Old English - Knowledge

1640:– show the most marked Danish influence; the best evidence of Scandinavian influence appears in the extensive word borrowings because, as Jespersen indicates, no texts exist in either Scandinavia or Northern England from this time to give certain evidence of an influence on syntax. The effect of Old Norse on Old English was substantive, pervasive, and of a democratic character. Old Norse and Old English resembled each other closely like cousins, and with some words in common, speakers roughly understood each other; in time the inflections melted away and the analytic pattern emerged. It is most important to recognize that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages that only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw, these endings must have led to much confusion, tending gradually to become obscured and finally lost. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in "simplifying English grammar". 889: 1420: 1114: 4901: 6269: 1280: 897: 2896: 4964:, a Christian religious poem. There are also a number of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical translations, and translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers, legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar, medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered the heart of Old English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with a few exceptions, such as 64: 384: 1395:

translations produced under Alfred's programme, many of which were produced by Mercian scholars. Other dialects certainly continued to be spoken, as is evidenced by the continued variation between their successors in Middle and Modern English. In fact, what would become the standard forms of Middle English and of Modern English are descended from Mercian rather than West Saxon, while

2737:. As in Modern English, and peculiar to the Germanic languages, the verbs formed two great classes: weak (regular), and strong (irregular). Like today, Old English had fewer strong verbs, and many of these have over time decayed into weak forms. Then, as now, dental suffixes indicated the past tense of the weak verbs, as in 5889:Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us ƿel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid-þam mannum þe me mid-foron into Denmearcon, þe eoƿ mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid-godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eoƿ næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hƿile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð. 4926:

The corpus of Old English literature is small but still significant, with some 400 surviving manuscripts. The pagan and Christian streams mingle in Old English, one of the richest and most significant bodies of literature preserved among the early Germanic peoples. In his supplementary article to the

5991:

At that time, I was told that we had been harmed more than we liked; and I departed with the men who accompanied me into Denmark, from where the most harm has come to you; and I have already prevented it with God's help, so that from now on, strife will never come to you from there, while you regard

1603:

No less far-reaching was the influence of Scandinavian upon the inflexional endings of English in hastening that wearing away and leveling of grammatical forms which gradually spread from north to south. It was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss. There was a gain in

1470:

introduced into the language is very small, although dialect and toponymic terms are more often retained in western language contact zones (Cumbria, Devon, Welsh Marches and Borders and so on) than in the east. However, various suggestions have been made concerning possible influence that Celtic may

6531:

We do not know what languages the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons spoke, nor even whether they were sufficiently similar to make them mutually intelligible, but it is reasonable to assume that by the end of the sixth century there must have been a language that could be understood by all and this we call

4996:

was found as a baby, washed ashore, and adopted by a noble family. The translation is literal and represents the original poetic word order. As such, it is not typical of Old English prose. The modern cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a close approximation of the

4935:

In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the writings of the Anglo-Saxon period perished. What they contained, how important they were for an understanding of literature before the Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the scant catalogues of monastic libraries do not help us, and

1579:

texts, which are more often based on eastern dialects, a strong Norse influence becomes apparent. Modern English contains many, often everyday, words that were borrowed from Old Norse, and the grammatical simplification that occurred after the Old English period is also often attributed to Norse

1394:

Due to the centralisation of power and the destruction wrought by Viking invasions, there is relatively little written record of the non-West Saxon dialects after Alfred's unification. Some Mercian texts continued to be written, however, and the influence of Mercian is apparent in some of the

1297:

is not monolithic, Old English varied according to place. Despite the diversity of language of the Germanic-speaking migrants who established Old English in England and southeastern Scotland, it is possible to reconstruct proto-Old English as a fairly unitary language. For the most part, the

6340:

came to refer to all things of the early English period, including language, culture, and people. While it remains the normal term for the latter two aspects, the language began to be called Old English towards the end of the 19th century, as a result of the increasingly strong anti-German

5972:

The following is a natural Modern English translation, with the overall structure of the Old English passage preserved. Even though "earl" is used to translate its Old English cognate "eorl", "eorl" in Old English does not correspond exactly to "earl" of the later medieval period:

5449:

After destitution was first experienced (by him), he met with consolation for that; he grew under the clouds of the sky and flourished in adulation, until all of the neighbouring people had to obey him over the whale-road (i.e. the sea), and pay tribute to the man. That was a good

6110:. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. Initially issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM, the dictionary is now primarily published online at 1173:

standard", or more commonly as Late West Saxon. It is considered to represent the "classical" form of Old English. It retained its position of prestige until the time of the Norman Conquest, after which English ceased for a time to be of importance as a literary language.

1333:

and south of the Humber River; West Saxon lay south and southwest of the Thames; and the smallest, Kentish region lay southeast of the Thames, a small corner of England. The Kentish region, settled by the Jutes from Jutland, has the scantest literary remains. The term

1369:. From that time on, the West Saxon dialect (then in the form now known as Early West Saxon) became standardised as the language of government, and as the basis for the many works of literature and religious materials produced or translated from Latin in that period. 1510:

of Western Europe. It is sometimes possible to give approximate dates for the borrowing of individual Latin words based on which patterns of sound change they have undergone. Some Latin words had already been borrowed into the Germanic languages before the ancestral

4936:

there are no references in extant works to other compositions....How incomplete our materials are can be illustrated by the well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant exceptions, all extant Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts.

5977:

King Cnut kindly greets his archbishops and his provincial bishops and Earl Thorkell, and all his earls, and all his people, both those with a weregild of 1,200 shillings and those with a weregild of 200 shillings, both ordained and layman, in England.

5463: 5464: 1298:

differences between the attested regional dialects of Old English developed within England and southeastern Scotland, rather than on the Mainland of Europe. Although from the tenth century Old English writing from all regions tended to conform to a

5984:

I recalled the writings and words which the archbishop Lyfing brought to me from the Pope of Rome, that I must promote the worship of God everywhere, and suppress unrighteousness, and promote perfect peace with the power which God would give me.

6225:

Like other historical languages, Old English has been used by scholars and enthusiasts of later periods to create texts either imitating Old English literature or deliberately transferring it to a different cultural context. Examples include

8183:. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1983/1994. (Issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM and on the 1570:

in eastern and northern England are of Scandinavian origin. Norse borrowings are relatively rare in Old English literature, being mostly terms relating to government and administration. The literary standard, however, was based on the

698:) as the language of the upper classes. This is regarded as marking the end of the Old English era, since during the subsequent period the English language was heavily influenced by Anglo-Norman, developing into what is now known as 869:

which could refer to curve or hook shapes including fishing hooks. Concerning the second option, it has been hypothesised that the Angles acquired their name either because they lived on a curved promontory of land shaped like a

4671:'s time. From then onward, thorn was used increasingly often at the start of words, while eth was normal in the middle and at the end of words, although usage varied in both cases. Some modern editions use only thorn. See also 5785:

Ic nam me to gemynde þa geƿritu and þa ƿord, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghƿær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið ƿyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan

5460: 6164:. 4th rev. edn by Herbet D. Meritt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Occasionally more accurate than Bosworth-Toller, and widely used as a reading dictionary. Various digitisations are available, including 2922:, extended by five more runes used to represent Anglo-Saxon vowel sounds and sometimes by several more additional characters. From around the 8th century, the runic system came to be supplanted by a (minuscule) 1399:

developed from the Northumbrian dialect. It was once claimed that, owing to its position at the heart of the Kingdom of Wessex, the relics of Anglo-Saxon accent, idiom and vocabulary were best preserved in the

5461: 1196:). This language, or closely related group of dialects, spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and pre-dating documented Old English or Anglo-Saxon, has also been called Primitive Old English. 5000:

The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and the bold words in brackets are explanations of words that have slightly different meanings in a modern context. Notice how

6312: 5676:

and the English people written in AD 1019. Unlike the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For ease of reading, the passage has been divided into sentences while the

804:. Like other old Germanic languages, it is very different from Modern English and Modern Scots, and largely incomprehensible for Modern English or Modern Scots speakers without study. Within 5697:

Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, tƿelfhynde and tƿyhynde, gehadode and læƿede, on Englalande freondlice.

5439:

Here is a natural enough Modern English translation, although the phrasing of the Old English passage has often been stylistically preserved, even though it is not usual in Modern English:

1158:, appear to have been translated by Alfred himself. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, but Alfred chiefly inspired the growth of prose. 7479:(West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction). 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013, 847:

who settled in many parts of Britain in the 5th century. By the 9th century, all speakers of Old English, including those who claimed Saxon or Jutish ancestry, could be referred to as

6257:. However, one investigation found that many Neo-Old English texts published online bear little resemblance to the historical language and have many basic grammatical mistakes. 5019:

English poetry is based on stress and alliteration. In alliteration, the first consonant in a word alliterates with the same consonant at the beginning of another word, as with

2706:, but the latter applied only to "strong" masculine nouns in the nominative and accusative cases; different plural endings were used in other instances. Old English nouns had 1599:

in the Danelaw to communicate with their Anglo-Saxon neighbours produced a friction that led to the erosion of the complicated inflectional word endings. Simeon Potter notes:

1497:

do not become widespread until the late Middle English and Early Modern English periods, in addition to the fact that similar forms exist in other modern Germanic languages.

3979:, it is always palatal . Otherwise, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly 5462: 1338:

actually is represented by two different dialects: Early West Saxon and Late West Saxon. Hogg has suggested that these two dialects would be more appropriately named

1128:. The 9th-century English King proposed that primary education be taught in English, with those wishing to advance to holy orders to continue their studies in Latin. 1376:, above), although centred in the same region of the country, appears not to have been directly descended from Alfred's Early West Saxon. For example, the former 7332:

Christina Neuland and Florian Schleburg. (2014). "A New Old English? The Chances of an Anglo-Saxon Revival on the Internet". In: S. Buschfeld et al. (Eds.),

3109:. Macrons are used to indicate long vowels, where usually no distinction was made between long and short vowels in the originals. (In some older editions an 2500:: singular, and plural; and are strong or weak. The instrumental is vestigial and only used with the masculine and neuter singular and often replaced by the 994:. While indicating that the establishment of dates is an arbitrary process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections, a 6739: 6042:

Glossaries. Over time, these word-lists were consolidated and alphabeticised to create extensive Latin-Old English glossaries with some of the character of

1302:

based on Late West Saxon, in speech Old English continued to exhibit much local and regional variation, which remained in Middle English and to some extent

9139: 6317: 4558:. But due to changes over time, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty (for details, see 2710:, while modern English has only natural gender. Pronoun usage could reflect either natural or grammatical gender when those conflicted, as in the case of 6073:

Old English lexicography was revived in the early modern period, drawing heavily on Anglo-Saxons' own glossaries. The major publication at this time was

6055: 8484: 8446: 8433: 8425: 7285:

Patrizia Lendinara, 'Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries: An Introduction', in Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries (Aldershot: Variorum, 1999), pp. 1–26.

863:, which referred to narrowness, constriction or anxiety, perhaps referring to shallow waters near the coast, or else it may derive from a related word 2229:

was an allophone of short /ɑ/ which occurred in stressed syllables before nasal consonants (/m/ and /n/). It was variously spelled either ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩.

8441: 6238:

uses several Old English words, such as syndrigast (singular, peculiar), ymbryne (period, cycle), etc., dubbed as "Old Peculiar" ones. Advocates of

865: 10552: 8461: 5988:

I never hesitated from my peace payments (e.g. to the Vikings) while you had strife at hand. But with God's help and my payments, that went away.

3897: 3828: 3077:

Modern editions of Old English manuscripts generally introduce some additional conventions. The modern forms of Latin letters are used, including

1575:, away from the main area of Scandinavian influence; the impact of Norse may have been greater in the eastern and northern dialects. Certainly in 8184: 859: 6341:

nationalism in English society of the 1890s and early 1900s. However, many authors still also use the term Anglo-Saxon to refer to the language.

10557: 3217:). The following table lists the Old English letters and digraphs together with the phonemes they represent, using the same notation as in the 777:. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the literary standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle and 3066:

over vowels were originally used not to mark long vowels (as in modern editions), but to indicate stress, or as abbreviations for a following

9514: 8592: 8301: 614: 781:

would develop mainly from Mercian, and Scots from Northumbrian. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong

9312: 7535: 4667:. Eth was first attested (in definitely dated materials) in the 7th century, and thorn in the 8th. Eth was more common than thorn before 3975:

in modern editions. Word-initially before another consonant letter, the pronunciation is always the velar fricative . Word-finally after

4559: 3992: 3503: 2439:

For more details of these processes, see the main article, linked above. For sound changes before and after the Old English period, see

8476: 8451: 2594:

for case, gender, and number. Adjectives have both strong and weak sets of endings, weak ones being used when a definite or possessive

7064:Øystein Heggelund (2007) Old English subordinate clauses and the shift to verb-medial order in English, English Studies, 88:3, 351–361 6657: 8212: 3582:. The two geminates were not distinguished in Old English orthography; in modern editions, the palatal geminate is sometimes written 8222: 2339: 1408: 8257: 6207: 5839:

Nu ne ƿandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hƿile þe eoƿ unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid-godes fultume þæt totƿæmde mid-minum scattum.

1085: 8410: 1940: 8549: 8530: 8510: 7484: 6835: 4672: 2938:, a cursive and pointed version of the half-uncial script. This was used until the end of the 12th century when continental 1608:

The strength of the Viking influence on Old English appears from the fact that the indispensable elements of the language –

9129: 8418: 8111:

A Critical Bibliography of Old English Syntax to the end of 1984, including addenda and corrigenda to "Old English Syntax"

7477:

Das Westgermanische : von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert; Analyse und Rekonstruktion

6242:

often look to older forms of English, including Old English, as a means of either reviving old words or coining new ones.

1349:

Each of these four dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the islands. Of these, Northumbria south of the

8267: 2351: 1967: 1946: 1013:(also known as North Sea Germanic) dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the 472: 362: 10041: 5446:

Often Shield the son/descendant of Sheaf ripped away the mead-benches from many tribes' enemy bands – he terrified men!

1232:

to 1150), the final stage of the language leading up to the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent transition to

1098:, which was composed between 658 and 680 but not written down until the early 8th century. There is a limited corpus of 7639: 7500: 3640:

may have been a means of showing that the word was pronounced with a stop rather than a fricative; spellings with just

734: 6413: 5443:

What! We spear-Danes in ancient days inquired about the glory of the nation-kings, how the princes performed bravery.

8120:, PhD dissertation, Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki, vol. LXXX, Helsinki: Société Néophilologique. 7893: 7753: 7676: 7611: 7592: 7556: 7462: 7419: 7246: 7091: 6607: 6555: 6353: 5796: 1453: 987: 679: 6114:. This generally supersedes previous dictionaries where available. As of September 2018, the dictionary covered A-I. 1145: 8585: 8294: 3113:

mark was used for consistency with Old Norse conventions.) Additionally, modern editions often distinguish between

1891: 1822: 1493:. These ideas have generally not received widespread support from linguists, particularly as many of the theorized 1463: 607: 17: 4752:

and derived from the rune of the same name. In earlier texts by continental scribes, and also later in the north,

2661:

of an adposition is marked in the dative case, an adposition may conceivably be located anywhere in the sentence.

998:. Perhaps around 85% of Old English words are no longer in use, but those that survived are the basic elements of 8398: 7660: 6762: 6213: 5488: 5067: 3233: 2440: 1849: 1401: 515: 352: 7933:

Philological Essays: studies in Old and Middle English language and literature in honour of Herbert Dean Merritt

7196:

Flom, George T. (1915). Flom, George T. (ed.). "On the Earliest History of the Latin Script in Eastern Norway".

7297:, ed. by Bogislav von Lindheim, Beiträge zur englischen Philologie, 35 (Bochum-Langendreer: Poppinghaus, 1941). 2815:

Sentences with subordinate clauses of the type "when X, Y" (e.g. "When I got home, I ate dinner") do not use a

2075:

or when doubled. At some point before the Middle English period, also became the pronunciation word-initially.

7787:

Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries: Vol 1: Linguistic Theory and Historical Linguistics

10408: 8252: 7875: 7310:, English Linguistics 1500–1800 (A Collection of Facsimile Reprints), 247 (Menston: The Scholar Press, 1970). 6297: 4039:

may have been realized as devoiced versions of the second consonants instead of as sequences starting with .

1828: 414: 232: 6956:"121028 Charlene Lohmeier "Evolution of the English Language" – 23:40 – 25:00; 30:20 – 30:45; 45:00 – 46:00" 1329:. In terms of geography the Northumbrian region lay north of the Humber River; the Mercian lay north of the 888: 10438: 9608: 9570: 9555: 8321: 7442: 6591: 6307: 6282: 6239: 6227: 2654: 2414:

Diphthongisation of certain vowels before certain consonants when preceding a back vowel ("back mutation").

2397: 2372:("Anglo-Frisian brightening"), partly reversed in certain positions by later "a-restoration" or retraction. 1877: 1855: 295: 31: 8882: 8435: 8427: 5752:

And ic cyðe eoƿ, þæt ic ƿylle beon hold hlaford and unsƿicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre ƿoroldlage.

