanni. The entire region east of the

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In addition to the genetic contributions from neighboring Europeans, Near Easterners and North Africans, Ashkenazi Jews share some East Eurasian haplogroups, such as N9a, A, and M33c, with Chinese populations. This originates from their economic and cultural exchanges along the

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conquer Judea, and thousands of Jewish prisoners of war were brought to Rome as slaves. After gaining their freedom, they settled permanently in Rome as traders. It is likely that there was an additional influx of Jewish slaves taken to southern Europe by Roman forces after the

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Ashkenazim adapted their traditions to Europe and underwent a transformation in their interpretation of Judaism. In the late 18th and 19th centuries, Jews who remained in or returned to historical German lands experienced a cultural reorientation. Under the influence of the

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Though Ashkenazi Jews have never exceeded 3% of the American population, Jews account for 37% of the winners of the U.S. National Medal of Science, 25% of the American Nobel Prize winners in literature, and 40% of the American Nobel Prize winners in science and economics.

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conversion, or intermarriage with other groups, including other Jews. Human geneticists have argued that genetic variations have been identified that show high frequencies among Ashkenazi Jews, but not in the general European population, be they for patrilineal markers (

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found that Ashkenazim were most closely clustered with Arabic North African populations than with the global population, and in the European structure analysis, they share similarities only with Greeks and Southern Italians, reflecting their east Mediterranean origins.

4949:. Research in 2010 revealed a genetic common ancestry of all Jewish populations. In some instances, Ashkenazi communities have accepted significant numbers of Sephardi newcomers, sometimes resulting in intermarriage and the possible merging between the two communities. 11488:

Lejla; Marjanovic, Damir; Mihailov, Evelin; Kouvatsi, Anastasia; Traintaphyllidis, Costas; King, Roy J.; Semino, Ornella; Torroni, Antonio; Hammer, Michael F.; Metspalu, Ene; Skorecki, Karl; Rosset, Saharon; Halperin, Eran; Villems, Richard; Rosenberg, Noah A. (2013).

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and Central Europe. The result is a pluralistic Jewish community that still has some distinct elements of both Ashkenazi and Sephardic culture. But in France, it is becoming much more difficult to sort out the two, and a distinctly French Jewishness has emerged.

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Cambridge University Press 2002 p. 324 'The Zionist movement was a European movement in its goals and orientation and its target population was Ashkenazi Jews who constituted, in 1895, 90 percent of the 10.5 million Jews then living in the world (Smooha 1978:

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Waldman, Shamam; Backenroth, Daniel; Harney, Éadaoin; Flohr, Stefan; Neff, Nadia C.; Buckley, Gina M.; Fridman, Hila; Akbari, Ali; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Olalde, Iñigo; Cooper, Leo; Lomes, Ariel; Lipson, Joshua; Cano Nistal, Jorge (8 December 2022).

3708:. Others came from Italy and the Hellenized parts of the Roman Empire. The excavations suggest they first lived in isolated enclaves attached to Roman legion camps and intermarried with other similar oriental families within the military orders of the region. 3714:

states that later Roman writers remarked that they differed little in either customs, manner of writing, or names from the people among whom they dwelt; and it was especially difficult to differentiate Jews from the Syrians. After Pannonia was ceded to the

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examined the genetic relationships among all major Jewish groups, including Ashkenazim, and their genetic relationship with non-Jewish ethnic populations. It found that today's Jews (except Indian and Ethiopian Jews) are closely related to people from the

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considers to have been small). Genetic evidence also indicates that Yiddish-speaking Eastern European Jews largely descend from Ashkenazi Jews who migrated from central to eastern Europe and subsequently experienced high birthrates and genetic isolation.

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affinity and shared ancestry of Ashkenazi Jews were found to be (after those with other Jewish groups from southern Europe, Syria, and North Africa) with both southern Europeans and Levantines such as Druze, Cypriot, Lebanese and Samaritan groups.

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populations. But today Ashkenazi Jews from eastern Europe no longer exhibit this genetic variability, and instead, their genomes resemble a nearly even mixture of the two Erfurt groups (with about 60% from the first group and 40% from the second).

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Relations between Ashkenazim and Sephardim have at times been tense and clouded by arrogance, snobbery and claims of racial superiority with both sides claiming the inferiority of the other, based upon such features as physical traits and culture.

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in Ashkenazim, particularly the extent of the non-Levantine origin in maternal lineages, which is in contrast to the predominant Levantine genetic origin in paternal lineages. But all studies agree that both lineages have genetic overlap with the

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bear some differences from Sephardic tefillin. In the traditional Ashkenazic rite, the tefillin are wound towards the body, not away from it. Ashkenazim traditionally don tefillin while standing, whereas other Jews generally do so while sitting

5244:. The study also observed that Ashkenazim are more diverse than their Middle Eastern relatives, which was counterintuitive because Ashkenazim are supposed to be a subset, not a superset, of their assumed geographical source population. Bray 3760:

rejects Baron's figures entirely, arguing that we have no clue as to the size of the Jewish demographic in the ancient world. Sometimes the scholars who accepted the high number of Jews in Rome had explained it by Jews having been active in

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In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves descendants of the Hebrews of the Old

7881: 5841: 4829:. Meat products that are acceptable to Ashkenazi Jews as kosher may therefore be rejected by Sephardi Jews. Notwithstanding stricter requirements for the actual slaughter, Sephardi Jews permit the rear portions of an animal after proper 3731:

Estimating the number of Jews in antiquity is a task fraught with peril due to the nature of and lack of accurate documentation. The number of Jews in the Roman Empire for a long time was based on the accounts of Syrian Orthodox bishop

3974:(10th century), and Russia (12th century). Over this period of several hundred years, some have suggested, Jewish economic activity was focused on trade, business management, and financial services, due to several presumed factors: 3819:. In addition, Jews from southern Italy, fleeing religious persecution, began to move into Central Europe. Returning to Frankish lands, many Jewish merchants took up occupations in finance and commerce, including money lending, or 4902:(prayer book). A nusach is defined by a liturgical tradition's choice of prayers, the order of prayers, the text of prayers, and melodies used in the singing of prayers. Two other major forms of nusach among Ashkenazic Jews are 5429:. This has sometimes created an impression that Jews are more susceptible to genetic disease than other populations. Healthcare professionals are often taught to consider those of Ashkenazi descent to be at increased risk for 3765:. The idea of ancient Jews trying to convert Gentiles to Judaism is nowadays rejected by several scholars. The Romans did not distinguish between Jews inside and outside of the land of Israel/Judaea. They collected an annual 5057:

contained mutations that are also common among Middle Eastern peoples, but uncommon among indigenous Europeans. This suggests that Ashkenazim male ancestors are mostly from the Middle East. Ashkenazi had less than 0.5% male

4359:

Jews of mixed background are increasingly common, partly because of intermarriage between Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi, and partly because many do not see such historic markers as relevant to their life experiences as Jews.

3496:'s conquests, Jews migrated to Greek settlements in the Eastern Mediterranean, spurred on by economic opportunities. Jewish economic migration to southern Europe is also believed to have occurred during the Roman period. 5978:

Mosk (2013), p. 143. "Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward

4597:, but a broad range of movements, ideologies, practices, and traditions in which Ashkenazi Jews have participated and somehow retained a sense of Jewishness. Although a far smaller number of Jews still speak Yiddish, 4691:

traditions relating to Ashkenazi culture has often been met with criticism by Jews in Eastern Europe. Reasoning for this could be related to the development of a new style of Jewish arts and culture developed by the

7837:, p. 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature." 5080:) chromosomes had elevated frequency among Ashkenazi Jews (13%), and they are very frequent in Central and Eastern Europeans (54–60%). They hypothesized that the differences among Ashkenazim could reflect low-level 4936:

North African Sephardim and Berber Jews were often looked down upon by Ashkenazim as second-class citizens during the first decade after the creation of Israel. This has led to protest movements such as the Israeli

5270:. The authors explained that "the most parsimonious explanation for these observations is a common genetic origin, which is consistent with an historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient 4273:

isolated from non-Jewish communities and the prohibitions on certain professions. Laws were passed to integrate Jews into their host countries, forcing Ashkenazi Jews to adopt family names (they had formerly used

3516:

with assistance from Roman forces in 37 BCE. It is known that Jewish war captives were sold into slavery after the suppression of a minor Jewish revolt in 53 BCE, and some were probably taken to southern Europe.

4238:

estimated that Ashkenazi Jews accounted for nearly 92% of world Jewry. These factors are sheer demography showing the migration patterns of Jews from Southern and Western Europe to Central and Eastern Europe.

11384: 6371:

Della Pergola does not analyze or mention the Ashkenazi statistics, but the figure is implied by his rough estimate that in 2000, Oriental and Sephardi Jews constituted 26% of the population of world Jewry.

11668: 3480:

Beginning in the fourth century BCE, Jewish colonies sprang up in southern Europe, including the Aegean Islands, Greece, and Italy. Jews left ancient Israel for a number of causes, including a number of

3823:. (Church legislation banned Christians from lending money in exchange for interest.) From Charlemagne's time to the present, Jewish life in northern Europe is well documented. By the 11th century, when 4025:, maintained a strong system of education for males, heeded rabbinic leadership, and had a very different lifestyle to that of their neighbours; all of these tendencies increased with every outbreak of 3621:

in 363 CE. In the late Roman Empire, Jews were free to form networks of cultural and religious ties and enter into various local occupations. However, after Christianity became the official religion of

4384:". That is to say, all Jewish immigrants who arrived in Israel were strongly encouraged to "meltdown" their own particular exilic identities within the general social "pot" in order to become Israeli. 13243: 11538:

Granot-Hershkovitz, Einat; Karasik, David; Friedlander, Yechiel; Rodriguez-Murillo, Laura; Dorajoo, Rajkumar; Liu, Jianjun; Sewda, Anshuman; Peter, Inga; Carmi, Shai; Hochner, Hagit (December 2018).

4490:

that converted him or her. With the integration of Jews from around the world in Israel, North America, and other places, the religious definition of an Ashkenazi Jew is blurring, especially outside

4326:, as the vast majority of the Jewish victims of the Holocaust, around 5 million, were Yiddish speakers. Many of the surviving Ashkenazi Jews emigrated to countries such as Israel, Canada, Argentina, 4250:

movement as well as major Jewish academic centers. After two centuries of comparative tolerance in the new nations, massive westward emigration occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries in response to

3141:

implied that Ashkenazim comprised 65–70% of Jews worldwide in 2000, while other estimates suggest more than 75%. As of 2013, the population was estimated to be between 10 million and 11.2 million.

4157:

In later times, the word Ashkenaz is used to designate southern and western Germany, the ritual of which sections differs somewhat from that of eastern Germany and Poland. Thus the prayer-book of

3696:

to form communities and build a synagogue. Jewish troops were among the Syrian soldiers transferred there, and replenished from the Middle East. After 175 CE Jews and especially Syrians came from

11205:

Atzmon, Gil; Hao, Li; Pe'Er, Itsik; Velez, Christopher; Pearlman, Alexander; Palamara, Pier Francesco; Morrow, Bernice; Friedman, Eitan; Oddoux, Carole; Burns, Edward & Ostrer, Harry (2010).

8265: 7277:"The people of the Kingdom of Israel and the ethnic and religious group known as the Jewish people that descended from them have been subjected to a number of forced migrations in their history" 4626:

groups continue to use Yiddish in daily life. (There are numerous Ashkenazi Jewish anglophones and Russian-speakers as well, although English and Russian are not originally Jewish languages.)

10243: 3997:

of 1264. By the 15th century, the Ashkenazi Jewish communities in Poland were the largest Jewish communities of the Diaspora. This area, which eventually fell under the domination of Russia,

3982:" loans) between Christians, high rates of literacy, near-universal male education, and ability of merchants to rely upon and trust family members living in different regions and countries. 5145:

criticized the study, arguing that while it "re-opened the question of the maternal origins of Ashkenazi Jewry, the phylogenetic analysis in the manuscript does not 'settle' the question."

3372:

period, the Jews of central and eastern Europe came to be called by this term. Conforming to the custom of designating areas of Jewish settlement with biblical names, Spain was denominated

10462:

Hammer, M. F.; A. J. Redd; E. T. Wood; M. R. Bonner; H. Jarjanazi; T. Karafet; S. Santachiara-Benerecetti; A. Oppenheim; M. A. Jobling; T. Jenkins; H. Ostrer; B. Bonné-Tamir (9 May 2000).

5220:

interpreted this linkage disequilibrium in the Ashkenazi Jewish population as matching signs "of interbreeding or 'admixture' between Middle Eastern and European populations". On the Bray

4629:

France's blended Jewish community is typical of the cultural recombination that is going on among Jews throughout the world. Although France expelled its original Jewish population in the

4150:, or the text is corrupted from "Germanica". This view of Berechiah is based on the Talmud (Yoma 10a; Jerusalem Talmud Megillah 71b), where Gomer, the father of Ashkenaz, is translated by 4146:, Rabbi Berechiah mentions Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah as German tribes or as German lands. It may correspond to a Greek word that may have existed in the Greek dialect of the Jews in 4991:). Autosomal DNA is a mixture from an individual's entire ancestry. Y-DNA shows a male's lineage along his paternal line. mtDNA shows any person's lineage only along their maternal line. 7635: 3745:. However, contemporary scholars now accept that Bar Hebraeus based his figure on a census of total Roman citizens and thus included non-Jews, the figure of 6,944,000 being recorded in 11125:

Bauchet, Marc; McEvoy, Brian; Pearson, Laurel N.; Quillen, Ellen E.; Sarkisian, Tamara; Hovhannesyan, Kristine; Deka, Ranjan; Bradley, Daniel G.; Shriver, Mark D.; et al. (2007).

4680:, the French Jewish population was augmented once again, first by Ashkenazi refugees from Central Europe, and later by Sephardi immigrants and refugees from North Africa, many of them 10862:"Study traces Ashkenazi roots to European women who probably converted to Judaism – The genetic analysis traced the lineage of many Ashkenazi Jews to four maternal founders in Europe" 10440: 10370:

M.F. Hammer; A.J. Redd; E.T. Wood; M.R. Bonner; H. Jarjanazi; T. Karafet; S. Santachiara-Benerecetti; A. Oppenheim; M.A. Jobling; T. Jenkins‡‡; H. Ostrer & B. Bonné-Tamir (2000).

9889: 4998:

Like most DNA studies of human migration patterns, the earliest studies on Ashkenazi Jews focused on the Y-DNA and mtDNA segments of the human genome. Both segments are unaffected by

4284:, or Jewish Enlightenment, with its goal of integrating modern European values into Jewish life. As a reaction to increasing antisemitism and assimilation following the emancipation, 10701: 7501:

Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William; Sturdy, John; Katz, Steven T.; Hart, Mitchell B.; Michels, Tony; Karp, Jonathan; Sutcliffe, Adam; Chazan, Robert (1984).

5356:

as part of an argument against traditional forms of antisemitism (for example the claim that "the Jews killed Christ"), just as similar arguments have been advanced on behalf of the

13268: 9396: 9291: 7596: 5009:

These studies revealed that Ashkenazi Jews originate from an ancient (2000–700 BCE) population of the Middle East who spread to Europe. Ashkenazic Jews display the homogeneity of a

4687:

Ashkenazi Jews did not record their traditions or achievements by text, instead these traditions were passed down orally from one generation to the next. The desire to maintain pre-

3083:

and the struggle for emancipation, as well as the intellectual and cultural ferment in urban centres, some gradually abandoned Yiddish in favor of German and developed new forms of

13238: 10724: 11297: 7518: 9679: 8528: 6908: 4104:

in the latter half of the 11th century refers to both the language of Ashkenaz and the country of Ashkenaz. During the 12th century, the word appears quite frequently. In the

3133:

which killed some six million Jews, affecting almost every European Jewish family. In 1933, prior to World War II, the estimated worldwide Jewish population was 15.3 million.

11646: 9198:

Rowman & Littlefield, 2007 p. 72 'Before the German Holocaust, about 90% of Jews worldwide were Ashkenazim. Since the Holocaust, the percentage has dropped to about 83%.'

8169: 8052: 10838: 4501:, and the emergence of "post-denominational Judaism" often bring together younger Jews of diverse ethnic backgrounds. In recent years, there has been increased interest in 9321: 8226: 7557: 6537:"Ancient DNA Analysis of 8000 B.C. Near Eastern Farmers Supports an Early Neolithic Pioneer Maritime Colonization of Mainland Europe through Cyprus and the Aegean Islands" 4441:

In a religious sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is any Jew whose family tradition and ritual follow Ashkenazi practice. Until the Ashkenazi community first began to develop in the

3788:. Throughout this period and into the early Middle Ages, some Jews assimilated into the dominant Greek and Latin cultures, mostly through conversion to Christianity. King 3741:

considered the figure convincing. The figure of seven million within and one million outside the Roman world in the mid-first century became widely accepted, including by

9213: 5736: 1552: 9954: 5294:). The study found no affinity of Ashkenazim to northern Caucasus populations, and no more affinity to modern south Caucasus and eastern Anatolian populations (such as 4497:

New developments in Judaism often transcend differences in religious practice between Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews. In North American cities, social trends such as the

3966:

Jews joined Sephardic Jewry in Spain. Expulsions from England (1290), France (1394), and parts of Germany (15th century), gradually pushed Ashkenazi Jewry eastward, to

9652: 4318:, the majority of whom were Ashkenazi, about 6 million – more than two-thirds – were systematically murdered in the Holocaust. These included 3 million of 3.3 million 11072:

Rosenberg, Noah A.; Pritchard, Jonathan K; Weber, JL; Cann, HM; Kidd, KK; Zhivotovsky, LA; Feldman, MW; et al. (2002). "Genetic structure of human populations".

6768: 3121:, Ashkenazim were estimated to be 3% in the 11th century, rising to 92% in 1930 near the population's peak. The Ashkenazi population was significantly diminished by 11380: 8416: 4983:

Efforts to identify the origins of Ashkenazi Jews through DNA analysis began in the 1990s. There are three types of genetic origin testing, autosomal DNA (atDNA),

4864:

differ from those of other groups. The most prominent consonantal difference from Sephardic and Mizrahic Hebrew dialects is the pronunciation of the Hebrew letter

3815:. This created opportunities for Jewish merchants to settle again north of the Alps. Charlemagne granted the Jews freedoms similar to those once enjoyed under the 8715: 4700:

regime made it easier to assimilate to the new style of ritual rather than try to repair the older traditions. This new style of tradition was referred to as the

4269:

that had limited the rights of Jews since the Middle Ages were abolished, including the requirements to wear distinctive clothing, pay special taxes, and live in

11676: 7932: 4110:, the kingdom of Ashkenaz is referred to chiefly in regard to the ritual of the synagogue there, but occasionally also with regard to certain other observances. 3571:. Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death. Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt. 10093: 6535:

Eva Fernández; Alejandro Pérez-Pérez; Cristina Gamba; Eva Prats; Pedro Cuesta; Josep Anfruns; Miquel Molist; Eduardo Arroyo-Pardo; Daniel Turbón (5 June 2014).

5421:

Jewish communities are comparatively well informed about genetics research, and have been supportive of community efforts to study and prevent genetic diseases.

3641:

was built on the ruins of a more ancient synagogue in the 4th century, while later in the 5th century, the synagogue was transformed into a Christian basilica.

7110: 2130: 8975:(Descriptive catalogue of the Hebrew and Samaritan Manuscripts in the Sassoon Library, London), vol. 1, Oxford Univ. Press: London 1932, Introduction p. xxxix 3692:) in Croatia, attest to the presence of Jews after the 2nd and 3rd centuries where Roman garrisons were established. There was a sufficient number of Jews in 12404: 8459: 7149: 4466:, since most non-Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews follow Sephardic rabbinical authorities, whether or not they are ethnically Sephardic. By tradition, a Sephardic or 1785: 1480: 12895: 9418: 3843:

and other Jewish scholars in Islamic lands for their lack of expertise in Jewish jurisprudence and general ignorance of Hebrew linguistics and literature.

9235: 7656:

E. Mary Smallwood (2008) "The Diaspora in the Roman period before A.D. 70." In: The Cambridge History of Judaism, Volume 3. Editors Davis and Finkelstein.

4180:

during the 11th century. The story is told that a German-speaking Jew saved the life of a young German man surnamed Dolberger. So when the knights of the

1672: 11183: 10192: 11783:

Carmeli, Daphna Birenbaum (15 September 2004). "Prevalence of Jews as subjects in genetic research: Figures, explanation, and potential implications".

8249: 5951:

In general the Ashkenazi originally came out of the Holy Roman Empire, speaking a version of German that incorporates Hebrew and Slavic words, Yiddish.

5414:

Jewish populations, and particularly the large Ashkenazi Jewish population, are ideal for such research studies, because they exhibit a high degree of

5137:

makes it very unlikely that "the four aforementioned founder lineages entered the Ashkenazi mtDNA pool via gene flow from a European host population".

4482:

or Mizrahi man is expected to take on Sephardic practice and the children inherit a Sephardic identity, though in practice many families compromise. A

4345:, implies that Ashkenazi make up a notably lower figure, less than 74%. Other estimates place Ashkenazi Jews as making up about 75% of Jews worldwide. 2880: 7809:

Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the

10933: 10871: 9093: 644: 11457: 10227: 14433: 12379: 10307: 8847: 6308: 1667: 8632: 14823: 11615: 11325: 10816: 10330: 5758: 5142: 1915: 11207:"Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry" 9491: 7971: 13023: 8812: 10126: 3906:

as early as the 8th and 9th centuries. By the 11th century, Jewish settlers moving from southern European and Middle Eastern centers (such as

13506: 12953: 12128: 10430: 9879: 8680: 6286: 3529:

attested in 4 BC, went back to the late republic or early empire and originated in voluntary emigration and the lure of trade and commerce."

2169: 4804:, however, has become accepted as foodgrain in the North American communities), whereas Sephardi Jews typically do not prohibit these foods. 4736:). Since the middle of the 20th century, many Ashkenazi Jews have intermarried, both with members of other Jewish communities and non-Jews. 4234:

outnumbered Sephardim three to two, the result of improved living conditions in Christian Europe versus the Ottoman Muslim world." By 1930,

12333:"Ashkenazi Jewish mtDNA haplogroup distribution varies among distinct subpopulations: lessons of population substructure in a closed group" 10691: 9521: 6092: 5706: 5377:

populations, and that there is no indication of a significant genetic contribution either from within or from north of the Caucasus region.

3559:(132–136 CE) erupted. Judea's countryside was devastated, and many were killed, displaced or sold into slavery. Jerusalem was rebuilt as a 11721:

Tian, Jiao-Yang; Wang, Hua-Wei; Li, Yu-Chun; Zhang, Wen; Yao, Yong-Gang; Stranten, Jits van; Richards, Martin B.; Kong, Qing-Peng (2015).

