920:. A spark gap was typically connected to the high voltage side in parallel to the tube and used for diagnostic purposes. The spark gap allowed detecting the polarity of the sparks, measuring voltage by the length of the sparks thus determining the "hardness" of the vacuum of the tube, and it provided a load in the event the X-ray tube was disconnected. To detect the hardness of the tube, the spark gap was initially opened to the widest setting. While the coil was operating, the operator reduced the gap until sparks began to appear. A tube in which the spark gap began to spark at around 6.4 centimeters (2.5 in) was considered soft (low vacuum) and suitable for thin body parts such as hands and arms. A 13-centimeter (5 in) spark indicated the tube was suitable for shoulders and knees. An 18-to-23-centimeter (7 to 9 in) spark would indicate a higher vacuum suitable for imaging the abdomen of larger individuals. Since the spark gap was connected in parallel to the tube, the spark gap had to be opened until the sparking ceased to operate the tube for imaging. Exposure time for photographic plates was around half a minute for a hand to a couple of minutes for a thorax. The plates may have a small addition of fluorescent salt to reduce exposure times.
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originate within the eye itself. Upon hearing this, Röntgen reviewed his record books and found he too had seen the effect. When placing an X-ray tube on the opposite side of a wooden door Röntgen had noted the same blue glow, seeming to emanate from the eye itself, but thought his observations to be spurious because he only saw the effect when he used one type of tube. Later he realized that the tube which had created the effect was the only one powerful enough to make the glow plainly visible and the experiment was thereafter readily repeatable. The knowledge that X-rays are actually faintly visible to the dark-adapted naked eye has largely been forgotten today; this is probably due to the desire not to repeat what would now be seen as a recklessly dangerous and potentially harmful experiment with
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be the equivalent to 2–3 years of background radiation to the whole body, or 4–5 years to the abdomen or chest, increasing the lifetime cancer risk between 1 per 1,000 to 1 per 10,000. This is compared to the roughly 40% chance of a US citizen developing cancer during their lifetime. For instance, the effective dose to the torso from a CT scan of the chest is about 5 mSv, and the absorbed dose is about 14 mGy. A head CT scan (1.5 mSv, 64 mGy) that is performed once with and once without contrast agent, would be equivalent to 40 years of background radiation to the head. Accurate estimation of effective doses due to CT is difficult with the estimation uncertainty range of about ±19% to ±32% for adult head scans depending upon the method used.
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1506:. The strength of these interactions depends on the energy of the X-rays and the elemental composition of the material, but not much on chemical properties, since the X-ray photon energy is much higher than chemical binding energies. Photoabsorption or photoelectric absorption is the dominant interaction mechanism in the soft X-ray regime and for the lower hard X-ray energies. At higher energies, Compton scattering dominates.
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diagnostic imaging because this does not use radiation. If there is too much radiation exposure there could be harmful effects on the fetus or the reproductive organs of the mother. In the US, there are an estimated 62 million CT scans performed annually, including more than 4 million on children. Avoiding unnecessary X-rays (especially CT scans) reduces radiation dose and any associated cancer risk.
1986:
Kβ. The frequencies of these lines depend on the material of the target and are therefore called characteristic lines. The Kα line usually has greater intensity than the Kβ one and is more desirable in diffraction experiments. Thus the Kβ line is filtered out by a filter. The filter is usually made of a metal having one proton less than the anode material (e.g. Ni filter for Cu anode or Nb filter for Mo anode).
2701:) accounted for 14% of total radiation exposure. By 2006, however, medical procedures in the United States were contributing much more ionizing radiation than was the case in the early 1980s. In 2006, medical exposure constituted nearly half of the total radiation exposure of the U.S. population from all sources. The increase is traceable to the growth in the use of medical imaging procedures, in particular
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561:. He noticed a faint green glow from the screen, about 1 meter (3.3 ft) away. Röntgen realized some invisible rays coming from the tube were passing through the cardboard to make the screen glow. He found they could also pass through books and papers on his desk. Röntgen threw himself into investigating these unknown rays systematically. Two months after his initial discovery, he published his paper.
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2428:, such as a knee, hip or shoulder replacement, is situated in the body with respect to the surrounding bone. This can be assessed in two dimensions from plain radiographs, or it can be assessed in three dimensions if a technique called '2D to 3D registration' is used. This technique purportedly negates projection errors associated with evaluating implant position from plain radiographs.
2642:
2125:; however, microscopic simulations have shown that the duration of electric field enhancement between two streamers is too short to produce a significant number of run-away electrons. Recently, it has been proposed that air perturbations in the vicinity of streamers can facilitate the production of run-away electrons and hence of X-rays from discharges.
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1034:. It made possible the continuous emissions of X-rays. Modern X-ray tubes are based on this design, often employing the use of rotating targets which allow for significantly higher heat dissipation than static targets, further allowing higher quantity X-ray output for use in high-powered applications such as rotational CT scanners.
2369:, absorbs X-rays efficiently. This reduces the amount of X-rays reaching the detector in the shadow of the bones, making them clearly visible on the radiograph. The lungs and trapped gas also show up clearly because of lower absorption compared to tissue, while differences between tissue types are harder to see.
65:
1306:), defined as gamma radiation. This criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. (Some measurement techniques do not distinguish between detected wavelengths.) However, these two definitions often coincide since the electromagnetic radiation emitted by
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While generally considered invisible to the human eye, in special circumstances X-rays can be visible. Brandes, in an experiment a short time after Röntgen's landmark 1895 paper, reported after dark adaptation and placing his eye close to an X-ray tube, seeing a faint "blue-gray" glow which seemed to
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interferometry, refraction-enhanced imaging, and X-ray interferometry. These methods provide higher contrast compared to normal absorption-based X-ray imaging, making it possible to distinguish from each other details that have almost similar density. A disadvantage is that these methods require more
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refers to a variety of techniques that use phase information of an X-ray beam to form the image. Due to its good sensitivity to density differences, it is especially useful for imaging soft tissues. It has become an important method for visualizing cellular and histological structures in a wide range
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Crookes tubes were unreliable. They had to contain a small quantity of gas (invariably air) as a current will not flow in such a tube if they are fully evacuated. However, as time passed, the X-rays caused the glass to absorb the gas, causing the tube to generate "harder" X-rays until it soon stopped
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Hall-Edwards developed a cancer (then called X-ray dermatitis) sufficiently advanced by 1904 to cause him to write papers and give public addresses on the dangers of X-rays. His left arm had to be amputated at the elbow in 1908, and four fingers on his right arm soon thereafter, leaving only a thumb.