4843: 4837: 4826: 4822: 4812: 4800: 4785: 4753: 4741: 4735: 4721: 4717: 4707: 4690: 4686: 4637: 4622: 4616: 4604: 4593: 4588: 4576: 4572: 4555: 4546: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4521: 4517: 4508: 4504: 4494: 4485: 4479: 4467: 4451: 4428: 4422: 4403: 4397: 4385: 4375: 4364: 4360: 4350: 4336: 4332: 4322: 4305: 4288: 4276: 4255: 4238: 4227: 4223: 4213: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4176: 4162: 4158: 4148: 4136: 4122: 4118: 4108: 4081: 4069: 4061: 4050: 4017: 4003: 3988: 3980: 3954: 3933: 3922: 3918: 3908: 3885: 3879: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3839: 3816: 3810: 3796: 3792: 3782: 3770: 3736: 3703: 3685: 3679: 3668: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3553: 3549: 3538: 3522: 3499: 3491: 3483: 3475: 3455: 3449: 3420: 3410: 3379: 3375: 3361: 3357: 3347: 3336: 3332: 3311: 3297: 3293: 3283: 3272: 3268: 3250: 3214: 3198: 2761:. Some differences are consequences of the greater level of nominal and verbal inflection, allowing freer 2418: 2390: 2386: 2332: 2328: 2319: 2314: 2304: 2299: 2289: 2284: 2248: 2244: 2236: 2216: 2210: 2203: 2191: 2182: 2170: 2163: 2158: 2103: 2099: 2083: 2072: 2068: 2061: 2046: 2039: 2028: 2024: 1388: 1384: 1380: 10562: 10542: 10418: 10278: 9628: 9587: 9577: 8578: 8287: 7713: 2411:

Loss of certain weak vowels in word-final and medial positions; reduction of remaining unstressed vowels.

1920: 1899: 1523:

and Latin-speaking priests became influential. It was also through Irish Christian missionaries that the

1520: 1445: 600: 80:", translated as "over the whale's road (sea)". It is an example of an Old English stylistic device, the 6623: 6165: 5981:

And I declare to you, that I will be a kind lord, and faithful to God's laws and to proper secular law.

8794: 7571: 7548: 6274: 6063: 4972:. Cædmon, the earliest English poet known by name, served as a lay brother in the monastery at Whitby. 2890: 2720: 1955: 1863: 1777: 1763: 1458:

The language of the Anglo-Saxon settlers appears not to have been significantly affected by the native

1449: 1358: 1107: 821: 456: 273: 8150:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. (Based on Bosworth's 1838 dictionary, his papers & additions by Toller) 6792:

Robert McColl Millar, "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change", in

2563: 2550: 1162: 10537: 10135: 8179: 8146: 8125:

A History of English Syntax: a transformational approach to the history of English sentence structure

7668: 7584: 6201: 6195: 6179:, Costerus New Series, 131–32, 2nd rev. impression, 2 vols (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2000), also available 6126: 6106: 5493: 2665: 2546: 1907: 1883: 754: 6031: 4189:

in every dialect but Northumbrian, where it was preserved until Middle English. In Early West Saxon

1595:

most likely made a greater impact on the English language than any other language. The eagerness of

1102:

from the 5th to 7th centuries, but the oldest coherent runic texts (notably the inscriptions on the

10413: 10367: 10362: 10286: 9896: 9880: 9759: 9618: 9509: 9504: 8356: 6703: 6101: 3545: 2931: 2327:

Other dialects had different systems of diphthongs. For example, the Northumbrian dialect retained

1988: 1728: 1494: 1459: 1314: 1140:

in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the

1070: 770: 552: 523: 424: 242: 6138:. Due to errors and omissions in the 1898 publication, this needs to be read in conjunction with: 6130:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. The main research dictionary for Old English, unless superseded by the 3648:

are also found. To disambiguate, the cluster ending in the palatal affricate is sometimes written

2421:

between vowels or between a voiced consonant and a vowel, with lengthening of the preceding vowel.

1419: 1161:

A later literary standard, dating from the late 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop

1042: 10352: 10296: 10291: 10211: 9884: 9834: 9134: 8952: 8708: 8636: 8624: 8336: 8331: 8326: 8118:

Non-finite Constructions in Old English, with Special Reference to Syntactic Borrowing from Latin

6721: 6599: 3035: 2824: 2791: 2602: 2567: 2233: 2226: 1869: 1793: 1782: 1768: 793: 537: 176: 166: 156: 10474: 10194: 9592: 3556:) was rare in Old English, and its etymological origin in the words in which it occurs (such as 3490:

of the word is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly

2091: 1148:

alongside Latin, and had many works translated into the English language; some of them, such as

10357: 9839: 9805: 9423: 9239: 9099: 8939: 8834: 7391: 6250: 4921: 4484:

Between vowels in the middle of a word, the pronunciation can be either a palatalized geminate

3487: 1912: 1688: 1531:, replacing the earlier runic system. Nonetheless, the largest transfer of Latin-based (mainly 1346:

respectively, so that the naive reader would not assume that they are chronologically related.

1189: 1113: 1089: 1026: 1006: 683: 485: 7931:

Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). "On the consonantal phonemes of Old English". In: J. L. Rosier (ed.)

7083: 6253:

offer reference material and forums promoting the active use of Old English. There is also an

4916:"Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..." 2868:

is used, often preceded by (or replaced by) the appropriate form of the article/demonstrative

2618: 10515: 10479: 9747: 9740: 9692: 9462: 9433: 9402: 9365: 9290: 9047: 8960: 8821: 8783: 8368: 8047:

Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)

7808:

Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)

7226: 6825: 4952: 3317: 3024: 2939: 1994: 1929: 1734: 1718: 1649: 1633: 691: 497: 467: 9980: 8855: 6058:. In some cases, the material in these glossaries continued to be circulated and updated in 10547: 10484: 10464: 10433: 10306: 10166: 9912: 9730: 9322: 9149: 9111: 9106: 8980: 8927: 8685: 8517: 8378: 7411: 6794:

Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English

6664: 6185: 6067: 6047: 4900: 4432: 3327:

became more common during the 8th century, and was standard after 800. Modern editions use

3042: 2724: 2530:

Adjectives agree with nouns in case, gender, and number, and can be either strong or weak.

1799: 1637: 1617: 1550:, which came into contact with Old English via the Scandinavian rulers and settlers in the 1245: 1233: 647: 576: 392: 94: 30:

This article is about the early medieval language of the Anglo-Saxons. For other uses, see

10140: 7032: 2629:; and are strong (exhibiting ablaut) or weak (exhibiting a dental suffix). Verbs have two 2098:) have generally been lost, while the voiced affricate and fricatives (now also including 1519:

left continental Europe for Britain. More entered the language when the Anglo-Saxons were

1428:('Here the Word is revealed to thee'). Old English inscription over the arch of the south 1166: 8: 10423: 9659: 9613: 9547: 9300: 8947: 8860: 8658: 8346: 6121: 6011: 3426:

Used in this way in early texts (before 800). For example, the word "sheaves" is spelled

3168: 2848: 2452: 1843: 1810: 1613: 1361:

during the 9th century. The portion of Mercia that was successfully defended, and all of

1318: 1021:. This included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern 805: 762: 462: 212: 9970: 9815: 9062: 7834:; E. L. Deuschle (transl.). (Oudgermaansche Handboeken; No. 4). Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink. 6644: 6254: 4961: 2637:: present and past. The subjunctive has past and present forms. Finite verbs agree with 1437: 1094: 695: 502: 10469: 10393: 10321: 10311: 10266: 10028: 9955: 9852: 9697: 9672: 9667: 9560: 9388: 9273: 9094: 8872: 8867: 8846: 8807: 8611: 8601: 8466: 8361: 8310: 7995: 7966: 7950: 7920: 7862: 7205: 6882:"[BBC World News] BBC Documentary English Birth of a Language – 35:00 to 37:20" 6807: 6754: 6402:. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 60–83, 110–130 (Scandinavian influence). 6015: 5468:

A recording of how the Lord's Prayer probably sounded in Old English, pronounced slowly

3063: 2778: 2774: 2728: 2707: 2683: 2650: 2606: 2539: 2497: 2493: 2268: 1746: 1683: 1584: 1572: 1476: 1322: 1141: 1034: 1018: 1010: 995: 883: 774: 429: 247: 171: 161: 9623: 2375:

Monophthongisation of the diphthong , and modification of remaining diphthongs to the

342: 10443: 10242: 10158: 10151: 10106: 10050: 9810: 9800: 9783: 9778: 9682: 9444: 9244: 9205: 9185: 9023: 8915: 8897: 8749: 8456: 8167: 8014: 7999: 7889: 7820: 7749: 7672: 7635: 7607: 7588: 7552: 7496: 7480: 7458: 7415: 7383: 7242: 7087: 7076: 6831: 6603: 6551: 6349: 6157: 6027: 5673: 3118: 3046: 2915: 2886: 2794: 2638: 2610: 2509: 2489: 1705: 1695: 1659: 1621: 1588: 1480: 1299: 1193: 1099: 817: 668: 452: 265: 7942:. (Cambridge studies in linguistics; No. 14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7778:

Chapter 3, pp. 50–52. Edited by Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott.

6781:

Nominal vs. Verbal -ing Constructions and the Development of the English Progressive

6758: 358: 10398: 10189: 10123: 10079: 10074: 10034: 10023: 10015: 9820: 9788: 9735: 9724: 9637: 9346: 9285: 9075: 9057: 8892: 8653: 8645: 8522: 7987: 7912: 7881: 7854: 7234: 6231: 5473: 4865: 4668: 3552:). Consequently, the voiced velar geminate (which can be phonemically analyzed as 3548:, resulting in the voiced palatal geminate (which can be phonemically analyzed as 3172: 2859: 2809: 2658: 2622: 2614: 2542: 2469: 2054: 1678: 1673: 1655: 1366: 1303: 1137: 1117: 1054: 1038: 1030: 742: 656: 181: 10235: 2382:

Diphthongisation of long and short front vowels in certain positions ("breaking").

986:

Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the

10428: 10388: 10221: 10128: 10111: 10096: 10091: 10084: 9793: 9702: 9687: 9642: 9494: 9457: 9449: 9428: 9415: 9395: 9381: 9144: 9121: 9052: 9042: 9034: 8814: 8351: 8273: 8261: 8226: 8216: 7760: 6545: 6246: 6117: 6082: 6051: 6039: 6035: 4659:

was used for this phoneme, but these were later replaced in this function by eth

3114: 2758: 2626: 2477: 2473: 2376: 2369: 1977: 1712: 1700: 1536: 1362: 1310: 991: 962: 766: 746: 718: 687: 419: 237: 148: 10509: 10403: 10383: 10335: 10227: 10101: 9771: 9538: 9477: 9256: 9213: 9170: 9087: 9082: 8971: 8921: 8772: 8723: 8678: 8671: 8502: 8383: 8373: 7523: 6183:. A thesaurus based on the definitions in Bosworth-Toller and the structure of 6074: 6059: 6019: 5666: 5497: 4644: 4440: 3720: 3010: 2935: 2927: 2911: 2904: 2900: 2695: 2571: 2517: 2011:

The sounds enclosed in parentheses in the chart above are not considered to be

1757: 1576: 1540: 1524: 1512: 1396: 1294: 1249: 1241: 1149: 1062: 999: 973: 918: 907: 855: 844: 840: 778: 722: 699: 586: 581: 571: 258: 217: 134: 7991: 7511:

The Cambridge History of the English Language: (Vol 1): the Beginnings to 1066

7238: 6955: 6881: 6180: 1206:

to 900), the period of the oldest manuscript traditions, with authors such as

10531: 10459: 10301: 10057: 10008: 9825: 9764: 9677: 9582: 9520: 9467: 9351: 9278: 7472: 6414:"Why is the English spelling system so weird and inconsistent? | Aeon Essays" 6172: 4957: 4436: 4265: 3180: 3028: 2919: 2844: 2677: 2646: 2575: 2513: 2512:

forms. There is also sparse early Northumbrian evidence of a sixth case: the

2481: 2079: 1506: 1154: 1103: 978: 738: 710: 675: 3386:

is used as a modern editorial substitution for the modified Kentish form of

3097:, and others which may differ considerably from the insular script, notably 2360:

occurring in the pre-history and history of Old English were the following:

10328: 9752: 9716: 9649: 9472: 9295: 9268: 9251: 9195: 9154: 8736: 8715: 7627: 6527:

An Outline of English Literature; Anglo-Saxon and Middle English Literature

6235: 6007: 3716: 3110: 3006: 2642: 2357: 1330: 1268: 1257: 269: 123: 9975: 8232: 7885: 6722:"The Rise and Fall of Constructions and the History of English Do-Support" 4091: 2064:

occurring at the beginning of a word or after a front vowel, respectively.

312: 10145: 10118: 9936: 9844: 9526: 9487: 9070: 8765: 8729: 8542: 8537: 8013:

Moulton, WG (1972). "The Proto-Germanic non-syllabics (consonants)". In:

7978:

McCully, CB; Hogg, Richard M (1990). "An account of Old English stress".

6287: 4940:

Some of the most important surviving works of Old English literature are

3984: 3495: 3023:, which are borrowings from the futhorc. A few letter pairs were used as 2923: 2798: 2770: 2719:

In Old English's verbal compound constructions are the beginnings of the

2501: 2485: 2365: 2153: 2135: 2117: 1484: 1253: 1132:

With the unification of several of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (outside the

950: 929: 797: 703: 671: 138: 9990: 8244: 7632:

The Development of Old English: A Linguistic History of English, vol. II

7210: 4540:) at the time of palatalization, as illustrated by the contrast between 4085: 900:

The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century:

816:

is much freer. The oldest Old English inscriptions were written using a

9985: 9965: 9330: 9000: 8701: 8494: 7970: 6302: 6043: 6023: 3755:

as a form of normalization and means of imposing consistency. Also see

2808:

Multiple negatives can stack up in a sentence intensifying each other (

2784: 2762: 2634: 2630: 2595: 2591: 2559: 2535: 2465: 2198: 2122: 2095: 2032: 1532: 1488: 1350: 1279: 1170: 1121: 813: 809: 714: 8247:

by Jonathan Slocum and Winfred P. Lehmann, free online lessons at the

7924: 7866: 7803:. North-Holland linguistics series (No. 33). Amsterdam: North-Holland. 7789:(pp. 753–762). Edited by Dieter Kastovsky and Aleksander Szwedek. 6543: 6313:

List of generic forms in place names in the United Kingdom and Ireland

3562:'frog') is unclear. Alternative spellings of either geminate included 733:. As the Germanic settlers became dominant in England, their language 10171: 9919: 9565: 9482: 9263: 9218: 9190: 9016: 8570: 8279: 8248: 7198:

Publications of the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study

6622:

Hogg (1992), p. 117; but for a different interpretation of this, see

6292: 4947: 3961: 3459: 3391: 3264: 3090: 3082: 2664:

Remnants of the Old English case system in Modern English are in the

2177: 2020: 1592: 1547: 1377: 1125: 1074: 1014: 958: 954: 801: 782: 758: 547: 335: 321: 305: 287: 9995: 7845:

Hockett, Charles F (1959). "The stressed syllabics of Old English".

7493:

An introductory grammar of Old English with an anthology of readings

6544:

Fuster-Márquez, Miguel; Calvo García de Leonardo, Juan José (2011).

4969: 1207: 896: 9960: 9308: 8489: 7916: 7903:

Kuhn, Sherman M (1961). "On the Syllabic Phonemes of Old English".

7858: 7730: 6943:. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books Ltd. p. 33. 5723: 5720: 4989: 4982:

The first example is taken from the opening lines of the folk epic

4648: 3747:

in the middle or at the end of a word. Some modern editors replace

2240: 1467: 1429: 1215: 1046: 1022: 871: 664: 370: 109: 108:(except Cornwall and the extreme north-west), southern and eastern 7687:

An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary

7530:. 7 vols. Heidelberg: C. Winter & Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard 6097:

In modern scholarship, the following dictionaries remain current:

6030:

glosses, but soon came to be gathered into word-lists such as the

2895: 63: 10001: 9597: 9499: 6704:"Function and Grammar in the History of English: Periphrastic Do" 5677: 5398: 5070: 4984: 4942: 4905: 3176: 2977:. The remaining 20 Latin letters were supplemented by four more: 2531: 2505: 2012: 1609: 1596: 1567: 1551: 1219: 1133: 1078: 1058: 990:

in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the

892:(Pre-)Old English and other West Germanic languages around 580 CE 786: 757:. Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular 660: 492: 383: 366: 105: 81: 70: 6982: 6980: 6978: 6134:. Various digitisations are available open-access, including at 5887: 5837: 5783: 5750: 5695: 5642: 5623: 5604: 5585: 5566: 5547: 5528: 5509: 5411: 5379: 5346: 5310: 5277: 5237: 5204: 5173: 5139: 5106: 5080: 5047: 5038: 5029: 5020: 4910: 4853: 4847: 4566: 4550: 4541: 4512: 4498: 4489: 4474: 3710: 3557: 3433: 3427: 3184: 3053: 3000: 2986: 2869: 2863: 2834: 2828: 2732: 2711: 2585: 2579: 2553: 1583:

The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a

1423: 1192:

as no literary witnesses survive (with the exception of limited

637: 631: 75: 53: 47: 9304: 8082:

Syntactic Case and Morphological Case in the History of English

7744:; with supplement prepared by Neil Ker originally published in 6740:"On the progression of the progressive in early Modern English" 6467:. Second edition of Barber (1993). Cambridge: University Press. 5606:

And forġief ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġiefaþ ūrum gyltendum.

4473:

At the start of a word, the usual pronunciation is palatalized

4261: 3739:, voiceless or voiced , but some texts show a tendency to use 3175:, with a mostly predictable correspondence between letters and 3094: 2754: 2609:: first, second, and third; two numbers: singular, plural; two 1516: 1472: 1407:

For details of the sound differences between the dialects, see

1354: 1169:("the Grammarian"). This form of the language is known as the " 726: 8204: 7347: 6135: 6111: 6014:

period itself, when English-speaking scholars created English

4912:

Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon...