9371: 9281: 5661: 4649:

were technically outside France, and were later absorbed into the Sephardim.) The two communities were so separate and different that the

14783: 11880: 8130: 8013: 7683: 7264: 7071: 6990: 6869: 6726: 6247: 6208: 4032:

In parts of Eastern Europe, before the arrival of the Ashkenazi Jews from Central Europe, some non-Ashkenazi Jews were present who spoke

1154: 1117: 8950: 8364: 8091: 7479: 7304: 6823: 6358: 5410:

conducted among Jews. Jewish populations have been studied more thoroughly than most other human populations, for a variety of reasons:

13301: 11289: 7224: 3811:'s expansion of the Frankish empire around 800, including northern Italy and Rome, brought on a brief period of stability and unity in 116: 9692: 9626: 8695:, "The World History of the Jewish People. Vol. XI (11): The Dark Ages. Jews in Christian Europe 711–1096 . Vol. Two: The Dark Ages", 13160: 12973: 10964: 10902: 10274: 3769:

from Jews both in and outside of Israel. The revolts in and suppression of diaspora communities in Egypt, Libya and Crete during the

2093: 11505: 9923: 9725: 4602:

synagogues, and so forth. It is a definition that applies to Jewish culture in general, and to Ashkenazi Yiddishkeit in particular.

13330: 12998: 12888: 11638: 11522: 10734: 9856: 4200:

Material relating to the history of German Jews has been preserved in the communal accounts of certain communities on the Rhine, a

3950:

and the culture of the Babylonian Talmud that underlies it became established in southern Italy and then spread north to Ashkenaz.

2116: 11825:

Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. (2009). The guide to clinical preventive services 2009. AHRQ Publication No. 09-IP006.

4881:(tallis in Ashkenazi Hebrew) is worn by all Ashkenazi men after marriage, except western European Ashkenazi men, who wear it from 14829: 13170: 12463: 8781: 5345: 5339: 4184:

came to siege Jerusalem, one of Dolberger's family members who was among them rescued Jews in Palestine and carried them back to

1466: 10514: 9656: 9313: 8210: 4254:

in the east and the economic opportunities offered in other parts of the world. Ashkenazi Jews have made up the majority of the

3578:

During both of these rebellions, many Jews were captured and sold into slavery by the Romans. According to the Jewish historian

3489:. More Jews moved into these communities as a result of wars, persecution, unrest, and for opportunities in trade and commerce. 3331:(1.15), Ashkenaz was associated with Armenia, as it was occasionally in Jewish usage, where its denotation extended at times to 13929: 13383: 13258: 13210: 13085: 13080: 12800: 12312: 11266: 9209: 4842: 4589:

to Romania, most Jews prayed in liturgical Ashkenazi Hebrew, and spoke Yiddish in their secular lives. But with modernization,

2873: 2043: 1978: 1860: 9544: 9353: 8193:

A Social and Religious History of the Jews, by Salo Wittmayer Baron ... Volume 1 of A Social and Religious History of the Jews

7708:

Werner Eck, "Sklaven und Freigelassene von Römern in Iudaea und den angrenzenden Provinzen," Novum Testamentum 55 (2013): 1–21

13924: 12248: 12212: 12193: 12174: 12120: 12102: 12076: 12052: 12033: 12014: 11965: 11910: 11609: 10237: 10165: 10068: 10035: 10010: 9985: 9946: 9818: 8999: 8886: 8604: 8571: 8522: 8410: 8358: 8259: 8220: 8163: 8124: 8085: 8046: 8007: 7926: 7855: 7834: 7790: 7677: 7629: 7590: 7551: 7512: 7473: 7298: 7258: 7218: 7182: 7143: 7104: 7065: 7038: 6984: 6957: 6902: 6863: 6817: 6762: 6720: 6352: 6280: 6241: 6202: 6170: 6143: 6086: 6055: 5944: 5820: 4650: 3728:, the archeological evidence suggests at most a fleeting presence of very few Jews, primarily itinerant traders or artisans. 1164: 7901:

Van Kooten, G. H. (2011). The Jewish War and the Roman Civil War of 68–69 CE: Jewish, Pagan, and Christian Perspectives. In

6014: 5732: 4927: 13215: 13045: 12372: 9687: 4672:. By the 1930s, Paris had a vibrant Yiddish culture, and many Jews were involved in diverse political movements. After the 3800:

kingdom in 629. Jews in former Roman territories faced new challenges as harsher anti-Jewish Church rulings were enforced.

1602: 13833: 5895:, Jerusalem 1962, p. 219; p. 228 in PDF), the descendants of Ashkenaz had also originally settled in what was then called 3357:, and such usage covered also the lands of tribes neighboring the Slavs, and Eastern and Central Europe. In modern times, 13944: 13939: 13363: 13220: 12881: 9432: 8995: 7334: 5776: 5728: 5014: 4696:

during the 1930s and 1940s, which in conjunction with the decimation of European Ashkenazi Jews and their culture by the

4333:

Following the Holocaust, some sources place Ashkenazim today as making up approximately 83%–85% of Jews worldwide, while

4230: 4113:

In the literature of the 13th century, references to the land and the language of Ashkenaz often occur. Examples include

3776:

A substantial Jewish population emerged in northern Gaul by the Middle Ages, but Jewish communities existed in 465 CE in

3469: 1870: 1687: 1677: 917: 5349:

still occasionally supported by scholars who have had some success in keeping the theory in the academic consciousness.

3203: 14756: 13633: 13145: 11211: 10830: 8712: 6472: 5689: 5620: 5250: 3159:, with some focusing on the European genetic origin in Ashkenazi maternal lineages, contrasting with the predominantly 3155:(mainly southern European) ancestry. These studies draw diverging conclusions about the degree and sources of European 2266: 2216: 2181: 1875: 1740: 1607: 10085: 9587: 9183:

Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, pre-1948 to the present

9172:, 'Today Ashkenazim constitute more than 80 percent of all the Jews in the world, vastly outnumbering Sephardic Jews.' 6464: 3594:

in Greece. Jewish slaves and their children eventually gained their freedom and joined local free Jewish communities.

3547:. The Roman suppression of these revolts led to wide-scale destruction, a very high toll of life and enslavement. The 14989: 13784: 13638: 13115: 13075: 13055: 13035: 12938: 12166: 10831:"Jewish Women's Genes Traced Mostly to Europe – Not Israel – Study Hits Claim Ashkenazi Jews Migrated From Holy Land" 7366: 5685:"Do Ashkenazi Jews have a Higher than expected Cancer Burden? Implications for cancer control prioritization efforts" 5542: 3492:

Jews migrated to southern Europe from the Middle East voluntarily for opportunities in trade and commerce. Following

2949: 2866: 1958: 1920: 1895: 1815: 1800: 1647: 1587: 1542: 5258:

Easterners stems from the latter's marriage practices, not necessarily from the former's admixture with Europeans.

4380:

still exists to a much smaller extent in present-day Israeli society, are chiefly attributed to the concept of the "

14979: 14974: 13693: 13601: 13248: 13050: 4845:, where Ashkenazim for centuries used the naming conventions otherwise attributed exclusively to Sephardim such as 4404: 4400: 4327: 3634: 3160: 3111: 2251: 2233: 2139: 2033: 1885: 1880: 1805: 1770: 1637: 526: 11922: 8451: 4704:, and was noted for its simplicity and metaphorical rejuvenation of Jews abroad. This was intended to replace the 14858: 14052: 13253: 13200: 13175: 13130: 13125: 13100: 12958: 12365: 11319:

Bray, Steven M.; Mulle, Jennifer G.; Dodd, Anne F.; Pulver, Ann E.; Wooding, Stephen; Warren, Stephen T. (2010).

8489:

Grossman, Abraham (1998), "The Sank of Babylon and the Rise of the New Jewish Centers in the 11th Century Europe"

7720:"Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account?" 2769: 2668: 2223: 2206: 2159: 2058: 1968: 1905: 1855: 1835: 1830: 1750: 1724: 1699: 1577: 1567: 1557: 1537: 1532: 11540:"A study of Kibbutzim in Israel reveals risk factors for cardiometabolic traits and subtle population structure" 7796: 5447:

are often undertaken by couples where both partners are of Ashkenazi ancestry. Some organizations, most notably

3978:

European prohibitions restricting certain activities by Jews, preventing certain financial activities (such as "

13734: 13294: 13165: 13155: 13105: 13065: 13018: 13013: 13003: 12988: 12983: 12978: 12963: 12948: 12943: 12933: 12928: 12923: 12918: 9245: 7237:

Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites"

5624: 4868:

in certain Hebrew words (historically, in postvocalic undoubled context) as an /s/ and not a /t/ or /θ/ sound.

4242:

In 1740, a family from Lithuania became the first Ashkenazi Jews to settle in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem.

3725: 3072: 2242: 2228: 2196: 2176: 2144: 2088: 2063: 2038: 2018: 2008: 1993: 1988: 1983: 1963: 1953: 1948: 1925: 1840: 1825: 1745: 1704: 1657: 1652: 1572: 1517: 11175: 10200: 5888: 4478:

Ashkenazi Jewish family raises her children to be Ashkenazi Jews; conversely an Ashkenazi woman who marries a

4363:

Religious Ashkenazi Jews living in Israel are obliged to follow the authority of the chief Ashkenazi rabbi in

14984: 14835: 14156: 13263: 13205: 13150: 13140: 13120: 13110: 13095: 13090: 13070: 13040: 13008: 12993: 12968: 12904: 12830: 12784: 12229: 11601:

The Karaites of Galicia: An Ethnoreligious Minority Among the Ashkenazim, the Turks, and the Slavs, 1772–1945

6646:"Genome-wide data from medieval German Jews show that the Ashkenazi founder event pre-dated the 14th century" 5166: 5128:(mtDNA), suggested that about 40% of today's Ashkenazim descend from just four women who were "likely from a 5096:, the dominant Y-chromosome haplogroup in Central and Eastern Europeans. However, a 2017 study, of Ashkenazi 4992: 4656:

But after emancipation, a sense of a unified French Jewry emerged, especially when France was wracked by the

4581:

for men, and a family and communal life governed by the observance of Jewish Law for men and women. From the

4173: 3967: 3048: 2663: 2201: 2186: 2149: 2111: 2083: 2073: 2068: 2053: 2048: 2028: 2013: 1998: 1973: 1939: 1910: 1810: 1795: 1719: 1709: 1627: 1597: 1522: 1508: 9458: 7999:

Pannonia and Upper Moesia (Routledge Revivals): A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire

5344:

In the late 19th century, it was proposed that the core of Ashkenazi Jews were genetically descended from a

4823:

for meat, conversely, Sephardi Jews have stricter requirements – this level is commonly referred to as

4645:, and mainly speaking a German dialect similar to Yiddish. (The third community of Provençal Jews living in 4641:

and concentrated in the southwest, while the other community was Ashkenazi, concentrated in formerly German

4637:, there were two distinct Jewish populations. One consisted of Sephardic Jews, originally refugees from the 14898: 14766: 14761: 13949: 13934: 13698: 13653: 13398: 13180: 13135: 13060: 13030: 10464:"Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes" 10372:"Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes" 4660:

in the 1890s. In the 1920s and 1930s, Ashkenazi Jews from Europe arrived in large numbers as refugees from

3920: 3752:. Louis Feldman, previously an active supporter of the figure, now states that he and Baron were mistaken. 3118: 2271: 2191: 2154: 2078: 2023: 1890: 1865: 1790: 1765: 1755: 1694: 1617: 1612: 1592: 1582: 1562: 1547: 1440: 1144: 908: 903: 10925: 10861: 9085: 14863: 14848: 13729: 13589: 12742: 12654: 11408: 10297: 5318:

Eastern ancestry showing the strongest affinity to Levantine populations such as the Druze and Lebanese.

4520: 4098:

refers to questions that had been addressed to him from Ashkenaz, by which he undoubtedly means Germany.

2261: 2256: 2211: 2164: 1850: 1820: 1780: 1775: 1632: 938: 8839: 3444:

as Ashkenazim. Given the close links between the Jewish communities of France and Germany following the

14817: 14711: 14362: 14256: 13964: 13897: 13458: 13348: 12204: 8676: 8624: 8549:

Guenter Stemberger, "The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism, 70–640 CE" in Neusner & Avery-Peck (eds.),

4665: 3924: 3858:

in the medieval period. It is a Germanic language written in Hebrew letters, and heavily influenced by

3638: 3552: 3548: 3509: 3500: 3328: 2735: 2580: 2288: 1682: 878: 868: 604: 17: 11599: 10345: 8734:"Substructured population growth in the Ashkenazi Jews inferred with Approximate Bayesian Computation" 7361: 14933: 14873: 14771: 14751: 14621: 14546: 14406: 14273: 13959: 13919: 13287: 12688: 12468: 9483: 8251:

The Hidden Heritage of Diaspora Judaism: Volume 20 of Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology

7967: 6341:""Sephardic and Oriental" Jews in Israel and Countries: Migration, Social Change, and Identification" 4907: 4265:, Jewish emancipation began in 18th century France and spread throughout Western and Central Europe. 4211: 3313: 2849: 2542: 2393: 2334: 1225: 11381:"How to Interpret Patterns of Genetic Variation? Admixture, Divergence, Inbreeding, Cousin Marriage" 8804: 5863: 5101:

origin of the Ashkenazi Levite lineage" which had previously been concluded based on a few samples.

4807:

Ashkenazi Jews freely mix and eat fish and milk products; some Sephardic Jews refrain from doing so.

4438:, which does not necessarily follow those minhagim, did nonetheless originate among Ashkenazi Jews. 3957:. Inspired by the preaching of a First Crusade, crusader mobs in France and Germany perpetrated the 14853: 14684: 13983: 13858: 12805: 12619: 12533: 12518: 10302: 10116: 9750:

Frigyesi, Judit (September 2014). "Scholarship on East European Jewish Music after the Holocaust".

8696: 5404: 5021:

Various studies have drawn diverging conclusions about the degree and sources of the non-Levantine

4711:

Then, in the 1990s, yet another Ashkenazi Jewish wave began to arrive from countries of the former

4354: 4270: 3971: 2552: 2532: 1642: 1122: 663: 8655:

Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World : Attitudes and Interactions from Alexander to Justinian

7465:

The Jews of Poland: A Social and Economic History of the Jewish Community in Poland from 1100–1800

6270: 5030:, albeit at differing rates. Collectively, Ashkenazi Jews are less genetically diverse than other 3440:(Ashkenazi language) to describe Yiddish, and Byzantium and Syrian Jewish letters referred to the 14969: 14806: 14795: 14389: 14310: 14015: 13914: 13853: 13739: 13712: 12641: 12570: 12538: 12523: 12473: 12240: 12225: 8318:

Gregerman, Adam (2009). "The Lack of Evidence for a Jewish Christian Countermission in Galatia".

5468: 5114: 5031: 4999: 4973: 4938: 4188:

to repay the favor. Further evidence of German communities in the holy city comes in the form of

3610: 3457: 3152: 3144: 3013: 2693: 2683: 2648: 2527: 2517: 2300: 1471: 1413: 1247: 926: 883: 598: 530: 518: 12577: 12095:

A Dictionary of Ashkenazic Given Names: Their Origins, Structure, Pronunciations, and Migrations

10157: 9513: 8335: 4459:

of its own. Ashkenazi Hebrew came to be pronounced in ways distinct from other forms of Hebrew.

4407:, while Conservative, Reform, and non denominational ones tend to support the Democratic Party. 14842: 14812: 13875: 12752: 12565: 12560: 12550: 12543: 12528: 12458: 12388: 12332: 11501: 10060: 9185:

UPNE/Brandeis University Press 2008 p. 324 "About 85 percent of the world's Jews are Ashkenazi"

7621:

The Construct of Identity in Hellenistic Judaism: Essays on Early Jewish Literature and History

7016: 6943: 5878:(of, both, France, and Germany). According to Gedaliah ibn Jechia the Spaniard, in the name of 5042:

Most genetic studies of Ashkenazi Jews conclude that the male lines were from the Middle East.

5003: 4958: 4218:

also added to the history of German Jewry in modern times in the abstract of his seminal work,

3887: 3060: 2971: 2812: 2547: 2461: 1527: 1079: 698: 668: 11953: 8878: 8114: 7997: 7667: 7248: 7055: 6976:

Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus: Hellenistic Histories and the Date of the Pentateuch

6974: 6853: 6712:

Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus: Hellenistic Histories and the Date of the Pentateuch

6710: 6231: 6192: 5934: 4154:, which evidently stands for Germany, and which was suggested by the similarity of the sound. 14868: 14789: 14571: 14278: 14161: 13902: 13892: 13885: 13870: 13756: 12774: 12592: 12490: 12441: 11977: 10810: 9131: 8348: 8075: 7463: 7288: 7029: 6948: 6807: 6340: 6076: 6046: 5434: 5010: 4483: 4266: 3928: 3544: 3538: 2703: 2698: 2643: 2431: 1346: 1074: 1061: 956: 673: 11321:"Signatures of founder effects, admixture, and selection in the Ashkenazi Jewish population" 10986:

Pearson TA, Manolio TA; Manolio (2008). "How to interpret a genome-wide association study".

10052: 9782:

Schleifer, Eliyahu (1995). "Current Trends of Liturgical Music in the Ashkenazi Synagogue".

7208: 3923:, invited Jacob ben Yekutiel and his fellow Jews to settle in his lands; and soon after the 14903: 14893: 14396: 13368: 12555: 12446: 12414: 12256: 11734: 11672: 11425: 11334: 11083: 10772: 10643: 10630:

Bormans, Concetta; Skorecki, Karl; Metspalu, Mait; Rootsi, Siiri; Villems, Richard (2017).

10478: 10383: 9630: 8708: 6413: 5855: 5653: 5162: 5125: 4262: 4042: 4006: 3746: 3738: 3138: 2774: 2726: 2466: 2324: 1137: 1002: 991: 949: 10956: 10894: 10266: 7543:

The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian : A Study in Political Relations

8: 14551: 14519: 14445: 14354: 14300: 13907: 13707: 13441: 13406: 12810: 12747: 12719: 12704: 12451: 10539:

Nebel, A.; Filon, D.; Brinkmann, B.; Majumder, P. P.; Faerman, M.; Oppenheim, A. (2001).

9911: 9846: 9717: 9267: 8942: 8670: 7445:

The World History of the Jewish People: The Dark Ages, Jews in Christian Europe, 711–1096

6534: 6336: 5006:

known as PAR1 and PAR2), thus allowing tracing of direct maternal and paternal lineages.

4885:. In Sephardi or Mizrahi Judaism, the prayer shawl is commonly worn from early childhood. 4882: 4570: 4334: 4323: 3958: 3831:

wrote his commentaries, Jews in what came to be known as "Ashkenaz" were known for their

3642: 3618: 3582:, 97,000 Jews were sold as slaves in the aftermath of the first revolt. In one occasion, 3493: 3095: 2827: 2522: 1200: 1067: 970: 963: 893: 781: 656: 414: 31: 11738: 11723:"A genetic contribution from the Far East into Ashkenazi Jews via the ancient Silk Road" 11519: 11489: 11429: 11338: 11087: 10776: 10647: 10482: 10387: 6417: 14883: 14878: 14689: 14411: 14288: 14283: 14268: 14238: 14191: 14114: 14020: 13880: 13453: 13358: 13325: 12840: 12762: 12726: 12714: 12500: 12495: 12396: 12284: 11872: 11808: 11755: 11722: 11572: 11539: 11449: 11357: 11320: 11261: 11233: 11206: 11151: 11126: 11107: 11049: 11022: 10793: 10760: 10696: 10664: 10631: 10565: 10540: 10435: 10150: 10121: 9884: 9851: 9824: 9791: 9595: 7749: 6691: 6678: 6645: 6617: 6590: 6563: 6536: 6494: 6434: 6401: 5870:(the people of Gallia, meaning, mainly the people from modern France, Belgium, and the 5684: 5440: 5426: 4289: 4114: 4002: 3852: 3654: 3591: 3445: 3099: 2678: 2628: 2575: 2570: 2484: 2354: 1622: 1451: 1210: 1130: 984: 550: 14166: 14042: 9828: 9360:, Working Paper No. 32, Central Bureau of Statistics, Jerusalem, Nov. 2007, i + 30 pp. 8773: 7391: 3985: 3932: 14667: 14598: 14480: 14465: 14248: 14119: 14084: 13373: 12757: 12317: 12288: 12276: 12244: 12219: 12208: 12189: 12170: 12116: 12098: 12072: 12048: 12029: 12010: 11961: 11906: 11864: 11856: 11800: 11760: 11605: 11577: 11559: 11537: 11441: 11362: 11238: 11156: 11099: 11074: 11054: 11003: 10798: 10669: 10611: 10570: 10506: 10501: 10463: 10411: 10406: 10371: 10233: 10161: 10064: 10053: 10031: 10006: 9981: 9814: 9759: 9412: 9050: 9025: 8882: 8871: 8835: 8755: 8600: 8594: 8518: 8406: 8354: 8331: 8255: 8216: 8159: 8120: 8081: 8042: 8003: 7922: 7851: 7830: 7786: 7753: 7741: 7673: 7625: 7586: 7547: 7508: 7469: 7422: 7414: 7394: 7294: 7254: 7214: 7178: 7139: 7100: 7061: 7034: 7020: 6980: 6953: 6935: 6898: 6859: 6813: 6758: 6716: 6695: 6683: 6665: 6622: 6568: 6499: 6439: 6348: 6276: 6237: 6198: 6166: 6139: 6082: 6051: 6037: 5940: 5816: 5752: 5698: 5430: 5216: 5059: 4984: 4693: 4634: 4442: 4192:

questions sent from Germany to Jerusalem during the second half of the 11th century.

3994: 3867: 3603: 3556: 3521: 3218: 3156: 3064: 3040: 2822: 2764: 2744: 2561: 2121: 1760: 1220: 1091: 1021: 898: 811: 678: 11876: 11812: 11407:

Parfitt, Tudor; Hammer, Michael F.; Skorecki, Karl; Villems, Richard (8 July 2010).