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A photoabsorbed photon transfers all its energy to the electron with which it interacts, thus ionizing the atom to which the electron was bound and producing a photoelectron that is likely to ionize more atoms in its path. An outer electron will fill the vacant electron position and produce either a
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Medical science also used the motion picture to study human physiology. In 1913, a motion picture was made in
Detroit showing a hard-boiled egg inside a human stomach. This early X-ray movie was recorded at a rate of one still image every four seconds. Dr Lewis Gregory Cole of New York was a pioneer
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reported hair loss after Dudley was X-rayed. A child who had been shot in the head was brought to the
Vanderbilt laboratory in 1896. Before trying to find the bullet, an experiment was attempted, for which Dudley "with his characteristic devotion to science" volunteered. Daniel reported that 21 days
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material, within the tube. On 3 February 1896, Gilman Frost, professor of medicine at the college, and his brother Edwin Frost, professor of physics, exposed the wrist of Eddie McCarthy, whom Gilman had treated some weeks earlier for a fracture, to the X-rays and collected the resulting image of the
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California, San
Francisco Area Funeral Home Records, 1835–1979. Database with images. FamilySearch. Jacob Fleischman in the entry for Elizabeth Aschheim. 3 August 1905. Citing funeral home J.S. Godeau, San Francisco, San Francisco, California. Record book Vol. 06, p. 1–400, 1904–1906. San Francisco
2720:
Dosage due to dental X-rays varies significantly depending on the procedure and the technology (film or digital). Depending on the procedure and the technology, a single dental X-ray of a human results in an exposure of 5 to 40 μSv. A full mouth series of X-rays may result in an exposure of up
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Medical X-rays are a significant source of human-made radiation exposure. In 1987, they accounted for 58% of exposure from human-made sources in the United States. Since human-made sources accounted for only 18% of the total radiation exposure, most of which came from natural sources (82%), medical
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that people are exposed to (depending upon location) every day over 10 days, while exposure from a dental X-ray is approximately equivalent to 1 day of environmental background radiation. Each such X-ray would add less than 1 per 1,000,000 to the lifetime cancer risk. An abdominal or chest CT would
1985:
of X-rays at a few discrete frequencies, sometimes referred to as spectral lines. Usually, these are transitions from the upper shells to the K shell (called K lines), to the L shell (called L lines) and so on. If the transition is from 2p to 1s, it is called Kα, while if it is from 3p to 1s it is
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of the X-ray photon by an outer shell electron. Part of the energy of the photon is transferred to the scattering electron, thereby ionizing the atom and increasing the wavelength of the X-ray. The scattered photon can go in any direction, but a direction similar to the original direction is more
928:, a mineral that traps relatively large quantities of air within its structure. A small electrical heater heated the mica, causing it to release a small amount of air, thus restoring the tube's efficiency. However, the mica had a limited life, and the restoration process was difficult to control.
864:
also reported burns. Elihu
Thomson deliberately exposed a finger to an X-ray tube over a period of time and suffered pain, swelling, and blistering. Other effects were sometimes blamed for the damage including ultraviolet rays and (according to Tesla) ozone. Many physicians claimed there were no
321:
Starting in 1888, Philipp Lenard conducted experiments to see whether cathode rays could pass out of the
Crookes tube into the air. He built a Crookes tube with a "window" at the end made of thin aluminium, facing the cathode so the cathode rays would strike it (later called a "Lenard tube"). He
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From the early 1920s through to the 1950s, X-ray machines were developed to assist in the fitting of shoes and were sold to commercial shoe stores. Concerns regarding the impact of frequent or poorly controlled use were expressed in the 1950s, leading to the practice's eventual end that decade.
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The risk of radiation is greater to a fetus, so in pregnant patients, the benefits of the investigation (X-ray) should be balanced with the potential hazards to the fetus. If there is 1 scan in 9 months, it can be harmful to the fetus. Therefore, women who are pregnant get ultrasounds as their
71:
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below which there is no increased risk of cancer. However, this is under increasing doubt. Cancer risk can start at the exposure of 1100 mGy. It is estimated that the additional radiation from diagnostic X-rays will increase the average person's cumulative risk of getting cancer by age 75 by
1966:
is limited by the energy of the incident electron, which is equal to the voltage on the tube times the electron charge, so an 80 kV tube cannot create X-rays with an energy greater than 80 keV. When the electrons hit the target, X-rays are created by two different atomic processes:
639:
Röntgen immediately noticed X-rays could have medical applications. Along with his 28 December
Physical-Medical Society submission, he sent a letter to physicians he knew around Europe (1 January 1896). News (and the creation of "shadowgrams") spread rapidly with Scottish electrical engineer
2336:. The first medical use was less than a month after his paper on the subject. Up to 2010, five billion medical imaging examinations had been conducted worldwide. Radiation exposure from medical imaging in 2006 made up about 50% of total ionizing radiation exposure in the United States.
8215:
Monico L, Van der Snickt G, Janssens K, De Nolf W, Miliani C, Verbeeck J, et al. (February 2011). "Degradation process of lead chromate in paintings by
Vincent van Gogh studied by means of synchrotron X-ray spectromicroscopy and related methods. 1. Artificially aged model samples".
2010:
spectrum falling off to zero at the tube voltage, plus several spikes at the characteristic lines. The voltages used in diagnostic X-ray tubes range from roughly 20 kV to 150 kV and thus the highest energies of the X-ray photons range from roughly 20 keV to 150 keV.
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to obtain real-time moving images of the internal structures of a patient through the use of a fluoroscope. In its simplest form, a fluoroscope consists of an X-ray source and a fluorescent screen, between which a patient is placed. However, modern fluoroscopes couple the screen to an
1317:. Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to historical precedent, based on measurement (detection) technique, or based on their intended use rather than their wavelength or source. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for example
1188:
of biological and medical studies. There are several technologies being used for X-ray phase-contrast imaging, all using different principles to convert phase variations in the X-rays emerging from an object into intensity variations. These include propagation-based phase contrast,
2574:) of cancer; it requires higher radiation doses than those received for imaging alone. X-rays beams are used for treating skin cancers using lower energy X-ray beams while higher energy beams are used for treating cancers within the body such as brain, lung, prostate, and breast.
8243:
Monico L, Van der Snickt G, Janssens K, De Nolf W, Miliani C, Dik J, et al. (February 2011). "Degradation process of lead chromate in paintings by
Vincent van Gogh studied by means of synchrotron X-ray spectromicroscopy and related methods. 2. Original paint layer samples".
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Röntgen discovered their medical use when he made a picture of his wife's hand on a photographic plate formed due to X-rays. The photograph of his wife's hand was the first photograph of a human body part using X-rays. When she saw the picture, she said "I have seen my death."
1302:, or sometimes the method of generation is not known. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength (or, equivalently, frequency or photon energy), with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10 m (0.1
2857:(computed tomography), a process that uses X-ray equipment to produce three-dimensional representations of components both externally and internally. This is accomplished through computer processing of projection images of the scanned object in many directions.