2690:, which derives from the masculine and neuter genitive ending 9222: 8104:

Vol.2: Subordination, independent elements, and element order

6975: 6645:

The Somersetshire dialect: its pronunciation, 2 papers (1861)

5055:. In the text below, the letters that alliterate are bolded. 4993: 2790:

in questions and negatives. Questions were usually formed by

2050: 1501: 1066: 1050: 750: 730: 542: 113: 7823:(1983). "The Development of */k/ and */sk/ in Old English". 6960:

121028 Charlene Lohmeier "Evolution of the English Language"

2727:, which form the past tense by altering the root vowel, and 7839:

English Stress: its form, its growth, and its role in verse

7708:

L'orthographie de l'anglais: Histoire et situation actuelle

5706:-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his 5670: 5635:

And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.

5632:

And not lead thou us in temptations, but allay us of evil.

5476:

is presented in the standardised Early West Saxon dialect.

4965: 4749: 3968: 3059: 3017: 2657:

are mostly before but are often after their object. If the

2538:

agree in case, gender, and number. First-person and second-

2462: 1559: 1211: 8162:

An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda

8061:

Generative grammatical studies in the Old English language

8033:

Generative Grammatical Studies in the Old English language

6150:

An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda

5016:, both an expression of surprise and a call to attention. 3397: 2980: 1962: 1372:

The later literary standard known as Late West Saxon (see

1073:); except in the areas of Scandinavian settlements, where 369:

characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see

8098:(Vols. 1–2). Oxford: Clarendon Press (no more published) 5613:

And forgive us our guilts, as we forgiveth our guilters.

4988:, a poem of some 3,000 lines. This passage describes how 3993:

Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization

3960:

In Old English manuscripts, this letter usually took its

3504:

Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization

2903:

used to write Old English before the introduction of the

1500:

Old English contained a certain number of loanwords from

7334:

The Evolution of Englishes. The Dynamic Model and Beyond

6910:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 32. 5850:(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free) 5799:

me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere

4740:

Old English manuscripts typically represented the sound

4096:, whereas Mercian and Northumbrian texts generally used 3474:. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always 3374:

part was used; it is not clear whether this represented

2949:

The Latin alphabet of the time still lacked the letters

2247:. In West Saxon and Kentish, it had already merged with 820:, but from about the 8th century this was replaced by a 7295:

Das Durhamer Pflanzenglossar: lateinisch und altenglish

6690:

Kulturelle Integration und Personnenamen in Mittelalter

6463:

Barber, Charles, Joan C. Beal and Philip A. Shaw 2009.

6454:. 4th edition. (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich). 4294:

The allophone occurred before a velar plosive ( or ).

2424:

Collapse of two consecutive vowels into a single vowel.

1325:. Mercian and Northumbrian are together referred to as 690:

of 1066, English was replaced for several centuries by

112:, and some localities in the eastern fringes of modern 8075:

Die englische Sprache: ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung

6647:

Thomas Spencer Baynes, first published 1855 & 1856

5625:

And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālīes ūs of yfele.

1088:

in the late 7th century. The oldest surviving work of

7437:

The Cambridge History of the English Language: Vol. 2

6808:"Verbal movement in Dutch present-participle clauses" 6529:. London: Forum House Publishing Company. p. 7. 5616:

And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors.

8101:

Vol.1: Concord, the parts of speech and the sentence

7957:

Maling, J (1971). "Sentence stress in Old English".

7568:

The Cambridge Introduction to Anglo-Saxon Literature

6318:

List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English

6264: 3544:

Proto-Germanic *g was palatalized when it underwent

2965:; moreover native Old English spellings did not use 1475:

in the post–Old English period, such as the regular

7321:

The Tomb of Beowulf and Other Essays on Old English

6217:all also include material relevant to Old English. 4507:'to wish'), or an unpalatalized consonant sequence 4243:Rarely used; this sound is normally represented by 3432:in an early text, but later (and more commonly) as 2918:—a rune set derived from the Germanic 24-character 1409:

Phonological history of Old English § Dialects

1177:The history of Old English can be subdivided into: 1165:, and was followed by such writers as the prolific 7516:Hogg, Richard; & Denison, David (eds.) (2006) 7319:Robinson, Fred C. 'The Afterlife of Old English'. 7075: 6908:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 6869:. Leipzig, Germany: B. G. Teubner. pp. 58–82. 6547:A Practical Introduction to the History of English 6346:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 6081:. The next substantial Old English dictionary was 5702:¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede' 5568:Ġeweorðe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum. 5037:. Vowels alliterate with any other vowel, as with 4355:Only occurs in some dialects. Modern editions use 3971:). The and pronunciations are sometimes written 1309:The four main dialectal forms of Old English were 1188:to 650); for this period, Old English is mostly a 8174:(4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8144:Bosworth, J; & Toller, T. Northcote. (1898). 7801:Phonological structure and the history of English 7742:A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon 7735:A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon 7528:A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles 7348:"Bosworth-Toller's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary online" 7054:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 109–112. 6827:The history of English: a linguistic introduction 6506:. 4th edition. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall). 5575:Let there be thine will, on earth as in heavens. 3027:, representing a single sound. Also used was the 2805:before the finite verb, regardless of which verb. 874:, or else because they were fishermen (anglers). 10529: 7799:Anderson, John M; & Jones, Charles. (1977). 7601: 7049: 6439:A history of English. A sociolinguistic approach 5958:that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith 5257:(induce loathing in, terrify; related to "ugly") 4064:from the earliest Old English texts, the letter 3009:or edh), which were modified Latin letters, and 2427:"Palatal umlaut", which has given forms such as 808:nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs have many 7837:Halle, Morris; & Keyser, Samuel J. (1971). 7273:Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon 6489:Hogg, Richard M. and David Denison (ed.) 2006. 6465:The English language. A historical introduction 6452:Origins and development of the English language 4006:, including its allophone , which occurs after 3263:("land") suggest the short vowel had a rounded 1414: 7781:Wełna, Jerzy (1986). "The Old English Digraph 7776:The Oxford Handbook of the History of English, 7545:Old English: A historical linguistic companion 7428:Baugh, Albert C; & Cable, Thomas. (1993). 6879: 3366:In 9th-century Kentish manuscripts, a form of 2716:, a neuter noun referring to a female person. 2340:Phonological history of Old English (dialects) 1025:, which for several centuries belonged to the 8586: 8295: 7938:Lass, Roger; & Anderson, John M. (1975). 7877:A grammar of Old English. Volume 1, Phonology 7689:. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 4960:, an inscribed early whalebone artefact; and 4565:In word-final position, the pronunciation of 3034:(a character similar to the digit 7) for the 2521: 1483:, as well as the eventual development of the 1069:and possibly also on the English side of the 1029:. Other parts of the island continued to use 789:and settlement beginning in the 9th century. 674:. It developed from the languages brought to 608: 8132:An Historical Syntax of the English Language 7947:Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache 7774:Shaw, Philip A (2012). "Coins As Evidence". 7227:"On the Consonantal Phonemes of Old English" 7035:Continuum Encyclopedia of British Literature 7027: 7025: 6867:Growth and Structure of the English Language 6688:John Insley, "Britons and Anglo-Saxons", in 5012:would be expected. This usage is similar to 3616:were occasionally used instead of the usual 27:Earliest historical form of English language 8021:(pp. 141–173). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. 7977: 7725:Angelsächsische Paleographie, I: Einleitung 7536:The Shape of English: structure and history 5795:me to mind the writs and the word that the 4072:. West Saxon scribes came to prefer to use 2102:) have become independent phonemes, as has 949: Continental West Germanic languages ( 8593: 8579: 8302: 8288: 8258:The Electronic Introduction to Old English 7771:. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 7720:. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 7710:. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. 7602:Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C (2001). 7050:Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C (2002). 6928:. London: Faber and Faber. pp. 70–71. 5936:, into Denmark that you most harm came of 4764:. In modern editions, wynn is replaced by 3684:In the earliest texts it also represented 3458:pronunciation is sometimes written with a 615: 601: 62: 8127:. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. 7825:Journal of English and Germanic Philology 7620:Quirk, Randolph; & Wrenn, CL (1957). 7382: 7336:(pp. 486–504). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 7209: 7067: 7022: 6864: 6778: 6550:. : Universitat de València. p. 21. 6177:A Thesaurus of Old English in Two Volumes 5962:ne come the while that ye me rightly hold 5689:Representation with constructed cognates 4956:, a record of early English history; the 1504:, which was the scholarly and diplomatic 1365:, were then integrated into Wessex under 686:date from the mid-7th century. After the 8397: 7659: 7578: 7565: 7520:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7513:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7439:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6953: 6817: 6590: 6581:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959), §§5–22. 5578:Thy will be done on earth as in heaven. 5518:Father Ours, thou which art in heavens, 5458: 5370:(those "sitting" or dwelling roundabout) 5192:Oft did Scyld Scefing of scather threats 4899: 4181:By the time of the first written prose, 4068:is also found as a minority spelling of 3275:when it occurred in stressed syllables. 2894: 1604:directness, in clarity, and in strength. 1562:and other Danish kings in the early 11th 1535:) words into English occurred after the 1418: 1278: 1112: 1057:perhaps to the 12th century in parts of 895: 887: 655:, was the earliest recorded form of the 10553:Languages attested from the 5th century 8213:Old English – Modern English dictionary 7844: 7073: 7013: 6905: 6737: 6502:Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable 1993 6343: 6208:Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue 5431:(heed/obedience; related to "gormless") 3727:with the addition of a cross-bar. Both 3370:that was missing the upper hook of the 2516:. The evidence comes from Northumbrian 2496:: masculine, feminine, neuter; and two 2338:For more on dialectal differences, see 2090:The above system is largely similar to 1110:was introduced around the 8th century. 854:This name probably either derives from 363:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 14: 10530: 8600: 8309: 7956: 7455:A Book for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon 7345: 7082:. Cambridge University Press. p. 7078:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language 6954:Lohmeier, Charlene (28 October 2012). 6938: 6923: 6524: 5004:is used by the poet where a word like 3171:, Old English spelling was reasonably 2508:and strong adjectives retain separate 2239:, spelled ⟨œ⟩, which had emerged from 2057:when the preceding sound was stressed. 1240:The Old English period is followed by 682:in the mid-5th century, and the first 646: 93: 10558:Languages extinct in the 13th century 10264: 9878: 8622: 8574: 8396: 8283: 8155:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement 7665:Old English and Its Closest Relatives 7457:. Bristol, PA: Evolution Publishing. 7452: 7405: 7308:Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum 6919: 6917: 6860: 6858: 6856: 6854: 6823: 6719: 6397: 6393: 6391: 6389: 6387: 6385: 6193:Though focused on later periods, the 6143:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement 6079:Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum 5587:Ūrne dæġhwamlīcan hlāf sele ūs tōdæġ, 3406: 1106:) date to the early 8th century. The 1084:Old English literacy developed after 839:is derived, means 'pertaining to the 8177:Cameron, Angus, et al. (ed.) (1983) 7935:(pp. 16–49). The Hague: Mouton. 7902: 7873: 7542: 7490: 7469:(Reissue of one of 4 eds. 1877–1902) 7390:. Vol. I: c. 500–1042. London: 7224: 7195: 6805: 6383: 6381: 6379: 6377: 6375: 6373: 6371: 6369: 6367: 6365: 6006:The earliest history of Old English 5454: 4927:1935 posthumous edition of Bright's 4579:when the preceding vowel was short. 3735:could represent either allophone of 3128:by placing dots above the palatals: 2393:in certain front-vowel environments. 1543:rather than the Old English period. 1471:have had on developments in English 1383:tended to become monophthongised to 709:Old English developed from a set of 9155:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German 8123:Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. (1972). 7748:; 5, 1957. Oxford: Clarendon Press 7696:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7606:(6th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. 7581:A Biography of the English Language 7323:. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993. 275–303. 7270: 7108:A Biography of the English Language 6880:BBC World News (27 December 2014). 6796:, Edinburgh University Press (2016) 6450:Pyles, Thomas and John Algeo 1993. 4528:had been followed by a back vowel ( 3156:are normally retained (except when 2934:missionaries. This was replaced by 2352:Phonological history of Old English 1527:was introduced and adapted for the 24: 10514:Languages between parentheses are 9879: 8077:(Vol. II). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. 8049:(3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. 8019:Toward a Grammar of Proto-Germanic 8008:A Historical Phonology of English. 7810:(3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. 6914: 6851: 5660: 5597:Give us this day our daily bread, 4431:is not known; it may have been an 4201:, but by Late West Saxon only the 4060:is used for the palatal consonant 2232:The Anglian dialects also had the 68:A detail of the first page of the 25: 10574: 8193: 8134:(Vols. 1–3). Leiden: E. J. Brill. 7880:. Malden, MA: Oxford: Blackwell. 7518:A History of the English Language 7430:A History of the English Language 7123:, Anglo-Saxon Books 1997, p. 138. 6504:A history of the English language 6491:A history of the English language 6400:A History of the English Language 6362: 6022:texts. At first these were often 5682: 5680:represent the original division. 5665:This is a proclamation from King 5511:Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum, 5478: 5057: 3462:by modern editors: most commonly 3052:, which was used for the pronoun 2910:Old English was first written in 2862:. Instead, the indeclinable word 2833:, otherwise meaning "then" (e.g. 2721:compound tenses of Modern English 2590:("that over there"). These words 2400:(which for example led to modern 1993: 1987: 1966: 1954: 1945: 1939: 1919: 1911: 1906: 1898: 1890: 1882: 1876: 1868: 1862: 1854: 1848: 1827: 1821: 1798: 1792: 1781: 1776: 1767: 1762: 1745: 1733: 1727: 1717: 1454:Scandinavian influence in English 1438:St Mary's parish church, Breamore 988:Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain 8264: (archived 7 September 2015) 8229: (archived 22 February 2012) 8207:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online 8172:A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary 7761:An Introduction to English Runes 7509:Hogg, Richard M. (ed.). (1992). 7016:An Introduction to English Runes 6986:Ringe & Taylor (2014), p. 4. 6701: 6267: 6255:Old English version of Knowledge 6245:A number of websites devoted to 6220: 6162:A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary 6001: 5992:me rightly and my life persists. 4427:The exact nature of Old English 4100:in the spelling of these words. 3604:was realized as . The spellings 3486:. Otherwise, a knowledge of the 2345: 2251:before the first written prose. 2049:respectively, occurring between 1558:century, and during the rule of 1546:Another source of loanwords was 1528: 1425:Her sƿutelað seo gecƿydrædnes ðe 796:, and its closest relatives are 447: 382: 8170:; & Merritt, H. D. (1969). 7539:. London: J. M. Dent & Sons 7495:. Tempe, Arizona: ACMRS Press. 7369: 7339: 7326: 7313: 7300: 7288: 7279: 7264: 7255: 7218: 7189: 7180: 7171: 7162: 7153: 7144: 7135: 7126: 7113: 7110:, Cengage Learning 2011, p. 96. 7100: 7058: 7043: 7007: 6998: 6989: 6966: 6947: 6932: 6899: 6873: 6824:Scott, Shay (30 January 2008). 6799: 6786: 6772: 6731: 6713: 6695: 6682: 6650: 6638: 6629: 6616: 6584: 6571: 6537: 6518: 6509: 6476:Mugglestone, Lynda (ed.) 2006. 6214:Historical Thesaurus of English 5996: 5521:Our Father, who art in heaven, 5224:(clans; cf. Irish cognate Mac-) 4852:("best") is occasionally spelt 4406:, which was usually written as 4264:(as in Modern English) when in 2819:type conjunction, but rather a 2633:forms: bare and bound; and two 2441:Phonological history of English 864: 858: 74:manuscript, showing the words " 10518:of the language on their left. 8153:Toller, T. Northcote. (1921). 8089:Old English Syntax: a handbook 7346:Tichy, Ondrej; Rocek, Martin. 6496: 6493:. Cambridge: University Press. 6483: 6478:The Oxford History of English. 6470: 6457: 6444: 6431: 6406: 6348:. Cambridge University Press. 6330: 5823:by the might that me God would 5594:Our daily loaf sell us today, 4520:('to ask'). The pronunciation 4435:as in most modern English, an 3218: 2878: 2839:in place of "when X, Y"). The 2082:occur after in the sequences 1587:along the continuum to a more 1252:(after 1650), and in Scotland 1146:advocated education in English 843:'. The Angles were one of the 717:dialects originally spoken by 13: 1: 10409:Germanic substrate hypothesis 10265: 8253:University of Texas at Austin 8087:MacLaughlin, John C. (1983). 7841:. New York: Harper & Row. 7769:A History of English Spelling 7727:. Berlin: Mayer & Müller. 7645:Strang, Barbara M. H. (1970) 7432:(4th ed.). London: Routledge. 6336:By the 16th century the term 6323: 6298:History of the Scots language 6141:T. Northcote Toller. (1921). 4895: 4673:Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩ 4084:sequence found in verbs like 3991:elsewhere. (For details, see 3586:to distinguish it from velar 3502:elsewhere. (For details, see 3179:. There were not usually any 2731:, which use a suffix such as 2702:derives from the Old English 2457: 2364:Fronting of to except when 1284: 1261: 1226: 1200: 1182: 822:version of the Latin alphabet 10439:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law 9130:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch 8130:Visser, F. Th. (1963–1973). 8059:Wagner, Karl Heinz. (1969). 7685:Bremmer Jr, Rolf H. (2009). 7388:English Historical Documents 6830:. Wardja Press. p. 86. 6308:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law 6240:linguistic purism in English 5433:yield. That was good king! 4931:, Dr. James Hulbert writes: 4768:, to prevent confusion with 4020:, including its allophones 2723:. Old English verbs include 1643: 1415:Influence of other languages 1373: 1283:The dialects of Old English 827: 753:, brought to Britain by the 32:Old English (disambiguation) 7: 10419:High German consonant shift 8249:Linguistics Research Center 8219: (archived 2 July 2005) 8080:Kemenade, Ans van. (1982). 8063:. Heidelberg: Julius Groos. 8035:. Heidelberg: Julius Groos. 8031:Wagner, Karl Heinz (1969). 8010:Edinburgh University Press. 7706:Bourcier, Georges. (1978). 7408:Introduction to Old English 7106:C.M. Millward, Mary Hayes, 6779:Alexiadou, Artemis (2008), 6635:Magennis (2011), pp. 56–60. 6260: 6136:http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/ 6112:https://www.doe.utoronto.ca 5556:To be come thine kingdom, 5368:him each of those umsitters 4997:feel of the original poem. 4908:manuscript with its opening 4892:are always voiceless , , . 4640:, including its allophone 4625:in the earliest texts (see 4291:, including its allophone 3957:, including its allophone 3936:, including its allophone 3715:in Old English; now called 3706:, including its allophone 3230:Variants in modern editions 2801:, and negatives by placing 2653:are formed with compounds. 2613:: present, and past; three 1446:Celtic influence in English 1274: 1248:(1500 to 1650) and finally 1144:(Early West Saxon). Alfred 721:traditionally known as the 10: 10579: 8957:Westlauwers–Terschellings 8610:According to contemporary 8276: (archived 3 May 2009) 8164:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 8157:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 8056:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7945:Luick, Karl. (1914–1940). 