11256: 7410: 7172: 4036:

and held various other Non-Ashkenazi traditions and customs. In 1966, the historian

3448:, the term Ashkenazi came to refer to the Jews of both medieval Germany and France. 3280:

51:27, Ashkenaz figures as one of three kingdoms in the far north, the others being

14733: 14701: 14662: 14633: 14616: 14566: 14367: 14176: 14109: 14062: 14010: 13978: 13969: 13954: 13828: 13803: 13779: 13663: 13594: 13511: 13378: 12815: 12409: 12268: 11986: 11848: 11792: 11750: 11742: 11567: 11551: 11453: 11433: 11416: 11352: 11342: 11228: 11220: 11146: 11138: 11111: 11091: 11044: 11034: 11023:"European population substructure: clustering of northern and southern populations" 10995: 10788: 10780: 10659: 10651: 10601: 10560: 10552: 10541:"The y Chromosome Pool of Jews as Part of the Genetic Landscape of the Middle East" 10496: 10486: 10401: 10391: 9350: 9343: 9114: 8988: 8833: 8745: 8323: 7778: 7731: 7406: 6673: 6657: 6612: 6602: 6558: 6548: 6507: 6489: 6481: 6429: 6421: 5900: 5489: 5357: 5306:, and Turks) than found in other Jews or non-Jewish Middle Easterners (such as the 5224:

tree, Ashkenazi Jews were found to be a genetically more divergent population than

5208: 5027: 4871: 4765: 4669: 4646: 4558: 4532: 4491: 4471: 4147: 4118: 3947: 3931:

likewise extended a welcome to continental Jews to take up residence there. Bishop

3871: 3863: 3844: 3673: 3568: 3564: 3411: 3277: 3199: 3004: 2899: 2792: 2673: 2633: 2597: 2295: 1845: 1356: 1112: 1016: 931: 821: 613: 454: 11990: 10632:"The genetic variation in the R1a clade among the Ashkenazi Levites' y chromosome" 8991: 8563: 6461: 3312:, viewed as the cradle of Germanic tribes, as early as a 6th-century gloss to the 3301: 14643: 14638: 14450: 14377: 14210: 14181: 14104: 14094: 14057: 14032: 13848: 13843: 13838: 13823: 13818: 13808: 13793: 13584: 13501: 13468: 13426: 13416: 12825: 12820: 12683: 12678: 12664: 12649: 12480: 12436: 12424: 12185: 11595: 11526: 11039: 10761:"A substantial prehistoric European ancestry amongst Ashkenazi maternal lineages" 9357: 9240: 8719: 8512: 8400: 8153: 8036: 7916: 7888: 7619: 7580: 7541: 7502: 7133: 7094: 6892: 6752: 6607: 6553: 6465:"The Matrilineal Ancestry of Ashkenazi Jewry: Portrait of a Recent Founder Event" 6402:"A substantial prehistoric European ancestry amongst Ashkenazi maternal lineages" 6160: 6133: 6006: 5892: 5852: 5586: 5577: 5571: 5559: 5444: 5353: 4942: 4895: 4861: 4744: 4615: 4611: 4536: 4215: 4158: 4126: 3998: 3907: 3859: 3560: 3513: 3486: 3377: 3084: 3068: 3032: 2962: 2754: 2713: 2708: 2688: 2610: 2604: 2537: 2489: 2329: 2310: 1461: 1190: 1102: 1085: 629: 12873: 12343:"Analysis of genetic variation in Ashkenazi Jews by high density SNP genotyping" 8722:, in "Papers in Jewish Demography 1997", Jerusalem, The Hebrew University, 2001. 5899:, which today is the present-day Czech Republic. These places, according to the 5018:

Northern Italy around the year 1000 for Central and eventually Eastern Europe."

14947: 14922: 14743: 14650: 14608: 14588: 14576: 14556: 14470: 14460: 14428: 14421: 14401: 14372: 14344: 14339: 14305: 14215: 14139: 14129: 14067: 13865: 13813: 13724: 13719: 13481: 13411: 13340: 12835: 12582: 12419: 12155: 12066: 11224: 10655: 8834:

Kayserling, Meyer; Gotthard Deutsch; M. Seligsohn; Peter Wiernik; N.T. London;

6661: 5204: 5054: 4779: 4774: 4750: 4657: 4516: 4475: 4435: 4416: 4185: 4083: 4059: 4055: 3781: 3701: 3627: 3504: 3429: 3385: 3369: 3107: 3088: 3052: 2854: 2653: 2508: 2388: 2367: 2344: 2339: 2317: 2305: 1900: 1381: 1315: 1280: 1195: 1033: 1011: 873: 852: 828: 594: 576: 394: 134: 12342: 11852: 11555: 7736: 7719: 7326: 7210:

A Short History of the Jewish People: From Legendary Times to Modern Statehood

5433:. People of Ashkenazi descent are at much higher risk of being a carrier for 3575:

centralized event, and a Jewish diaspora had already been established before.

3520:

Regarding Jewish settlements founded in southern Europe during the Roman era,

3047:, a language that originated in the 9th century, and largely migrated towards 14963: 14716: 14561: 14488: 14295: 14229: 14202: 14151: 14099: 14072: 14047: 14037: 13798: 13744: 13678: 13658: 13648: 13643: 13616: 13562: 13491: 13436: 12669: 12280: 11860: 11563: 11490:"No Evidence from Genome-Wide Data of a Khazar Origin for the Ashkenazi Jews" 10999: 10188: 9763: 8666: 7745: 7418: 7033:. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference. pp. 472–74. 6952:. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference. pp. 569–71. 6669: 6114: 6050:. Vol. 7 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference. pp. 526–28. 5801: 5772: 5085: 5022: 4946: 4903: 4834: 4769: 4733: 4688: 4540: 4393: 4373: 4338: 4309: 4297: 4235: 4226: 4181: 4051: 3961:

of 1096, devastating Jewish communities along the Rhine River, including the

3915: 3762: 3742: 3711: 3399: 3358: 3122: 3103: 2802: 2797: 2003: 1930: 1456: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1285: 1263: 1215: 977: 816: 721: 683: 634: 510: 450: 90: 11836: 11347: 11127:"Measuring European Population Stratification with Microarray Genotype Data" 11095: 10606: 10589: 8750: 8733: 7395:"No Evidence from Genome-wide Data of a Khazar Origin of the Ashkenazi Jews" 6809:

Gog and Magog: Ezekiel 38–39 as Pre-text for Revelation 19,17–21 and 20,7–10

5628: 3233:), a people who expelled the Cimmerians from the Armenian area of the Upper 14696: 14493: 14455: 14416: 14005: 13749: 13688: 13668: 13628: 13611: 13579: 13567: 13528: 13446: 13421: 12612: 12607: 12587: 12510: 12485: 11868: 11804: 11764: 11581: 11445: 11366: 11242: 11160: 11103: 11058: 11007: 10802: 10729: 10673: 10615: 10574: 10510: 10491: 10415: 10396: 9282:"Melting pot' approach in the army was a mistake, says IDF absorption head" 9046: 8759: 8350:

The Economic History of European Jews: Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages

8327: 8116:

The Economic History of European Jews: Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages

7772: 7426: 7024: 6939: 6687: 6626: 6572: 6503: 6443: 6041: 5702: 5654:"First genetic mutation for colorectal cancer identified in Ashkenazi Jews" 5448: 5365: 5361: 5299: 5110: 5050: 4865: 4726: 4712: 4673: 4661: 4467: 4342: 4315: 4255: 4106: 4087: 4067: 4063: 4033: 4026: 3953:

Numerous massacres of Jews occurred throughout Europe during the Christian

3911: 3816: 3757: 3733: 3543:

The first and second centuries CE saw a series of unsuccessful large-scale

3482: 3267: 3257: 3130: 3126: 3036: 2832: 2658: 2499: 2494: 2452: 2405: 1499: 1366: 1351: 1310: 1275: 888: 730: 514: 194: 8303:

Population and proselytism: how many Jews were there in the ancient world?

7782: 7356: 4445:, the centers of Jewish religious authority were in the Islamic world, at 14706: 14221: 14146: 14124: 14027: 13621: 13550: 13545: 13533: 13523: 12629: 12624: 12602: 12597: 12357: 12108: 12062: 11796: 8439:

Reconstructing Ashkenaz: The Human Face of Franco-German Jewry, 1000–1250

7057:

Reconstructing Ashkenaz: The Human Face of Franco-German Jewry, 1000–1250

5809: 4825: 4681: 4638: 4630: 4553: 4381: 4319: 4275: 4133:(chapter 59); the Responsa of Isaac ben Sheshet (numbers 193, 268, 270). 4010: 3962: 3894:, Germany is thought to be the oldest synagogue building intact in Europe 3848: 3808: 3797: 3681: 3677: 3416: 3344: 3056: 2817: 2759: 2424: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1290: 354: 254: 12659: 11437: 10369: 9795: 14800: 14507: 14089: 13683: 13431: 13353: 12767: 12709: 11926: 11923:"Chicago Center for Jewish Genetic Disorders – Jewish Genetic Diseases" 10784: 9600: 9349:

Journal of Economic Inequality, Vol; 7, No. 2, June 2009, pp. 137–151.

8692: 7440: 6425: 5452: 5291: 5237: 4911: 4811: 4697: 4453:. Ashkenaz (Germany) was so distant geographically that it developed a 4450: 4314:

Of the estimated 8.8 million Jews living in Europe at the beginning of

4037: 3975: 3855: 3789: 3766: 3705: 3650: 3613:

all free peoples this privilege in 212 CE. Jews were required to pay a

3461: 3354: 3207: 3094:

Throughout the centuries, Ashkenazim made significant contributions to

2475: 1489: 1418: 1376: 1205: 1185: 744: 651: 571: 522: 374: 11998: 11746: 11639:"'Jews a Race' Genetic Theory Comes Under Fierce Attack by DNA Expert" 11290:"DNA ties Ashkenazi Jews to group of just 330 people from Middle Ages" 10461: 7582:

Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture

6591:"The time and place of European admixture in Ashkenazi Jewish history" 6272:

Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture

3785: 3637:

is dated to the period between 267 and 396 CE. The Stobi Synagogue in

14721: 14186: 14077: 13988: 13606: 13540: 7810: 5392: 5303: 5295: 5275: 5229: 5201: 5081: 5064: 4729: 4677: 4582: 4463: 4293: 4278:). Newfound inclusion into public life led to cultural growth in the 4202: 4177: 4014: 3840: 3770: 3661: 3607: 3583: 3421: 3281: 3246: 3234: 3227: 3195: 2638: 2623: 1713: 1661: 1423: 1371: 1361: 1042: 1038: 1028: 943: 703: 384: 184: 124: 13557: 9397:"Palm Beach County: More Jewish than New York | Historic Palm Beach" 9029: 7955:

Ancient Synagogues: Historical Analysis and Archaeological Discovery

6394: 6392: 6078:

Bearing Witness: How America and Its Jews Responded to the Holocaust

5153:

suggested a European source for 3 exclusively Ashkenazi K lineages.

3898:

Historical records show evidence of Jewish communities north of the

3882: 3043:

around the end of the first millennium CE. They traditionally spoke

1391: 14440: 14382: 14327: 14322: 13993: 13279: 12429: 12352: 12303: 12272: 11142: 10588:

Nebel A, Filon D, Faerman M, Soodyall H, Oppenheim A (March 2005).

10556: 10229:

Molecular Photofitting: Predicting Ancestry and Phenotype Using DNA

6485: 5903:(Megillah 1:9 , were also called simply by the diocese "Germamia". 5883: 5837: 5415: 5225: 4853: 4788: 4594: 4566: 4512: 4503: 4498: 4487: 4479: 4288:

developed in central Europe. Other Jews, particularly those in the

4280: 4162: 4095: 3954: 3903: 3777: 3693: 3614: 3579: 3441: 3362: 3349: 3336: 3332: 3317: 3192: 3176: 3134: 3080: 2996: 2807: 2417: 2349: 1180: 688: 639: 404: 364: 11021:

Seldin MF, Shigeta R, Villoslada P, et al. (September 2006).

10725:"New Study Finds Most Ashkenazi Jews Genetically Linked to Europe" 7868:

Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society

5253:

there. Therefore, Ashkenazim distinctiveness as found in the Bray

5156: 4772:, particularly in matters of custom. Differences are noted in the 3669: 3665: 3253:

in the Biblical name is likely due to a scribal error confusing a

14655: 14539: 14534: 14524: 14512: 14332: 14317: 14261: 14196: 14171: 14134: 13998: 13673: 13572: 13496: 13388: 13314: 12779: 12143:

Brook, Kevin Alan (2003): "The Origins of East European Jews" in

10866: 9549: 9286: 8672:

The Eastern European Jews Prior to the Arrival of the Ashkenazim"

7447:. Vol. 11. Jewish historical publications. pp. 302–03. 6389: 6309:"Jewish Population of Europe in 1933: Population Data by Country" 5896: 5812: 5325:

A 2022 study of genome data from the medieval Jewish cemetery of

5241: 5233: 5129: 5097: 5092:, found a similar level of 11.5% of male Ashkenazim belonging to 4830: 4819: 4793: 4760: 4623: 4619: 4551:

Culturally, an Ashkenazi Jew can be identified by the concept of

4508: 4446: 4431: 4369: 4364: 4285: 4247: 4189: 4138: 3832: 3812: 3697: 3646: 3587: 3526: 3465: 3389: 3309: 3044: 2783: 2749: 2618: 2412: 1401: 1396: 1268: 1159: 1054: 1050: 1046: 795: 790: 767: 749: 624: 619: 609: 587: 562: 498: 483: 424: 334: 324: 264: 244: 224: 204: 174: 164: 12221:

East and South-East European Jews in the 19th and 20th Centuries

9399:. 17 January 2018. Archived from the original on 17 January 2018 9270:

since the country's foundation in 1948 has been an Ashkenazi Jew

8480:

Ben-Jacob, Abraham (1985), "The History of the Babylonian Jews".

5727: 4928:

Racism in Israel § Intra-Jewish racism: Racism between Jews

4605:

As Ashkenazi Jews moved away from Europe, mostly in the form of

3685: 14726: 14593: 14529: 11405: 10692:"Genes Suggest European Women at Root of Ashkenazi Family Tree" 10055:

Security Threatened: Surveying Israeli Opinion on Peace and War

9196:

Understanding World Religions: A Road Map for Justice and Peace

8902: 7819: 5875: 5326: 5271: 5267: 5133: 4915: 4899: 4878: 4801: 4797: 4642: 4606: 4578: 4528: 4524: 4455: 4427: 4251: 4166: 4022: 3940: 3891: 3836: 3828: 3793: 3689: 3425: 3394: 3340: 3300:, which elsewhere in rabbinical literature was identified with 3293: 3285: 3184: 3148: 2443: 2438: 2398: 2383: 1494: 1386: 806: 772: 758: 693: 344: 314: 304: 294: 284: 214: 154: 144: 110: 100: 10590:"Y chromosome evidence for a founder effect in Ashkenazi Jews" 9372:"9. Race, ethnicity, heritage and immigration among U.S. Jews" 7500: 4527:, both of which are nominally of Ashkenazi origin. Outside of 14677: 14672: 14626: 14581: 14502: 14497: 13761: 13516: 13486: 12182:

Yiddish Civilization: The Rise and Fall of a Forgotten Nation

12068:

Born to Kvetch: Yiddish Language and Culture in All Its Moods

10985: 6855:

Yiddish Civilisation: The Rise and Fall of a Forgotten Nation

6194:

Demographie – Demokratie – Geschichte: Deutschland und Israel

5917: 5513: 5495: 5352:

The theory has sometimes been used by Jewish authors such as

5307: 5287: 5212: 4988: 4846: 4792:(Passover): Ashkenazi Jews traditionally refrain from eating 4705: 4574: 4565:

is specifically the Jewishness of Ashkenazi Jews. Before the

4100: 3979: 3936: 3824: 3820: 3753: 3721: 3433: 3403: 3180: 2923: 2905: 1406: 835: 739: 708: 538: 274: 234: 10431:"Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora" 10059:(illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 9880:"Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora" 8077:

Jewish Inscriptions in Hungary: From the 3rd Century to 1686

7327:"Jew | History, Beliefs, & Facts | Britannica" 6642: 4125:(Berakot i. 12, ed. Wilna, p. 10); the work of his son 4078: 4013:, would remain the main center of Ashkenazi Jewry until the 14776: 13310: 11124: 11071: 10538: 7246: 6036:

Ben-Sasson, Haim Hillel; et al. (2007). "Germany". In

5871: 5867: 5504: 5456: 5360:. Today, however, the theory is more often associated with 4898:, the liturgical tradition used by Ashkenazi Jews in their 4586: 4222:, which he entitled "Volksthümliche Geschichte der Juden." 3899: 3716: 3623: 3289: 3188: 2992: 2929: 2914: 558: 11975:

Vogt, Judith (1975). "Left-wing "antiZionism" in Norway".

11486: 9809:

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9181:

Asher Arian (1981) in Itamar Rabinovich, Jehuda Reinharz,

9075:; second ed., New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1964; p. 906. 6589:

Xue J, Lencz T, Darvasi A, Pe'er I, Carmi S (April 2017).

5534: 5498: 3773:

of 115–117 CE had a severe impact on the Jewish diaspora.

3436:, the most important Jewish communities arose. Rashi uses 3239: 3221: 2941: 2908: 10758: 10587: 10422: 7250:

Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East

6398: 6347:. Vol. X11. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–42. 5531: 5519: 5093: 5077: 4009:, and was later largely regained by reborn Poland in the 3989:

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at its greatest extent

2938: 11669:"Gene study settles debate over origin of European Jews" 10716: 10685: 10683: 10267:"What Do a Bunch of Old Jews Know About Living Forever?" 9463:

Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project

9376:

Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project

9351:

Earlier version by Schechtman, Edna and Yitzhaki, Shlomo

8838:; Henry Malter; Herman Rosenthal; Joseph Jacobs (1906). 6588: 6230:

Rafael, Eliezer Ben; Gorni, Yosef; Ro'i, Yaacov (2003).

3304:

in northwestern Syria, but later became associated with

12347: 11204: 11020: 9586:

Greenberg, Richard; Cohen, Debra Nussbaum (Fall 2005).

9086:"Estimated Number of Jews Killed in The Final Solution" 9041:

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8873:

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3993:

In Poland, Jews were granted special protection by the

3877: 11960:. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 227–248. 9210:"Are Israel's Marriage Laws 'Archaic and Irrelevant'?" 8247: 6331: 6329: 5936:

Nationalism and economic development in modern Eurasia

5920:

river was known by the Romans as "Germania" (Germany).

3586:

reportedly ordered 6,000 Jewish prisoners of war from

11520:

http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol85/iss6/9/

10680: 8657:. Ewing, NJ. Princeton University Press, 1996. p. 43. 7206: 5615: 5613: 5611: 5543: 5528: 5516: 5510: 5501: 5492: 5104: 3475: 3018: 2950: 2935: 2926: 2920: 2911: 2902: 12255:

Yardumian, Aram; Schurr, Theodore G. (1 June 2019).

10917: 10628: 9813:. University of California Press. pp. 164–190. 8190: 6788: 6786: 6063:

Hebrew was by and large reduced to liturgical usage.

5866:, is considered to be the progenitor of the ancient 3756:

gives a figure of one million Jews living in Egypt.

3664:

in gravesite excavations, particularly in Brigetio (

2976: 2422: 2403: 826: 11318: 10219: 9157:

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8498:

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8441:. Stanford University Press (2008), pp. 2–5, 16–18. 7461: 6335: 6326: 6229: 5721: 5522: 5507: 5109:Until recently, geneticists largely attributed the 5037: 4910:), which is the general Polish Hasidic nusach, and 4810:Ashkenazim are more permissive toward the usage of 4708:traditions, which were more sorrowful in practice. 4062:migrated to Eastern Europe, as did Arabic-speaking 2917: 12045:Diasporas and Exiles: Varieties of Jewish Identity 11958:Antisemitism in Canada: History and Interpretation 11778: 11776: 11774: 11482: 11480: 11478: 10225: 10149: 8870: 5608: 4511:framework. Another trend is the new popularity of 3206:). The name of Gomer has often been linked to the 12903: 12129:"The cultural structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry" 10892: 10722: 10193:"The Lessons of the Ashkenazim: Groups and Genes" 9570: 7840: 6783: 6074: 5733:"Table 2.24 – Jews, by country of origin and age" 5188:A 2010 study of Jewish ancestry by Atzmon-Ostrer 4814:as a hair covering for married and widowed women. 4507:, which many Ashkenazi Jews study outside of the 4462:In this respect, the counterpart of Ashkenazi is 30:"Ashkenazi" redirects here. For the surname, see 14961: 11409:"The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people" 9417:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 9053:. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. 1900. 8286: 8208: 7240: 7177:. Internet Archive. Princeton University Press. 6934: 6233:Contemporary Jewries: Convergence and Divergence 4995:have also been used for genetic origin testing. 4610:longer isolated in distinct geographic locales. 4300:, the founding ideology of the State of Israel. 4117:'s Responsa (vol. i., No. 395); the Responsa of 3630:in 380 CE, Jews were increasingly marginalized. 12305:The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe 12254: 12237:A People Apart: A History of the Jews in Europe 11771: 11720: 11475: 10471:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 10030:. Bridgeross Communications. pp. 248–249. 9571:Rosenthal, Rachel (2006). "What's in a name?". 9194:David Whitten Smith, Elizabeth Geraldine Burr, 8731: 8713:Some Fundamentals of Jewish Demographic History 7953:Dan Urman, Paul Virgil McCracken Flesher, eds. 7286: 7170: 5157:Association and linkage studies (autosomal DNA) 5002:(except for the ends of the Y chromosome – the 4739: 3720:Germany itself, with the possible exception of 10923: 10322: 10114: 9627:"Any Old Shul Won't Do for the Young and Cool" 9585: 8725: 7914: 7848:The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine 7717: 7539: 7468:. Jewish Publication Society. pp. 17–22. 7290:Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People 7200: 5660:. Johns Hopkins University. 8 September 1997. 4782:. Well known differences in practice include: 4653:emancipated them separately in 1790 and 1791. 4535:has also drastically declined in favor of the 3553:destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple 3288:), called on by God to resist Babylon. In the 13295: 12889: 12373: 11014: 10689: 10328: 10108: 10025: 9975: 9847:"New Light on Origins of Ashkenazi in Europe" 9545:"The unbearable lightness of being Ashkenazi" 9121:(4., erg. Aufl., Hamburg: Buske, 1984), p. 3. 8983: 8981: 8681:The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities 8618: 8616: 8556: 7578: 7385: 6584: 6582: 6530: 6528: 6463:Richard Villems; Karl Skorecki (March 2006). 6379: 6377: 6113: 5961: 5959: 4403:, although Orthodox ones tend to support the 2874: 10853: 10823: 10086:"Understanding the Sephardi-Ashkenazi Split" 10083: 10000: 9978:German Jewry and the Allure of the Sephardic 9671: 8514:The Jew, the Cathedral and the Medieval City 7866:Oppenheimer, A'haron and Oppenheimer, Nili. 6847: 6845: 6843: 6841: 6197:(in German). Wallstein Verlag. p. 197. 64: 53: 14784:Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation 12864:from Christian Arabs in Israel, since 2014. 12023: 11661: 11198: 10895:"European link to Jewish maternal ancestry" 10859: 10815:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 10264: 10003:The Theology of the Chinese Jews, 1000–1850 9840: 9838: 8204: 8202: 6930: 6928: 6926: 6894:Theological Dictionary of the New Testament 6715:. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 148–149. 6119:Interesting Times: A Twentieth Century Life 5757:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 4921: 4387: 2982: 1118:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire 13302: 13288: 12896: 12882: 12387: 12380: 12366: 11903:Jewish Genetic Disorders: A Layman's Guide 10886: 10050: 10005:. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 7. 9980:. Princeton University Press. p. 97. 8978: 8613: 8592: 7669:The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea 7439: 6579: 6525: 6374: 6035: 5956: 5313:A 2017 autosomal study by Xue, Shai Carmi 5261:A 2010 genome-wide genetic study by Behar 4768:) Ashkenazi Jews may differ from those of 2881: 2867: 12042: 11999:References for "Who is an Ashkenazi Jew?" 11754: 11571: 11356: 11346: 11232: 11150: 11048: 11038: 10954: 10792: 10754: 10752: 10663: 10605: 10564: 10500: 10490: 10405: 10395: 10363: 9781: 9542: 9022:Genesis 1948. The First Arab-Israeli War. 8992:"Can Sephardic Judaism be Reconstructed?" 8749: 8195:. Columbia University Press. p. 132. 7735: 7443:(1966). Cecil Roth; I. H. Levine (eds.). 7293:. Oxford University Press. pp. 26–. 7010: 7008: 6851: 6838: 6677: 6616: 6606: 6562: 6552: 6493: 6433: 6081:. Syracuse University Press. p. 36. 5796: 5794: 5729:Statistical Abstract of Israel, 2009, CBS 5648: 5646: 5451:, organize screening programs to prevent 5437:, which is fatal in its homozygous form. 5084:from surrounding European populations or 4860:Ashkenazic traditional pronunciations of 4754:, the Jewish burial society, Prague, 1772 13331:Index of Jewish history-related articles 12857:from Muslim Arabs in Israel, since 1957. 12126: 12004: 10979: 9835: 9749: 9279: 8868: 8307:Jews in the Hellenistic and Roman Cities 8212:Jews in the Hellenistic and Roman Cities 8199: 8073: 7991: 7989: 7357:"Hebrew | people | Britannica" 7213:. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–. 6923: 6890: 6457: 6455: 6453: 6158: 6131: 6007:"ShUM cities of Speyer, Worms and Mainz" 5333: 5088:during isolation. A 2005 study by Nebel 4743: 4077: 3984: 3881: 3567:, and the province of Judea was renamed 3361:identified the Biblical "Ashkenaz" with 3343:and areas to the east. His contemporary 537: 14830:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 13467: 11834: 11782: 11594: 10455: 9745: 9743: 9624: 9201: 8901:Commentary on Deuteronomy 3:9; idem on 8506: 8504: 8280: 8241: 7455: 7092: 7053: 7047: 6972: 6750: 6708: 6702: 6268: 6190: 6000: 5998: 5969:Cambridge University Press, 2005 p. 55. 5682: 5340:Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry 4618:for many Ashkenazi Jews, although many 4593:now encompasses not just Orthodoxy and 4330:, and the United States after the war. 4094:In the first half of the 11th century, 14: 14962: 12310: 12257:"The Geography of Jewish Ethnogenesis" 12127:Birnbaum, Solomon A. (November 1946). 11951: 11697: 11287: 10749: 10187: 9957:from the original on 12 September 2015 9777: 9775: 9773: 9456: 9369: 9207: 8802: 8732:Gladstein AL, Hammer MF (March 2019). 8622: 7718:Raviv, Dvir; Ben David, Chaim (2021). 7665: 7659: 7624:. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 7280: 7253:. 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These tendencies would be united in 4073: 13283: 12877: 12361: 12348:Nusach Ashkenaz, and Discussion Forum 12133:The Slavonic and East European Review 11636: 11300:from the original on 21 February 2020 10967:from the original on 13 February 2020 10955:Hogenboom, Melissa (9 October 2013). 10926:"Did Modern Jews Originate in Italy?" 10905:from the original on 13 February 2020 10841:from the original on 24 December 2018 10723:Martin Gershowitz (16 October 2013). 10443:from the original on 24 November 2017 10295: 10096:from the original on 25 December 2015 9926:from the original on 22 December 2008 9892:from the original on 24 November 2017 9859:from the original on 10 December 2008 9728:from the original on 16 February 2022 9073:The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia 8462:from the original on 21 December 2016 8398: 8387:The Economic History of European Jews 8320:Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations 8184: 8155:The Economic History of European Jews 8038:The Economic History of European Jews 7995: 7986: 7974:from the original on 10 December 2016 7618:Gruen, Erich S. 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New York: Routledge. p. 143. 5932: 5836: 5587:[(ʔ)aʃkenaˈzim,(ʔ)aʃkenaˈzi] 5474: 4614:has replaced Yiddish as the primary 3878:High and Late Middle Ages migrations 3803: 3657:Jews would convert to Christianity. 3532: 3175:derives from the biblical figure of 85:Regions with significant populations 12313:"Jewish legacy inscribed on genes?" 12261:Journal of Anthropological Research 12113:Cultures of the Jews: A New History 12086: 12061: 11883:from the original on 20 August 2022 11257:"Genes Set Jews Apart, Study Finds" 10737:from the original on 26 August 2012 10298:"The Other Jewish Genetic Diseases" 10226:Tony Nick Frudakis (19 July 2010). 10028:Peril: From Jackboots to Jack Benny 9770: 9543:Lieberman, Asaf (18 January 2013). 9347:The "Melting Pot": A Success Story? 9294:from the original on 22 August 2017 9216:from the original on 21 August 2016 8996:Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs 8254:. Peeters Publishers. p. 202. 7799:from the original on 20 August 2022 7770: 7152:from the original on 2 January 2022 6891:Bromiley, Geoffrey William (1964). 6872:from the original on 3 October 2015 6805: 6771:from the original on 19 August 2022 6741: 6384:Focus on Genetic Screening Research 6162:The Oxford History of Modern Europe 5923: 5563: 5398: 5034:, due to their genetic bottleneck. 5015:Albert Einstein College of Medicine 4573:in Europe, this meant the study of 4231:Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs 3737:6,944,000 Jews in the Roman world. 3460:, the Ashkenazi originate from the 3402:period, Talmudic commentators like 3147:indicate that Ashkenazim have both 3008: 2966: 119:, up to 1 million of Jewish descent 24: 14777:YIVO Institute for Jewish Research 14757:American Jewish Historical Society 12337:European Journal of Human Genetics 12047:. University of California Press. 12009:. University of California Press. 11925:. 16 February 2003. Archived from 11835:Charrow, Joel (1 September 2004). 11649:from the original on 12 April 2022 11618:from the original on 26 March 2017 11544:European Journal of Human Genetics 11387:from the original on 10 March 2013 11288:Kaplan, Karen (9 September 2014). 11212:American Journal of Human Genetics 11131:American Journal of Human Genetics 10957:"European link to Jewish ancestry" 10759:M. D. Costa and 16 others (2013). 10704:from the original on 23 April 2019 10545:American Journal of Human Genetics 10520:from the original on 9 August 2017 9944: 9845:Wade, Nicholas (14 January 2006). 9677: 9625:Donadio, Rachel (10 August 2001). 9524:from the original on 8 August 2022 9316:[The Melting Pot Policy]. 9096:from the original on 28 April 2006 8987: 8850:from the original on 4 August 2011 8635:from the original on 27 April 2006 8551:The Blackwell Companion to Judaism 8405:. 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London and New york. 8133:from the original on 22 April 2022 7935:from the original on 26 April 2022 7829:, Harvard University Press, 1976, 7369:from the original on 9 August 2022 7337:from the original on 4 August 2022 6911:from the original on 10 April 2022 6826:from the original on 29 March 2017 6633: 6473:American Journal of Human Genetics 6361:from the original on 14 April 2022 6289:from the original on 22 April 2022 6250:from the original on 29 April 2022 6179: 6004: 5967:Yiddish: A Linguistic Introduction 5690:Israel Medical Association Journal 5105:Female lineages: Mitochondrial DNA 4978: 4668:, and the economic turmoil of the 4557:, which means "Jewishness" in the 3476:Early Jewish communities in Europe 115:194,000–500,000; according to the 25: 15001: 12297: 12167:Central European University Press 12147:vol. 30, nos. 1–2, pp. 1–22. 11675:. 16 January 2013. Archived from 11383:. Anthropogenesis. 24 July 2012. 11174:Saey, Tina Hesman (3 June 2010). 10936:from the original on 23 June 2022 10924:Michael Balter (8 October 2013). 10874:from the original on 17 July 2014 10117:"Tracing the Roots of Jewishness" 9494:from the original on 29 July 2022 9208:Meyers, Nechemia (12 July 1997). 8815:from the original on 29 June 2011 7686:from the original on 12 June 2022 7638:from the original on 1 April 2022 7267:from the original on 10 July 2020 6796:. Beer-sheva, Israel 2002. p. 237 5310:, Iranians, Druze and Lebanese). 4533:Ashkenazi pronunciation of Hebrew 4195: 4172:According to 16th-century mystic 3597: 3063:. Hebrew was primarily used as a 909:Historical population comparisons 542:The Jews in Central Europe (1881) 27:Jewish diaspora of Central Europe 14941: 14928: 14927: 11915: 11895: 11828: 11819: 11714: 11703: 11691: 11630: 11588: 11531: 11463:from the original on 23 May 2013 11399: 11373: 11312: 11281: 11249: 11167: 11118: 11065: 10948: 10690:Nicholas Wade (8 October 2013). 10622: 10581: 10532: 10289: 10277:from the original on 2 June 2022 10258: 10181: 10141: 10077: 10044: 10019: 9994: 9969: 9938: 9904: 9871: 9802: 9710: 9645: 9618: 9579: 9564: 9536: 9506: 9476: 9450: 9425: 9389: 9363: 9336: 9306: 9273: 9260: 9228: 9188: 9175: 9163: 9149: 9124: 9119:Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache 9108: 9078: 9071:"Jews", William Bridgwater, ed. 9065: 9056: 9035: 9024:An Nal Book, New York. 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Cambridge University Press. 7207:Raymond P. Scheindlin (1998). 6386:, ed. Sandra R. Pupecki, p. 58 5829: 5765: 5676: 5625:Hebrew University of Jerusalem 5481: 4421: 3851:language contact with various 3296:the name Gomer is rendered as 13: 1: 14836:Encyclopedia of the Holocaust 12230:Institute of European History 12028:. New York University Press. 11991:10.1080/0031322X.1975.9969275 10429:Wade, Nicholas (9 May 2000). 10084:David Shasha (20 June 2010). 9878:Wade, Nicholas (9 May 2000). 8191:Salo Wittmayer Baron (1937). 7138:. Stanford University Press. 7099:. Stanford University Press. 7060:. Stanford University Press. 6754:The Origin of Ashkenazi Jewry 6343:. In Peter Y. Medding (ed.). 6275:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 193ff . 5596: 5459:that cause related diseases. 5167:genome-wide association study 4546: 4531:communities, the traditional 4410: 3555:. 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Harvard University Press. 8568:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 8456:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 8402:The Beginnings of Jewishness 7724:Journal of Roman Archaeology 7462:Bernard Dov Weinryb (1972). 6608:10.1371/journal.pgen.1006644 6554:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004401 5601: 4740:Customs, laws and traditions 4376:legislature with 120 seats. 4161:, and many others, give the 3921:Baldwin V, Count of Flanders 3166: 3073:revival as a common language 7: 13590:Constantinopolitan Karaites 10344:(11): 12–19. Archived from 9914:Tallit: Jewish Prayer Shawl 8399:Cohen, Shaye J. D. (1999). 7915:Mary Smallwood, E. (2001). 7870:. Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2. 7777:. Brill. pp. 483–484. 7672:. Oxford University Press. 7540:Mary Smallwood, E. (2001). 7174:A short history of the Jews 7015:Poliak, Abraham N. (2007). 6165:. Oxford University Press. 6159:Blanning, T. C. W. (2000). 6121:. Abacus Books. p. 25. 5882:(see: Gedaliah ibn Jechia, 5462: 5211:, found that when assuming 4967: 3796:expelled the Jews from his 3617:until the reign of Emperor 3602:Many Jews were denied full 3551:(66–73 CE) resulted in the 3545:Jewish revolts against Rome 3420:, where, especially in the 3019: 2977: 2423: 2404: 2131:Latin America and Caribbean 827: 65: 54: 10: 15006: 14818:National Library of Israel 13459:Zionism, race and genetics 12205:Princeton University Press 12093:Beider, Alexander (2001): 12043:Wettstein, Howard (2002). 11945: 11637:Rubin, Rita (7 May 2013). 11225:10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015 10656:10.1038/s41598-017-14761-7 9947:"The Chassidic Prayerbook" 9514:"Pronunciations of Hebrew" 8593:Ben-Sasson, Hayim (1976). 7579:Avrum Ehrlich, M. (2009). 6751:Straten, Jits van (2011). 6662:10.1016/j.cell.2022.11.002 6269:Ehrlich, M. Avrum (2009). 6075:Henry L. Feingold (1995). 5988:Harshav, Benjamin (1999). 5402: 5337: 5278:residents of the Levant". 5148:A 2014 study by Fernández 5115:world's Jewish populations 4971: 4956: 4925: 4869: 4470:woman who marries into an 4430:, customs, in addition to 4414: 4391: 4352: 4337:in a rough calculation of 4307: 4176:, Ashkenazi Jews lived in 3946:In the 11th century, both 3925:Norman conquest of England 3839:. They were criticized by 3536: 3451: 2736:Jewish political movements 2433:Conversion to Judaism 29: 14916: 14772:Yeshiva University Museum 14752:Center for Jewish History 14742: 14607: 14479: 14353: 14247: 13778: 13397: 13339: 13321: 13229: 13191: 12911: 12849: 12793: 12735: 12697: 12640: 12509: 12395: 12026:Mapping Jewish Identities 11956:. In Davies, Alan (ed.). 11853:10.1007/s10689-004-9545-z 11626:– via Google Books. 11556:10.1038/s41431-018-0230-3 10232:. Elsevier. p. 383. 8287:Louis H. Feldman (2006). 8209:John R. Bartlett (2002). 8074:Scheiber, Sándor (1983). 7918:The Jews Under Roman Rule 7737:10.1017/S1047759421000271 6979:. Bloomsbury Publishing. 6973:Gmirkin, Russell (2006). 6709:Gmirkin, Russell (2006). 6138:. Routledge. p. 20. 5862:. and his explanation of 5290:, Cypriots, Lebanese and 4906:(not to be confused with 4348: 3688:) in Hungary, and Mursa ( 3329:Yovhannes Drasxanakertc'i 3268: 3258: 1139:Hinduism and Judaism 509: 504: 497: 492: 438: 433: 423: 413: 403: 393: 383: 373: 363: 353: 343: 333: 323: 313: 303: 293: 283: 273: 263: 253: 243: 233: 223: 213: 203: 193: 183: 173: 163: 153: 143: 133: 123: 109: 99: 89: 84: 79: 74: 60: 49: 47: 14990:Semitic-speaking peoples 13364:Ancient Israel and Judah 12801:African-American Hebrews 12736:Other non-Semitic groups 12180:Kriwaczek, Paul (2005): 11000:10.1001/jama.299.11.1335 10835:The Jewish Daily Forward 10303:The Jewish Daily Forward 10156:. Anchor Books. p. 8803:Singer, Isidore (1906). 8697:Rutgers University Press 7887:16 November 2018 at the 7774:The Second Jewish Revolt 7287:Harry Ostrer MD (2012). 7171:Michael Brenner (2010). 7132:Miller, Michael (2010). 6852:Kriwaczek, Paul (2011). 