433:'s Physical-Medical Society journal. This was the first paper written on X-rays. Röntgen referred to the radiation as "X", to indicate that it was an unknown type of radiation. Some early texts refer to them as Chi-rays, having interpreted "X" as the uppercase
1612:
for low photon energies and high atomic numbers is very strong. For soft tissue, photoabsorption dominates up to about 26 keV photon energy where
Compton scattering takes over. For higher atomic number substances, this limit is higher. The high amount of
2040:
Short nanosecond bursts of X-rays peaking at 15 keV in energy may be reliably produced by peeling pressure-sensitive adhesive tape from its backing in a moderate vacuum. This is likely to be the result of recombination of electrical charges produced by
322:
found that something came through, that would expose photographic plates and cause fluorescence. He measured the penetrating power of these rays through various materials. It has been suggested that at least some of these "Lenard rays" were actually X-rays.
345:. While developing the plates, Jennings noticed disks of unknown origin on some of the plates, but nobody could explain them, and they moved on. Only in 1896 they realized that they accidentally made an X-ray photograph (they didn't claim a discovery).
591:
alone, as many as 49 essays and 1044 articles about the new rays were published. This was probably a conservative estimate, if one considers that nearly every paper around the world extensively reported about the new discovery, with a magazine such as
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and several tens of MeV. In laboratory discharges with a gap size of approximately 1 meter length and a peak voltage of 1 MV, X-rays with a characteristic energy of 160 keV are observed. A possible explanation is the encounter of two
2664:
and the U.S. government. Diagnostic X-rays (primarily from CT scans due to the large dose used) increase the risk of developmental problems and cancer in those exposed. It is estimated that 0.4% of current cancers in the United States are due to
844:
placed between the skull and the head. The tube was fastened at the other side at a distance of one-half-inch from the hair." Beyond burns, hair loss, and cancer, X-rays can be linked to infertility in males based on the amount of radiation used.
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burned after his death, but this is a likely reconstruction by his biographers: Röntgen was investigating cathode rays from a
Crookes tube which he had wrapped in black cardboard so that the visible light from the tube would not interfere, using a
2441:
In medical diagnostic applications, the low energy (soft) X-rays are unwanted, since they are totally absorbed by the body, increasing the radiation dose without contributing to the image. Hence, a thin metal sheet, often of aluminium, called an
691:
irradiated frogs and insects with X-rays, concluding that the rays "not only photograph, but also affect the living function". At around the same time, the zoological illustrator James Green began to use X-rays to examine fragile specimens.
340:
Arthur W. Goodspeed were making photographs of coins with electric sparks. On 22nd February after the end of their experiments two coins were left on a stack of photographic plates before Goodspeed demonstrated to Jennings the operation of
840:(with an exposure time of one hour), he noticed a bald spot 5 centimeters (2 in) in diameter on the part of his head nearest the X-ray tube: "A plate holder with the plates towards the side of the skull was fastened and a
64:
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conducted his "electric photography" experiments in 1891-1893 by photographing coins in the light of electric sparks, like Jennings and Goodspeed, he may have unknowingly generated and detected X-rays. His letter of
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dedicating as many as 23 articles to it in that year alone. Sensationalist reactions to the new discovery included publications linking the new kind of rays to occult and paranormal theories, such as telepathy.
2745:
Each dot, called a reflection, in this diffraction pattern forms from the constructive interference of scattered X-rays passing through a crystal. The data can be used to determine the crystalline structure.
1173:, powered by a thermonuclear explosion) gave inconclusive results. For technical and political reasons, the overall project (including the X-ray laser) was defunded (though was later revived by the second
743:
Many experimenters, including Röntgen himself in his original experiments, came up with methods to view X-ray images "live" using some form of luminescent screen. Röntgen used a screen coated with barium
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operating. Larger and more frequently used tubes were provided with devices for restoring the air, known as "softeners". These often took the form of a small side tube that contained a small piece of
780:, using a calcium tungstate screen developed by Edison, found that using a fluorescent screen decreased the exposure time it took to create an X-ray for medical imaging from an hour to a few minutes.
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in Birmingham, England on 11 January 1896, when he radiographed a needle stuck in the hand of an associate. On 14 February 1896, Hall-Edwards was also the first to use X-rays in a surgical operation.
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and swallowing disorders). As of recent, modern fluoroscopy utilizes short bursts of x-rays, rather than a continuous beam, to effectively lower radiation exposure for both the patient and operator.
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image produced using this method, in addition to the method itself. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms, they are also useful for determining crystal structures by
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in a futile attempt to save his life; in 1904, he became the first known death attributed to X-ray exposure. During the time the fluoroscope was being developed, Serbian American physicist
2509:
or slices of specific areas of the body are obtained from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken in different directions. These cross-sectional images can be combined into a
2465:
has been injected into the blood vessels within this area. These two images are then digitally subtracted, leaving an image of only the iodinated contrast outlining the blood vessels. The
2513:
image of the inside of the body. CT scans are a quicker and more cost effective imaging modality that can be used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in various medical disciplines.
654:
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905:
The many applications of X-rays immediately generated enormous interest. Workshops began making specialized versions of Crookes tubes for generating X-rays and these first-generation
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0.6–3.0%. The amount of absorbed radiation depends upon the type of X-ray test and the body part involved. CT and fluoroscopy entail higher doses of radiation than do plain X-rays.
959:. This idea was quickly applied to X-ray tubes, and hence heated-cathode X-ray tubes, called "Coolidge tubes", completely replaced the troublesome cold cathode tubes by about 1920.
1600:
is the energy of the incident photon. This rule is not valid close to inner shell electron binding energies where there are abrupt changes in interaction probability, so called
711:
tested all of the discharge tubes in the physics laboratory and found that only the Puluj tube produced X-rays. This was a result of Puluj's inclusion of an oblique "target" of
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Upton AC (July 2003). "The state of the art in the 1990's: NCRP Report No. 136 on the scientific bases for linearity in the dose-response relationship for ionizing radiation".
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to capture the human skeleton in motion. In 1920, it was used to record the movements of tongue and teeth in the study of languages by the Institute of Phonetics in England.
707:
The first medical X-ray made in the United States was obtained using a discharge tube of Puluj's design. In January 1896, on reading of Röntgen's discovery, Frank Austin of
2014:
Both of these X-ray production processes are inefficient, with only about one percent of the electrical energy used by the tube converted into X-rays, and thus most of the
631:
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827:
by scientists, physicians, and inventors came many stories of burns, hair loss, and worse in technical journals of the time. In February 1896, Professor John Daniel and
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Biomedical Applications of Synchrotron Radiation: Proceedings of the 128th Course at the International School of Physics -Enrico Fermi- 12–22 July 1994, Varenna, Italy
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being the first after Röntgen to create an X-ray photograph (of a hand). Through February, there were 46 experimenters taking up the technique in North America alone.
1373:. In medical imaging, this increased cancer risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be used in
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5894:
2727:
264:) undoubtedly radiated X-rays, because early researchers noticed effects that were attributable to them, as detailed below. Crookes tubes created free electrons by
3039:
However, the effect of ionizing radiation on matter (especially living tissue) is more closely related to the amount of energy deposited into them rather than the
2799:, a technique in which X-rays are generated within a specimen and detected. The outgoing energy of the X-ray can be used to identify the composition of the sample.