7817:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7737:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7723:Keller, Wolfgang. (1906). 7624:(2nd ed.) London: Methuen. 7572:Cambridge University Press 7549:Cambridge University Press 7449:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7275:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 7168:Wełna (1986), pp. 754–755. 7121:First Steps in Old English 6275:Anglo-Saxon England portal 6152:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 6148:Alistair Campbell (1972). 6145:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 6064:Durham Plant-Name Glossary 4975: 4919: 4868:; the geminate fricatives 4454:, including its allophone 4205:spelling remained common. 3743:at the start of words and 3169:Modern English orthography 2891:Old English Latin alphabet 2884: 2641:in person and number. The 2450: 2446: 2349: 1647: 1450:Latin influence in English 1443: 1108:Old English Latin alphabet 881: 877: 792:Old English is one of the 684:Old English literary works 524:Development of Old English 29: 10501: 10452: 10376: 10345: 10277: 10273: 10260: 10209: 10182: 10136:Southern Schleswig Danish 10067: 9948: 9904: 9895: 9891: 9874: 9715: 9658: 9546: 9537: 9442: 9414: 9373: 9364: 9339: 9321: 9232: 9204: 9178: 9169: 9120: 9033: 9008: 8999: 8938: 8833: 8782: 8757: 8748: 8644: 8635: 8631: 8618: 8608: 8475: 8409: 8405: 8392: 8317: 8233:Dictionary of Old English 8180:Dictionary of Old English 8147:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary 8094:Mitchell, Bruce. (1985). 8091:. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer. 7992:10.1017/S0022226700014699 7874:Hogg, Richard M. (2011). 7830:Girvan, Ritchie. (1931). 7767:Scragg, Donald G (1974). 7669:Stanford University Press 7239:10.1515/9783110820263-004 7225:Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). 6480:Oxford: University Press. 6202:Middle English Dictionary 6196:Oxford English Dictionary 6132:Dictionary of Old English 6127:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary 6107:Dictionary of Old English 6092: 5761:you, that I will be hold 5688: 5685: 5494:Word-for-word translation 4833: 4793: 4781: 4739: 4734: 4731: 4679: 4649:the rune of the same name 4633: 4612: 4600: 4472: 4460: 4447: 4418: 4393: 4381: 4354: 4343: 4298: 4284: 4272: 4251: 4234: 4169: 4129: 4043: 4013: 3959: 3947: 3929: 3872: 3803: 3763: 3719:or edh. Derived from the 3675: 3543: 3528: 3506:.) See also the digraphs 3453: 3442: 3315: 3304: 3255:Spelling variations like 3243: 3140:is usually replaced with 2748: 2545:occasionally distinguish 2385:Palatalisation of velars 2121: 2116: 2114: 2094:, except that (and for 2045:are voiced allophones of 1539:of 1066, and thus in the 1521:converted to Christianity 1181:Prehistoric Old English ( 1049:and in adjacent parts of 663:and southern and eastern 349: 333: 319: 303: 285: 280: 255: 226: 205: 145: 129: 119: 101: 89: 61: 46: 41: 10414:West Germanic gemination 10368:Ancient Belgian language 10363:Germanic parent language 10307:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic) 9429:Austrian Standard German 8623: 8434:Changes before historic 8426:Changes before historic 8116:Timofeeva, Olga. (2010) 8109:Mitchell, Bruce. (1990) 8024:Sievers, Eduard (1893). 8017:& HL Kufner (Eds.), 7701:Orthography/Palaeography 7630:and Taylor, Ann (2014). 7579:Millward, Celia (1996). 6865:Jespersen, Otto (1919). 6738:Elsness, Johann (1997). 6104:, et al. (ed.) (1983–). 6062:glossaries, such as the 5880:(financial contribution) 5852:the while that you stood 5739:(ordained to priesthood) 5537:Be thine name hallowed. 5299:found, he of this frover 5160:(fortitude/courage/zeal) 4651:. In the earliest texts 4549:('fish') and its plural 3898:palatal diphthongization 3829:palatal diphthongization 3546:West Germanic gemination 3535:(between vowels; rare), 3189:, for example, both the 2946:) replaced the insular. 2331:, which had merged with 1460:British Celtic languages 8337:Anglo-Frisian languages 8073:Brunner, Karl. (1962). 8045:Brunner, Karl. (1965). 8006:Minkova, Donka (2014). 7806:Brunner, Karl. (1965). 7566:Magennis, Hugh (2011). 7406:Baker, Peter S (2003). 7392:Eyre & Spottiswoode 7074:Crystal, David (1987). 6939:Potter, Simeon (1950). 6924:McCrum, Robert (1987). 6906:Crystal, David (1995). 6600:Oxford University Press 6437:Fennell, Barbara 1998. 6344:Crystal, David (2003). 5888: 5838: 5784: 5751: 5745:, in England friendly. 5735:(200 shilling weregild) 5696: 5643: 5624: 5605: 5586: 5567: 5548: 5529: 5510: 5412: 5380: 5347: 5311: 5278: 5238: 5226:, of mead-settees atee 5205: 5174: 5140: 5130:(learn about by asking) 5107: 5081: 5048: 5039: 5030: 5021: 4911: 4864:Doubled consonants are 4854: 4848: 4567: 4551: 4542: 4513: 4499: 4490: 4475: 3856:. Sometimes stands for 3711: 3634:⟨cyningc⟩ 3630:⟨cynincg⟩ 3558: 3434: 3428: 3185: 3054: 3001: 2987: 2870: 2864: 2858:forms were not used as 2843:words are used only as 2835: 2829: 2825:correlative conjunction 2733: 2712: 2666:forms of a few pronouns 2586: 2580: 2568:demonstrative adjective 2554: 2234:mid front rounded vowel 2227:open back rounded vowel 2042:occurring before and . 1466:. The number of Celtic 1424: 1304:Modern English dialects 1163:Æthelwold of Winchester 1041:– in most of Scotland, 1009:, and developed out of 812:endings and forms, and 794:West Germanic languages 638: 632: 76: 54: 48: 10475:Preterite-present verb 10358:Proto-Germanic grammar 10312:North Sea (Ingvaeonic) 9424:German Standard German 9100:East Frisian Low Saxon 8028:. Halle: Max Niemeyer. 7980:Journal of Linguistics 7832:Angelsaksisch Handboek 7740:Ker, NR (1957: 1990). 7718:Runes: An introduction 7622:An Old English Grammar 7604:A Guide to Old English 7435:Blake, Norman (1992). 7177:Fulk (2014), pp. 68–69 7132:Minkova (2014), p. 79. 7052:A Guide to Old English 6995:Kuhn (1970), p. 42-44. 6972:Campbell (1959), p.21. 6624:Old English diphthongs 6532:Primitive Old English. 6398:Baugh, Albert (1951). 6251:historical reenactment 6087:Anglo-Saxon Dictionary 5994: 5540:Hallowed be thy name. 5530:Sīe þīn nama ġehālgod. 5469: 5452: 5095:What! We of Gare-Danes 4992:'s legendary ancestor 4938: 4922:Old English literature 4917: 4904:The first page of the 4056:Although the spelling 3646:⟨cyninc⟩ 3638:⟨cyning⟩ 3239:Description and notes 2907: 2769:Default word order is 2759:that of modern English 2356:Some of the principal 2110:Vowels – monophthongs 2092:that of Modern English 1606: 1529:writing of Old English 1441: 1359:overrun by the Vikings 1290: 1190:reconstructed language 1129: 1090:Old English literature 1027:kingdom of Northumbria 1007:West Germanic language 983: 893: 835:, from which the word 351:This article contains 133:Mostly developed into 10480:Grammatischer Wechsel 9463:Namibian Black German 9434:Swiss Standard German 9403:Early New High German 8961:Mainland West Frisian 8822:Harlingerland Frisian 8369:Anglo-Norman language 8269:Old English Made Easy 8205:Bosworth and Toller, 8160:Campbell, A. (1972). 8052:Campbell, A. (1959). 8026:Altgermanische Metrik 7940:Old English Phonology 7886:10.1002/9781444341355 7813:Campbell, A. (1959). 7141:Wełna (1986), p. 755. 6525:Stumpf, John (1970). 6175:, with Lynne Grundy, 5975: 5940:: and that have , mid 5902:me that us more harm 5900:(made known/couth to) 5872:(separated/dispelled) 5759:(make known/couth to) 5467: 5441: 4953:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 4933: 4903: 4414:in modern editions). 3884:Sometimes stands for 3815:Sometimes stands for 3656:) by modern editors. 3628:in spellings such as 3600:was realized as and 3478:; word-finally after 2940:Carolingian minuscule 2898: 2572:demonstrative pronoun 2396:The process known as 1650:Old English phonology 1601: 1444:Further information: 1422: 1282: 1116: 899: 891: 882:Further information: 498:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 10485:Indo-European ablaut 10465:Germanic strong verb 10434:Germanic spirant law 9571:Southeast Limburgish 9067:Gelders-Overijssels 8696:Irish Middle English 8686:Early Modern English 8399:Phonological history 8379:Early Modern English 8223:Old English Glossary 7692:Stenton, FM (1971). 7647:A History of English 7543:Lass, Roger (1994). 7491:Fulk, R. D. (2014). 7453:Earle, John (2005). 7412:Blackwell Publishing 7119:Stephen Pollington, 6926:The Story of English 6720:Culicover, Peter W. 6441:. Oxford: Blackwell. 6068:Laud Herbal Glossary 6048:Cleopatra Glossaries 5815:lies, and full frith 5066:Representation with 4842:A rare spelling for 4821:to distinguish long 4817:Modern editions use 4716:to distinguish long 4712:Modern editions use 4433:alveolar approximant 4359:to distinguish long 4331:to distinguish long 4327:Modern editions use 4222:to distinguish long 4218:Modern editions use 4157:to distinguish long 4153:Modern editions use 4117:to distinguish long 4113:Modern editions use 3917:to distinguish long 3913:Modern editions use 3848:to distinguish long 3844:Modern editions use 3791:to distinguish long 3787:Modern editions use 3614:⟨ncgg⟩ 3331:to distinguish long 3292:to distinguish long 3288:Modern editions use 3261:⟨lond⟩ 3257:⟨land⟩ 3043:scribal abbreviation 2777:, and verb-final in 1246:Early Modern English 1234:Early Middle English 1015:Anglo-Saxon kingdoms 759:Anglo-Saxon kingdoms 680:Anglo-Saxon settlers 577:Early Modern English 473:Phonological history 274:Old English alphabet 10453:Synchronic features 10424:Germanic a-mutation 10377:Diachronic features 9727:in the broad sense 9660:East Central German 9614:Lorraine Franconian 9588:Transylvanian Saxon 9548:West Central German 9323:East Low Franconian 9233:West Low Franconian 8332:Proto-West-Germanic 8322:Proto-Indo-European 8113:. Oxford: Blackwell 8084:. Dordrecht: Foris. 8054:Old English grammar 7815:Old English Grammar 7746:Anglo-Saxon England 7694:Anglo-Saxon England 7533:Lass, Roger (1987) 7447:Old English Grammar 7271:Ker, N. R. (1957). 7261:Hogg (1992), p. 257 7231:Philological Essays 7159:Hogg (1992), p. 91. 7004:Hogg (1992), p. 39. 6692:, De Gruyter (2018) 6596:Old English Grammar 6579:Old English Grammar 6515:Hogg (1992), p. 83. 6122:T. Northcote Toller 5966:and my life beeth. 5860:on-hand: now I, mid 5261:(since, as of when) 5154:how those athelings 4756:was represented by 4402:A rare spelling of 3654:⟨nġċ⟩ 3650:⟨nċġ⟩ 3610:⟨ngc⟩ 3606:⟨ncg⟩ 3580:⟨gcg⟩ 3576:⟨ccg⟩ 3572:⟨cgg⟩ 3047:thorn with a stroke 2957:, and there was no 2849:indefinite pronouns 2779:subordinate clauses 2453:Old English grammar 2256: 2111: 2080:voiceless sonorants 2067:is an allophone of 2038:is an allophone of 1667: 1589:analytic word order 1481:analytic word order 1402:dialect of Somerset 1344:Æthelwoldian Saxon, 1199:Early Old English ( 1194:epigraphic evidence 1037:– and perhaps some 806:Old English grammar 213:Proto-Indo-European 141:by the 12th century 10563:North Sea Germanic 10543:Medieval languages 10470:Germanic weak verb 10279:Language subgroups 9629:Pennsylvania Dutch 9578:Moselle Franconian 9556:Central Franconian 9389:Middle High German 9140:Central Pomeranian 9095:Northern Low Saxon 8808:Wangerooge Frisian 8602:Germanic languages 8467:Trisyllabic laxing 8447:Close front vowels 8311:History of English 8245:Old English Online 8096:Old English Syntax 7959:Linguistic Inquiry 7951:Bernhard Tauchnitz 7827:, 82 (3): 313–323. 7821:Cercignani, Fausto 7783:⟨cg⟩ 7764:. London: Methuen. 7661:Robinson, Orrin W. 7649:. London: Methuen. 7384:Whitelock, Dorothy 7352:bosworthtoller.com 7186:Fulk (2014), p. 69 7150:Shaw (2012), p. 51 6962:. Dutch Lichliter. 6658:"Rotary-munich.de" 6592:Campbell, Alistair 6171:Roberts, Jane and 5928:those men that mid 5912:than us well liked 5846:(withdrew/changed) 5765:lord and unswiking 5559:Thy kingdom come, 5549:Tōbecume þīn rīċe, 5470: 5338:(throve/prospered) 5330:(firmament/clouds) 5328:waxed under welkin 5097:(lit. Spear-Danes) 4929:Anglo-Saxon Reader 4918: 4890:⟨þð⟩ 4886:⟨ðþ⟩ 4882:⟨þþ⟩ 4878:⟨ðð⟩ 4874:⟨ss⟩ 4870:⟨ff⟩ 4762:⟨uu⟩ 4657:⟨th⟩ 4526:⟨sc⟩ 4497:('fisherman') and 4412:⟨cw⟩ 4408:⟨cƿ⟩ 4357:⟨ōe⟩ 4220:⟨īo⟩ 4203:⟨eo⟩ 4199:⟨eo⟩ 4195:⟨io⟩ 4193:was often written 4155:⟨īe⟩ 4098:⟨rg⟩ 4078:⟨rg⟩ 4074:⟨ri⟩ 4037:⟨hw⟩ 4033:⟨hn⟩ 4029:⟨hr⟩ 4025:⟨hl⟩ 3987:(other than ) and 3915:⟨ēo⟩ 3846:⟨ēa⟩ 3665:(between vowels), 3642:⟨nc⟩ 3620:. The addition of 3618:⟨ng⟩ 3588:⟨cg⟩ 3584:⟨ċġ⟩ 3568:⟨gc⟩ 3564:⟨gg⟩ 3512:⟨sc⟩ 3508:⟨cg⟩ 3498:(other than ) and 3321:⟨ae⟩ 3207:⟨gh⟩ 3136:. The letter wynn 2908: 2708:grammatical gender 2254: 2109: 2060:are allophones of 1665: 1622:pronominal adverbs 1585:synthetic language 1573:West Saxon dialect 1442: 1291: 1225:Late Old English ( 1142:West Saxon dialect 1130: 1100:runic inscriptions 1071:Anglo-Welsh border 1019:Kingdom of England 996:synthetic language 984: 894: 884:History of English 172:North Sea Germanic 10525: 10524: 10510:extinct languages 10497: 10496: 10493: 10492: 10444:Great Vowel Shift 10256: 10255: 10252: 10251: 10205: 10204: 10051:Greenlandic Norse 9870: 9869: 9866: 9865: 9862: 9861: 9801:Southern Bavarian 9784:Northern Bavarian 9760:Highest Alemannic 9711: 9710: 9445:standard variants 9360: 9359: 9206:Standard variants 9165: 9164: 9024:Middle Low German 8995: 8994: 8991: 8990: 8795:Saterland Frisian 8568: 8567: 8564: 8563: 8560: 8559: 8457:Great Vowel Shift 8442:Close back vowels 8168:Clark Hall, J. R. 7758:Page, RI (1973). 7714:Elliott, Ralph WV 7485:978-3-9812110-7-8 6837:978-0-615-16817-3 6768:on 6 August 2020. 6702:Koch, Anthony S. 6228:Alistair Campbell 6186:Roget's Thesaurus 6158:Clark Hall, J. R. 6056:Brussels Glossary 5970: 5969: 5960:(breach of peace) 5797:Archbishop Lyfing 5674:Thorkell the Tall 5658: 5657: 5472:This text of the 5465: 5455:The Lord's Prayer 5437: 5436: 5217:eodosetla oftēah, 5124:-kings, did thrum 4862: 4861: 4819:⟨ȳ⟩ 4770:⟨p⟩ 4766:⟨w⟩ 4758:⟨u⟩ 4746:⟨ƿ⟩ 4714:⟨ū⟩ 4695:⟨ƿ⟩ 4689:, also sometimes 4665:⟨þ⟩ 4661:⟨ð⟩ 4653:⟨d⟩ 4647:and derived from 4627:⟨þ⟩ 4591:(between vowels), 4329:⟨ō⟩ 4312:⟨a⟩ 4245:⟨c⟩ 4115:⟨ī⟩ 4066:⟨i⟩ 4058:⟨g⟩ 4023:The combinations 4008:⟨n⟩ 3983:before and after 3977:⟨i⟩ 3973:⟨ġ⟩ 3965:⟨ᵹ⟩ 3941:⟨b⟩ 3894:⟨ġ⟩ 3890:⟨ċ⟩ 3866:⟨ġ⟩ 3862:⟨ċ⟩ 3825:⟨ġ⟩ 3821:⟨ċ⟩ 3789:⟨ē⟩ 3757:⟨þ⟩ 3753:⟨þ⟩ 3749:⟨ð⟩ 3745:⟨ð⟩ 3741:⟨þ⟩ 3733:⟨ð⟩ 3729:⟨þ⟩ 3725:⟨d⟩ 3690:⟨þ⟩ 3626:⟨g⟩ 3622:⟨c⟩ 3480:⟨i⟩ 3472:⟨ç⟩ 3468:⟨č⟩ 3464:⟨ċ⟩ 3419:(an allophone of 3388:⟨æ⟩ 3384:⟨ę⟩ 3372:⟨a⟩ 3368:⟨æ⟩ 3329:⟨ǣ⟩ 3325:⟨æ⟩ 3290:⟨ā⟩ 3203:⟨k⟩ 3197:were pronounced ( 3195:⟨h⟩ 3191:⟨c⟩ 3167:In contrast with 3162:⟨þ⟩ 3158:⟨ð⟩ 3154:⟨þ⟩ 3150:⟨ð⟩ 3146:⟨æ⟩ 3142:⟨w⟩ 3138:⟨ƿ⟩ 3134:⟨ġ⟩ 3130:⟨ċ⟩ 3126:⟨g⟩ 3122:⟨c⟩ 3107:⟨r⟩ 3103:⟨f⟩ 3099:⟨e⟩ 3087:⟨s⟩ 3079:⟨g⟩ 3072:⟨n⟩ 3068:⟨m⟩ 3050:⟨ꝥ⟩ 3032:⟨⁊⟩ 3021:⟨ƿ⟩ 3014:⟨þ⟩ 2997:⟨ð⟩ 2975:⟨z⟩ 2971:⟨q⟩ 2967:⟨k⟩ 2963:⟨u⟩ 2961:as distinct from 2959:⟨v⟩ 2955:⟨w⟩ 2951:⟨j⟩ 2887:Anglo-Saxon runes 2860:relative pronouns 2598:is also present. 2543:personal pronouns 2527:"on the Cross"). 2404:as the plural of 2368:or followed by a 2325: 2324: 2223: 2222: 2148: 2143: 2138: 2131: 2055:voiced consonants 2009: 2008: 1654:The inventory of 1554:from the late 9th 1479:construction and 1464:largely displaced 1167:Ælfric of Eynsham 1017:which became the 1005:Old English is a 787:Scandinavian rule 785:influence due to 737:the languages of 648:[ˈeŋɡliʃ] 625: 624: 377: 376: 359:rendering support 355:phonetic symbols. 95:[ˈeŋɡliʃ] 16:(Redirected from 10570: 10538:Anglic languages 10302:Elbe (Irminonic) 10275: 10274: 10262: 10261: 10190:Mainland Gutnish 10080:Swedish dialects 10042:Middle Icelandic 10016:Middle Norwegian 9905:Historical forms 9902: 9901: 9893: 9892: 9876: 9875: 9835:South Franconian 9821:Hutterite German 9789:Central Bavarian 9609:Rhine Franconian 9544: 9543: 9374:Historical forms 9371: 9370: 9286:Surinamese Dutch 9179:Historical forms 9176: 9175: 9009:Historical forms 9006: 9005: 8758:Historical forms 8755: 8754: 8642: 8641: 8633: 8632: 8620: 8619: 8595: 8588: 8581: 8572: 8571: 8462:Open back vowels 8437: 8429: 8407: 8406: 8394: 8393: 8304: 8297: 8290: 8281: 8280: 8003: 7974: 7928: 7899: 7870: 7784: 7682: 7654:External history 7617: 7598: 7575: 7562: 7506: 7468: 7425: 7395: 7363: 7362: 7360: 7358: 7343: 7337: 7330: 7324: 7317: 7311: 7306:William Somner, 7304: 7298: 7292: 7286: 7283: 7277: 7276: 7268: 7262: 7259: 7253: 7252: 7222: 7216: 7215: 7213: 7193: 7187: 7184: 7178: 7175: 7169: 7166: 7160: 7157: 7151: 7148: 7142: 7139: 7133: 7130: 7124: 7117: 7111: 7104: 7098: 7097: 7081: 7071: 7065: 7062: 7056: 7055: 7047: 7041: 7040: 7029: 7020: 7019: 7014:Boydell (1999). 