5874:region) and the ancient 5425:The result is a form of 5405:Medical genetics of Jews 5286:Levantines (such as the 5180:A 2007 study by Bauchet 4922:Relations with Sephardim 4778:itself, in the gloss of 4539:-based pronunciation of 4388:United States of America 4355:Ashkenazi Jews in Israel 4169:of Ashkenaz and Poland. 4005:(Germany) following the 3866:, with some elements of 3308:. Ashkenaz is linked to 3217:is usually derived from 965:Temple in Jerusalem 658:Bar and bat mitzvah 48: 14980:Ethnic groups in Russia 14975:Ethnic groups in Israel 13740:North African Sephardim 13713:Jewish tribes of Arabia 12241:Oxford University Press 12226:European History Online 12199:Lewis, Bernard (1984): 12161:Haumann, Heiko (2001): 11525:14 October 2014 at the 11348:10.1073/pnas.1004381107 11096:10.1126/science.1078311 10607:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201319 9575:. No. Winter 2006. 9356:9 November 2013 at the 9170:Encyclopædia Britannica 8971:David Solomon Sassoon, 8774:"YIVO | Sephardim" 7585:. Bloomsbury Academic. 7362:Encyclopædia Britannica 7096:Reconstructing Ashkenaz 7093:Malkiel, David (2008). 7054:Malkiel, David (2008). 5469:Jewish ethnic divisions 5418:, yet they are sizable. 5172:A 2006 study by Seldin 5045:A 2000 study by Hammer 5032:Jewish ethnic divisions 5004:pseudoautosomal regions 4974:Genetic studies on Jews 3847:emerged as a result of 3446:Carolingian unification 3408:Ashkenaz/Eretz Ashkenaz 3380:20), France was called 3245:is identified with the 3240: 3222: 3119:world Jewish population 3117:As a proportion of the 3071:until its 20th-century 927:Twelve Tribes of Israel 519:Jewish ethnic divisions 14843:Holocaust Encyclopedia 14813:Jewish Virtual Library 12954:Bosnia and Herzegovina 12389:Demographics of Israel 12071:. St. Martin's Press. 11502:Wayne State University 11176:"Tracing Jewish roots" 10492:10.1073/pnas.100115997 10397:10.1073/pnas.100115997 10329:Jared Diamond (1993). 10026:Pearl Goodman (2014). 9976:John M. Efron (2015). 9829:10.1525/j.ctt1pp676.11 9653:"What is Yiddishkeit?" 9437:www.jewishdatabank.org 9212:. Jewish News Weekly. 9136:encyclopedia.ushmm.org 9090:Jewish Virtual Library 9043:The Jewish Study Bible 8947:jewishencyclopedia.com 8629:Jewish Virtual Library 8347:Toch, Michael (2012). 8328:10.6017/scjr.v4i1.1513 8152:Toch, Michael (2012). 8113:Toch, Michael (2012). 8035:Toch, Michael (2012). 7996:Mócsy, András (2014). 7666:Taylor, J. E. (2012). 6313:encyclopedia.ushmm.org 6236:. Brill. p. 186. 6191:Brunner, José (2007). 5990:The Meaning of Yiddish 5885:Shalshelet Ha-Kabbalah 5379: 5281:A 2013 study by Behar 5120:A 2006 study by Behar 5071:A 2001 study by Nebel 4959:List of Ashkenazi Jews 4755: 4258:community since 1750. 4091: 3990: 3935:called on the Jews of 3895: 3549:First Jewish-Roman War 3314:Historia Ecclesiastica 543: 531:European ethnic groups 14790:Encyclopaedia Judaica 14572:Sefer Raziel HaMalakh 13757:Sephardic Bnei Anusim 13507:Udmurt and Tatar Jews 12235:Vital, David (1999): 11978:Patterns of Prejudice 11954:"The Keegstra Affair" 11952:Davies, Alan (1992). 10765:Nature Communications 10001:Jordan Paper (2012). 9596:B'nai B'rith Magazine 9342:Yitzhaki, Shlomo and 9244:. CIA. Archived from 8751:10.1093/molbev/msz047 7905:(pp. 419–450). Brill. 7783:10.1163/9789004314634 7771:Mor, Menahem (2016). 7135:Rabbis and Revolution 7030:Encyclopaedia Judaica 6949:Encyclopaedia Judaica 6757:. Walter de Gruyter. 6656:(25): 4703–4716.e16. 6406:Nature Communications 6047:Encyclopaedia Judaica 5572:[ˌaʃkəˈnazim] 5374: 5334:The Khazar hypothesis 5196:A 2010 study by Bray 4926:Further information: 4870:Further information: 4747: 4633:, by the time of the 4174:Rabbi Elijah of Chelm 4121:(pp. 4, 6); his 4081: 3988: 3929:William the Conqueror 3885: 3085:Jewish religious life 1673:São Tomé and Príncipe 1668:Republic of the Congo 1062:Second Temple Judaism 933:Kingdom of Judah 904:Modern historiography 541: 505:Related ethnic groups 443:Predominantly spoken: 14985:Jewish ethnic groups 13369:Second Temple period 12397:Israelis by religion 11797:10.1002/ajmg.a.20291 9811:Diasporas and Exiles 9606:on 23 September 2005 9314:"מדיניות כור ההיתוך" 9020:Kurzman, Don (1970) 8778:yivoencyclopedia.org 8718:8 March 2021 at the 8709:Sergio Della Pergola 8699:, 1966. pp. 302–303. 6806:Bøe, Sverre (2001). 5775:. 19 November 2019. 5578:[ˌaʃkəˈnazi] 5163:genetic epidemiology 5124:, of 1,000 units of 4908:the Sephardic ritual 4877:The prayer shawl or 4571:emancipation of Jews 4426:Religious Jews have 4399:voters vote for the 4058:from throughout the 4043:Sergio Della Pergola 4007:Partitions of Poland 3739:Salo Wittmayer Baron 3653:, and many of these 3510:capture of Jerusalem 3458:Jewish ethnic groups 3323:In the 10th-century 2967:יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז 2775:World Agudath Israel 1916:United Arab Emirates 1003:Second Temple period 993:Babylonian captivity 50:יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז 14807:Jewish Encyclopedia 14552:Hekhalot literature 14363:Religious movements 13898:Judeo-Tripolitanian 13192:States with limited 12655:Madani and Fellahin 12007:The Life of Judaism 11929:on 16 February 2003 11905:, McFarland, 2008: 11739:2015NatSR...5E8377T 11438:10.1038/nature09103 11430:2010Natur.466..238B 11339:2010PNAS..10716222B 11088:2002Sci...298.2381R 10837:. 12 October 2013. 10777:2013NatCo...4.2543C 10648:2017NatSR...714969B 10483:2000PNAS...97.6769H 10388:2000PNAS...97.6769H 10331:"Who are the Jews?" 10090:The Huffington Post 10051:Alan Arian (1995). 9752:Hungarian Quarterly 9718:"French Revolution" 9659:on 26 November 2013 9268:President of Israel 8905:tractate Sukkah 17a 8844:Jewish Encyclopedia 8809:Jewish Encyclopedia 8623:Schoenberg, Shira. 8511:Rowe, Nina (2011). 8080:. Akadémiai Kiadó. 7892:, Book 6, Chapter 9 6897:. Wm. B. Eerdmans. 6792:Vladimir Shneider, 6418:2013NatCo...4.2543C 6337:Sergio DellaPergola 5933:Mosk, Carl (2013). 5891:13 May 2021 at the 5835:Ashkenaz, based on 5386:East Asian ancestry 4914:, used by those in 4748:The example of the 4702:Mediterranean Style 4335:Sergio DellaPergola 4220:History of the Jews 4074:Medieval references 3959:Rhineland massacres 3784:, and in 533 CE in 3662:epigraphic evidence 3643:Hellenistic Judaism 3494:Alexander the Great 3414:, earlier known as 3179:, the first son of 3096:Europe's philosophy 1068:Hellenistic Judaism 646:Land of Israel 605:Principles of faith 44: 32:Ashkenazi (surname) 14948:Judaism portal 14884:Jews and Halloween 14879:Jews and Christmas 14269:Rabbinic authority 14021:Judaeo-Piedmontese 13454:Xueta Christianity 13359:Origins of Judaism 13326:Outline of Judaism 12335: – 12218:Bukovec, Predrag: 12150:Gross, N. (1975): 11901:E. L. Abel's book 11727:Scientific Reports 11262:American Scientist 10785:10.1038/ncomms3543 10697:The New York Times 10636:Scientific Reports 10594:Eur. J. Hum. Genet 10436:The New York Times 10148:Chua, Amy (2003). 9885:The New York Times 9852:The New York Times 9784:The World of Music 9266:As of 2013, every 8914:Talmud, Hullin 93a 8840:"Katzenellenbogen" 8653:Feldman, Louis H. 8452:"Yiddish Language" 8309:. Routledge, 2002. 7879:Flavius Josephus: 7331:www.britannica.com 7021:Berenbaum, Michael 6936:Berenbaum, Michael 6513:on 2 December 2007 6426:10.1038/ncomms3543 6038:Berenbaum, Michael 5631:on 20 October 2013 5441:Genetic counseling 5427:ascertainment bias 5249:to maintenance of 5011:genetic bottleneck 4953:Notable Ashkenazim 4890:Ashkenazic liturgy 4756: 4666:Russian revolution 4290:Pale of Settlement 4115:Solomon ben Aderet 4092: 3991: 3896: 3592:Isthmus of Corinth 3563:under the name of 3501:Siege of Jerusalem 3355:Slavic territories 3325:History of Armenia 2629:Jewish Koine Greek 2171:Dominican Republic 1452:Judaism by country 1131:Jews and Christmas 986:Assyrian captivity 544: 42: 14957: 14956: 14923:extinct languages 14824:YIVO Encyclopedia 14599:Hebrew literature 14567:Sefer HaEtz Chaim 14407:Reconstructionist 14085:Judaeo-Portuguese 13774: 13773: 13730:Eastern Sephardim 13374:Synagogal Judaism 13277: 13276: 12871: 12870: 12794:Foreign nationals 12743:African Americans 12353:Ashkenaz Heritage 12318:Los Angeles Times 12249:978-0-19-821980-4 12213:978-0-691-05419-3 12201:The Jews of Islam 12194:978-1-4000-4087-2 12175:978-963-9241-26-8 12121:978-0-8052-4131-0 12115:. Schoken Books. 12103:978-1-886223-12-7 12078:978-0-312-30741-7 12054:978-0-520-22864-1 12035:978-0-8147-9769-3 12016:978-0-520-21267-1 11967:978-0-889-20216-0 11911:978-0-7864-4087-0 11747:10.1038/srep08377 11611:978-90-04-16602-8 11550:(12): 1848–1858. 11518:Final version at 11294:Los Angeles Times 11082:(5602): 2381–85. 10382:(12): 6769–6774. 10271:New York Magazine 10239:978-0-08-055137-1 10203:on 5 January 2008 10167:978-0-385-72186-8 10070:978-0-521-49925-5 10037:978-0-9878244-8-6 10012:978-1-55458-403-1 9987:978-1-4008-7419-4 9920:Religionfacts.com 9820:978-0-520-22864-1 9633:on 7 October 2006 9433:"Home-New Search" 9051:Marc Zvi Brettler 8989:Elazar, Daniel J. 8888:978-0-8063-1741-0 8836:Solomon Schechter 8606:978-0-674-39730-9 8524:978-1-107-37585-7 8412:978-0-520-92627-1 8360:978-90-04-23534-2 8261:978-90-429-0666-2 8222:978-0-203-44634-8 8165:978-90-04-23534-2 8126:978-90-04-23539-7 8087:978-90-04-07050-9 8048:978-90-04-23539-7 8009:978-1-317-75425-1 7928:978-0-391-04155-4 7856:978-0-89236-800-6 7835:978-0-674-39731-6 7825:H.H. Ben-Sasson, 7792:978-90-04-31463-4 7679:978-0-19-955448-5 7631:978-3-11-037555-8 7592:978-1-85109-873-6 7553:978-0-391-04155-4 7514:978-0-521-24377-3 7475:978-0-8276-0016-4 7300:978-0-19-997638-6 7260:978-1-4381-2676-0 7220:978-0-19-513941-9 7184:978-0-691-14351-4 7145:978-0-8047-7652-3 7106:978-0-8047-8684-3 7067:978-0-8047-8684-3 7040:978-0-02-866097-4 6986:978-0-567-02592-0 6959:978-0-02-866097-4 6904:978-0-8028-2249-9 6865:978-1-78022-141-0 6819:978-3-16-147520-7 6794:Traces of the Ten 6764:978-3-11-023605-7 6722:978-0-567-02592-0 6354:978-0-19-971250-2 6282:978-1-85109-873-6 6243:978-90-04-12950-4 6204:978-3-8353-0135-1 6172:978-0-19-285371-4 6145:978-1-134-42864-9 6088:978-0-8156-2670-1 6057:978-0-02-866097-4 5946:978-0-415-60518-2 5822:978-1-4058-8118-0 5584: 5569: 5475:Explanatory notes 5435:Tay–Sachs disease 5060:genetic admixture 5053:of Ashkenazi and 4985:mitochondrial DNA 4694:Jews of Palestine 4651:National Assembly 4635:French Revolution 4519:movement and the 4499:chavurah movement 4443:Early Middle Ages 4165:according to the 3995:Statute of Kalisz 3833:halakhic learning 3804:Early Middle Ages 3604:Roman citizenship 3557:Bar Kokhba Revolt 3539:Jewish–Roman wars 3533:Jewish–Roman Wars 3522:E. Mary Smallwood 3512:by the forces of 3294:Babylonian Talmud 3139:Sergio D. Pergola 3089:cultural identity 3041:Holy Roman Empire 3023:), also known as 3020:Ashkenazishe Yidn 3017: 2975: 2891: 2890: 2840: 2839: 2588: 2587: 2335:Reconstructionist 2279: 2278: 1431: 1430: 1238: 1237: 1075:Jewish–Roman wars 1023:Hasmonean dynasty 939:Kingdom of Israel 843: 842: 536: 535: 66:Ashkenazishe Yidn 16:(Redirected from 14997: 14946: 14945: 14944: 14931: 14930: 14063:Judeo-Golpaygani 13664:Palestinian Jews 13639:Alexandrian Jews 13595:Crimean Karaites 13512:Unterlander Jews 13465: 13464: 13379:Rabbinic Judaism 13304: 13297: 13290: 13281: 13280: 13230:Dependencies and 13171:Northern Ireland 12912:Sovereign states 12898: 12891: 12884: 12875: 12874: 12860:Arameans have a 12464:Eastern Orthodox 12382: 12375: 12368: 12359: 12358: 12329: 12327: 12325: 12292: 12140: 12087:Other references 12082: 12058: 12039: 12020: 11994: 11971: 11939: 11938: 11936: 11934: 11919: 11913: 11899: 11893: 11892: 11890: 11888: 11847:(3–4): 201–206. 11832: 11826: 11823: 11817: 11816: 11780: 11769: 11768: 11758: 11718: 11712: 11707: 11701: 11695: 11689: 11688: 11686: 11684: 11665: 11659: 11658: 11656: 11654: 11634: 11628: 11627: 11625: 11623: 11596:Kizilov, Mikhail 11592: 11586: 11585: 11575: 11535: 11529: 11517: 11515: 11513: 11484: 11473: 11472: 11470: 11468: 11462: 11424:(7303): 238–42. 11413: 11403: 11397: 11396: 11394: 11392: 11377: 11371: 11370: 11360: 11350: 11333:(37): 16222–27. 11316: 11310: 11309: 11307: 11305: 11285: 11279: 11278: 11276: 11274: 11253: 11247: 11246: 11236: 11202: 11196: 11195: 11193: 11191: 11171: 11165: 11164: 11154: 11122: 11116: 11115: 11069: 11063: 11062: 11052: 11042: 11018: 11012: 11011: 10983: 10977: 10976: 10974: 10972: 10952: 10946: 10945: 10943: 10941: 10930:Science Magazine 10921: 10915: 10914: 10912: 10910: 10890: 10884: 10883: 10881: 10879: 10857: 10851: 10850: 10848: 10846: 10827: 10821: 10820: 10814: 10806: 10796: 10756: 10747: 10746: 10744: 10742: 10720: 10714: 10713: 10711: 10709: 10687: 10678: 10677: 10667: 10626: 10620: 10619: 10609: 10585: 10579: 10578: 10568: 10551:(5): 1095–1112. 10536: 10530: 10529: 10527: 10525: 10519: 10504: 10494: 10468: 10459: 10453: 10452: 10450: 10448: 10426: 10420: 10419: 10409: 10399: 10367: 10361: 10360: 10358: 10356: 10350: 10335: 10326: 10320: 10319: 10317: 10315: 10293: 10287: 10286: 10284: 10282: 10262: 10256: 10255: 10253: 10251: 10223: 10217: 10216: 10210: 10208: 10199:. Archived from 10197:The New Republic 10191:(17 June 2006). 10185: 10179: 10178: 10176: 10174: 10155: 10145: 10139: 10138: 10136: 10134: 10112: 10106: 10105: 10103: 10101: 10081: 10075: 10074: 10058: 10048: 10042: 10041: 10023: 10017: 10016: 9998: 9992: 9991: 9973: 9967: 9966: 9964: 9962: 9945:Mangel, Nissen. 9942: 9936: 9935: 9933: 9931: 9908: 9902: 9901: 9899: 9897: 9875: 9869: 9868: 9866: 9864: 9842: 9833: 9832: 9806: 9800: 9799: 9779: 9768: 9767: 9758:(209): 150–163. 9747: 9738: 9737: 9735: 9733: 9714: 9708: 9707: 9705: 9703: 9698:on 13 April 2014 9697: 9691:. Archived from 9684: 9675: 9669: 9668: 9666: 9664: 9655:. Archived from 9649: 9643: 9642: 9640: 9638: 9629:. Archived from 9622: 9616: 9615: 9613: 9611: 9605: 9599:. Archived from 9592: 9583: 9577: 9576: 9568: 9562: 9561: 9559: 9557: 9540: 9534: 9533: 9531: 9529: 9510: 9504: 9503: 9501: 9499: 9480: 9474: 9473: 9471: 9469: 9454: 9448: 9447: 9445: 9443: 9429: 9423: 9422: 9416: 9408: 9406: 9404: 9393: 9387: 9386: 9384: 9382: 9367: 9361: 9344:Schechtman, Edna 9340: 9334: 9333: 9331: 9329: 9310: 9304: 9303: 9301: 9299: 9277: 9271: 9264: 9258: 9257: 9255: 9253: 9232: 9226: 9225: 9223: 9221: 9205: 9199: 9192: 9186: 9179: 9173: 9167: 9161: 9153: 9147: 9146: 9144: 9142: 9128: 9122: 9112: 9106: 9105: 9103: 9101: 9082: 9076: 9069: 9063: 9060: 9054: 9039: 9033: 9018: 9012: 9011: 9009: 9007: 8985: 8976: 8969: 8963: 8962: 8960: 8958: 8939: 8933: 8930: 8924: 8921: 8915: 8912: 8906: 8899: 8893: 8892: 8876: 8866: 8860: 8859: 8857: 8855: 8831: 8825: 8824: 8822: 8820: 8800: 8794: 8793: 8791: 8789: 8770: 8764: 8763: 8753: 8744:(6): 1162–1171. 8729: 8723: 8706: 8700: 8690: 8684: 8673: 8664: 8658: 8651: 8645: 8644: 8642: 8640: 8620: 8611: 8610: 8590: 8584: 8583: 8581: 8579: 8560: 8554: 8547: 8541: 8540: 8538: 8536: 8508: 8499: 8496: 8490: 8487: 8481: 8478: 8472: 8471: 8469: 8467: 8448: 8442: 8435: 8429: 8428: 8426: 8424: 8396: 8390: 8383: 8377: 8376: 8374: 8372: 8344: 8338: 8316: 8310: 8299: 8293: 8292: 8284: 8278: 8277: 8275: 8273: 8245: 8239: 8238: 8236: 8234: 8206: 8197: 8196: 8188: 8182: 8181: 8179: 8177: 8149: 8143: 8142: 8140: 8138: 8110: 8104: 8103: 8101: 8099: 8071: 8065: 8064: 8062: 8060: 8032: 8026: 8025: 8023: 8021: 7993: 7984: 7983: 7981: 7979: 7964: 7958: 7951: 7945: 7944: 7942: 7940: 7912: 7906: 7899: 7893: 7877: 7871: 7864: 7858: 7844: 7838: 7823: 7817: 7816: 7806: 7804: 7768: 7762: 7761: 7739: 7715: 7709: 7706: 7700: 7699: 7693: 7691: 7663: 7657: 7654: 7648: 7647: 7645: 7643: 7615: 7609: 7608: 7606: 7604: 7576: 7570: 7569: 7567: 7565: 7537: 7531: 7530: 7528: 7526: 7498: 7492: 7491: 7489: 7487: 7459: 7453: 7452: 7437: 7431: 7430: 7389: 7383: 7382: 7376: 7374: 7353: 7347: 7346: 7344: 7342: 7323: 7317: 7316: 7314: 7312: 7284: 7278: 7276: 7274: 7272: 7244: 7238: 7236: 7234: 7232: 7204: 7198: 7195: 7189: 7188: 7168: 7162: 7161: 7159: 7157: 7129: 7123: 7122: 7120: 7118: 7090: 7084: 7083: 7081: 7079: 7051: 7045: 7044: 7012: 7003: 7002: 7000: 6998: 6970: 6964: 6963: 6932: 6921: 6920: 6918: 6916: 6888: 6882: 6881: 6879: 6877: 6849: 6836: 6835: 6833: 6831: 6812:. Mohr Siebeck. 6803: 6797: 6790: 6781: 6780: 6778: 6776: 6748: 6739: 6738: 6736: 6734: 6706: 6700: 6699: 6681: 6640: 6631: 6630: 6620: 6610: 6586: 6577: 6576: 6566: 6556: 6532: 6523: 6522: 6520: 6518: 6512: 6506:. Archived from 6497: 6469: 6459: 6448: 6447: 6437: 6396: 6387: 6381: 6372: 6370: 6368: 6366: 6333: 6324: 6323: 6321: 6319: 6305: 6299: 6298: 6296: 6294: 6266: 6260: 6259: 6257: 6255: 6227: 6221: 6220: 6218: 6216: 6188: 6177: 6176: 6156: 6150: 6149: 6129: 6123: 6122: 6111: 6105: 6104: 6102: 6100: 6072: 6066: 6065: 6033: 6027: 6026: 6024: 6022: 6002: 5993: 5986: 5980: 5976: 5970: 5965:Neil G. Jacobs, 5963: 5954: 5953: 5930: 5921: 5901:Jerusalem Talmud 5861: 5851: 5847: 5833: 5827: 5826: 5808:(3rd ed.). 5798: 5789: 5788: 5786: 5784: 5769: 5763: 5762: 5756: 5748: 5746: 5744: 5725: 5719: 5718: 5716: 5714: 5680: 5674: 5673: 5671: 5669: 5650: 5641: 5640: 5638: 5636: 5627:. Archived from 5621:"Ashkenazi Jews" 5617: 5590: 5589: 5582: 5580: 5574: 5567: 5565: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5541: 5540: 5537: 5536: 5533: 5530: 5525: 5524: 5521: 5518: 5515: 5512: 5509: 5506: 5503: 5500: 5497: 5494: 5485: 5399:Medical genetics 5358:Crimean Karaites 5217:Palestinian Arab 5209:linkage analysis 5028:Fertile Crescent 4872:Ashkenazi Hebrew 4670:Great Depression 4647:Comtat Venaissin 4559:Yiddish language 4492:Orthodox Judaism 4405:Republican Party 4401:Democratic Party 4324:previous decades 4148:Syria Palaestina 4131:Tur Orach Chayim 4119:Asher ben Jehiel 3970:(10th century), 3948:Rabbinic Judaism 3872:Slavic languages 3837:Talmudic studies 3569:Syria Palaestina 3565:Aelia Capitolina 3470:Israel and Judah 3368:Sometime in the 3292:tractate of the 3270: 3260: 3249:. The intrusive 3243: 3225: 3200:Table of Nations 3055:during the late 3035:population that 3022: 3012: 3010: 3009:אַשכּנזישע ייִדן 3002: 2999: 2990: 2987: 2984: 2980: 2978:Yehudei Ashkenaz 2970: 2968: 2957: 2953: 2948: 2947: 2944: 2943: 2940: 2937: 2932: 2931: 2928: 2925: 2922: 2919: 2916: 2913: 2910: 2907: 2904: 2883: 2876: 2869: 2732: 2731: 2613: 2434: 2428: 2409: 2373: 2372: 2320: 2267:New Zealand 2219: 2182:El Salvador 2172: 2104:Northern America 2096: 1690: 1446: 1445: 1357:Crimean Karaites 1253: 1252: 1231: 1229: 1150: 1148: 1140: 1134: 1125: 1113:Rabbinic Judaism 1094: 1088: 1082: 1070: 1058: 1024: 1017:Maccabean Revolt 994: 987: 981: 973: 966: 960: 952: 934: 858: 857: 832: 727: 726: 659: 647: 546: 545: 455:Ashkenazi Hebrew 75:Total population 68: 62: 57: 55:Yehudei Ashkenaz 51: 45: 41: 21: 15005: 15004: 15000: 14999: 14998: 14996: 14995: 14994: 14960: 14959: 14958: 14953: 14942: 14940: 14912: 14738: 14603: 14475: 14349: 14243: 14058:Judeo-Borujerdi 14033:Judeo-Malayalam 13979:Judeo-Aragonese 13950:Lishanid Noshan 13782: 13770: 13502:Oberlander Jews 13463: 13393: 13335: 13317: 13308: 13278: 13273: 13231: 13225: 13211:Northern Cyprus 13193: 13187: 13086:North Macedonia 12907: 12902: 12872: 12867: 12845: 12789: 12731: 12693: 12679:Arab Christians 12636: 12505: 12391: 12386: 12323: 12321: 12300: 12295: 12186:Alfred A. Knopf 12089: 12079: 12055: 12036: 12017: 12001: 11968: 11948: 11943: 11942: 11932: 11930: 11921: 11920: 11916: 11900: 11896: 11886: 11884: 11841:Familial Cancer 11833: 11829: 11824: 11820: 11781: 11772: 11719: 11715: 11708: 11704: 11696: 11692: 11682: 11680: 11667: 11666: 11662: 11652: 11650: 11635: 11631: 11621: 11619: 11612: 11598:(2 July 2018). 