325:
Helmholtz formulated mathematical equations for X-rays. He postulated a dispersion theory before Röntgen made his discovery and announcement. He based it on the
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2724:
Financial incentives have been shown to have a significant impact on X-ray use with doctors who are paid a separate fee for each X-ray providing more X-rays.
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allowing the images to be recorded and played on a monitor. This method may use a contrast material. Examples include cardiac catheterization (to examine for
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of X-rays through the closely spaced lattice of atoms in a crystal is recorded and then analysed to reveal the nature of that lattice. A related technique,
399:. After Röntgen identified the X-ray, Tesla began making X-ray images of his own using high voltages and tubes of his own design, as well as Crookes tubes.
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X-ray spectromicroscopy has been used to analyse the reactions of pigments in paintings. For example, in analysing colour degradation in the paintings of
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8070:
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4031:
Tesla's technical publications indicate that he invented and developed a single-electrode X-ray tube. Morton, William James and Hammer, Edwin W. (1896)
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4171:
Baganha, M. F.; Marques, M. A.; Botelho, M. F.; Teixeira, M. L.; Carvalheira, V.; Calisto, J.; Silva, A.; Fernandes, A.; Torres, M.; Brito, J. (1993).
1041:
Chandra's image of the galaxy cluster Abell 2125 reveals a complex of several massive multimillion-degree-Celsius gas clouds in the process of merging.
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is the (obsolete) corresponding traditional unit, equal to 10 millijoules of energy deposited per kilogram. 100 rad = 1 gray.
2018:
consumed by the tube is released as waste heat. When producing a usable flux of X-rays, the X-ray tube must be designed to dissipate the excess heat.
1955:
for more specialized applications, such as when softer X-rays are needed as in mammography. In crystallography, a copper target is most common, with
10934:
2846:
Using X-ray for inspection and quality control: the differences in the structures of the die and bond wires reveal the left chip to be counterfeit.
772:, one of his glassblowers. Dally had a habit of testing X-ray tubes on his own hands, developing a cancer in them so tenacious that both arms were
8279:
Ahi K, Anwar M (May 2016). "Advanced terahertz techniques for quality control and counterfeit detection". In Anwar MF, Crowe TW, Manzur T (eds.).
2108:. The underlying mechanism is the acceleration of electrons in lightning related electric fields and the subsequent production of photons through
1446:
X-rays have much shorter wavelengths than visible light, which makes it possible to probe structures much smaller than can be seen using a normal
848:
In August 1896, H. D. Hawks, a graduate of Columbia College, suffered severe hand and chest burns from an X-ray demonstration. It was reported in
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and began studying them. He wrote an initial report "On a new kind of ray: A preliminary communication" and on 28 December 1895, submitted it to
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of the target atom. After that, electrons from higher energy levels fill the vacancies, and X-ray photons are emitted. This process produces an
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704:(sciagraph is an obsolete name for an X-ray photograph), by Green and James H. Gardiner, with a foreword by Boulenger, was published in 1897.
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or surgeon then compares the image obtained to normal anatomical images to determine whether there is any damage or blockage of the vessel.
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mechanism in the X-ray regime. Inelastic forward scattering gives rise to the refractive index, which for X-rays is only slightly below 1.
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was the most effective substance. In May 1896, he developed the first mass-produced live imaging device, his "Vitascope", later called the
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7698:
2661:
7574:
Berrington de González A, Darby S (January 2004). "Risk of cancer from diagnostic X-rays: estimates for the UK and 14 other countries".
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Davis TJ, Gao D, Gureyev TE, Stevenson AW, Wilkins SW (1995). "Phase-contrast imaging of weakly absorbing materials using hard X-rays".
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which are often (but not always) visible. Traditional plain X-rays are less useful in the imaging of soft tissues such as the brain or
1994:: This is radiation given off by the electrons as they are scattered by the strong electric field near the nuclei. These X-rays have a
6441:"Angular distribution of Bremsstrahlung photons and of positrons for calculations of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes and positron beams"
4291:
1084:. The cars would allow for rapid X-ray imaging of wounded soldiers so battlefield surgeons could quickly and more accurately operate.
760:
started research soon after Röntgen's discovery and investigated materials' ability to fluoresce when exposed to X-rays, finding that
10329:
9333:
5812:
Momose A, Takeda T, Itai Y, Hirano K (April 1996). "Phase-contrast X-ray computed tomography for observing biological soft tissues".
2461:) an initial image is taken of the anatomical region of interest. A second image is then taken of the same region after an iodinated
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7668:
Caon M, Bibbo G, Pattison J (2000). "Monte Carlo calculated effective dose to teenage girls from computed tomography examinations".
2965:. It is not known what exact mechanism in the eye produces the visibility: it could be due to conventional detection (excitation of
571:(Hand with Rings): print of Wilhelm Röntgen's first "medical" X-ray, of his wife's hand, taken on 22 December 1895 and presented to
9396:
9343:
4349:
4047:"System of Electric Lighting". These differed from other X-ray tubes in having no target electrode and worked with the output of a
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or EPT (as of 2015) along with other techniques are being researched as potential alternatives to X-rays for imaging applications.
1490:. The attenuation length is about four orders of magnitude longer for hard X-rays (right half) compared to soft X-rays (left half).
395:
noticed damaged film in his lab that seemed to be associated with Crookes tube experiments and began investigating this invisible,
6992:"Accuracy of total knee implant position assessment based on postoperative X-rays, registered to pre-operative CT-based 3D models"
4063:"Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen On a New Kind of Rays: translation of a paper read before the Würzburg Physical and Medical Society, 1895"
2029:. Its unique features are X-ray outputs many orders of magnitude greater than those of X-ray tubes, wide X-ray spectra, excellent
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molecules in the retina), direct excitation of retinal nerve cells, or secondary detection via, for instance, X-ray induction of
10699:
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exposure, and it is the amount of radiation required to create one coulomb of charge of each polarity in one kilogram of matter.
852:
and led to many other reports of problems associated with X-rays being sent in to the publication. Many experimenters including
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Oakley, P. A., Navid Ehsani, N., & Harrison, D. E. (2020). 5 Reasons Why Scoliosis X-Rays Are Not Harmful. Dose-Response.
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Compton scattering is the predominant interaction between X-rays and soft tissue in medical imaging. Compton scattering is an
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8368:
8199:
7926:
7757:
Giles D, Hewitt D, Stewart A, Webb J (September 1956). "Malignant disease in childhood and diagnostic irradiation in utero".
7025:
6298:
6271:
6178:
6098:
6073:
6007:
5982:
5955:
5930:
5866:
4394:
4016:
3122:
2842:
2309:
7943:
7880:
Donnelly LF (February 2005). "Reducing radiation dose associated with pediatric CT by decreasing unnecessary examinations".
748:. On 5 February 1896, live imaging devices were developed by both Italian scientist Enrico Salvioni (his "cryptoscope") and
11697:
11666:
11611:
10575:
9353:
9348:
8322:
7714:
Gregory KJ, Bibbo G, Pattison JE (August 2008). "On the Uncertainties in Effective Dose Estimates of Adult CT Head Scans".