7011: 7005: 7002: 6996: 6993: 6987: 6984: 6973: 6970: 6964: 6963: 6951: 6945: 6944: 6936: 6930: 6929: 6921: 6912: 6911: 6903: 6897: 6896: 6894: 6892: 6877: 6871: 6870: 6862: 6849: 6848: 6846: 6844: 6821: 6815: 6814: 6812: 6806:Hoeksema, Jack. 6803: 6797: 6790: 6784: 6783: 6776: 6770: 6769: 6767: 6761:. Archived from 6744: 6735: 6729: 6728: 6726: 6717: 6711: 6710: 6708: 6699: 6693: 6686: 6680: 6679: 6677: 6675: 6670:on 27 March 2009 6669: 6663:. Archived from 6662: 6654: 6648: 6642: 6636: 6633: 6627: 6620: 6614: 6613: 6588: 6582: 6575: 6569: 6568: 6566: 6564: 6541: 6535: 6534: 6522: 6516: 6513: 6507: 6500: 6494: 6487: 6481: 6474: 6468: 6461: 6455: 6448: 6442: 6435: 6429: 6428: 6426: 6424: 6410: 6404: 6403: 6395: 6360: 6359: 6334: 6277: 6272: 6271: 6270: 6232:J. R. R. Tolkien 6118:Bosworth, Joseph 5964:(behold as king) 5891: 5870:, that totwemed 5841: 5788: 5754: 5699: 5683: 5646: 5627: 5608: 5589: 5570: 5551: 5532: 5513: 5479: 5466: 5426: 5391: 5361: 5334:(honour/worship) 5325: 5292: 5252: 5219: 5189: 5151: 5117: 5092: 5058: 5054: 5045: 5036: 5027: 4914: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4857: 4851: 4845: 4839: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4814: 4802: 4787: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4747: 4744:with the letter 4743: 4737: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4709: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4639: 4628: 4624: 4618: 4606: 4595: 4590: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4557: 4554: 4548: 4545: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4516: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4496: 4493: 4487: 4481: 4478: 4469: 4453: 4430: 4424: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4399: 4387: 4377: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4352: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4324: 4313: 4307: 4290: 4278: 4257: 4246: 4240: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4215: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4185:had merged with 4184: 4178: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4150: 4138: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4110: 4099: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4052: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4019: 4009: 4005: 3990: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3966: 3956: 3942: 3935: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3910: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3881: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3841: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3812: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3784: 3772: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3714: 3705: 3691: 3687: 3681: 3670: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3555: 3551: 3540: 3524: 3513: 3509: 3501: 3493: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3457: 3451: 3437: 3431: 3422: 3412: 3401: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3363: 3359: 3349: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3313: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3285: 3274: 3270: 3262: 3258: 3252: 3224: 3223: 3216: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3088: 3080: 3073: 3069: 3057: 3051: 3033: 3022: 3015: 3004: 2998: 2990: 2984: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2873: 2867: 2838: 2832: 2810:negative concord 2736: 2715: 2589: 2583: 2564:definite article 2557: 2551:definite article 2523: 2431:(compare German 2420: 2392: 2388: 2334: 2330: 2321: 2316: 2306: 2301: 2291: 2286: 2257: 2253: 2250: 2246: 2238: 2218: 2212: 2205: 2193: 2184: 2172: 2165: 2160: 2146: 2141: 2134: 2129: 2112: 2108: 2105: 2101: 2085: 2074: 2071:occurring after 2070: 2063: 2048: 2041: 2030: 2027:occurring after 2026: 1997: 1991: 1970: 1958: 1949: 1943: 1923: 1915: 1910: 1902: 1894: 1886: 1880: 1872: 1866: 1858: 1852: 1831: 1825: 1802: 1796: 1785: 1780: 1771: 1766: 1749: 1737: 1731: 1721: 1668: 1664: 1656:Early West Saxon 1565: 1557: 1435: 1427: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1367:Alfred the Great 1300:written standard 1289: 1286: 1266: 1263: 1244:(1150 to 1500), 1231: 1228: 1205: 1202: 1187: 1184: 1138:Alfred the Great 1118:Alfred the Great 1086:Christianisation 1043:Medieval Cornish 1031:Celtic languages 970: 948: 937: 926: 915: 904: 743:Common Brittonic 657:English language 650: 645: 641: 635: 617: 610: 603: 386: 379: 378: 345: 329: 324: 315: 308: 299: 298: 290: 261: 151: 97: 79: 66: 57: 51: 39: 38: 21: 18:Anglian dialects 10578: 10577: 10573: 10572: 10571: 10569: 10568: 10567: 10528: 10527: 10526: 10521: 10489: 10448: 10429:Germanic umlaut 10394:Holtzmann's law 10372: 10341: 10269: 10248: 10201: 10178: 10112:South Jutlandic 10097:Danish dialects 10063: 9944: 9887: 9858: 9840:East Franconian 9794:Viennese German 9707: 9688:Silesian German 9654: 9643:Central Hessian 9533: 9458:Namibian German 9447: 9438: 9416:Standard German 9410: 9396:New High German 9382:Old High German 9356: 9335: 9317: 9228: 9200: 9161: 9145:East Pomeranian 9135:Brandenburgisch 9122:East Low German 9116: 9043:Dutch Low Saxon 9035:West Low German 9029: 8987: 8953:Schiermonnikoog 8934: 8829: 8815:Wursten Frisian 8778: 8744: 8627: 8614: 8604: 8599: 8569: 8556: 8526:-glottalization 8471: 8401: 8388: 8313: 8308: 8274:Wayback Machine 8262:Wayback Machine 8227:Wayback Machine 8217:Wayback Machine 8196: 8191: 8190: 7896: 7782: 7679: 7628:Ringe, Donald R 7614: 7595: 7559: 7524:Jespersen, Otto 7503: 7465: 7422: 7372: 7367: 7366: 7356: 7354: 7344: 7340: 7331: 7327: 7318: 7314: 7305: 7301: 7293: 7289: 7284: 7280: 7269: 7265: 7260: 7256: 7249: 7223: 7219: 7194: 7190: 7185: 7181: 7176: 7172: 7167: 7163: 7158: 7154: 7149: 7145: 7140: 7136: 7131: 7127: 7118: 7114: 7105: 7101: 7094: 7072: 7068: 7063: 7059: 7048: 7044: 7031: 7030: 7023: 7012: 7008: 7003: 6999: 6994: 6990: 6985: 6976: 6971: 6967: 6952: 6948: 6937: 6933: 6922: 6915: 6904: 6900: 6890: 6888: 6878: 6874: 6863: 6852: 6842: 6840: 6838: 6822: 6818: 6810: 6804: 6800: 6791: 6787: 6777: 6773: 6765: 6742: 6736: 6732: 6724: 6718: 6714: 6706: 6700: 6696: 6687: 6683: 6673: 6671: 6667: 6660: 6656: 6655: 6651: 6643: 6639: 6634: 6630: 6621: 6617: 6610: 6589: 6585: 6576: 6572: 6562: 6560: 6558: 6542: 6538: 6523: 6519: 6514: 6510: 6501: 6497: 6488: 6484: 6475: 6471: 6462: 6458: 6449: 6445: 6436: 6432: 6422: 6420: 6412: 6411: 6407: 6396: 6363: 6356: 6342: 6335: 6331: 6326: 6273: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6247:Modern Paganism 6223: 6095: 6083:Joseph Bosworth 6052:Harley Glossary 6004: 5999: 5769:to God's rights 5719:(having a 1200 5663: 5661:Charter of Cnut 5459: 5457: 5420:yldan. Þæt ƿæs 5394:over whale-road 5323:eorðmyndum þāh, 5222:of many maegths 5187:eaþena þrēatum, 5122:(nation/people) 4980: 4924: 4915: 4909: 4898: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4818: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4745: 4713: 4694: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4626: 4592: 4525: 4411: 4407: 4356: 4328: 4311: 4244: 4219: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4154: 4114: 4097: 4077: 4073: 4065: 4057: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4007: 3976: 3972: 3964: 3940: 3914: 3893: 3889: 3865: 3861: 3845: 3824: 3820: 3788: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3689: 3666: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3536: 3511: 3507: 3479: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3395: 3387: 3383: 3371: 3367: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3289: 3260: 3256: 3221:section above. 3206: 3202: 3194: 3190: 3161: 3160:is replaced by 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3086: 3078: 3071: 3067: 3049: 3031: 3020: 3013: 2996: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2942:(also known as 2932:Irish Christian 2893: 2885:Main articles: 2881: 2751: 2460: 2455: 2449: 2377:height-harmonic 2370:nasal consonant 2354: 2348: 2335:in West Saxon. 2275: 2266: 2261: 1690: 1662:is as follows. 1652: 1646: 1563: 1555: 1537:Norman Conquest 1487:auxiliary verb 1456: 1433: 1417: 1387:in EWS, but to 1340:Alfredian Saxon 1287: 1277: 1264: 1256:(before 1450), 1229: 1203: 1185: 1077:was spoken and 992:Norman invasion 982: 968: 966: 963:Old High German 946: 944: 935: 933: 924: 922: 913: 911: 902: 886: 880: 845:Germanic tribes 830: 747:Celtic language 719:Germanic tribes 702:in England and 688:Norman Conquest 643: 621: 592: 591: 567: 559: 558: 557: 518: 508: 507: 488: 478: 477: 450: 443: 435: 434: 410: 357:Without proper 341: 327: 320: 311: 304: 294: 293: 286: 262: 257: 222: 208: 201: 152: 149:Language family 147: 85: 52: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10576: 10566: 10565: 10560: 10555: 10550: 10545: 10540: 10523: 10522: 10520: 10519: 10512: 10502: 10499: 10498: 10495: 10494: 10491: 10490: 10488: 10487: 10482: 10477: 10472: 10467: 10462: 10456: 10454: 10450: 10449: 10447: 10446: 10441: 10436: 10431: 10426: 10421: 10416: 10411: 10406: 10401: 10396: 10391: 10386: 10380: 10378: 10374: 10373: 10371: 10370: 10365: 10360: 10355: 10353:Proto-Germanic 10349: 10347: 10343: 10342: 10340: 10339: 10332: 10325: 10317: 10316: 10315: 10314: 10309: 10304: 10294: 10289: 10283: 10281: 10271: 10270: 10258: 10257: 10254: 10253: 10250: 10249: 10247: 10246: 10239: 10232: 10228:Crimean Gothic 10217: 10215: 10207: 10206: 10203: 10202: 10200: 10199: 10198: 10197: 10192: 10183: 10180: 10179: 10177: 10176: 10175: 10174: 10164: 10163: 10162: 10155: 10148: 10143: 10138: 10133: 10132: 10131: 10126: 10116: 10115: 10114: 10104: 10102:Insular Danish 10099: 10089: 10088: 10087: 10085:Rinkebysvenska 10082: 10071: 10069: 10065: 10064: 10062: 10061: 10054: 10047: 10046: 10045: 10038: 10026: 10021: 10020: 10019: 10012: 10005: 9999: 9993: 9988: 9983: 9978: 9973: 9968: 9963: 9952: 9950: 9946: 9945: 9943: 9942: 9941: 9940: 9933: 9931:Old East Norse 9928: 9926:Old West Norse 9916: 9908: 9906: 9899: 9889: 9888: 9872: 9871: 9868: 9867: 9864: 9863: 9860: 9859: 9857: 9856: 9849: 9848: 9847: 9837: 9832: 9831: 9830: 9829: 9828: 9823: 9818: 9813: 9808: 9806:South Tyrolean 9798: 9797: 9796: 9786: 9776: 9775: 9774: 9769: 9768: 9767: 9757: 9756: 9755: 9748:High Alemannic 9745: 9744: 9743: 9738: 9721: 9719: 9713: 9712: 9709: 9708: 9706: 9705: 9700: 9695: 9690: 9685: 9680: 9675: 9670: 9664: 9662: 9656: 9655: 9653: 9652: 9647: 9646: 9645: 9635: 9634: 9633: 9632: 9631: 9626: 9616: 9606: 9605: 9604: 9603: 9602: 9601: 9600: 9590: 9585: 9575: 9574: 9573: 9568: 9552: 9550: 9541: 9539:Central German 9535: 9534: 9532: 9531: 9530: 9529: 9524: 9517: 9512: 9507: 9497: 9492: 9491: 9490: 9480: 9478:Barossa German 9475: 9470: 9465: 9460: 9454: 9452: 9440: 9439: 9437: 9436: 9431: 9426: 9420: 9418: 9412: 9411: 9409: 9408: 9407: 9406: 9392: 9385: 9377: 9375: 9368: 9362: 9361: 9358: 9357: 9355: 9354: 9349: 9343: 9341: 9337: 9336: 9334: 9333: 9327: 9325: 9319: 9318: 9316: 9315: 9298: 9293: 9288: 9282: 9281: 9276: 9271: 9266: 9261: 9260: 9259: 9257:French Flemish 9249: 9248: 9247: 9236: 9234: 9230: 9229: 9227: 9226: 9216: 9210: 9208: 9202: 9201: 9199: 9198: 9193: 9188: 9182: 9180: 9173: 9171:Low Franconian 9167: 9166: 9163: 9162: 9160: 9159: 9158: 9157: 9147: 9142: 9137: 9132: 9126: 9124: 9118: 9117: 9115: 9114: 9109: 9104: 9103: 9102: 9092: 9091: 9090: 9085: 9080: 9079: 9078: 9073: 9065: 9060: 9055: 9050: 9039: 9037: 9031: 9030: 9028: 9027: 9020: 9012: 9010: 9003: 8997: 8996: 8993: 8992: 8989: 8988: 8986: 8985: 8984: 8983: 8978: 8977: 8976: 8975: 8974: 8972:Westereendersk 8966: 8955: 8950: 8944: 8942: 8936: 8935: 8933: 8932: 8931: 8930: 8925: 8918: 8913: 8912: 8911: 8906: 8903: 8895: 8890: 8889: 8888: 8877: 8876: 8875: 8870: 8865: 8864: 8863: 8858: 8850: 8839: 8837: 8831: 8830: 8828: 8827: 8826: 8825: 8818: 8811: 8799: 8798: 8797: 8788: 8786: 8780: 8779: 8777: 8776: 8773:Middle Frisian 8769: 8761: 8759: 8752: 8746: 8745: 8743: 8742: 8741: 8740: 8733: 8721: 8720: 8719: 8712: 8705: 8693: 8692: 8691: 8690: 8689: 8679:Modern English 8675: 8672:Middle English 8668: 8661: 8650: 8648: 8639: 8629: 8628: 8616: 8615: 8609: 8606: 8605: 8598: 8597: 8590: 8583: 8575: 8566: 8565: 8562: 8561: 8558: 8557: 8555: 8554: 8547: 8546: 8545: 8540: 8528: 8520: 8515: 8508: 8500: 8492: 8487: 8481: 8479: 8473: 8472: 8470: 8469: 8464: 8459: 8454: 8449: 8444: 8439: 8431: 8423: 8415: 8413: 8403: 8402: 8390: 8389: 8387: 8386: 8384:Modern English 8381: 8376: 8374:Middle English 8371: 8366: 8365: 8364: 8359: 8354: 8349: 8339: 8334: 8329: 8327:Proto-Germanic 8324: 8318: 8315: 8314: 8307: 8306: 8299: 8292: 8284: 8278: 8277: 8265: 8255: 8241: 8240: 8236: 8235: 8230: 8220: 8210: 8201: 8200: 8195: 8194:External links 8192: 8189: 8188: 8185:World Wide Web 8175: 8165: 8158: 8151: 8141: 8140: 8136: 8135: 8128: 8121: 8114: 8107: 8106: 8105: 8102: 8092: 8085: 8078: 8070: 8069: 8065: 8064: 8057: 8050: 8042: 8041: 8037: 8036: 8029: 8022: 8011: 8004: 7986:(2): 315–339. 7975: 7965:(3): 379–400. 7954: 7943: 7936: 7929: 7917:10.2307/411354 7911:(4): 522–538. 7900: 7894: 7871: 7859:10.2307/410597 7853:(4): 575–597. 7842: 7835: 7828: 7818: 7811: 7804: 7796: 7795: 7791: 7790: 7779: 7772: 7765: 7756: 7738: 7728: 7721: 7711: 7703: 7702: 7698: 7697: 7690: 7683: 7677: 7656: 7655: 7651: 7650: 7643: 7640:978-0199207848 7625: 7618: 7612: 7599: 7593: 7585:Harcourt Brace 7576: 7563: 7557: 7540: 7531: 7521: 7514: 7507: 7502:978-0866985147 7501: 7488: 7473:Euler, Wolfram 7470: 7463: 7450: 7440: 7433: 7426: 7420: 7402: 7401: 7397: 7396: 7386:, ed. (1955). 7379: 7378: 7374: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7365: 7364: 7338: 7325: 7312: 7299: 7287: 7278: 7263: 7254: 7247: 7233:. p. 45. 7217: 7188: 7179: 7170: 7161: 7152: 7143: 7134: 7125: 7112: 7099: 7092: 7066: 7057: 7042: 7021: 7018:. p. 230. 7006: 6997: 6988: 6974: 6965: 6946: 6931: 6913: 6898: 6872: 6850: 6836: 6816: 6798: 6785: 6771: 6730: 6712: 6694: 6681: 6649: 6637: 6628: 6615: 6608: 6583: 6570: 6556: 6536: 6517: 6508: 6495: 6482: 6469: 6456: 6443: 6430: 6405: 6361: 6354: 6328: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6321: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6279: 6278: 6262: 6259: 6222: 6219: 6191: 6190: 6169: 6155: 6154: 6153: 6146: 6115: 6102:Cameron, Angus 6094: 6091: 6075:William Somner 6060:Middle English 6046:, such as the 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5968: 5967: 5924:I, meself, mid 5892: 5884: 5883: 5844:¶ Now, ne went 5842: 5833: 5832: 5789: 5779: 5778: 5773:and to rights 5755: 5747: 5746: 5700: 5691: 5690: 5687: 5667:Cnut the Great 5662: 5659: 5656: 5655: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5640: 5637: 5636: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5621: 5618: 5617: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5602: 5599: 5598: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5583: 5580: 5579: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5564: 5561: 5560: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5545: 5542: 5541: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5526: 5523: 5522: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5507: 5504: 5503: 5500: 5498:Modern English 5491: 5486: 5483: 5456: 5453: 5435: 5434: 5427: 5409: 5406: 5405: 5392: 5377: 5373: 5372: 5362: 5344: 5341: 5340: 5326: 5308: 5305: 5304: 5293: 5286:unden, hē þæs 5275: 5272: 5271: 5253: 5235: 5232: 5231: 5220: 5202: 5198: 5197: 5190: 5171: 5168: 5167: 5152: 5149:llen fremedon. 5137: 5134: 5133: 5118: 5104: 5101: 5100: 5099:in yore-days, 5093: 5078: 5074: 5073: 5064: 5061: 4979: 4974: 4920:Main article: 4897: 4894: 4860: 4859: 4840: 4835: 4831: 4830: 4815: 4810: 4806: 4805: 4803: 4798: 4795: 4791: 4790: 4788: 4783: 4779: 4778: 4774: 4773: 4738: 4733: 4730: 4726: 4725: 4710: 4705: 4701: 4700: 4698: 4684: 4681: 4677: 4676: 4641: 4635: 4631: 4630: 4619: 4614: 4610: 4609: 4607: 4602: 4598: 4597: 4586: 4582: 4581: 4560:palatalization 4471: 4465: 4462: 4458: 4457: 4455: 4449: 4445: 4444: 4441:alveolar trill 4425: 4420: 4416: 4415: 4400: 4395: 4391: 4390: 4388: 4383: 4379: 4378: 4373: 4369: 4368: 4353: 4348: 4345: 4341: 4340: 4325: 4320: 4316: 4315: 4308: 4303: 4300: 4296: 4295: 4292: 4286: 4282: 4281: 4279: 4274: 4270: 4269: 4258: 4253: 4249: 4248: 4241: 4236: 4232: 4231: 4216: 4211: 4207: 4206: 4179: 4174: 4171: 4167: 4166: 4151: 4146: 4142: 4141: 4139: 4134: 4131: 4127: 4126: 4111: 4106: 4102: 4101: 4054: 4048: 4045: 4041: 4040: 4021: 4015: 4011: 4010: 4001: 3997: 3996: 3958: 3952: 3949: 3945: 3944: 3937: 3931: 3927: 3926: 3911: 3906: 3902: 3901: 3882: 3877: 3874: 3870: 3869: 3842: 3837: 3833: 3832: 3813: 3808: 3805: 3801: 3800: 3785: 3780: 3776: 3775: 3773: 3768: 3765: 3761: 3760: 3707: 3701: 3698: 3694: 3693: 3682: 3677: 3673: 3672: 3663: 3659: 3658: 3542: 3533: 3530: 3526: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3515: 3452: 3447: 3444: 3440: 3439: 3424: 3416: 3415: 3413: 3408: 3404: 3403: 3364: 3355: 3351: 3350: 3345: 3341: 3340: 3314: 3309: 3306: 3302: 3301: 3286: 3281: 3277: 3276: 3253: 3248: 3245: 3241: 3240: 3237: 3231: 3228: 3209:in the modern 3181:silent letters 2936:Insular script 2930:introduced by 2928:Latin alphabet 2926:script of the 2905:Latin alphabet 2901:runic alphabet 2880: 2877: 2876: 2875: 2852: 2845:interrogatives 2813: 2806: 2781: 2757:is similar to 2750: 2747: 2696:English plural 2679:who/whom/whose 2584:("this"), and 2576:demonstratives 2570:("that"), and 2534:and sometimes 2459: 2456: 2451:Main article: 2448: 2445: 2437: 2436: 2425: 2422: 2415: 2412: 2409: 2394: 2383: 2380: 2373: 2350:Main article: 2347: 2344: 2323: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2308: 2307: 2302: 2297: 2293: 2292: 2287: 2282: 2278: 2277: 2272: 2263: 2221: 2220: 2213: 2208: 2206: 2201: 2195: 2194: 2189: 2187: 2185: 2180: 2174: 2173: 2168: 2166: 2161: 2156: 2150: 2149: 2144: 2139: 2132: 2126: 2125: 2120: 2115: 2088: 2087: 2076: 2065: 2058: 2043: 2036: 2007: 2006: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1984: 1982: 1980: 1974: 1973: 1971: 1959: 1952: 1950: 1936: 1934: 1932: 1926: 1925: 1916: 1904: 1895: 1888: 1874: 1860: 1846: 1840: 1839: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1819: 1817: 1815: 1813: 1807: 1806: 1804: 1790: 1788: 1786: 1774: 1772: 1760: 1754: 1753: 1751: 1742: 1740: 1738: 1724: 1722: 1715: 1709: 1708: 1703: 1698: 1693: 1686: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1648:Main article: 1645: 1642: 1577:Middle English 1566:century. Many 1541:Middle English 1525:Latin alphabet 1416: 1413: 1353:, and most of 1295:Modern English 1276: 1273: 1271:(after 1700). 