11593: 11589: 11536: 11532: 11527:Wayback Machine 11511: 11509: 11485: 11476: 11466: 11464: 11460: 11411: 11404: 11400: 11390: 11388: 11379: 11378: 11374: 11317: 11313: 11303: 11301: 11286: 11282: 11272: 11270: 11255: 11254: 11250: 11203: 11199: 11189: 11187: 11172: 11168: 11123: 11119: 11070: 11066: 11019: 11015: 10994:(11): 1335–44. 10984: 10980: 10970: 10968: 10953: 10949: 10939: 10937: 10922: 10918: 10908: 10906: 10891: 10887: 10877: 10875: 10858: 10854: 10844: 10842: 10829: 10828: 10824: 10808: 10807: 10757: 10750: 10740: 10738: 10721: 10717: 10707: 10705: 10688: 10681: 10627: 10623: 10586: 10582: 10537: 10533: 10523: 10521: 10517: 10477:(12): 6769–74. 10466: 10460: 10456: 10446: 10444: 10427: 10423: 10368: 10364: 10354: 10352: 10351:on 21 July 2011 10348: 10338:Natural History 10333: 10327: 10323: 10313: 10311: 10294: 10290: 10280: 10278: 10263: 10259: 10249: 10247: 10240: 10224: 10220: 10206: 10204: 10186: 10182: 10172: 10170: 10168: 10146: 10142: 10132: 10130: 10113: 10109: 10099: 10097: 10082: 10078: 10071: 10049: 10045: 10038: 10024: 10020: 10013: 9999: 9995: 9988: 9974: 9970: 9960: 9958: 9943: 9939: 9929: 9927: 9910: 9909: 9905: 9895: 9893: 9876: 9872: 9862: 9860: 9843: 9836: 9821: 9807: 9803: 9780: 9771: 9748: 9741: 9731: 9729: 9716: 9715: 9711: 9701: 9699: 9695: 9682: 9676: 9672: 9662: 9660: 9651: 9650: 9646: 9636: 9634: 9623: 9619: 9609: 9607: 9603: 9590: 9584: 9580: 9569: 9565: 9555: 9553: 9541: 9537: 9527: 9525: 9512: 9511: 9507: 9497: 9495: 9482: 9481: 9477: 9467: 9465: 9455: 9451: 9441: 9439: 9431: 9430: 9426: 9410: 9409: 9402: 9400: 9395: 9394: 9390: 9380: 9378: 9368: 9364: 9358:Wayback Machine 9341: 9337: 9327: 9325: 9318:kotar.cet.ac.il 9312: 9311: 9307: 9297: 9295: 9278: 9274: 9265: 9261: 9251: 9249: 9248:on 13 June 2007 9241:World Fact Book 9234: 9233: 9229: 9219: 9217: 9206: 9202: 9193: 9189: 9180: 9176: 9168: 9164: 9154: 9150: 9140: 9138: 9130: 9129: 9125: 9115:Solomo Birnbaum 9113: 9109: 9099: 9097: 9084: 9083: 9079: 9070: 9066: 9061: 9057: 9040: 9036: 9019: 9015: 9005: 9003: 8986: 8979: 8970: 8966: 8956: 8954: 8941: 8940: 8936: 8931: 8927: 8922: 8918: 8913: 8909: 8900: 8896: 8889: 8867: 8863: 8853: 8851: 8832: 8828: 8818: 8816: 8801: 8797: 8787: 8785: 8772: 8771: 8767: 8730: 8726: 8720:Wayback Machine 8707: 8703: 8691: 8687: 8671: 8665: 8661: 8652: 8648: 8638: 8636: 8621: 8614: 8607: 8591: 8587: 8577: 8575: 8562: 8561: 8557: 8548: 8544: 8534: 8532: 8525: 8509: 8502: 8497: 8493: 8488: 8484: 8479: 8475: 8465: 8463: 8450: 8449: 8445: 8437:David Malkiel, 8436: 8432: 8422: 8420: 8413: 8397: 8393: 8384: 8380: 8370: 8368: 8361: 8345: 8341: 8317: 8313: 8301:McGing, Brian: 8300: 8296: 8285: 8281: 8271: 8269: 8262: 8246: 8242: 8232: 8230: 8223: 8207: 8200: 8189: 8185: 8175: 8173: 8166: 8150: 8146: 8136: 8134: 8127: 8111: 8107: 8097: 8095: 8088: 8072: 8068: 8058: 8056: 8049: 8033: 8029: 8019: 8017: 8010: 7994: 7987: 7977: 7975: 7966: 7965: 7961: 7952: 7948: 7938: 7936: 7929: 7913: 7909: 7900: 7896: 7889:Wayback Machine 7878: 7874: 7865: 7861: 7845: 7841: 7824: 7820: 7802: 7800: 7793: 7769: 7765: 7716: 7712: 7707: 7703: 7689: 7687: 7680: 7664: 7660: 7655: 7651: 7641: 7639: 7632: 7616: 7612: 7602: 7600: 7593: 7577: 7573: 7563: 7561: 7554: 7538: 7534: 7524: 7522: 7515: 7499: 7495: 7485: 7483: 7476: 7460: 7456: 7438: 7434: 7390: 7386: 7372: 7370: 7355: 7354: 7350: 7340: 7338: 7325: 7324: 7320: 7310: 7308: 7301: 7285: 7281: 7270: 7268: 7261: 7245: 7241: 7230: 7228: 7221: 7205: 7201: 7196: 7192: 7185: 7169: 7165: 7155: 7153: 7146: 7130: 7126: 7116: 7114: 7107: 7091: 7087: 7077: 7075: 7068: 7052: 7048: 7041: 7013: 7006: 6996: 6994: 6987: 6971: 6967: 6960: 6942:, eds. (2007). 6933: 6924: 6914: 6912: 6905: 6889: 6885: 6875: 6873: 6866: 6850: 6839: 6829: 6827: 6820: 6804: 6800: 6791: 6784: 6774: 6772: 6765: 6749: 6742: 6732: 6730: 6723: 6707: 6703: 6641: 6634: 6601:(4): e1006644. 6587: 6580: 6547:(6): e1004401. 6533: 6526: 6516: 6514: 6510: 6467: 6460: 6451: 6397: 6390: 6382: 6375: 6364: 6362: 6355: 6334: 6327: 6317: 6315: 6307: 6306: 6302: 6292: 6290: 6283: 6267: 6263: 6253: 6251: 6244: 6228: 6224: 6214: 6212: 6205: 6189: 6180: 6173: 6157: 6153: 6146: 6130: 6126: 6112: 6108: 6098: 6096: 6089: 6073: 6069: 6058: 6034: 6030: 6020: 6018: 6003: 5996: 5987: 5983: 5977: 5973: 5964: 5957: 5947: 5931: 5924: 5893:Wayback Machine 5859: 5853:Perseus Project 5849: 5834: 5830: 5823: 5799: 5792: 5782: 5780: 5771: 5770: 5766: 5750: 5749: 5742: 5740: 5726: 5722: 5712: 5710: 5681: 5677: 5667: 5665: 5652: 5651: 5644: 5634: 5632: 5619: 5618: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5593: 5564:אַשְׁכְּנַזִּים 5552: 5548: 5544: 5527: 5491: 5487: 5486: 5482: 5477: 5465: 5445:genetic testing 5407: 5401: 5388: 5354:Arthur Koestler 5342: 5336: 5240:, Italians and 5207:techniques and 5159: 5113:of most of the 5107: 5049:found that the 5040: 4981: 4979:Genetic origins 4976: 4970: 4961: 4955: 4943:Saadia Marciano 4930: 4924: 4896:Nusach Ashkenaz 4892: 4874: 4833:removal of the 4817:In the case of 4742: 4722: 4616:Jewish language 4549: 4515:worship in the 4424: 4419: 4413: 4396: 4390: 4357: 4351: 4312: 4306: 4256:American Jewish 4216:Heinrich Graetz 4198: 4159:Isaiah Horowitz 4127:Jacob ben Asher 4076: 4021:exclusively in 3939:to relocate to 3933:Rüdiger Huzmann 3916:Maghrebi Jewish 3908:Babylonian Jews 3880: 3806: 3780:, in 524 CE in 3600: 3590:to work on the 3541: 3535: 3514:Herod the Great 3499:In 63 BCE, the 3478: 3454: 3438:leshon Ashkenaz 3424:communities of 3392:was called the 3310:Scandza/Scanzia 3231:Aškuzai/Iškuzai 3169: 3145:Genetic studies 3125:carried out by 3098:, scholarship, 3069:sacred language 3033:Jewish diaspora 3031:, constitute a 3025:Ashkenazic Jews 3000: 2991: 2988: 2985: 2955: 2951: 2934: 2901: 2897: 2887: 2842: 2841: 2729: 2719: 2718: 2709:Judeo-Malayalam 2689:Judaeo-Georgian 2609: 2600: 2590: 2589: 2490:Yiddish theatre 2432: 2370: 2360: 2359: 2318: 2291: 2281: 2280: 2217: 2170: 2094: 1688: 1472:Genetic studies 1443: 1433: 1432: 1250: 1240: 1239: 1227: 1226: 1146: 1145: 1138: 1128: 1123: 1105:and Middle Ages 1103:Rabbinic period 1090: 1084: 1077: 1065: 1036: 1022: 992: 985: 976: 968: 964: 955: 950:in Judaism 947: 932: 855: 845: 844: 724: 714: 713: 657: 645: 590: 488: 475: 80:10–11.2 million 70: 59: 40: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 15003: 14993: 14992: 14987: 14982: 14977: 14972: 14970:Ashkenazi Jews 14955: 14954: 14952: 14951: 14937: 14917: 14914: 14913: 14911: 14910: 14909: 14908: 14907: 14906: 14901: 14896: 14890:non-Christian 14888: 14887: 14886: 14881: 14876: 14871: 14866: 14861: 14846: 14839: 14832: 14827: 14820: 14815: 14810: 14803: 14798: 14793: 14786: 14781: 14780: 14779: 14774: 14769: 14764: 14759: 14748: 14746: 14740: 14739: 14737: 14736: 14731: 14730: 14729: 14724: 14714: 14709: 14704: 14699: 14694: 14693: 14692: 14682: 14681: 14680: 14675: 14665: 14660: 14659: 14658: 14648: 14647: 14646: 14636: 14631: 14630: 14629: 14624: 14613: 14611: 14605: 14604: 14602: 14601: 14596: 14591: 14589:Shulchan Aruch 14586: 14585: 14584: 14579: 14577:Sefer Yetzirah 14574: 14569: 14564: 14559: 14557:Pardes Rimonim 14554: 14547:Kabbalah texts 14544: 14543: 14542: 14537: 14532: 14527: 14517: 14516: 14515: 14510: 14505: 14491: 14485: 14483: 14477: 14476: 14474: 14473: 14468: 14463: 14458: 14453: 14448: 14443: 14438: 14437: 14436: 14431: 14426: 14425: 14424: 14414: 14409: 14404: 14399: 14394: 14393: 14392: 14387: 14386: 14385: 14380: 14359: 14357: 14351: 14350: 14348: 14347: 14342: 14340:Land of Israel 14337: 14336: 14335: 14325: 14320: 14315: 14314: 14313: 14303: 14298: 14293: 14292: 14291: 14281: 14276: 14271: 14266: 14265: 14264: 14253: 14251: 14245: 14244: 14242: 14241: 14236: 14235: 14234: 14233: 14232: 14227: 14226: 14225: 14218: 14216:Judeo-Alsatian 14208: 14207: 14206: 14199: 14194: 14189: 14169: 14164: 14159: 14154: 14149: 14144: 14143: 14142: 14137: 14127: 14122: 14117: 14112: 14107: 14102: 14097: 14092: 14087: 14082: 14081: 14080: 14075: 14070: 14068:Judeo-Hamedani 14065: 14060: 14055: 14045: 14043:Judaeo-Occitan 14040: 14035: 14030: 14025: 14024: 14023: 14013: 14008: 14003: 14002: 14001: 13996: 13991: 13984:Jewish English 13981: 13976: 13975: 13974: 13973: 13972: 13962: 13957: 13952: 13947: 13942: 13937: 13932: 13927: 13922: 13915:Judaeo-Aramaic 13912: 13911: 13910: 13905: 13903:Judeo-Tunisian 13900: 13895: 13893:Judeo-Moroccan 13890: 13889: 13888: 13886:Judeo-Baghdadi 13873: 13868: 13863: 13862: 13861: 13856: 13851: 13846: 13841: 13836: 13831: 13826: 13821: 13816: 13811: 13806: 13801: 13790: 13788: 13776: 13775: 13772: 13771: 13769: 13768: 13767: 13766: 13765: 13764: 13754: 13753: 13752: 13742: 13737: 13735:Livornese Jews 13732: 13722: 13717: 13716: 13715: 13705: 13704: 13703: 13702: 13701: 13696: 13691: 13686: 13676: 13671: 13666: 13661: 13656: 13651: 13646: 13641: 13636: 13626: 13625: 13624: 13614: 13609: 13604: 13599: 13598: 13597: 13592: 13582: 13577: 13576: 13575: 13565: 13560: 13555: 13554: 13553: 13548: 13538: 13537: 13536: 13531: 13521: 13520: 13519: 13514: 13509: 13504: 13499: 13494: 13489: 13484: 13482:Afrikaner-Jode 13473: 13471: 13462: 13461: 13456: 13451: 13450: 13449: 13439: 13434: 13429: 13424: 13419: 13414: 13409: 13403: 13401: 13395: 13394: 13392: 13391: 13386: 13381: 13376: 13371: 13366: 13361: 13356: 13351: 13345: 13343: 13337: 13336: 13334: 13333: 13328: 13322: 13319: 13318: 13307: 13306: 13299: 13292: 13284: 13275: 13274: 13272: 13271: 13266: 13261: 13256: 13251: 13246: 13241: 13235: 13233: 13232:other entities 13227: 13226: 13224: 13223: 13218: 13213: 13208: 13203: 13197: 13195: 13189: 13188: 13186: 13185: 13184: 13183: 13178: 13173: 13168: 13161:United Kingdom 13158: 13153: 13148: 13143: 13138: 13133: 13128: 13123: 13118: 13113: 13108: 13103: 13098: 13093: 13088: 13083: 13078: 13073: 13068: 13063: 13058: 13053: 13048: 13043: 13038: 13033: 13028: 13026: 13021: 13016: 13011: 13006: 13001: 12996: 12991: 12986: 12981: 12976: 12974:Czech Republic 12971: 12966: 12961: 12956: 12951: 12946: 12941: 12936: 12931: 12926: 12921: 12915: 12913: 12909: 12908: 12901: 12900: 12893: 12886: 12878: 12869: 12868: 12866: 12865: 12858: 12850: 12847: 12846: 12844: 12843: 12838: 12833: 12828: 12823: 12818: 12813: 12808: 12803: 12797: 12795: 12791: 12790: 12788: 12787: 12782: 12777: 12772: 12771: 12770: 12760: 12755: 12750: 12745: 12739: 12737: 12733: 12732: 12730: 12729: 12724: 12723: 12722: 12712: 12707: 12701: 12699: 12695: 12694: 12692: 12691: 12686: 12681: 12676: 12675: 12674: 12673: 12672: 12667: 12657: 12646: 12644: 12638: 12637: 12635: 12634: 12633: 12632: 12627: 12617: 12616: 12615: 12610: 12605: 12600: 12590: 12585: 12580: 12575: 12574: 12573: 12568: 12563: 12558: 12548: 12547: 12546: 12541: 12536: 12531: 12526: 12515: 12513: 12507: 12506: 12504: 12503: 12498: 12493: 12488: 12483: 12478: 12477: 12476: 12471: 12466: 12456: 12455: 12454: 12449: 12444: 12434: 12433: 12432: 12427: 12422: 12417: 12412: 12401: 12399: 12393: 12392: 12385: 12384: 12377: 12370: 12362: 12356: 12355: 12350: 12345: 12340: 12330: 12308: 12299: 12298:External links 12296: 12294: 12293: 12273:10.1086/702709 12267:(2): 206–234. 12252: 12233: 12216: 12197: 12178: 12159: 12156:Schocken Books 12148: 12141: 12124: 12106: 12090: 12088: 12085: 12084: 12083: 12077: 12059: 12053: 12040: 12034: 12021: 12015: 12000: 11997: 11996: 11995: 11972: 11966: 11947: 11944: 11941: 11940: 11914: 11894: 11827: 11818: 11770: 11733:(8377): 8377. 11713: 11702: 11700:, p. 242. 11690: 11679:on 1 June 2013 11660: 11629: 11610: 11587: 11530: 11474: 11398: 11372: 11311: 11280: 11248: 11197: 11166: 11143:10.1086/513477 11117: 11064: 11013: 10978: 10947: 10916: 10885: 10852: 10822: 10748: 10715: 10679: 10621: 10580: 10557:10.1086/324070 10531: 10454: 10421: 10362: 10321: 10288: 10257: 10238: 10218: 10189:Pinker, Steven 10180: 10166: 10140: 10107: 10076: 10069: 10043: 10036: 10018: 10011: 9993: 9986: 9968: 9937: 9903: 9870: 9834: 9819: 9801: 9769: 9739: 9709: 9670: 9644: 9617: 9578: 9563: 9535: 9505: 9475: 9449: 9424: 9388: 9362: 9335: 9305: 9272: 9259: 9227: 9200: 9187: 9174: 9162: 9148: 9123: 9107: 9077: 9064: 9055: 9034: 9013: 8977: 8964: 8934: 8925: 8916: 8907: 8894: 8887: 8861: 8826: 8795: 8765: 8724: 8701: 8685: 8683:, 29 May 2016. 8659: 8646: 8612: 8605: 8585: 8555: 8542: 8523: 8500: 8491: 8482: 8473: 8443: 8430: 8411: 8391: 8378: 8359: 8339: 8311: 8294: 8279: 8260: 8240: 8221: 8198: 8183: 8164: 8144: 8125: 8105: 8086: 8066: 8047: 8027: 8008: 7985: 7959: 7946: 7927: 7907: 7894: 7882:The Judean War 7872: 7859: 7839: 7818: 7811:sikarikon laws 7791: 7763: 7730:(2): 585–607. 7710: 7701: 7678: 7658: 7649: 7630: 7610: 7591: 7571: 7552: 7532: 7513: 7493: 7474: 7454: 7432: 7405:(6): 859–900. 7384: 7348: 7318: 7299: 7279: 7259: 7239: 7219: 7199: 7190: 7183: 7163: 7144: 7124: 7105: 7085: 7066: 7046: 7039: 7004: 6985: 6965: 6958: 6922: 6903: 6883: 6864: 6837: 6818: 6798: 6782: 6763: 6740: 6721: 6701: 6632: 6578: 6524: 6486:10.1086/500307 6449: 6388: 6373: 6353: 6325: 6300: 6281: 6261: 6242: 6222: 6203: 6178: 6171: 6151: 6144: 6124: 6106: 6087: 6067: 6056: 6028: 6011:whc.unesco.org 5994: 5981: 5971: 5955: 5945: 5922: 5880:Sefer Yuchasin 5828: 5821: 5790: 5764: 5720: 5675: 5642: 5606: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5592: 5591: 5583:Modern Hebrew: 5479: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5472: 5471: 5464: 5461: 5423: 5422: 5419: 5403:Main article: 5400: 5397: 5387: 5384: 5338:Main article: 5335: 5332: 5158: 5155: 5106: 5103: 5055:Sephardic Jews 5039: 5036: 4980: 4977: 4972:Main article: 4969: 4966: 4954: 4951: 4939:Black Panthers 4923: 4920: 4891: 4888: 4887: 4886: 4875: 4858: 4850: 4838: 4815: 4808: 4805: 4786:Observance of 4780:Moses Isserles 4775:Shulkhan Arukh 4764:practices of ( 4751:chevra kadisha 4741: 4738: 4721: 4718: 4676:years and the 4658:Dreyfus affair 4548: 4545: 4517:Jewish Renewal 4436:Reform Judaism 4423: 4420: 4412: 4409: 4392:Main article: 4389: 4386: 4353:Main article: 4350: 4347: 4308:Main article: 4305: 4302: 4197: 4196:Modern history 4194: 4144:Genesis Rabbah 4075: 4072: 4060:Ottoman Empire 4056:Romaniote Jews 3879: 3876: 3805: 3802: 3676:), Triccinae ( 3672:), Intercisa ( 3655:Greek-speaking 3628:Constantinople 3606:until Emperor 3599: 3598:Late antiquity 3596: 3537:Main article: 3534: 3531: 3505:Roman Republic 3477: 3474: 3468:of historical 3453: 3450: 3395:Land of Canaan 3370:Early Medieval 3168: 3165: 3161:Middle Eastern 3053:eastern Europe 2894:Ashkenazi Jews 2889: 2888: 2886: 2885: 2878: 2871: 2863: 2860: 2859: 2858: 2857: 2852: 2844: 2843: 2838: 2837: 2836: 2835: 2830: 2825: 2820: 2815: 2810: 2805: 2800: 2795: 2787: 2786: 2780: 2779: 2778: 2777: 2772: 2770:Territorialism 2767: 2762: 2757: 2752: 2747: 2739: 2738: 2730: 2725: 2724: 2721: 2720: 2717: 2716: 2711: 2706: 2701: 2696: 2691: 2686: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2656: 2654:Judaeo-Spanish 2651: 2649:Judaeo-Iranian 2646: 2641: 2636: 2631: 2626: 2621: 2616: 2615: 2614: 2601: 2596: 2595: 2592: 2591: 2586: 2585: 2584: 2583: 2578: 2573: 2565: 2564: 2558: 2557: 2556: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2540: 2535: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2512: 2511: 2505: 2504: 2503: 2502: 2497: 2492: 2487: 2479: 2478: 2472: 2471: 2470: 2469: 2464: 2456: 2455: 2449: 2448: 2447: 2446: 2441: 2436: 2429: 2420: 2415: 2410: 2401: 2396: 2391: 2386: 2378: 2377: 2371: 2366: 2365: 2362: 2361: 2358: 2357: 2352: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2327: 2322: 2315: 2314: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2292: 2287: 2286: 2283: 2282: 2277: 2276: 2275: 2274: 2269: 2264: 2259: 2254: 2246: 2245: 2239: 2238: 2237: 2236: 2231: 2226: 2221: 2214: 2209: 2204: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2167: 2162: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2134: 2133: 2127: 2126: 2125: 2124: 2119: 2114: 2106: 2105: 2101: 2100: 2099: 2098: 2095:United Kingdom 2091: 2086: 2081: 2076: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2056: 2051: 2046: 2041: 2036: 2031: 2026: 2021: 2016: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1991: 1986: 1981: 1976: 1971: 1966: 1961: 1956: 1951: 1943: 1942: 1936: 1935: 1934: 1933: 1928: 1923: 1918: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1898: 1893: 1888: 1883: 1878: 1873: 1868: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1833: 1828: 1823: 1818: 1813: 1808: 1803: 1798: 1793: 1788: 1783: 1778: 1773: 1768: 1763: 1758: 1753: 1748: 1743: 1735: 1734: 1730: 1729: 1728: 1727: 1722: 1717: 1707: 1702: 1697: 1692: 1685: 1680: 1675: 1670: 1665: 1655: 1650: 1645: 1640: 1635: 1630: 1625: 1620: 1615: 1610: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1570: 1565: 1560: 1555: 1550: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1528:Bilad-el-Sudan 1525: 1520: 1512: 1511: 1505: 1504: 1503: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1484: 1483: 1481:Land of Israel 1477: 1476: 1475: 1474: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1454: 1444: 1439: 1438: 1435: 1434: 1429: 1428: 1427: 1426: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1410: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1364: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1341: 1340: 1339:Related groups 1336: 1335: 1334: 1333: 1328: 1323: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1272: 1271: 1266: 1251: 1246: 1245: 1242: 1241: 1236: 1235: 1234: 1233: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1196:Jewish atheism 1193: 1188: 1183: 1175: 1174: 1170: 1169: 1168: 1167: 1162: 1157: 1152: 1147:Islamic–Jewish 1142: 1135: 1120: 1115: 1107: 1106: 1099: 1098: 1097: 1096: 1072: 1059: 1031: 1026: 1019: 1014: 1012:Yehud Medinata 1006: 1005: 999: 998: 997: 996: 989: 982: 974: 961: 953: 941: 936: 929: 921: 920: 918:Ancient Israel 914: 913: 912: 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 886: 881: 876: 874:Land of Israel 871: 863: 862: 856: 851: 850: 847: 846: 841: 840: 839: 838: 833: 829:Shulchan Aruch 824: 819: 814: 809: 801: 800: 799: 798: 793: 785: 784: 778: 777: 776: 775: 770: 762: 761: 755: 754: 753: 752: 747: 742: 734: 733: 725: 720: 719: 716: 715: 712: 711: 706: 701: 696: 691: 686: 681: 676: 671: 666: 661: 654: 649: 642: 637: 632: 627: 622: 617: 607: 602: 595:God in Judaism 591: 586: 585: 582: 581: 580: 579: 574: 566: 565: 555: 554: 534: 533: 527:Middle Eastern 507: 506: 502: 501: 495: 494: 490: 489: 487: 486: 481: 476: 474: 473: 470: 467: 464: 461: 458: 447: 445: 439: 436: 435: 431: 430: 427: 421: 420: 417: 411: 410: 407: 401: 400: 397: 395:Czech Republic 391: 390: 387: 381: 380: 377: 371: 370: 367: 361: 360: 357: 351: 350: 347: 341: 340: 337: 331: 