7120:
Hill R, Healy B, Holloway L, Kuncic Z, Thwaites D, Baldock C (March 2014). "Advances in kilovoltage x-ray beam dosimetry".
1916:
768:, which became the standard for medical X-ray examinations. Edison dropped X-ray research around 1903, before the death of
8045:
7330:
De Santis M, Cesari E, Nobili E, Straface G, Cavaliere AF, Caruso A (September 2007). "Radiation effects on development".
7222:
6261:
6234:. Center for X-ray Optics and Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 1 October 2009. Archived from
11330:
11296:
10492:
10038:
10003:
9426:
9411:
9280:
7171:
Thwaites DI, Tuohy JB (July 2006). "Back to the future: the history and development of the clinical linear accelerator".
3635:
2645:
2454:
6588:
Cooray V, Arevalo L, Rahman M, Dwyer J, Rassoul H (2009). "On the possible origin of X-rays in long laboratory sparks".
5726:
Wilkins SW, Gureyev TE, Gao D, Pogany A, Stevenson AW (1996). "Phase-contrast imaging using polychromatic hard X-rays".
1290:. One common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source: X-rays are emitted by
11646:
11190:
10774:
8305:
6228:
4983:
4925:
4332:
3759:"The History, Development and Impact of Computed Imaging in Neurological Diagnosis and Neurosurgery: CT, MRI, and DTI"
2917:
were popularized in the 1920s, banned in the US in the 1960s, in the UK in the 1970s, and later in continental Europe.
2708:
352:
noticed a flash of light from a fluorescent screen immediately before the covered tube he was switching on punctured.
11818:
11813:
9854:
9733:
8488:
6327:
4697:
3729:
2628:
2446:, is usually placed over the window of the X-ray tube, absorbing the low energy part in the spectrum. This is called
2296:
784:
3113:(Gy). 1 Sv = 1 Gy. For the "effective dose" of X-rays, it is usually not equal to the Gray (Gy).
2277:
11712:
11084:
10949:
9484:
9328:
9307:
4845:"Visible Proofs: Forensic Views of the Body: Galleries: Cases: Could X-rays Have Saved President William McKinley?"
2926:
2863:
luggage scanners use X-rays for inspecting the interior of luggage for security threats before loading on aircraft.
2823:
alterations in the course of painting or by later restorers, and sometimes previous paintings on the support. Many
2551:
1435:
over the X-ray spectrum. This allows the photon energy to be adjusted for the application so as to give sufficient
5399:
3579:
3023:(R) is an obsolete traditional unit of exposure, which represented the amount of radiation required to create one
2249:
1977:(X-ray electroluminescence): If the electron has enough energy, it can knock an orbital electron out of the inner
441:. The name X-rays stuck, although (over Röntgen's great objections) many of his colleagues suggested calling them
11027:
10861:
10463:
10341:
9998:
9859:
6166:
5856:
4844:
2812:
2361:
is the practice of producing two-dimensional images using X-ray radiation. Bones contain a high concentration of
2058:
807:
to Buffalo to find the stray bullet. It arrived but was not used. While the shooting itself had not been lethal,
641:
326:
2139:
X-ray detectors vary in shape and function depending on their purpose. Imaging detectors such as those used for
310:
through a partially evacuated glass tube, producing a glow created by X-rays. This work was further explored by
11017:
10866:
10324:
5972:
5295:
5227:
5112:
4832:
4663:
3094:, or, in other words, 10 millijoules of energy deposited per kilogram. 100 rem = 1 Sv.
2234:
1672:
likely, especially for high-energy X-rays. The probability for different scattering angles is described by the
5269:
5243:
4173:"Tomodensitometry and radioisotopic methods in the study of unilateral lung hyperlucencies of vascular origin"
2669:(CT scans) performed in the past and that this may increase to as high as 1.5–2% with 2007 rates of CT usage.
124:. There is no universally accepted, strict definition of the bounds of the X-ray band. Roughly, X-rays have a
11778:
10791:
10624:
10048:
9976:
9358:
9323:
5373:
3653:
3163:
2920:
2680:
To place the increased risk in perspective, a plain chest X-ray will expose a person to the same amount from
2256:
587:
The discovery of X-rays generated significant interest. Röntgen's biographer Otto Glasser estimated that, in
5321:
1643:) in bones, together with their high density, is what makes them show up so clearly on medical radiographs.
11134:
10871:
10580:
10334:
9831:
9421:
9391:
9250:
9223:
3641:
3594:
1184:
1174:
1166:
697:
658:
Images by James Green, from "Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles" (1897), featuring (from left)
8456:
4159:
Rats have been trained to respond to signals consisting of very low doses of chi-ray directed to the head.
615:
apparatus, late 1800s. The Crookes tube is visible in center. The standing man is viewing his hand with a
11823:
11534:
11284:
11197:
11169:
11126:
11091:
10929:
10756:
10694:
10519:
10423:
10309:
9777:
9477:
9401:
9368:
9338:
9302:
9008:
8603:
2105:
2057:
X-rays can also be produced by fast protons or other positive ions. The proton-induced X-ray emission or
1704:
Whenever charged particles (electrons or ions) of sufficient energy hit a material, X-rays are produced.
1656:
1162:
11838:
6498:"Calculation of beams of positrons, neutrons, and protons associated with terrestrial gamma ray flashes"
6088:
6063:
3788:"Electrical Experiments Made in Order to Ascertain the Non-Conducting Power of a Perfect Vacuum, &c"
3528:
3490:
3451:
3422:
1250:. Due to their penetrating ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects (e.g. in
1027:
917:
20:
This article is about the nature, production, and uses of the radiation. For the method of imaging, see
11766:
11621:
11594:
11118:
10977:
10656:
10174:
10131:
9983:
9447:
9287:
9175:
8598:
8140:
3471:
3106:
2713:
2263:
2096:
refers to that of the target atom. An overview of these cross sections is given in the same reference.
337:
333:
7081:
1959:
often being used when fluorescence from iron content in the sample might otherwise present a problem.
1065:
of the technique, which he called "serial radiography". In 1918, X-rays were used in association with
220:
175:
X-rays can penetrate many solid substances such as construction materials and living tissue, so X-ray
11651:
11504:
11272:
10954:
10563:
10346:
6400:
Paul H, Muhr J (1986). "Review of experimental cross sections for K-shell ionization by light ions".
4268:
3604:
2790:
2673:
2488:
1673:
1099:
688:
90:
3881:"The first radiation accident in America: a centennial account of the x-ray photograph made in 1890"
3078:
is the measure of the biological effect of radiation on human tissue. For X-rays it is equal to the
2317:
1114:, which gives a relatively stable view of the universe, the X-ray universe is unstable. It features
11828:
11808:
11803:
11589:
11499:
11363:
11202:
11044:
10944:
10856:
10065:
9951:
9911:
9723:
9114:
8898:
8511:
4574:
Grove AW (1 January 1997). "Röntgen's ghosts: photography, X-rays, and the Victorian imagination".