1250:Modern English 1242:Middle English 1238: 1237: 1223: 1197: 1150:Pope Gregory I 1000:Modern English 974:Crimean Gothic 967: 945: 934: 923: 919:Old East Norse 912: 908:Old West Norse 901: 879: 876: 856:Proto-Germanic 829: 826: 779:Modern English 755:Roman conquest 700:Middle English 696:type of French 623: 622: 620: 619: 612: 605: 597: 594: 593: 590: 589: 584: 582:Modern English 579: 574: 572:Middle English 568: 565: 564: 561: 560: 556: 555: 550: 545: 540: 538:Proto-Germanic 534: 533: 527: 526: 520: 519: 514: 513: 510: 509: 506: 505: 500: 495: 489: 484: 483: 480: 479: 476: 475: 470: 465: 460: 457:Latin alphabet 453:Runic alphabet 444: 441: 440: 437: 436: 433: 432: 427: 422: 417: 411: 408: 407: 404: 403: 397: 396: 388: 387: 375: 374: 361:, you may see 347: 346: 339: 331: 330: 325: 317: 316: 309: 301: 300: 291: 283: 282: 281:Language codes 278: 277: 263: 259:Writing system 256: 253: 252: 251: 250: 245: 240: 235: 228: 224: 223: 221: 220: 218:Proto-Germanic 211: 209: 206: 203: 202: 200: 199: 198: 197: 196: 195: 194: 193: 192: 191: 190: 189: 155: 153: 146: 143: 142: 135:Middle English 131: 127: 126: 121: 117: 116: 103: 99: 98: 91: 87: 86: 77:ofer hron rade 67: 59: 58: 44: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10575: 10564: 10561: 10559: 10556: 10554: 10551: 10549: 10546: 10544: 10541: 10539: 10536: 10535: 10533: 10517: 10513: 10511: 10507: 10504: 10503: 10500: 10486: 10483: 10481: 10478: 10476: 10473: 10471: 10468: 10466: 10463: 10461: 10460:Germanic verb 10458: 10457: 10455: 10451: 10445: 10442: 10440: 10437: 10435: 10432: 10430: 10427: 10425: 10422: 10420: 10417: 10415: 10412: 10410: 10407: 10405: 10402: 10400: 10399:Sievers's law 10397: 10395: 10392: 10390: 10387: 10385: 10382: 10381: 10379: 10375: 10369: 10366: 10364: 10361: 10359: 10356: 10354: 10351: 10350: 10348: 10346:Reconstructed 10344: 10338: 10337: 10333: 10331: 10330: 10326: 10324: 10323: 10319: 10318: 10313: 10310: 10308: 10305: 10303: 10300: 10299: 10298: 10295: 10293: 10290: 10288: 10285: 10284: 10282: 10280: 10276: 10272: 10268: 10263: 10259: 10245: 10244: 10240: 10238: 10237: 10233: 10230: 10229: 10224: 10223: 10219: 10218: 10216: 10214: 10213: 10208: 10196: 10193: 10191: 10188: 10187: 10185: 10184: 10181: 10173: 10170: 10169: 10168: 10165: 10161: 10160: 10159:Middle Danish 10156: 10154: 10153: 10149: 10147: 10144: 10142: 10139: 10137: 10134: 10130: 10127: 10125: 10122: 10121: 10120: 10117: 10113: 10110: 10109: 10108: 10105: 10103: 10100: 10098: 10095: 10094: 10093: 10090: 10086: 10083: 10081: 10078: 10077: 10076: 10073: 10072: 10070: 10066: 10060: 10059: 10055: 10053: 10052: 10048: 10044: 10043: 10039: 10037: 10036: 10035:Old Icelandic 10032: 10031: 10030: 10027: 10025: 10022: 10018: 10017: 10013: 10011: 10010: 10009:Old Norwegian 10006: 10003: 10000: 9997: 9994: 9992: 9989: 9987: 9984: 9982: 9979: 9977: 9974: 9972: 9969: 9967: 9964: 9962: 9959: 9958: 9957: 9954: 9953: 9951: 9947: 9939: 9938: 9934: 9932: 9929: 9927: 9924: 9923: 9922: 9921: 9917: 9915: 9914: 9910: 9909: 9907: 9903: 9900: 9898: 9894: 9890: 9886: 9882: 9877: 9873: 9855: 9854: 9850: 9846: 9843: 9842: 9841: 9838: 9836: 9833: 9827: 9826:Gottscheerish 9824: 9822: 9819: 9817: 9814: 9812: 9809: 9807: 9804: 9803: 9802: 9799: 9795: 9792: 9791: 9790: 9787: 9785: 9782: 9781: 9780: 9777: 9773: 9770: 9766: 9765:Walser German 9763: 9762: 9761: 9758: 9754: 9751: 9750: 9749: 9746: 9742: 9739: 9737: 9734: 9733: 9732: 9731:Low Alemannic 9729: 9728: 9726: 9723: 9722: 9720: 9718: 9714: 9704: 9701: 9699: 9696: 9694: 9693:High Prussian 9691: 9689: 9686: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9678:Erzgebirgisch 9676: 9674: 9671: 9669: 9666: 9665: 9663: 9661: 9657: 9651: 9648: 9644: 9641: 9640: 9639: 9636: 9630: 9627: 9625: 9622: 9621: 9620: 9617: 9615: 9612: 9611: 9610: 9607: 9599: 9596: 9595: 9594: 9591: 9589: 9586: 9584: 9583:Luxembourgish 9581: 9580: 9579: 9576: 9572: 9569: 9567: 9564: 9563: 9562: 9559: 9558: 9557: 9554: 9553: 9551: 9549: 9545: 9542: 9540: 9536: 9528: 9525: 9523: 9522: 9521:Klezmer-loshn 9518: 9516: 9515:Scots Yiddish 9513: 9511: 9508: 9506: 9503: 9502: 9501: 9498: 9496: 9493: 9489: 9486: 9485: 9484: 9481: 9479: 9476: 9474: 9471: 9469: 9466: 9464: 9461: 9459: 9456: 9455: 9453: 9451: 9446: 9441: 9435: 9432: 9430: 9427: 9425: 9422: 9421: 9419: 9417: 9413: 9405: 9404: 9400: 9399: 9398: 9397: 9393: 9391: 9390: 9386: 9384: 9383: 9379: 9378: 9376: 9372: 9369: 9367: 9363: 9353: 9352:Meuse-Rhenish 9350: 9348: 9345: 9344: 9342: 9338: 9332: 9329: 9328: 9326: 9324: 9320: 9314: 9310: 9306: 9302: 9299: 9297: 9294: 9292: 9289: 9287: 9284: 9283: 9280: 9279:Kleverlandish 9277: 9275: 9272: 9270: 9267: 9265: 9262: 9258: 9255: 9254: 9253: 9250: 9246: 9243: 9242: 9241: 9240:Central Dutch 9238: 9237: 9235: 9231: 9224: 9220: 9217: 9215: 9212: 9211: 9209: 9207: 9203: 9197: 9194: 9192: 9189: 9187: 9184: 9183: 9181: 9177: 9174: 9172: 9168: 9156: 9153: 9152: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9131: 9128: 9127: 9125: 9123: 9119: 9113: 9110: 9108: 9105: 9101: 9098: 9097: 9096: 9093: 9089: 9086: 9084: 9081: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9069: 9068: 9066: 9064: 9061: 9059: 9056: 9054: 9051: 9049: 9048:Stellingwarfs 9046: 9045: 9044: 9041: 9040: 9038: 9036: 9032: 9026: 9025: 9021: 9019: 9018: 9014: 9013: 9011: 9007: 9004: 9002: 8998: 8982: 8979: 8973: 8970: 8969: 8968:Wood Frisian 8967: 8964: 8963: 8962: 8959: 8958: 8956: 8954: 8951: 8949: 8946: 8945: 8943: 8941: 8937: 8929: 8926: 8924: 8923: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8910: 8907: 8904: 8901: 8900: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8891: 8886: 8885: 8884: 8881: 8880: 8878: 8874: 8871: 8869: 8866: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8853: 8851: 8849: 8848: 8844: 8843: 8841: 8840: 8838: 8836: 8835:North Frisian 8832: 8824: 8823: 8819: 8817: 8816: 8812: 8810: 8809: 8805: 8804: 8803: 8800: 8796: 8793: 8792: 8790: 8789: 8787: 8785: 8781: 8775: 8774: 8770: 8768: 8767: 8763: 8762: 8760: 8756: 8753: 8751: 8747: 8739: 8738: 8734: 8732: 8731: 8727: 8726: 8725: 8722: 8718: 8717: 8713: 8711: 8710: 8706: 8704: 8703: 8699: 8698: 8697: 8694: 8688: 8687: 8683: 8682: 8681: 8680: 8676: 8674: 8673: 8669: 8667: 8666: 8662: 8660: 8657: 8656: 8655: 8652: 8651: 8649: 8647: 8643: 8640: 8638: 8637:Anglo-Frisian 8634: 8630: 8626: 8621: 8617: 8613: 8607: 8603: 8596: 8591: 8589: 8584: 8582: 8577: 8576: 8573: 8553: 8552: 8548: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8535: 8534: 8533: 8529: 8527: 8525: 8521: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8513: 8509: 8507: 8506:-vocalization 8505: 8501: 8499: 8497: 8493: 8491: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8482: 8480: 8478: 8474: 8468: 8465: 8463: 8460: 8458: 8455: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8445: 8443: 8440: 8438: 8432: 8430: 8424: 8422: 8421: 8417: 8416: 8414: 8412: 8408: 8404: 8400: 8395: 8391: 8385: 8382: 8380: 8377: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8367: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8344: 8343: 8340: 8338: 8335: 8333: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8319: 8316: 8312: 8305: 8300: 8298: 8293: 8291: 8286: 8285: 8282: 8275: 8271: 8270: 8266: 8263: 8259: 8256: 8254: 8250: 8246: 8243: 8242: 8238: 8237: 8234: 8231: 8228: 8224: 8221: 8218: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8208: 8203: 8202: 8198: 8197: 8186: 8182: 8181: 8176: 8173: 8169: 8166: 8163: 8159: 8156: 8152: 8149: 8148: 8143: 8142: 8138: 8137: 8133: 8129: 8126: 8122: 8119: 8115: 8112: 8108: 8103: 8100: 8099: 8097: 8093: 8090: 8086: 8083: 8079: 8076: 8072: 8071: 8067: 8066: 8062: 8058: 8055: 8051: 8048: 8044: 8043: 8039: 8038: 8034: 8030: 8027: 8023: 8020: 8016: 8015:F van Coetsem 8012: 8009: 8005: 8001: 7997: 7993: 7989: 7985: 7981: 7976: 7972: 7968: 7964: 7960: 7955: 7952: 7949:. Stuttgart: 7948: 7944: 7941: 7937: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7922: 7918: 7914: 7910: 7906: 7901: 7897: 7895:9781444339338 7891: 7887: 7883: 7879: 7878: 7872: 7868: 7864: 7860: 7856: 7852: 7848: 7843: 7840: 7836: 7833: 7829: 7826: 7822: 7819: 7816: 7812: 7809: 7805: 7802: 7798: 7797: 7793: 7792: 7788: 7780: 7777: 7773: 7770: 7766: 7763: 7762: 7757: 7755: 7754:0-19-811251-3 7751: 7747: 7743: 7739: 7736: 7732: 7729: 7726: 7722: 7719: 7715: 7712: 7709: 7705: 7704: 7700: 7699: 7695: 7691: 7688: 7684: 7680: 7678:0-8047-2221-8 7674: 7670: 7666: 7662: 7658: 7657: 7653: 7652: 7648: 7644: 7641: 7637: 7633: 7629: 7626: 7623: 7619: 7615: 7613:0-631-22636-2 7609: 7605: 7600: 7596: 7594:0-15-501645-8 7590: 7586: 7582: 7577: 7573: 7569: 7564: 7560: 7558:0-521-43087-9 7554: 7550: 7547:. Cambridge: 7546: 7541: 7538: 7537: 7532: 7529: 7525: 7522: 7519: 7515: 7512: 7508: 7504: 7498: 7494: 7489: 7486: 7482: 7478: 7474: 7471: 7466: 7464:1-889758-69-8 7460: 7456: 7451: 7448: 7444: 7441: 7438: 7434: 7431: 7427: 7423: 7421:0-631-23454-3 7417: 7413: 7409: 7404: 7403: 7399: 7398: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7380: 7376: 7375: 7353: 7349: 7342: 7335: 7329: 7322: 7316: 7309: 7303: 7296: 7291: 7282: 7274: 7267: 7258: 7250: 7248:9783110820263 7244: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7221: 7212: 7207: 7203: 7199: 7192: 7183: 7174: 7165: 7156: 7147: 7138: 7129: 7122: 7116: 7109: 7103: 7095: 7093:0-521-26438-3 7089: 7085: 7080: 7079: 7070: 7061: 7053: 7046: 7038: 7036: 7028: 7026: 7017: 7010: 7001: 6992: 6983: 6981: 6979: 6969: 6961: 6957: 6950: 6942: 6935: 6927: 6920: 6918: 6909: 6902: 6887: 6883: 6876: 6868: 6861: 6859: 6857: 6855: 6839: 6833: 6829: 6828: 6820: 6809: 6802: 6795: 6789: 6782: 6775: 6764: 6760: 6756: 6752: 6748: 6747:ICAME Journal 6741: 6734: 6723: 6716: 6705: 6698: 6691: 6685: 6666: 6659: 6653: 6646: 6641: 6632: 6625: 6619: 6611: 6609:0-19-811943-7 6605: 6602:. p. 4. 6601: 6597: 6593: 6587: 6580: 6577:A. Campbell, 6574: 6559: 6557:9788437083216 6553: 6549: 6548: 6540: 6533: 6528: 6521: 6512: 6505: 6499: 6492: 6486: 6479: 6473: 6466: 6460: 6453: 6447: 6440: 6434: 6419: 6415: 6409: 6401: 6394: 6392: 6390: 6388: 6386: 6384: 6382: 6380: 6378: 6376: 6374: 6372: 6370: 6368: 6366: 6357: 6355:0-521-53033-4 6351: 6347: 6339: 6333: 6329: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6280: 6276: 6265: 6258: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6243: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6221:Modern legacy 6218: 6216: 6215: 6210: 6209: 6204: 6203: 6198: 6197: 6188: 6187: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6173:Christian Kay 6170: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6156: 6151: 6147: 6144: 6140: 6139: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6128: 6123: 6119: 6116: 6113: 6109: 6108: 6103: 6100: 6099: 6098: 6090: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6071: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6032:Épinal-Erfurt 6029: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6002:Early history 5993: 5989: 5986: 5982: 5979: 5974: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5956:(forestalled) 5953: 5949: 5948: 5943: 5939: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5911: 5907: 5906: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5890: 5886: 5885: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5868: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5848:I not my shot 5847: 5843: 5840: 5835: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5821:(bring about) 5818: 5814: 5811:, and unright 5810: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5787: 5781: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5753: 5749: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5733: 5732: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5717: 5716: 5711: 5710: 5705: 5701: 5698: 5693: 5692: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5675: 5672: 5668: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5641: 5639: 5638: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5622: 5620: 5619: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5603: 5601: 5600: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5584: 5582: 5581: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5565: 5563: 5562: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5546: 5544: 5543: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5527: 5525: 5524: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5508: 5506: 5505: 5501: 5499: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5484: 5481: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5474:Lord's Prayer 5451: 5447: 5444: 5440: 5432: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5410: 5408: 5407: 5404:hear should, 5403: 5401: 5400: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5384: 5378: 5375: 5374: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5345: 5343: 5342: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5309: 5307: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5276: 5274: 5273: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246:rlas. Syððan 5245: 5241: 5236: 5234: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5203: 5200: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5172: 5170: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5144: 5138: 5136: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5116: 5115:rym ġefrūnon, 5114: 5111:ēod-cyninga, 5110: 5105: 5103: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5085: 5079: 5076: 5075: 5072: 5069: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5059: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5044: 5042: 5035: 5033: 5026: 5024: 5017: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4998: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4986: 4978: 4973: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4962:Cædmon's Hymn 4959: 4958:Franks Casket 4955: 4954: 4949: 4945: 4944: 4937: 4932: 4930: 4923: 4913: 4907: 4902: 4893: 4867: 4856: 4850: 4841: 4836: 4832: 4816: 4811: 4808: 4807: 4804: 4799: 4796: 4792: 4789: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4775: 4751: 4728: 4727: 4711: 4706: 4703: 4702: 4699: 4685: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4636: 4632: 4620: 4615: 4611: 4608: 4603: 4599: 4587: 4584: 4583: 4580: 4569: 4563: 4561: 4553: 4544: 4515: 4501: 4492: 4477: 4466: 4463: 4459: 4456: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4437:alveolar flap 4434: 4426: 4421: 4417: 4401: 4396: 4392: 4389: 4384: 4380: 4374: 4371: 4370: 4349: 4346: 4342: 4326: 4321: 4318: 4317: 4309: 4304: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4287: 4283: 4280: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4254: 4250: 4242: 4237: 4233: 4217: 4212: 4209: 4208: 4180: 4175: 4172: 4168: 4152: 4147: 4144: 4143: 4140: 4135: 4132: 4128: 4112: 4107: 4104: 4103: 4095: 4094: 4089: 4088: 4080:to spell the 4055: 4049: 4046: 4042: 4022: 4016: 4012: 4002: 3999: 3998: 3994: 3986: 3970: 3963: 3953: 3950: 3946: 3938: 3932: 3928: 3912: 3907: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3883: 3878: 3875: 3871: 3843: 3838: 3835: 3834: 3830: 3814: 3809: 3806: 3802: 3786: 3781: 3778: 3777: 3774: 3769: 3766: 3762: 3722: 3718: 3713: 3708: 3702: 3699: 3696: 3695: 3683: 3678: 3674: 3664: 3661: 3660: 3657: 3560: 3547: 3534: 3531: 3527: 3521: 3518: 3517: 3505: 3497: 3489: 3482:it is always 3461: 3448: 3445: 3441: 3436: 3430: 3425: 3418: 3417: 3414: 3409: 3405: 3399: 3393: 3382:. The symbol 3365: 3356: 3353: 3352: 3346: 3343: 3342: 3319: 3316:Formerly the 3310: 3307: 3303: 3287: 3282: 3279: 3278: 3266: 3254: 3249: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3236:transcription 3235: 3232: 3229: 3226: 3225: 3222: 3220: 3212: 3201:) unlike the 3199:/knixt~kniçt/ 3187: 3183:—in the word 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3165: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3096: 3092: 3084: 3075: 3065: 3061: 3056: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3037: 3030: 3029:Tironian note 3026: 3019: 3012: 3008: 3005:, now called 3003: 2994: 2989: 2982: 2947: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2920:elder futhark 2917: 2913: 2906: 2902: 2897: 2892: 2888: 2883: 2872: 2866: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2837: 2831: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2811: 2807: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2793: 2789: 2787: 2782: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2767: 2766: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2746: 2744: 2740: 2735: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2717: 2714: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2694:. The modern 2693: 2689: 2685: 2682:) and in the 2681: 2680: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2662: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2647:passive voice 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2599: 2597: 2593: 2588: 2582: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2528: 2526: 2520:texts (e.g., 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2464: 2454: 2444: 2442: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2423: 2416: 2413: 