330: 327: 321: 320: 317: 311: 310: 307: 301: 300: 297: 291: 290: 287: 281: 280: 277: 271: 270: 267: 261: 260: 257: 251: 250: 247: 241: 240: 237: 231: 230: 227: 221: 220: 217: 211: 210: 207: 201: 200: 197: 191: 190: 187: 181: 180: 177: 171: 170: 167: 161: 160: 157: 151: 150: 147: 141: 140: 137: 135:United Kingdom 131: 130: 127: 121: 120: 113: 107: 106: 103: 97: 96: 93: 87: 86: 82: 81: 77: 76: 72: 71: 43:Ashkenazi Jews 38: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 15002: 14991: 14988: 14986: 14983: 14981: 14978: 14976: 14973: 14971: 14968: 14967: 14965: 14950: 14949: 14938: 14936: 14935: 14926: 14925: 14924: 14920: 14915: 14905: 14902: 14900: 14897: 14895: 14892: 14891: 14889: 14885: 14882: 14880: 14877: 14875: 14874:Protestantism 14872: 14870: 14867: 14865: 14862: 14860: 14857: 14856: 14855: 14852: 14851: 14850: 14847: 14845: 14844: 14840: 14838: 14837: 14833: 14831: 14828: 14826: 14825: 14821: 14819: 14816: 14814: 14811: 14809: 14808: 14804: 14802: 14799: 14797: 14794: 14792: 14791: 14787: 14785: 14782: 14778: 14775: 14773: 14770: 14768: 14765: 14763: 14760: 14758: 14755: 14754: 14753: 14750: 14749: 14747: 14745: 14741: 14735: 14732: 14728: 14725: 14723: 14720: 14719: 14718: 14715: 14713: 14710: 14708: 14705: 14703: 14700: 14698: 14695: 14691: 14688: 14687: 14686: 14683: 14679: 14676: 14674: 14671: 14670: 14669: 14666: 14664: 14661: 14657: 14654: 14653: 14652: 14649: 14645: 14642: 14641: 14640: 14637: 14635: 14632: 14628: 14625: 14623: 14620: 14619: 14618: 14615: 14614: 14612: 14610: 14606: 14600: 14597: 14595: 14592: 14590: 14587: 14583: 14580: 14578: 14575: 14573: 14570: 14568: 14565: 14563: 14562:Sefer HaBahir 14560: 14558: 14555: 14553: 14550: 14549: 14548: 14545: 14541: 14538: 14536: 14533: 14531: 14528: 14526: 14523: 14522: 14521: 14518: 14514: 14511: 14509: 14506: 14504: 14501: 14500: 14499: 14495: 14492: 14490: 14489:Sifrei Kodesh 14487: 14486: 14484: 14482: 14478: 14472: 14469: 14467: 14464: 14462: 14459: 14457: 14454: 14452: 14449: 14447: 14444: 14442: 14439: 14435: 14432: 14430: 14427: 14423: 14420: 14419: 14418: 14415: 14413: 14410: 14408: 14405: 14403: 14400: 14398: 14395: 14391: 14388: 14384: 14381: 14379: 14376: 14375: 14374: 14371: 14370: 14369: 14366: 14365: 14364: 14361: 14360: 14358: 14356: 14352: 14346: 14345:Who is a Jew? 14343: 14341: 14338: 14334: 14331: 14330: 14329: 14326: 14324: 14321: 14319: 14316: 14312: 14309: 14308: 14307: 14304: 14302: 14299: 14297: 14294: 14290: 14287: 14286: 14285: 14282: 14280: 14277: 14275: 14274:Chosen people 14272: 14270: 14267: 14263: 14260: 14259: 14258: 14255: 14254: 14252: 14250: 14246: 14240: 14237: 14231: 14230:Scots-Yiddish 14228: 14224: 14223: 14219: 14217: 14214: 14213: 14212: 14209: 14205: 14204: 14203:Klezmer-loshn 14200: 14198: 14195: 14193: 14190: 14188: 14185: 14184: 14183: 14180: 14179: 14178: 14175: 14174: 14173: 14170: 14168: 14165: 14163: 14160: 14158: 14155: 14153: 14150: 14148: 14145: 14141: 14138: 14136: 14133: 14132: 14131: 14128: 14126: 14123: 14121: 14118: 14116: 14113: 14111: 14108: 14106: 14103: 14101: 14098: 14096: 14093: 14091: 14088: 14086: 14083: 14079: 14076: 14074: 14073:Judeo-Shirazi 14071: 14069: 14066: 14064: 14061: 14059: 14056: 14054: 14051: 14050: 14049: 14048:Judeo-Persian 14046: 14044: 14041: 14039: 14038:Judeo-Marathi 14036: 14034: 14031: 14029: 14026: 14022: 14019: 14018: 14017: 14016:Judeo-Italian 14014: 14012: 14009: 14007: 14004: 14000: 13997: 13995: 13992: 13990: 13987: 13986: 13985: 13982: 13980: 13977: 13971: 13968: 13967: 13966: 13963: 13961: 13958: 13956: 13953: 13951: 13948: 13946: 13943: 13941: 13938: 13936: 13933: 13931: 13928: 13926: 13923: 13921: 13918: 13917: 13916: 13913: 13909: 13906: 13904: 13901: 13899: 13896: 13894: 13891: 13887: 13884: 13883: 13882: 13879: 13878: 13877: 13874: 13872: 13871:Judeo-Amazigh 13869: 13867: 13864: 13860: 13857: 13855: 13852: 13850: 13847: 13845: 13842: 13840: 13837: 13835: 13832: 13830: 13827: 13825: 13822: 13820: 13817: 13815: 13812: 13810: 13807: 13805: 13802: 13800: 13797: 13796: 13795: 13792: 13791: 13789: 13786: 13781: 13777: 13763: 13760: 13759: 13758: 13755: 13751: 13748: 13747: 13746: 13743: 13741: 13738: 13736: 13733: 13731: 13728: 13727: 13726: 13723: 13721: 13718: 13714: 13711: 13710: 13709: 13706: 13700: 13697: 13695: 13694:Hadhrami Jews 13692: 13690: 13687: 13685: 13682: 13681: 13680: 13677: 13675: 13672: 13670: 13667: 13665: 13662: 13660: 13659:Mountain Jews 13657: 13655: 13654:Egyptian Jews 13652: 13650: 13649:Bukharan Jews 13647: 13645: 13642: 13640: 13637: 13635: 13632: 13631: 13630: 13627: 13623: 13620: 13619: 13618: 13615: 13613: 13610: 13608: 13605: 13603: 13600: 13596: 13593: 13591: 13588: 13587: 13586: 13583: 13581: 13578: 13574: 13571: 13570: 13569: 13566: 13564: 13561: 13559: 13556: 13552: 13549: 13547: 13544: 13543: 13542: 13539: 13535: 13532: 13530: 13527: 13526: 13525: 13522: 13518: 13515: 13513: 13510: 13508: 13505: 13503: 13500: 13498: 13495: 13493: 13490: 13488: 13485: 13483: 13480: 13479: 13478: 13475: 13474: 13472: 13470: 13466: 13460: 13457: 13455: 13452: 13448: 13445: 13444: 13443: 13440: 13438: 13437:Lists of Jews 13435: 13433: 13430: 13428: 13425: 13423: 13420: 13418: 13415: 13413: 13410: 13408: 13405: 13404: 13402: 13400: 13396: 13390: 13387: 13385: 13382: 13380: 13377: 13375: 13372: 13370: 13367: 13365: 13362: 13360: 13357: 13355: 13352: 13350: 13347: 13346: 13344: 13342: 13338: 13332: 13329: 13327: 13324: 13323: 13320: 13316: 13312: 13305: 13300: 13298: 13293: 13291: 13286: 13285: 13282: 13270: 13267: 13265: 13262: 13260: 13257: 13255: 13252: 13250: 13247: 13245: 13244:Faroe Islands 13242: 13240: 13237: 13236: 13234: 13228: 13222: 13219: 13217: 13216:South Ossetia 13214: 13212: 13209: 13207: 13204: 13202: 13199: 13198: 13196: 13190: 13182: 13179: 13177: 13174: 13172: 13169: 13167: 13164: 13163: 13162: 13159: 13157: 13154: 13152: 13149: 13147: 13144: 13142: 13139: 13137: 13134: 13132: 13129: 13127: 13124: 13122: 13119: 13117: 13114: 13112: 13109: 13107: 13104: 13102: 13099: 13097: 13094: 13092: 13089: 13087: 13084: 13082: 13079: 13077: 13074: 13072: 13069: 13067: 13064: 13062: 13059: 13057: 13054: 13052: 13049: 13047: 13046:Liechtenstein 13044: 13042: 13039: 13037: 13034: 13032: 13029: 13027: 13025: 13022: 13020: 13017: 13015: 13012: 13010: 13007: 13005: 13002: 13000: 12997: 12995: 12992: 12990: 12987: 12985: 12982: 12980: 12977: 12975: 12972: 12970: 12967: 12965: 12962: 12960: 12957: 12955: 12952: 12950: 12947: 12945: 12942: 12940: 12937: 12935: 12932: 12930: 12927: 12925: 12922: 12920: 12917: 12916: 12914: 12910: 12906: 12899: 12894: 12892: 12887: 12885: 12880: 12879: 12876: 12863: 12862:status aparte 12859: 12856: 12855:status aparte 12853:Druze have a 12852: 12851: 12848: 12842: 12839: 12837: 12834: 12832: 12829: 12827: 12824: 12822: 12819: 12817: 12814: 12812: 12809: 12807: 12804: 12802: 12799: 12798: 12796: 12792: 12786: 12783: 12781: 12778: 12776: 12773: 12769: 12766: 12765: 12764: 12761: 12759: 12756: 12754: 12751: 12749: 12746: 12744: 12741: 12740: 12738: 12734: 12728: 12725: 12721: 12718: 12717: 12716: 12713: 12711: 12708: 12706: 12703: 12702: 12700: 12698:Other Semitic 12696: 12690: 12687: 12685: 12682: 12680: 12677: 12671: 12668: 12666: 12663: 12662: 12661: 12658: 12656: 12653: 12652: 12651: 12648: 12647: 12645: 12643: 12639: 12631: 12628: 12626: 12623: 12622: 12621: 12618: 12614: 12611: 12609: 12606: 12604: 12601: 12599: 12596: 12595: 12594: 12591: 12589: 12586: 12584: 12581: 12579: 12576: 12572: 12569: 12567: 12564: 12562: 12559: 12557: 12554: 12553: 12552: 12549: 12545: 12542: 12540: 12537: 12535: 12532: 12530: 12527: 12525: 12522: 12521: 12520: 12517: 12516: 12514: 12512: 12508: 12502: 12499: 12497: 12494: 12492: 12489: 12487: 12484: 12482: 12479: 12475: 12472: 12470: 12467: 12465: 12462: 12461: 12460: 12457: 12453: 12450: 12448: 12445: 12443: 12440: 12439: 12438: 12435: 12431: 12428: 12426: 12423: 12421: 12418: 12416: 12413: 12411: 12408: 12407: 12406: 12403: 12402: 12400: 12398: 12394: 12390: 12383: 12378: 12376: 12371: 12369: 12364: 12363: 12360: 12354: 12351: 12349: 12346: 12344: 12341: 12338: 12334: 12331: 12320: 12319: 12314: 12309: 12307: 12306: 12302: 12301: 12290: 12286: 12282: 12278: 12274: 12270: 12266: 12262: 12258: 12253: 12250: 12246: 12242: 12238: 12234: 12231: 12227: 12223: 12222: 12217: 12214: 12210: 12206: 12202: 12198: 12195: 12191: 12187: 12183: 12179: 12176: 12172: 12168: 12164: 12160: 12157: 12153: 12149: 12146: 12142: 12138: 12134: 12130: 12125: 12122: 12118: 12114: 12110: 12107: 12104: 12100: 12096: 12092: 12091: 12080: 12074: 12070: 12069: 12064: 12060: 12056: 12050: 12046: 12041: 12037: 12031: 12027: 12022: 12018: 12012: 12008: 12003: 12002: 11992: 11988: 11984: 11980: 11979: 11973: 11969: 11963: 11959: 11955: 11950: 11949: 11928: 11924: 11918: 11912: 11908: 11904: 11898: 11882: 11878: 11874: 11870: 11866: 11862: 11858: 11854: 11850: 11846: 11842: 11838: 11831: 11822: 11814: 11810: 11806: 11802: 11798: 11794: 11790: 11786: 11779: 11777: 11775: 11766: 11762: 11757: 11752: 11748: 11744: 11740: 11736: 11732: 11728: 11724: 11717: 11711: 11706: 11699: 11694: 11678: 11674: 11670: 11664: 11648: 11644: 11640: 11633: 11617: 11613: 11607: 11603: 11602: 11597: 11591: 11583: 11579: 11574: 11569: 11565: 11561: 11557: 11553: 11549: 11545: 11541: 11534: 11528: 11524: 11521: 11507: 11503: 11499: 11495: 11491: 11483: 11481: 11479: 11459: 11455: 11451: 11447: 11443: 11439: 11435: 11431: 11427: 11423: 11419: 11418: 11410: 11402: 11386: 11382: 11376: 11368: 11364: 11359: 11354: 11349: 11344: 11340: 11336: 11332: 11328: 11327: 11322: 11315: 11299: 11295: 11291: 11284: 11268: 11264: 11263: 11258: 11252: 11244: 11240: 11235: 11230: 11226: 11222: 11219:(6): 850–59. 11218: 11214: 11213: 11208: 11201: 11185: 11181: 11177: 11170: 11162: 11158: 11153: 11148: 11144: 11140: 11137:(5): 948–56. 11136: 11132: 11128: 11121: 11113: 11109: 11105: 11101: 11097: 11093: 11089: 11085: 11081: 11077: 11076: 11068: 11060: 11056: 11051: 11046: 11041: 11036: 11032: 11028: 11024: 11017: 11009: 11005: 11001: 10997: 10993: 10989: 10982: 10966: 10962: 10958: 10951: 10935: 10931: 10927: 10920: 10904: 10900: 10896: 10889: 10873: 10869: 10868: 10863: 10856: 10840: 10836: 10832: 10826: 10818: 10812: 10804: 10800: 10795: 10790: 10786: 10782: 10778: 10774: 10770: 10766: 10762: 10755: 10753: 10736: 10732: 10731: 10726: 10719: 10703: 10699: 10698: 10693: 10686: 10684: 10675: 10671: 10666: 10661: 10657: 10653: 10649: 10645: 10641: 10637: 10633: 10625: 10617: 10613: 10608: 10603: 10600:(3): 388–91. 10599: 10595: 10591: 10584: 10576: 10572: 10567: 10562: 10558: 10554: 10550: 10546: 10542: 10535: 10516: 10512: 10508: 10503: 10498: 10493: 10488: 10484: 10480: 10476: 10472: 10465: 10458: 10442: 10438: 10437: 10432: 10425: 10417: 10413: 10408: 10403: 10398: 10393: 10389: 10385: 10381: 10377: 10373: 10366: 10347: 10343: 10339: 10332: 10325: 10309: 10305: 10304: 10299: 10292: 10276: 10272: 10268: 10261: 10245: 10241: 10235: 10231: 10230: 10222: 10215: 10202: 10198: 10194: 10190: 10184: 10169: 10163: 10159: 10154: 10153: 10152:World on Fire 10144: 10128: 10124: 10123: 10118: 10111: 10095: 10091: 10087: 10080: 10072: 10066: 10062: 10057: 10056: 10047: 10039: 10033: 10029: 10022: 10014: 10008: 10004: 9997: 9989: 9983: 9979: 9972: 9956: 9952: 9948: 9941: 9925: 9921: 9917: 9915: 9907: 9891: 9887: 9886: 9881: 9874: 9858: 9854: 9853: 9848: 9841: 9839: 9830: 9826: 9822: 9816: 9812: 9805: 9797: 9793: 9789: 9785: 9778: 9776: 9774: 9765: 9761: 9757: 9753: 9746: 9744: 9727: 9723: 9719: 9713: 9694: 9690: 9689: 9681: 9678:Weiner, Ben. 9674: 9658: 9654: 9648: 9632: 9628: 9621: 9602: 9598: 9597: 9589: 9582: 9574: 9567: 9552: 9551: 9546: 9539: 9523: 9519: 9515: 9509: 9493: 9489: 9485: 9479: 9464: 9460: 9453: 9438: 9434: 9428: 9420: 9414: 9398: 9392: 9377: 9373: 9366: 9359: 9355: 9352: 9348: 9345: 9339: 9323: 9320:(in Hebrew). 9319: 9315: 9309: 9293: 9289: 9288: 9283: 9276: 9269: 9263: 9247: 9243: 9242: 9237: 9231: 9215: 9211: 9204: 9197: 9191: 9184: 9178: 9171: 9166: 9158: 9152: 9137: 9133: 9127: 9120: 9116: 9111: 9095: 9091: 9087: 9081: 9074: 9068: 9059: 9052: 9048: 9044: 9038: 9031: 9027: 9023: 9017: 9001: 8997: 8993: 8990: 8984: 8982: 8974: 8968: 8952: 8948: 8944: 8938: 8929: 8920: 8911: 8904: 8898: 8890: 8884: 8880: 8875: 8874: 8865: 8849: 8845: 8841: 8837: 8830: 8814: 8810: 8806: 8799: 8783: 8779: 8775: 8769: 8761: 8757: 8752: 8747: 8743: 8739: 8735: 8728: 8721: 8717: 8714: 8710: 8705: 8698: 8694: 8689: 8682: 8678: 8674: 8668: 8667:Israel Bartal 8663: 8656: 8650: 8634: 8630: 8626: 8619: 8617: 8608: 8602: 8598: 8597: 8589: 8573: 8569: 8565: 8559: 8552: 8546: 8530: 8526: 8520: 8516: 8515: 8507: 8505: 8495: 8486: 8477: 8461: 8457: 8453: 8447: 8440: 8434: 8418: 8414: 8408: 8404: 8403: 8395: 8388: 8382: 8366: 8362: 8356: 8352: 8351: 8343: 8337: 8333: 8329: 8325: 8321: 8315: 8308: 8304: 8298: 8290: 8283: 8267: 8263: 8257: 8253: 8252: 8244: 8228: 8224: 8218: 8214: 8213: 8205: 8203: 8194: 8187: 8171: 8167: 8161: 8157: 8156: 8148: 8132: 8128: 8122: 8118: 8117: 8109: 8093: 8089: 8083: 8079: 8078: 8070: 8054: 8050: 8044: 8040: 8039: 8031: 8015: 8011: 8005: 8001: 8000: 7992: 7990: 7973: 7969: 7963: 7956: 7950: 7934: 7930: 7924: 7920: 7919: 7911: 7904: 7898: 7891: 7890: 7886: 7883: 7876: 7869: 7863: 7857: 7853: 7849: 7846:Ariel Lewin. 7843: 7836: 7832: 7828: 7822: 7815: 7812: 7798: 7794: 7788: 7784: 7780: 7776: 7775: 7767: 7760: 7755: 7751: 7747: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7729: 7725: 7721: 7714: 7705: 7698: 7685: 7681: 7675: 7671: 7670: 7662: 7653: 7637: 7633: 7627: 7623: 7622: 7614: 7598: 7594: 7588: 7584: 7583: 7575: 7559: 7555: 7549: 7545: 7544: 7536: 7520: 7516: 7510: 7506: 7505: 7497: 7481: 7477: 7471: 7467: 7466: 7458: 7451: 7446: 7442: 7436: 7428: 7424: 7420: 7416: 7412: 7408: 7404: 7400: 7399:Human Biology 7396: 7388: 7381: 7368: 7364: 7363: 7358: 7352: 7336: 7332: 7328: 7322: 7306: 7302: 7296: 7292: 7291: 7283: 7266: 7262: 7256: 7252: 7251: 7243: 7226: 7222: 7216: 7212: 7211: 7203: 7197:Malkiel p. ix 7194: 7186: 7180: 7176: 7175: 7167: 7151: 7147: 7141: 7137: 7136: 7128: 7112: 7108: 7102: 7098: 7097: 7089: 7073: 7069: 7063: 7059: 7058: 7050: 7042: 7036: 7032: 7031: 7026: 7025:Skolnik, Fred 7022: 7018: 7011: 7009: 6992: 6988: 6982: 6978: 6977: 6969: 6961: 6955: 6951: 6950: 6945: 6941: 6940:Skolnik, Fred 6937: 6931: 6929: 6927: 6910: 6906: 6900: 6896: 6895: 6887: 6871: 6867: 6861: 6857: 6856: 6848: 6846: 6844: 6842: 6825: 6821: 6815: 6811: 6810: 6802: 6795: 6789: 6787: 6770: 6766: 6760: 6756: 6755: 6747: 6745: 6728: 6724: 6718: 6714: 6713: 6705: 6697: 6693: 6689: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6671: 6667: 6663: 6659: 6655: 6651: 6647: 6639: 6637: 6628: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6595:PLOS Genetics 6592: 6585: 6583: 6574: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6541:PLOS Genetics 6538: 6531: 6529: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6480:(3): 487–97. 6479: 6475: 6474: 6466: 6458: 6456: 6454: 6445: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6395: 6393: 6385: 6380: 6378: 6360: 6356: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6332: 6330: 6314: 6310: 6304: 6288: 6284: 6278: 6274: 6273: 6265: 6249: 6245: 6239: 6235: 6234: 6226: 6210: 6206: 6200: 6196: 6195: 6187: 6185: 6183: 6174: 6168: 6164: 6163: 6155: 6147: 6141: 6137: 6136: 6128: 6120: 6116: 6115:Eric Hobsbawm 6110: 6094: 6090: 6084: 6080: 6079: 6071: 6064: 6059: 6053: 6049: 6048: 6043: 6042:Skolnik, Fred 6039: 6032: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6001: 5999: 5991: 5985: 5975: 5968: 5962: 5960: 5952: 5948: 5942: 5938: 5937: 5929: 5927: 5919: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5887: 5886: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5857: 5854: 5845: 5844: 5839: 5832: 5824: 5818: 5814: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5797: 5795: 5778: 5774: 5768: 5760: 5754: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5724: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5697:(5): 341–46. 5696: 5692: 5691: 5686: 5679: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5649: 5647: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5616: 5614: 5612: 5607: 5588: 5579: 5573: 5561: 5557: 5556: 5539: 5484: 5480: 5470: 5467: 5466: 5460: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5420: 5417: 5413: 5412: 5411: 5406: 5396: 5394: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5369: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5350: 5347: 5341: 5331: 5328: 5323: 5319: 5316: 5311: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5256: 5252: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5203: 5199: 5194: 5191: 5186: 5183: 5178: 5175: 5170: 5168: 5164: 5154: 5151: 5146: 5144: 5143:Karl Skorecki 5138: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5118: 5116: 5112: 5102: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5086:genetic drift 5083: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5043: 5035: 5033: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5016: 5012: 5007: 5005: 5001: 5000:recombination 4996: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4975: 4965: 4960: 4950: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4934: 4929: 4919: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4904:Nusach Sefard 4901: 4897: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4873: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4848: 4844: 4839: 4836: 4835:sciatic nerve 4832: 4828: 4827: 4822: 4821: 4816: 4813: 4809: 4806: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4790: 4785: 4784: 4783: 4781: 4777: 4776: 4771: 4770:Sephardi Jews 4767: 4763: 4762: 4753: 4752: 4746: 4737: 4735: 4731: 4728: 4717: 4714: 4709: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4654: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4627: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4608: 4603: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4555: 4544: 4542: 4541:Modern Hebrew 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4460: 4458: 4457: 4452: 4451:Islamic Spain 4448: 4444: 4439: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4418: 4417:Who is a Jew? 4408: 4406: 4402: 4395: 4394:American Jews 4385: 4383: 4377: 4375: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4346: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4331: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4311: 4310:The Holocaust 4304:The Holocaust 4301: 4299: 4298:Labor Zionism 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4263:Enlightenment 4259: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4243: 4240: 4237: 4236:Arthur Ruppin 4232: 4228: 4227:Daniel Elazar 4223: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4204: 4193: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4182:First Crusade 4179: 4175: 4170: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4155: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4142:compilation, 4141: 4140: 