4382:
3820:
2914:
2358:
2345:
1681:
1370:
1218:
1178:
291:
8163:
2424:. One area where projectional radiographs are used extensively is in evaluating how an orthopedic
2245:
1424:
727:
11529:
11323:
11107:
11074:
11049:
10663:
10440:
10246:
10169:
10126:
10109:
10070:
9993:
8948:
6926:
6206:
5174:
4710:
4299:
3917:
3519:
3442:
3087:
2536:
2510:
2223:
2062:
788:
693:
303:
11032:
6837:
11770:
11681:
11355:
10939:
10226:
9770:
9416:
9265:
9001:
4628:
Feldman A (November 1989). "A sketch of the technical history of radiology from 1896 to 1920".
2802:
2672:
Experimental and epidemiological data currently do not support the proposition that there is a
2230:
1677:
1605:
1420:
1416:
1019:
performed crystallography experiments with X-rays emanating from various metals and formulated
1001:
974:
966:
discovered that X-rays could be scattered by gases, and that each element had a characteristic
828:
803:
and could not be found. A worried McKinley aide sent word to inventor Thomas Edison to rush an
769:
576:
542:
380:
29:
8295:
8189:
7695:
6315:
5347:
4973:
4942:
3851:
2980:
of the air molecules if the intensity of the X-ray beam is high enough. The beamline from the
2973:
in the eyeball with conventional retinal detection of the secondarily produced visible light.
2450:
the beam since it shifts the center of the spectrum towards higher energy (or harder) X-rays.
2332:
Since Röntgen's discovery that X-rays can identify bone structures, X-rays have been used for
627:. No precautions against radiation exposure are taken; its hazards were not known at the time.
11774:
11509:
11233:
10969:
10924:
10386:
10314:
10241:
10236:
10201:
9988:
9956:
9743:
9670:
9376:
9245:
9053:
6991:
5920:
4322:
3932:
3009:
2981:
2750:
2540:
2196:
2192:
2022:
1517:
1514:
The probability of a photoelectric absorption per unit mass is approximately proportional to
1455:
1271:
1198:
1005:
874:
832:
749:
299:
8469:
7916:
1298:. This definition has several problems: other processes can also generate these high-energy
11833:
11631:
11519:
11476:
11426:
11144:
10919:
10904:
10221:
10179:
10015:
9921:
9849:
9213:
9145:
9078:
8908:
8903:
8400:
7723:
7476:
7180:
7129:
6927:"Medical Radiation Exposure Of The U.S. Population Greatly Increased Since The Early 1980s"
6791:
6734:
6693:
6636:
6597:
6554:
6509:
6458:
6409:
6359:
6127:
5778:
5735:
5698:
5646:
4882:
4744:
4210:
Takahashi, K.; Case, B. W.; Dufresne, A.; Fraser, R.; Higashi, T.; Siemiatycki, J. (1994).
4118:
4076:
3630:
3027:
of charge of each polarity in one cubic centimeter of dry air. 1 roentgen =
2930:
2898:
2681:
2547:
2164:
2160:
2042:
2026:
1972:
1668:
1495:
1483:
1058:
936:
866:
753:
869:, an American X-ray pioneer, died from complications as a result of her work with X-rays.
8:
11748:
11626:
11539:
11243:
11054:
10839:
10433:
10301:
10279:
10104:
9961:
9728:
9690:
9523:
9165:
9140:
9119:
8943:
8938:
8913:
8893:
8644:
6874:
6872:
4411:
4386:
4376:
2940:
2702:
2666:
2555:
2531:
2502:
2496:
2462:
2034:
1995:
1503:
1432:
1251:
1054:
1031:
997:
664:
635:
Surgical removal of a bullet whose location was diagnosed with X-rays (see inset) in 1897
510:
482:
356:
180:
75:
11707:
8404:
8281:
Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems X: Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense
7727:
7480:
7184:
7133:
6795:
6738:
6697:
6640:
6601:
6566:
6558:
6513:
6462:
6413:
6363:
6131:
5782:
5739:
5702:
5650:
4886:
4748:
4711:"Green, James (Zoological Artist), Sciagraphs of British batrachians and reptiles, 1897"
4122:
4080:
2716:, England. The maker's sticker states that it is equivalent to 2.24mm of lead at 150Kv.
1310:
generally has a longer wavelength and lower photon energy than the radiation emitted by
1057:, England. Then in 1908, he had to have his left arm amputated because of the spread of
11743:
11564:
11544:
11524:
11408:
11316:
11223:
10959:
10796:
10723:
10534:
10184:
10154:
10138:
10121:
9765:
9655:
9603:
9553:
9500:
9406:
9185:
9150:
9083:
8933:
8781:
8754:
8664:
8649:
7857:
7832:
7681:
7599:
7551:
7526:
7500:
7442:
7399:
7312:
7204:
7153:
6812:
6779:
6755:
6722:
6657:
6624:
6570:
6474:
6448:
6375:
6089:
Bushberg, Jerrold T.; Seibert, J. Anthony; Leidholdt, Edwin M.; Boone, John M. (2002).
6064:
Bushberg, Jerrold T.; Seibert, J. Anthony; Leidholdt, Edwin M.; Boone, John M. (2002).
6038:
Government of Canada, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (9 May 2019).
5837:
5794:
5751:
5664:
5168:
5025:
5000:
4952:
4762:
4599:
4533:"A Cosmology of Invisible Fluids: Wireless, X-Rays, and Psychical Research Around 1900"
4513:
4244:
4212:"Relation between lung asbestos fibre burden and exposure indices based on job history"
4211:
4150:
3668:
3599:
3257:
3024:
3013:
2962:
2796:
2653:
2431:
2425:
2168:
2144:
2118:
1693:
1652:
1499:
1487:
1407:
the inside of visually opaque objects. The most often seen applications are in medical
1389:
1366:
1354:
1275:
1149:
1123:
898:
721:
624:
538:
534:
494:
470:
454:
450:
204:
196:
7770:
7627:. Radiological Society of North America (RSNA) and American College of Radiology (ACR)
7587:
7508:
7192:
7141:
6869:
6784:
Philosophical Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences
6345:"Correlation between nanosecond X-ray flashes and stick–slip friction in peeling tape"
6139:
5427:"Marie Curie and her X-ray vehicles' contribution to World War I battlefield medicine"
4641:
1620:
724:
obtained from Howard Langill, a local photographer also interested in Röntgen's work.