2410: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2384: 2381: 2378: 2374: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2362: 2361: 2359: 2358:sound changes 2353: 2346:Sound changes 2343: 2341: 2336: 2318: 2313: 2310: 2309: 2303: 2298: 2295: 2294: 2288: 2283: 2280: 2279: 2273: 2270: 2264: 2259: 2258: 2252: 2242: 2235: 2230: 2228: 2214: 2209: 2207: 2202: 2200: 2197: 2196: 2190: 2188: 2186: 2181: 2179: 2176: 2175: 2169: 2167: 2162: 2157: 2155: 2152: 2151: 2145: 2140: 2137: 2133: 2128: 2127: 2124: 2119: 2113: 2107: 2097: 2096:most speakers 2093: 2084:/xw,xl,xn,xr/ 2081: 2077: 2066: 2059: 2056: 2052: 2044: 2037: 2034: 2022: 2018: 2017: 2016: 2014: 2005: 2003: 2001: 1999: 1996: 1990: 1985: 1983: 1981: 1979: 1976: 1975: 1972: 1969: 1964: 1960: 1957: 1953: 1951: 1948: 1942: 1937: 1935: 1933: 1931: 1928: 1927: 1922: 1917: 1914: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1896: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1851: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1841: 1838: 1836: 1834: 1830: 1824: 1820: 1818: 1816: 1814: 1812: 1809: 1808: 1805: 1801: 1795: 1791: 1789: 1787: 1784: 1779: 1775: 1773: 1770: 1765: 1761: 1759: 1756: 1755: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1741: 1739: 1736: 1730: 1725: 1723: 1720: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1707: 1704: 1702: 1699: 1697: 1694: 1692: 1687: 1685: 1682: 1680: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1669: 1663: 1661: 1657: 1651: 1641: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1605: 1600: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1581: 1578: 1574: 1569: 1561: 1553: 1549: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1509: 1508: 1507:lingua franca 1503: 1498: 1496: 1495:Brittonicisms 1492: 1491: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1439: 1431: 1426: 1421: 1412: 1410: 1405: 1403: 1398: 1392: 1379: 1375: 1370: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1347: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1307: 1305: 1301: 1296: 1288: 800 CE 1281: 1272: 1270: 1267:to 1700) and 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1235: 1224: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1198: 1195: 1191: 1180: 1179: 1178: 1175: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1159: 1157: 1156: 1155:Pastoral Care 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1109: 1105: 1104:Franks Casket 1101: 1097: 1096: 1095:Cædmon's Hymn 1091: 1087: 1082: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1003: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 980: 979:East Germanic 976: 975: 964: 960: 956: 952: 943: 942: 932: 931: 921: 920: 910: 909: 898: 890: 885: 875: 873: 868: 867: 862: 861: 857: 852: 850: 846: 842: 838: 834: 825: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 790: 788: 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 748: 744: 740: 739:Roman Britain 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 712: 711:Anglo-Frisian 707: 706:in Scotland. 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 676:Great Britain 673: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 649: 640: 634: 629: 618: 613: 611: 606: 604: 599: 598: 596: 595: 588: 585: 583: 580: 578: 575: 573: 570: 569: 563: 562: 554: 551: 549: 546: 544: 541: 539: 536: 535: 532: 529: 528: 525: 522: 521: 517: 512: 511: 504: 503:Cædmon's Hymn 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 490: 487: 482: 481: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 458: 454: 449: 446: 445: 439: 438: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 412: 406: 405: 402: 399: 398: 394: 390: 389: 385: 381: 380: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 354: 348: 344: 340: 338: 337: 332: 326: 323: 318: 314: 310: 307: 302: 297: 292: 289: 284: 279: 275: 271: 267: 264: 260: 254: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 230: 229: 225: 219: 216: 215: 214: 210: 204: 188: 185: 184: 183: 180: 179: 178: 177:Anglo-Frisian 175: 174: 173: 170: 169: 168: 167:West Germanic 165: 164: 163: 160: 159: 158: 157:Indo-European 154: 150: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 125: 122: 118: 115: 111: 107: 104: 100: 96: 92: 90:Pronunciation 88: 83: 78: 73: 72: 65: 60: 56: 50: 45: 40: 37: 33: 19: 10505: 10389:Verner's law 10334: 10329:Gotho-Nordic 10327: 10320: 10241: 10234: 10226: 10220: 10210: 10195:Fårö Gutnish 10157: 10150: 10056: 10049: 10040: 10033: 10014: 10007: 9935: 9930: 9925: 9918: 9911: 9851: 9753:Swiss German 9717:Upper German 9650:Amana German 9624:Volga German 9593:Hunsrückisch 9519: 9473:Unserdeutsch 9468:Berlinerisch 9401: 9394: 9387: 9380: 9340:Cover groups 9296:Mohawk Dutch 9291:Jersey Dutch 9269:East Flemish 9252:West Flemish 9196:Middle Dutch 9150:Low Prussian 9022: 9015: 8981:Terschelling 8965:Clay Frisian 8940:West Frisian 8928:Wiedingharde 8920: 8908: 8868:Heligolandic 8845: 8820: 8813: 8806: 8801: 8784:East Frisian 8771: 8764: 8737:Middle Scots 8735: 8728: 8714: 8707: 8700: 8695: 8684: 8677: 8670: 8664: 8663: 8550: 8531: 8523: 8511: 8503: 8495: 8419: 8357:Northumbrian 8341: 8268: 8206: 8199:Dictionaries 8178: 8171: 8161: 8154: 8145: 8131: 8124: 8117: 8110: 8095: 8088: 8081: 8074: 8060: 8053: 8046: 8032: 8025: 8018: 8007: 7983: 7979: 7962: 7958: 7946: 7939: 7932: 7908: 7904: 7876: 7850: 7846: 7838: 7831: 7824: 7814: 7807: 7800: 7786: 7775: 7768: 7759: 7745: 7741: 7734: 7724: 7717: 7707: 7693: 7686: 7664: 7646: 7631: 7621: 7603: 7580: 7567: 7544: 7534: 7527: 7526:(1909–1949) 7517: 7510: 7492: 7476: 7454: 7446: 7443:Campbell, A. 7436: 7429: 7407: 7387: 7370:Bibliography 7355:. Retrieved 7351: 7341: 7333: 7328: 7320: 7315: 7307: 7302: 7294: 7290: 7281: 7272: 7266: 7257: 7230: 7220: 7201: 7197: 7191: 7182: 7173: 7164: 7155: 7146: 7137: 7128: 7120: 7115: 7107: 7102: 7077: 7069: 7060: 7051: 7045: 7039:. Continuum. 7034: 7015: 7009: 7000: 6991: 6968: 6959: 6949: 6941:Our Language 6940: 6934: 6925: 6907: 6901: 6889:. Retrieved 6885: 6875: 6866: 6841:. Retrieved 6826: 6819: 6801: 6793: 6788: 6780: 6774: 6763:the original 6750: 6746: 6733: 6715: 6697: 6689: 6684: 6672:. Retrieved 6665:the original 6652: 6640: 6631: 6618: 6595: 6586: 6578: 6573: 6561:. Retrieved 6546: 6539: 6530: 6526: 6520: 6511: 6503: 6498: 6490: 6485: 6477: 6472: 6464: 6459: 6451: 6446: 6438: 6433: 6421:. Retrieved 6417: 6408: 6399: 6345: 6337: 6332: 6244: 6236:Ransom Riggs 6224: 6212: 6206: 6200: 6194: 6192: 6184: 6176: 6161: 6149: 6142: 6131: 6125: 6105: 6096: 6086: 6078: 6072: 6044:dictionaries 6010:lies in the 6008:lexicography 6005: 5997:Dictionaries 5990: 5987: 5983: 5980: 5976: 5971: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5952:(previously) 5951: 5946: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5904: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5866: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5828: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5804: 5801:(everywhere) 5800: 5792: 5774: 5770: 5767:(uncheating) 5766: 5762: 5758: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5729: 5718: 5714: 5713: 5708: 5707: 5703: 5664: 5502:Translation 5471: 5448: 5445: 5442: 5438: 5430: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5397: 5395: 5389:ȳran scolde, 5386: 5382: 5369: 5366:(until that) 5365: 5356: 5355:ġhƿylc þāra 5352: 5348: 5337: 5333: 5332:, worthmint 5329: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5300: 5296: 5290:rōfre ġebād, 5287: 5283: 5279: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5259:earls. Sith 5256: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5227: 5223: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5193: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5146: 5142: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5112: 5108: 5096: 5087: 5083: 5049: 5040: 5031: 5022: 5018: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4999: 4983: 4981: 4976: 4951: 4941: 4939: 4934: 4928: 4925: 4863: 4621:Represented 4596:(elsewhere) 4575:or possibly 4564: 4524:occurs when 4518:/ˈɑːs.ki.ɑn/ 4495:/ˈfiʃ.ʃe.re/ 4483: 4092: 4086: 4076:rather than 3985:front vowels 3962:insular form 3591: 3496:front vowels 3466:, sometimes 3210: 3166: 3111:acute accent 3076: 3038: 2992: 2948: 2943: 2914:, using the 2909: 2882: 2855: 2840: 2820: 2816: 2802: 2785: 2775:main clauses 2753:Old English 2752: 2742: 2738: 2725:strong verbs 2718: 2703: 2699: 2691: 2687: 2678: 2673: 2669: 2663: 2649:, and other 2643:future tense 2600: 2529: 2524: 2510:instrumental 2490:instrumental 2461: 2438: 2432: 2428: 2405: 2401: 2355: 2337: 2326: 2231: 2224: 2089: 2010: 1653: 1638:prepositions 1634:conjunctions 1629: 1625: 1618:comparatives 1607: 1602: 1582: 1545: 1505: 1499: 1489: 1485:periphrastic 1457: 1406: 1393: 1371: 1348: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1326: 1315:Northumbrian 1308: 1292: 1269:Modern Scots 1258:Middle Scots 1239: 1176: 1160: 1153: 1152:'s treatise 1131: 1093: 1083: 1004: 1002:vocabulary. 985: 972: 940: 939: 928: 917: 906: 853: 848: 836: 832: 831: 818:runic system 810:inflectional 791: 771:Northumbrian 708: 692:Anglo-Norman 659:, spoken in 652: 627: 626: 530: 425:Northumbrian 400: 350: 334: 243:Northumbrian 186: 124:Anglo-Saxons 69: 36: 10548:Old English 10404:Kluge's law 10384:Grimm's law 10167:Dalecarlian 10146:Perkerdansk 10119:East Danish 9937:Old Gutnish 9913:Proto-Norse 9853:Langobardic 9845:Vogtlandian 9673:Upper Saxon 9527:Lachoudisch 9488:Lotegorisch 9366:High German 9112:Westphalian 9107:Eastphalian 9071:Achterhooks 8948:Hindeloopen 8883:Bökingharde 8852:Föhr–Amrum 8766:Old Frisian 8730:Early Scots 8665:Old English 8342:Old English 7357:23 February 6563:19 December 6338:Anglo-Saxon 6288:Exeter Book 6028:interlinear 6012:Anglo-Saxon 5934:(travelled) 5922:(travelled) 5910:(come upon) 5763:(civilised) 5757:And I kithe 5704:(people's)' 5359:mbsittendra 5297:(destitute) 5086:ār-Dena in 5068:constructed 4825:from short 4720:from short 4571:was either 4363:from short 4335:from short 4226:from short 4197:instead of 4161:from short 4121:from short 3967:(see also: 3921:from short 3852:from short 3795:from short 3335:from short 3296:from short 3089:instead of 3081:instead of 3041:. A common 3036:conjunction 2924:half-uncial 2879:Orthography 2854:Similarly, 2799:finite verb 2771:verb-second 2655:Adpositions 2635:participles 2623:subjunctive 2566:("the"), a 2562:serve as a 2560:inflections 2549:forms. The 2547:dual-number 2536:participles 2276:(bimoraic) 2255:Diphthongs 1930:Approximant 1666:Consonants 1580:influence. 1568:place names 1477:progressive 1440:, Hampshire 1432:in the 10th 1265: 1450 1254:Early Scots 951:Old Frisian 941:Old English 930:Old Gutnish 798:Old Frisian 704:Early Scots 672:Middle Ages 653:Anglo-Saxon 628:Old English 448:Orthography 401:Old English 365:instead of 207:Early forms 187:Old English 139:Early Scots 42:Old English 10532:Categories 10236:Burgundian 10152:Old Danish 10141:Gøtudanskt 10124:Bornholmsk 9986:Vestlandsk 9966:Kebabnorsk 9703:Halcnovian 9668:Thuringian 9331:Limburgish 9301:Stadsfries 9274:Brabantian 9001:Low German 8847:Eiderstedt 8702:Fingallian 8477:Consonants 8452:Diphthongs 8362:West Saxon 8040:Morphology 6843:29 January 6598:. Oxford: 6324:References 6303:I-mutation 6124:. (1898). 5954:forefangen 5914:(equalled) 5898:man kithed 5803:God's love 5424:ōd cyning! 5402:for "sea") 5315:ēox under 5250:rest ƿearð 5158:did ellen 5156:(noblemen) 5090:eār-dagum, 4896:Literature 4663:and thorn 4556:/ˈfis.kɑs/ 4505:/ˈwyːʃ.ʃɑn 4268:position. 3390:. Compare 3323:was used; 2836:þā X, þā Y 2763:word order 2729:weak verbs 2684:possessive 2631:infinitive 2627:imperative 2619:indicative 2605:for three 2596:determiner 2478:accusative 2474:nominative 2458:Morphology 2398:i-mutation 2269:monomoraic 2035:(doubled). 1533:Old French 1336:West Saxon 1323:West Saxon 1230: 900 1204: 650 1186: 450 1171:Winchester 1122:Winchester 1120:statue in 1079:Danish law 1011:Ingvaeonic 814:word order 775:West Saxon 715:Ingvaeonic 644:pronounced 531:Influences 486:Literature 430:West Saxon 248:West Saxon 10516:varieties 10508:indicate 10322:Northwest 10267:Philology 10172:Elfdalian 10107:Jutlandic 10029:Icelandic 10004:(written) 9998:(written) 9976:Trøndersk 9956:Norwegian 9920:Old Norse 9741:Coloniero 9725:Alemannic 9698:Wymysorys 9566:Colognian 9561:Ripuarian 9483:Rotwelsch 9313:Midslands 9264:Zeelandic 9245:Hollandic 9219:Afrikaans 9191:Old Dutch 9017:Old Saxon 8916:Karrharde 8898:Goesharde 8879:Mainland 8612:philology 8518:Rhoticity 8498:-dropping 8000:144915239 7794:Phonology 7642:. Oxford. 7204:(2): 94. 6891:4 January 6423:11 August 6293:Go (verb) 6089:of 1838. 5916:: and tho 5858:(turmoil) 5854:(endured) 5809:(promote) 5777:worldly. 5686:Original 5351:ðþæt him 5301:(comfort) 5282:ēasceaft 5228:(deprive) 5164:(promote) 5145:þelingas 5082:Hƿæt! ƿē 5063:Original 5034:eār-dagum 4948:epic poem 4866:geminated 4748:, called 4310:See also 4262:velarised 4260:Probably 4053:, rarely 3939:See also 3612:and even 3460:diacritic 3392:e caudata 3265:allophone 3219:Phonology 3091:insular S 3083:insular G 2991:, modern 2792:inverting 2670:I/me/mine 2668:(such as 2603:conjugate 2468:for five 2366:nasalised 2142:unrounded 2130:unrounded 2033:geminated 2031:and when 2021:allophone 1844:Fricative 1811:Affricate 1644:Phonology 1593:Old Norse 1548:Old Norse 1468:loanwords 1462:which it 1378:diphthong 1126:Hampshire 1081:applied. 1075:Old Norse 1045:all over 959:Old Dutch 955:Old Saxon 828:Etymology 802:Old Saxon 783:Old Norse 553:Brittonic 468:Phonology 336:Glottolog 322:ISO 639-6 306:ISO 639-3 288:ISO 639-2 120:Ethnicity 10243:Vandalic 10186:Gutnish 9991:Vikværsk 9971:Sognamål 9961:Bergensk 9811:Cimbrian 9779:Bavarian 9736:Alsatian 9683:Lusatian 9619:Palatine 9309:Amelands 9186:Frankish 9076:Sallaans 9058:Gronings 8909:Southern 8902:Northern 8893:Halligen 8842:Insular 8659:dialects 8543:stopping 8538:fronting 8490:Flapping 8485:Clusters 8139:Lexicons 7905:Language 7847:Language 7785:Again". 7733:(1957). 7716:(1959). 7663:(1992). 7475:(2013). 7445:(1959). 7211:40914943 6759:13441465 6594:(1959). 6261:See also 6160:(1969). 6066:and the 6054:and the 6024:marginal 5825:(wished) 5813:(outlaw) 5805:(praise) 5741:and lewd 5737:, hooded 5724:weregild 5721:shilling 5678:pilcrows 5644:Sōðlīċe. 5485:Original 5385:ronrāde 5364:oth that 5319:olcnum, 5269:(became) 5194:(troops) 5120:of thede 5071:cognates 5043:þelingas 5014:what-ho! 4990:Hrothgar 4511:, as in 4488:, as in 4439:, or an 4191:/e(ː)o̯/ 4187:/e(ː)o̯/ 4183:/i(ː)o̯/ 3723:form of 3644:such as 3400:⟩ 3396:⟨ 3177:phonemes 3025:digraphs 2983:⟩ 2979:⟨ 2944:Caroline 2827:such as 2788:-support 2639:subjects 2574:. Other 2558:and its 2532:Pronouns 2514:locative 2506:pronouns 2492:; three 2482:genitive 2417:Loss of 2333:/e(ː)o̯/ 2329:/i(ː)o̯/ 2262:element 2241:i-umlaut 2013:phonemes 1691:alveolar 1684:Alveolar 1658:surface 1630:together 1610:pronouns 1436:century 1430:porticus 1391:in LWS. 1293:Just as 1275:Dialects 1216:Cynewulf 1047:Cornwall 1023:Scotland 872:fishhook 735:replaced 665:Scotland 409:Dialects 393:a series 391:Part of 371:Help:IPA 343:olde1238 268:, later 227:Dialects 162:Germanic 110:Scotland 10506:Italics 10129:Scanian 10075:Swedish 10024:Faroese 10002:Nynorsk 9981:Valdris 9816:Mòcheno 9772:Swabian 9638:Hessian 9598:Hunsrik 9510:Western 9505:Eastern 9500:Yiddish 9450:creoles 9347:Bergish 9063:Drèents 9053:Tweants 8905:Central 8887:Mooring 8750:Frisian 8709:Kildare 8654:English 8352:Mercian 8347:Kentish 8272:at the 8260:at the 8251:at the 8239:Lessons 8225:at the 8215:at the 7971:4177642 7731:Ker, NR 7400:General 7377:Sources 6674:20 June 6283:Anglish 6016:glosses 5950:, afore 5947:support 5932:me fore 5878:my shot 5867:support 5856:unfrith 5817:(peace) 5791:¶ I nam 5715:greater 5669:to his 5399:kenning 5303:abode, 5295:fewship 5267:worthed 5265:(first) 5213:ǣġþum, 5209:onegum 5126:(glory) 5025:ār-Dena 4985:Beowulf 4977:Beowulf 4943:Beowulf 4906:Beowulf 4846:; e.g. 4643:Called 4491:fisċere 4470:(rare) 4093:swerian 3721:insular 3709:Called 3667:(after 3537:(after 3494:before 3488:history 3435:scēafas 3429:scēabas 3318:digraph 3267:before 3173:regular 3119:palatal 3064:Macrons 2916:futhorc 2847:and as 2795:subject 2698:ending 2686:ending 2674:she/her 2651:aspects 2607:persons 2592:inflect 2525:on rodi 2522:ᚩᚾ ᚱᚩᛞᛁ 2504:. 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and 749:; and 727:Saxons 723:Angles 651:), or 566:Legacy 182:Anglic 102:Region 10336:South 10287:North 9897:North 9881:North 9223:Kaaps 9214:Dutch 8861:Amrum 8802:Weser 8724:Scots 7996:S2CID 7967:JSTOR 7921:JSTOR 7863:JSTOR 7206:JSTOR 6811:(PDF) 6766:(PDF) 6755:S2CID 6743:(PDF) 6725:(PDF) 6707:(PDF) 6668:(PDF) 6661:(PDF) 6020:Latin 5908:found 5827:sell' 5743:(lay) 5496:into 5450:king! 5429:yeme 5381:ofer 5336:theed 5162:freme 5128:frain 4994:Scyld 4946:, an 4849:betst 4693:(see 4645:thorn 4547:/fiʃ/ 4228:/io̯/ 4177:/io̯/ 4163:/iy̯/ 4137:/iy̯/ 3923:/eo̯/ 3896:(see 3880:/eo̯/ 3854:/æɑ̯/ 3827:(see 3811:/æɑ̯/ 3751:with 3700:ð, þ 3688:(see 3186:cniht 3115:velar 3011:thorn 2912:runes 2823:type 2700:-(e)s 2615:moods 2518:Runic 2470:cases 2463:Nouns 2433:sechs 2406:mouse 2379:type. 2311:Open 2265:Short 2260:First 2154:Close 2118:Front 1978:Trill 1713:Nasal 1701:Velar 1689:Post- 1626:hence 1502:Latin 1397:Scots 1136:) by 1067:Wales 1063:Welsh 1051:Devon 866:*angô 751:Latin 731:Jutes 669:early 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