4134: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4111: 4109: 4108: 4103: 4102: 4097: 4089: 4085: 4080: 4071: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4052:Sephardi Jews 4047: 4044: 4039: 4035: 4030: 4028: 4024: 4018: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3987: 3983: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3951: 3949: 3944: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3919:rulers. Thus 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3893: 3889: 3888:Old Synagogue 3884: 3875: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3801: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3774: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3763:proselytising 3759: 3755: 3751: 3750: 3744: 3743:Louis Feldman 3740: 3735: 3729: 3727: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3712:Raphael Patai 3709: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3684:), Sopianae ( 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3668:), Aquincum ( 3667: 3663: 3658: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3631: 3629: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3609: 3605: 3595: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3576: 3572: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3540: 3530: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3515: 3511: 3506: 3502: 3497: 3495: 3490: 3488: 3484: 3473: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3449: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3418: 3413: 3410:to designate 3409: 3406:began to use 3405: 3401: 3400:high medieval 3397: 3396: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3366: 3364: 3360: 3359:Samuel Krauss 3356: 3352: 3351: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3321: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3274: 3272: 3266: 3262: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3242: 3236: 3232: 3229: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3213:The Biblical 3211: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3164: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3123:the Holocaust 3120: 3115: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3092: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3076: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3021: 3015: 3006: 2998: 2994: 2979: 2973: 2964: 2960: 2959: 2946: 2895: 2884: 2879: 2877: 2872: 2870: 2865: 2864: 2862: 2861: 2856: 2853: 2851: 2848: 2847: 2846: 2845: 2834: 2831: 2829: 2826: 2824: 2821: 2819: 2816: 2814: 2811: 2809: 2806: 2804: 2801: 2799: 2796: 2794: 2791: 2790: 2789: 2788: 2785: 2782: 2781: 2776: 2773: 2771: 2768: 2766: 2763: 2761: 2758: 2756: 2753: 2751: 2748: 2746: 2743: 2742: 2741: 2740: 2737: 2734: 2733: 2728: 2723: 2722: 2715: 2712: 2710: 2707: 2705: 2702: 2700: 2697: 2695: 2694:Judeo-Aramaic 2692: 2690: 2687: 2685: 2684:Judeo-Italian 2682: 2680: 2677: 2675: 2672: 2670: 2667: 2665: 2664:Ghardaïa Sign 2662: 2660: 2657: 2655: 2652: 2650: 2647: 2645: 2642: 2640: 2637: 2635: 2632: 2630: 2627: 2625: 2622: 2620: 2617: 2612: 2608: 2607: 2606: 2603: 2602: 2599: 2594: 2593: 2582: 2579: 2577: 2574: 2572: 2569: 2568: 2567: 2566: 2563: 2560: 2559: 2554: 2551: 2549: 2546: 2544: 2541: 2539: 2536: 2534: 2531: 2529: 2526: 2524: 2521: 2519: 2516: 2515: 2514: 2513: 2510: 2507: 2506: 2501: 2498: 2496: 2493: 2491: 2488: 2486: 2483: 2482: 2481: 2480: 2477: 2474: 2473: 2468: 2465: 2463: 2460: 2459: 2458: 2457: 2454: 2451: 2450: 2445: 2442: 2440: 2437: 2435: 2430: 2427: 2426: 2421: 2419: 2416: 2414: 2411: 2408: 2407: 2402: 2400: 2397: 2395: 2392: 2390: 2387: 2385: 2382: 2381: 2380: 2379: 2375: 2374: 2369: 2364: 2363: 2356: 2353: 2351: 2348: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2338: 2336: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2321: 2316: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2304: 2302: 2299: 2298: 2297: 2294: 2293: 2290: 2289:Denominations 2285: 2284: 2273: 2270: 2268: 2265: 2263: 2260: 2258: 2255: 2253: 2250: 2249: 2248: 2247: 2244: 2241: 2240: 2235: 2232: 2230: 2227: 2225: 2222: 2220: 2215: 2213: 2210: 2208: 2205: 2203: 2200: 2198: 2195: 2193: 2190: 2188: 2185: 2183: 2180: 2178: 2175: 2173: 2168: 2166: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2141: 2138: 2137: 2136: 2135: 2132: 2129: 2128: 2123: 2120: 2118: 2117:United States 2115: 2113: 2110: 2109: 2108: 2107: 2103: 2102: 2097: 2092: 2090: 2087: 2085: 2082: 2080: 2077: 2075: 2072: 2070: 2067: 2065: 2062: 2060: 2057: 2055: 2052: 2050: 2047: 2045: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2012: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1990: 1987: 1985: 1982: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1972: 1970: 1967: 1965: 1962: 1960: 1957: 1955: 1952: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1944: 1941: 1938: 1937: 1932: 1929: 1927: 1924: 1922: 1919: 1917: 1914: 1912: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1902: 1899: 1897: 1894: 1892: 1889: 1887: 1884: 1882: 1879: 1877: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1867: 1864: 1862: 1859: 1857: 1854: 1852: 1849: 1847: 1844: 1842: 1839: 1837: 1834: 1832: 1829: 1827: 1824: 1822: 1819: 1817: 1814: 1812: 1809: 1807: 1804: 1802: 1799: 1797: 1794: 1792: 1789: 1787: 1784: 1782: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1759: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1747: 1744: 1742: 1739: 1738: 1737: 1736: 1732: 1731: 1726: 1723: 1721: 1718: 1715: 1711: 1708: 1706: 1703: 1701: 1698: 1696: 1693: 1691: 1686: 1684: 1681: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1663: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1621: 1619: 1616: 1614: 1611: 1609: 1606: 1604: 1603:Guinea-Bissau 1601: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1559: 1556: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1515: 1514: 1513: 1510: 1507: 1506: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1488: 1487: 1486: 1485: 1482: 1479: 1478: 1473: 1470: 1468: 1465: 1463: 1460: 1458: 1457:Lists of Jews 1455: 1453: 1450: 1449: 1448: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1436: 1425: 1422: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1408: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1384: 1383: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1353: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1344: 1343: 1342: 1338: 1337: 1332: 1329: 1327: 1324: 1322: 1319: 1317: 1314: 1312: 1309: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1270: 1267: 1265: 1262: 1261: 1260: 1257: 1256: 1255: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1243: 1232: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1216:The Holocaust 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1182: 1179: 1178: 1177: 1176: 1172: 1171: 1166: 1163: 1161: 1158: 1156: 1153: 1151: 1143: 1141: 1136: 1132: 1126: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1114: 1111: 1110: 1109: 1108: 1104: 1101: 1100: 1093: 1087: 1081: 1076: 1073: 1069: 1063: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 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511:Sephardi Jews 508: 503: 500: 496: 491: 485: 482: 480: 477: 471: 468: 465: 462: 459: 457:, liturgical) 456: 452: 449: 448: 446: 444: 441: 440: 437: 432: 428: 426: 422: 418: 416: 412: 408: 406: 402: 398: 396: 392: 388: 386: 382: 378: 376: 372: 368: 366: 362: 358: 356: 352: 348: 346: 342: 338: 336: 332: 328: 326: 322: 318: 316: 312: 308: 306: 302: 298: 296: 292: 288: 286: 282: 278: 276: 272: 268: 266: 262: 258: 256: 252: 248: 246: 242: 238: 236: 232: 228: 226: 222: 218: 216: 212: 208: 206: 202: 198: 196: 192: 188: 186: 182: 178: 176: 172: 168: 166: 162: 158: 156: 152: 148: 146: 142: 138: 136: 132: 128: 126: 122: 118: 114: 112: 108: 104: 102: 98: 94: 92: 91:United States 88: 83: 78: 73: 67: 61:אשכנזישע יידן 56: 46: 37: 33: 19: 14939: 14932: 14918: 14841: 14834: 14822: 14805: 14788: 14622:perspectives 14456:Samaritanism 14417:Neo-Hasidism 14397:Conservative 14311:Names of God 14220: 14201: 14011:Judaeo-Greek 14006:Judeo-Gascon 13945:Lishán Didán 13940:Lishana Deni 13908:Judeo-Yemeni 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Retrieved 5629:the original 5575:, singular: 5483: 5453:homozygosity 5449:Dor Yeshorim 5439: 5431:colon cancer 5424: 5408: 5389: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5366:anti-Zionism 5362:antisemitism 5351: 5343: 5324: 5320: 5314: 5312: 5300:Azerbaijanis 5282: 5280: 5262: 5260: 5254: 5251:FBD marriage 5245: 5221: 5197: 5195: 5189: 5187: 5181: 5179: 5173: 5171: 5160: 5149: 5147: 5139: 5126:haplogroup K 5121: 5119: 5111:ethnogenesis 5108: 5094:R1a1a (M17+) 5089: 5072: 5070: 5051:Y-chromosome 5046: 5044: 5041: 5020: 5008: 4997: 4982: 4962: 4947:Moroccan Jew 4935: 4931: 4893: 4824: 4818: 4800:, and rice ( 4787: 4773: 4759: 4757: 4749: 4727:Y-chromosome 4723: 4720:By ethnicity 4713:Soviet Union 4710: 4701: 4686: 4662:antisemitism 4655: 4628: 4604: 4598: 4590: 4562: 4552: 4550: 4502: 4496: 4461: 4454: 4440: 4425: 4397: 4378: 4362: 4358: 4343:Mizrahi Jews 4332: 4316:World War II 4313: 4292:, turned to 4279: 4267:Disabilities 4260: 4244: 4241: 4224: 4219: 4214:Collection. 4207: 4201: 4199: 4171: 4156: 4151: 4143: 4137: 4135: 4130: 4122: 4112: 4107:Mahzor Vitry 4105: 4099: 4093: 4088:yellow badge 4068:Persian Jews 4064:Mizrahi Jews 4048: 4034:Leshon Knaan 4031: 4027:antisemitism 4019: 3992: 3952: 3945: 3912:Persian Jews 3897: 3817:Roman Empire 3807: 3775: 3758:Brian McGing 3748: 3734:Bar Hebraeus 3730: 3710: 3680:), Savaria ( 3659: 3632: 3601: 3577: 3573: 3561:Roman colony 3542: 3519: 3498: 3491: 3487:pull factors 3479: 3455: 3437: 3415: 3407: 3393: 3386:1 Kings 17:9 3381: 3373: 3367: 3348: 3324: 3322: 3305: 3297: 3275: 3264: 3254: 3250: 3238: 3230: 3214: 3212: 3172: 3170: 3143: 3131:World War II 3127:Nazi Germany 3116: 3093: 3077: 3028: 3024: 2893: 2892: 2833:Post-Zionism 2704:Judeo-Berber 2699:Judeo-Arabic 2659:Judeo-Gascon 2406:Pidyon haben 2325:Conservative 1871:Saudi Arabia 1689:South Africa 1678:Sierra Leone 1500:Israeli Jews 1414:Mosaic Arabs 1367:Kaifeng Jews 1258: 1228:Arab–Israeli 1201:Emancipation 1080:Great Revolt 889:Anti-Judaism 884:Antisemitism 879:Name "Judea" 674:Baal teshuva 515:Mizrahi Jews 479:Traditional: 478: 442: 195:South Africa 39:Ethnic group 36: 14864:Catholicism 14446:Hellenistic 14284:Eschatology 14222:Lachoudisch 14147:Lotegorisch 14125:Lachoudisch 14115:Koiné Greek 14028:Judeo-Latin 13965:Palestinian 13859:Palestinian 13708:Mustaʿravim 13634:Afghan Jews 13622:Berber Jews 13546:Bene Israel 13534:Falash Mura 13524:Beta Israel 13442:Persecution 13384:Middle Ages 13259:Isle of Man 13194:recognition 13146:Switzerland 13081:Netherlands 12775:Circassians 12630:Falash Mura 12625:Beta Israel 12603:Bene Israel 12324:23 December 12158:, New York. 11698:Davies 1992 11683:4 September 11643:The Forward 11467:4 September 11304:21 February 11180:ScienceNews 11033:(9): e143. 10878:16 November 10845:25 November 10771:(1): 2543. 10708:18 February 10207:23 December 10100:16 December 9896:18 February 9610:5 September 9468:20 December 9442:20 December 9403:20 December 9381:20 December 8943:"Jerusalem" 8137:13 November 8098:13 November 8020:13 November 7968:"Hellenism" 6517:30 December 6412:(1): 2543. 6021:26 December 5802:Wells, John 5713:4 September 5658:The Gazette 4883:bar mitzvah 4682:francophone 4639:Inquisition 4631:Middle Ages 4599:Yiddishkeit 4591:Yiddishkeit 4563:Yiddishkeit 4554:Yiddishkeit 4422:By religion 4382:melting pot 4320:Polish Jews 4276:patronymics 4208:Liebesbrief 4011:interbellum 3963:SHuM cities 3856:vernaculars 3853:High German 3849:Judeo-Latin 3809:Charlemagne 3798:Merovingian 3682:Szombathely 3674:Dunaújváros 3645:thrived in 3456:Like other 3345:Saadia Gaon 3237:; the name 3075:in Israel. 3061:persecution 3057:Middle Ages 2828:Revisionist 2818:Neo-Zionism 2425:Zeved habat 2218:Puerto Rico 2044:Netherlands 1876:South Korea 1861:Philippines 1741:Afghanistan 1608:Ivory Coast 1382:Crypto-Jews 1347:Bnei Anusim 1326:Bene Israel 1291:Beta Israel 1248:Communities 1155:Middle Ages 894:Persecution 669:Bereavement 355:New Zealand 255:Netherlands 105:2.8 million 95:5–6 million 14964:Categories 14859:Anabaptism 14801:Jew (word) 14668:Leadership 14481:Literature 14466:Secularism 14412:Humanistic 14279:Conversion 14249:Philosophy 14090:Judeo-Urdu 13854:Babylonian 13699:Saada Jews 13684:Adeni Jews 13477:Ashkenazim 13432:Samaritans 13399:Population 13354:Israelites 13116:San Marino 13076:Montenegro 13056:Luxembourg 13036:Kazakhstan 12939:Azerbaijan 12785:Vietnamese 12768:Subbotniks 12710:Samaritans 12583:Romaniotes 12519:Ashkenazim 12474:Protestant 11512:14 October 11273:8 November 11190:25 January 11027:PLOS Genet 10741:31 October 10524:4 November 10447:10 October 10355:8 November 10314:8 November 10250:10 October 10133:31 October 9702:8 November 9663:8 November 9298:8 November 9252:8 November 9141:9 November 9132:"Refugees" 8973:Ohel Dawid 8923:ib. p. 129 8805:"Rapoport" 8693:Cecil Roth 8371:25 January 8233:10 October 7441:Cecil Roth 7380:Testament. 6944:"Ashkenaz" 6318:9 November 5783:14 January 5635:29 October 5597:References 5292:Samaritans 5238:Sardinians 5232:, French, 5205:microarray 4957:See also: 4912:Nusach Ari 4852:Ashkenazi 4843:Dutch Jews 4826:Beth Yosef 4730:haplotypes 4547:By culture 4415:See also: 4411:Definition 4374:unicameral 4082:Jews from 4038:Cecil Roth 3870:and later 3790:Dagobert I 3767:temple tax 3747:Eusebius' 3706:Cappadocia 3651:Alexandria 3462:Israelites 3302:Germanikia 3208:Cimmerians 3204:Genesis 10 3100:literature 3029:Ashkenazim 2813:Maximalism 2765:Secularism 2745:Autonomism 2562:Literature 2355:Humanistic 1959:Azerbaijan 1921:Uzbekistan 1896:Tajikistan 1816:Kyrgyzstan 1801:Kazakhstan 1648:Mozambique 1623:Madagascar 1543:Cape Verde 1495:New Yishuv 1490:Old Yishuv 1441:Population 1419:Subbotniks 1377:Samaritans 1316:Romanyotim 1259:Ashkenazim 1206:Old Yishuv 1186:Sabbateans 1173:Modern era 1165:Golden Age 1092:Bar Kokhba 812:Beit Yosef 679:Philosophy 525:; various 523:Samaritans 472:and others 375:Azerbaijan 18:Ashkenazim 14921:indicate 14869:Mormonism 14854:Christian 14734:Symbolism 14722:Synagogue 14702:Mythology 14663:Education 14634:Astronomy 14617:Astrology 14434:relations 14239:Zarphatic 14187:Galitzish 13989:Yeshivish 13866:Catalanic 13829:Samaritan 13804:Ashkenazi 13785:Diasporic 13780:Languages 13725:Sephardim 13720:Romaniote 13607:Krymchaks 13541:Desi Jews 13417:Buddhists 13249:Gibraltar 13051:Lithuania 12811:Filipinos 12748:Armenians 12720:Maronites 12705:Assyrians 12620:Ethiopian 12534:Bulgarian 12452:Ahmadiyya 12289:167051866 12281:0091-7710 12228:, Mainz: 11933:20 August 11861:1573-7292 11710:Vogt 1975 11604:. Brill. 11564:1476-5438 9764:1217-2545 9732:20 August 9528:20 August 9498:20 August 9328:20 August 8957:20 August 8788:20 August 8535:20 August 8423:20 August 8389:pp. 68–69 8353:. Brill. 8336:1930-3777 8322:. 4 (1). 8176:20 August 8158:. BRILL. 8119:. Brill. 8059:20 August 8041:. BRILL. 7939:20 August 7921:. BRILL. 7803:15 August 7754:245512193 7746:1047-7594 7690:15 August 7642:20 August 7603:20 August 7564:20 August 7546:. BRILL. 7525:20 August 7486:13 August 7419:0018-7143 7373:20 August 7341:20 August 7311:15 August 7271:15 August 7231:15 August 7156:20 August 7117:20 August 7078:13 August 7017:"Armenia" 6997:13 August 6915:20 August 6876:13 August 6858:. Orion. 6830:13 August 6775:20 August 6733:13 August 6696:248865376 6670:0092-8674 6365:13 August 6293:13 August 6254:13 August 6099:13 August 5913:Germanica 5773:"Yiddish" 5602:Citations 5393:Silk Road 5304:Georgians 5296:Armenians 5276:Israelite 5230:Orcadians 5134:Levantine 5082:gene flow 5065:Near East 5023:admixture 4796:, grain, 4734:mitotypes 4689:Holocaust 4678:Holocaust 4583:Rhineland 4521:Carlebach 4464:Sephardic 4339:Sephardic 4328:Australia 4294:socialism 4203:Memorbuch 4178:Jerusalem 4015:Holocaust 3976:Christian 3972:Lithuania 3841:Sephardim 3771:Kitos War 3749:Chronicon 3660:Sporadic 3639:Macedonia 3608:Caracalla 3584:Vespasian 3442:Crusaders 3422:Rhineland 3398:. By the 3247:Scythians 3235:Euphrates 3228:cuneiform 3196:patriarch 3187:, son of 3183:, son of 3173:Ashkenazi 3171:The name 3167:Etymology 3157:admixture 3149:Levantine 3014:romanized 2972:romanized 2823:Religious 2679:Zarphatic 2669:Bukharian 2639:Judeo-Tat 2624:Yeshivish 2598:Languages 2553:Sephardic 2543:Israelite 2533:Ethiopian 2523:Ashkenazi 2462:Religious 2252:Australia 2234:Venezuela 2140:Argentina 2122:Greenland 2034:Lithuania 1886:Sri Lanka 1881:Singapore 1806:Kurdistan 1771:Indonesia 1761:Hong Kong 1714:Abayudaya 1638:Mauritius 1372:Igbo Jews 1362:Krymchaks 1281:Sephardim 1149:relations 1043:Sadducees 1039:Pharisees 1029:Sanhedrin 944:Jerusalem 704:Synagogue 572:Etymology 434:Languages 385:Lithuania 185:Australia 125:Argentina 63:‎ ( 52:‎ ( 14934:Category 14904:Hinduism 14894:Buddhism 14796:Genetics 14712:Politics 14685:Marriage 14644:Holidays 14639:Calendar 14520:Rabbinic 14496:/Hebrew 14441:Haymanot 14368:Orthodox 14355:Branches 14328:Kabbalah 14323:Haskalah 14301:Holiness 14177:dialects 14157:Shassagh 14120:Krymchak 14100:Kayliñña 13994:Yinglish 13970:Galilean 13960:Talmudic 13955:Biblical 13930:Betanure 13849:Biblical 13844:Mishnaic 13839:Medieval 13824:Tiberian 13819:Yemenite 13809:Sephardi 13745:Paradesi 13689:Ḥabbanim 13679:Teimanim 13644:Baghdadi 13617:Maghrebi 13585:Karaites 13563:Gruzínim 13551:Kochinim 13469:Diaspora 13427:Karaites 13412:Atheists 13349:Timeline 13269:Svalbard 13254:Guernsey 13201:Abkhazia 13176:Scotland 13131:Slovenia 13126:Slovakia 13101:Portugal 12959:Bulgaria 12841:Sudanese 12780:Bosniaks 12763:Russians 12727:Lebanese 12715:Arameans 12689:Lebanese 12578:Karaites 12571:Yemenite 12551:Mizrahim 12539:Moroccan 12524:Romanian 12501:Buddhism 12496:Hinduism 12469:Catholic 12430:Haymanot 12410:Rabbinic 12111:(2002): 12065:(2005). 11881:Archived 11877:29003252 11869:15516842 11813:23251307 11805:15368499 11765:25669617 11647:Archived 11622:26 March 11616:Archived 11582:30108283 11523:Archived 11506:Archived 11458:Archived 11446:20531471 11385:Archived 11367:20798349 11298:Archived 11267:Archived 11243:20560205 11184:Archived 11161:17436249 11104:12493913 11059:17044734 11008:18349094 10965:Archived 10961:BBC News 10934:Archived 10903:Archived 10899:BBC News 10872:Archived 10839:Archived 10803:24104924 10735:Archived 10702:Archived 10674:29097670 10616:15523495 10575:11573163 10515:Archived 10511:10801975 10441:Archived 10416:10801975 10308:Archived 10275:Archived 10244:Archived 10173:6 August 10127:Archived 10094:Archived 9961:26 April 9955:Archived 9924:Archived 9890:Archived 9857:Archived 9796:43562849 9726:Archived 9522:Archived 9492:Archived 9413:cite web 9354:Archived 9322:Archived 9292:Archived 9214:Archived 9094:Archived 9030:77-96925 9000:Archived 8951:Archived 8848:Archived 8813:Archived 8782:Archived 8760:30840069 8716:Archived 8633:Archived 8578:12 March 8572:Archived 8529:Archived 8460:Archived 8417:Archived 8365:Archived 8291:. 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