422:
411:
98:
11636:
11514:
11451:
11416:
10291:
10084:
9971:
9946:
9884:
9841:
9685:
9680:
9675:
9518:
9454:
9386:
9381:
9208:
9180:
9073:
8789:
8785:
8766:
8762:
8758:
8364:
8301:
8261:
8233:
8195:
8122:
7969:
7922:
7897:
7862:
7774:
7739:
7591:
7556:
7492:
7434:
7430:
7391:
7347:
7304:
7269:
7196:
7145:
7101:
7053:
7021:
6972:
6902:
6858:
6817:
6760:
6662:
6421:
6323:
6294:
6267:
6174:
6094:
6069:
6003:
5978:
5951:
5926:
5862:
5829:
5668:
5374:"X-ray movies perfected. Will show motions of bones and joints of human body. (1918)"
5030:
4979:
4921:
4898:
4828:
4806:
4693:
4645:
4591:
4517:
4390:
4328:
4249:
4231:
4192:
4184:
4142:
4134:
4012:
3989:
3900:
3880:
3725:
3615:
3589:
3229:
3171:
2762:
2758:
2567:
2401:
2188:
2148:
2122:
2046:
1982:
1676:. The transferred energy can be directly obtained from the scattering angle from the
1609:
1440:
1428:
1385:
1246:. The intermediate range with photon energies of several keV is often referred to as
1050:
1046:
857:
792:
761:
735:, a medical journal. In the left a hand deformity, in the right same hand seen using
708:
648:
594:
526:
518:
514:
486:
192:
8283:. Vol. 9856. Society of Photographic Instrumentation Engineers. pp. 31–44.
8006:
7620:
7446:
7371:
7316:
7157:
6574:
6478:
6143:
5841:
4603:
4154:
3896:
885:
865:
effects from X-ray exposure at all. On 3 August 1905, in San Francisco, California,
57:
of a wine scene. Note the edges of hollow cylinders as compared to the solid candle.
11641:
11139:
10194:
10159:
9916:
9906:
9794:
9782:
9623:
9618:
9608:
9598:
9593:
9170:
9048:
8923:
8694:
8669:
8537:
8408:
8253:
8225:
8112:
8107:
8102:
8090:
8025:
7889:
7852:
7844:
7766:
7731:
7677:
7603:
7583:
7546:
7538:
7504:
7484:
7426:
7403:
7383:
7339:
7296:
7287:
Brenner DJ (2010). "Should we be concerned about the rapid increase in CT usage?".
7261:
7208:
7188:
7137:
7093:
6964:
6892:
6850:
6807:
6799:
6750:
6742:
6701:
6652:
6644:
6605:
6562:
6517:
6470:
6466:
6417:
6379:
6367:
6135:
5821:
5798:
5786:
5755:
5743:
5706:
5654:
5197:
5020:
5012:
4890:
4796:
4766:
4752:
4637:
4583:
4554:
4544:
4503:
4495:
4239:
4223:
4126:
4084:
4067:
3979:
3892:
3832:
3799:
3766:
2860:
2835:
2786:
2741:
2698:
2492:
2385:
2322:
2270:
1601:
1583:
1559:
1451:
1412:
1358:
1255:
1135:
1092:
1020:
993:
952:
940:
674:
506:
502:
498:
478:
474:
360:
307:
188:
7647:"National Cancer Institute: Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) data"
6344:
4130:
2902:
11798:
11753:
11738:
11554:
11466:
11456:
11308:
11037:
10997:
10451:
10265:
10189:
10164:
10010:
9803:
9705:
9695:
9660:
9538:
9528:
9442:
9297:
9160:
9124:
9043:
8972:
8885:
8727:
8659:
8077:
8032:
8013:
7947:
7702:
5231:
4499:
3663:
3403:
3290:
3102:
3075:
3040:
3020:
2970:
2934:
2874:
2776:
2397:
2393:
2333:
2180:
1939:
to a high velocity. The high velocity electrons collide with a metal target, the
1479:
1404:
1073:
1012:
981:
971:
932:
894:
824:
804:
588:
530:
490:
462:
458:
446:
388:
370:
315:
295:
261:
237:
207:. Their generation and use is strictly controlled by public health authorities.
199:, and exposure to high intensities can be hazardous to health, causing damage to
102:
10529:
6854:
6609:
4549:
4532:
3787:
3090:(rem) is the traditional unit of equivalent dose. For X-rays it is equal to the
11601:
11559:
11549:
11471:
11461:
11431:
10992:
10987:
10982:
10732:
10639:
10608:
10590:
10114:
10020:
9966:
9931:
9864:
9811:
9665:
9558:
9543:
9533:
8918:
8702:
8049:
7893:
7527:"The Scoliosis Quandary: Are Radiation Exposures From Repeated X-Rays Harmful?"
7300:
7097:
7045:
6897:
6880:
6706:
6681:
6543:"Analyzing x-ray emissions from meter-scale negative discharges in ambient air"
4105:
Garcia, J.; Buchwald, N. A.; Feder, B. H.; Koelling, R. A.; Tedrow, L. (1964).
3584:
3572:
2868:
2721:
to 60 (digital) to 180 (film) μSv, for a yearly average of up to 400 μSv.
2606:
2176:
2134:
2015:
1990:
1978:
1911:
1648:
1381:
1362:
1350:
1314:
1295:
967:
963:
913:
745:
680:
607:
572:
558:
522:
466:
396:
349:
269:
245:
229:
11012:
7018:
Fundamentals of Computerized Tomography: Image Reconstruction from Projections
5581:
5555:
5529:
5477:
5451:
5202:
4801:
4784:
3934:
Illustrated Electrical Review: A Journal of Scientific and Electrical Progress
3836:
897:, which displayed continuous moving images. This image was used to argue that
11792:
11676:
11436:
11421:
11177:
10468:
9874:
9715:
9218:
8928:
8865:
8846:
8750:
8684:
8679:
8674:
7542:
7105:
6976:
6952:
5607:
5503:
4894:
4235:
4188:
4138:
4043:
4037:
3904:
3771:
3758:
3678:
3326:
3079:
3056:
3044:
2890:
2854:
2435:
2366:
2326:
2086:
2061:
is widely used as an analytical procedure. For high energies, the production
1577:
1436:
1235:
1189:
1023:
which relates the frequency of the X-rays to the atomic number of the metal.
1016:
853:
777:
757:
184:
8556:
7933:, data credited to NCRP (US National Committee on Radiation Protection) 1987
6881:"Radiation-reduction strategies in cardiac computed tomographic angiography"
6235:
5016:
2021:
A specialized source of X-rays which is becoming widely used in research is
1278:
of 600 eV (~2 nm) X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer.
1169:
in the 1980s, but the only test of the device (a sort of laser "blaster" or
418:
290:
The earliest experimenter thought to have (unknowingly) produced X-rays was
11656:
11616:
11481:
10743:
9879:
9821:
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9570:
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9155:
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8804:
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8265:
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7901:
7866:
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7395:
7351:
7308:
7273:
7265:
7200:
7149:
7057:
7013:
6906:
6862:
6821:
6803:
6764:
6666:
5687:"Differential x-ray phase contrast imaging using a shearing interferometer"
5034:
4902:
4146:
4106:
3993:
3804:
3673:
3658:
3625:
3200:
2908:
2816:
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985:
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861:
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612:
434:
426:
392:
342:
311:
257:
225:
165:
7252:
Hall EJ, Brenner DJ (May 2008). "Cancer risks from diagnostic radiology".
7082:"Fluoroscopy: basic science, optimal use, and patient/operator protection"
5833:
4810:
4649:
4595:
4253:
4196:
4172:
1045:
The use of X-rays for medical purposes (which developed into the field of
376:
Without Lens or Light, Photographs Taken With Plate and Object in Darkness
195:
and detecting weak points in construction materials). However X-rays are
11398:
11154:
10801:
10391:
9898:
9869:
9109:
8977:
8654:
8636:
8532:
7387:
6746:
6723:"High-Energy Emissions Induced by Air Density Fluctuations of Discharges"
6648:
6522:
5138:
4587:
4227:
3984:
3967:
3336:
3298:
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3052:
2754:
2527:
2522:
2458:
2381:
2156:
2140:
2030:
1936:
1928:
1408:
1311:
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There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and
1222:
1194:
1158:
1143:
1106:, has been allowing the exploration of the very violent processes in the
1081:
1077:
989:
948:
944:
890:
837:
823:
With the widespread experimentation with X‑rays after their discovery in
765:
736:
716:
616:
554:
365:
249:
176:
117:
21:
8091:"First do no harm – The impact of financial incentives on dental X-rays"
7848:
7696:
Doses from Computed Tomography (CT) examinations in the UK – 2003 Review
6371:
4559:
4483:
3699:
2943:
is the use of high energy X-rays generated from a fission explosion (an
548:
There are conflicting accounts of his discovery because Röntgen had his
430:
283:
to a high enough velocity that they created X-rays when they struck the
279:
and 100 kV. This voltage accelerated the electrons coming from the
49:
11446:
11393:
10507:
9233:
9099:
8958:
8626:
8621:
8575:
8552:
8117:
7343:
5825:
4048:
3948:
Wyman T (Spring 2005). "Fernando Sanford and the Discovery of X-rays".
3647:
3384:
3091:
3067:
2997:
2977:
2923:
is used to track movement of bones based on the implantation of markers
2886:
2828:
2820:
2657:
2610:
2571:
2506:
2237: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2172:
1952:
1924:
1786:
1447:
1400:
1346:
1307:
1119:
773:
756:(his "Skiascope"), both using barium platinocyanide. American inventor
620:
265:
125:
113:
8257:
8229:
7826:
7824:
7822:
7735:
6968:
6184:
5872:
5711:
5686:
5659:
5634:
4508:
2881:
2783:, which deals with the study of X-ray emission from celestial objects.
2697:
American radiation exposure; medical procedures as a whole (including
1415:
scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry (e.g.
407:
11733:
11606:
11441:
11388:
11378:
11339:
11149:
10512:
10502:
9630:
9583:
9548:
9469:
8967:
8814:
8590:
8568:
8547:
8522:
8413:
8388:
6538:
6493:
6436:
6040:"Radiation – Quantities and Units of Ionizing Radiation: OSH Answers"
5790:
5747:
4757:
4732:
4089:
4062:
3961:
3959:
3181:
2966:
2780:
2466:
2409:
2389:
2373:
2183:
can be measured either by energy dispersive or wavelength dispersive
1713:
Characteristic X-ray emission lines for some common anode materials.
1395:
Hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much
1378:
1287:
1213:
1170:
1139:
241:
137:
133:
129:
121:
54:
25:
11007:
8422:
7488:
6780:"Transforming X-ray detection with hybrid photon counting detectors"
5244:"X-ray movies show hard boiled egg fighting digestive organs (1913)"
5224:
5116:
4870:
4667:
2212:
2099:
1943:, creating the X-rays. In medical X-ray tubes the target is usually
992:
of X-rays by crystals. This discovery, along with the early work of
11383:
11368:
11238:
10881:
10876:
10816:
10485:
10413:
10396:
10381:
10356:
10099:
9588:
9104:
8982:
8742:
8542:
8242:
8214:
7819:
7800:
7230:
3950:"Imprint", from the Associates of the Stanford University Libraries
3271:
2434:
is commonly used in the diagnoses of common oral problems, such as
2350:
1944:
1932:
1906:
1764:
1374:
1303:
1291:
1263:
1242:, while those with lower energy (and longer wavelength) are called
1225:. Different applications use different parts of the X-ray spectrum.
1107:
808:
549:
276:
253:
8035:. Dentalgentlecare.com (6 February 2008). Retrieved on 2011-05-05.
7944:"ANS / Public Information / Resources / Radiation Dose Calculator"
7918:
Health Risks from Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation, BEIR 7 phase 2
6453:
3966:
Hrabak M, Padovan RS, Kralik M, Ozretic D, Potocki K (July 2008).
3956:
1897:
1238:
above 5–10 keV (below 0.2–0.1 nm wavelength) are called
445:. They are still referred to as such in many languages, including
11661:
11207:
11159:
11022:
11002:
10401:
10376:
9816:
9647:
9635:
9613:
9578:
9228:
8851:
8837:
6777:
5098:
Editor. (5 August 1905). Obituary Notice. Elizabeth Fleischmann.
4975:
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the Early History of the Roentgen Rays
4324:
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the early history of the roentgen rays
3481:
3413:
3267:
3098:
3005:
2976:
Though X-rays are otherwise invisible, it is possible to see the
2824:
2806:
2478:
2405:
2362:
1948:
1902:
1852:
1736:
1614:
1463:
912:
A typical early 20th-century medical X-ray system consisted of a
811:
had developed along the path of the bullet, and McKinley died of
800:
796:
280:
272:
8993:
7372:"Computed tomography—an increasing source of radiation exposure"
3968:"Scenes from the past: Nikola Tesla and the discovery of X-rays"
2483:
1103:
10811:
10806:
10786:
10766:
10751:
10634:
10371:
10351:
10319:
9063:
8875:
8870:
8860:
8832:
8827:
8822:
8793:
8722:
6990:
Van Haver A, Kolk S, DeBoodt S, Valkering K, Verdonk P (2018).
3746:. Vol. 1. United States: The Greystone Press. p. 394.
3620:
2948:
2947:) to compress nuclear fuel to the point of fusion ignition (an
2944:
2793:
in the soft X-ray band to produce images of very small objects.
2421:
2049:
is sufficient for it to be used as a source for X-ray imaging.
1963:
1956:
1874:
1830:
1808:
1342:
1299:
956:
40:
36:
8358:
6911:
Of the 5 billion imaging investigations performed worldwide...
6878:
6542:
6497:
6440:
3918:
http://www.smj.org.sg/sites/default/files/3605/3605hdxray1.pdf
3055:(Gy), which has units of (joules/kilogram), is the SI unit of
1474:
1333:
11373:
11228:
11185:
10848:
10704:
10497:
10361:
8717:
7329:
6989:
6286:
4170:
3610:
3344:
3109:. For X-rays the "equivalent dose" is numerically equal to a
3060:
2805:
uses X-rays for inspection of industrial parts, particularly
2597:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
2313:
Patient undergoing an X-ray exam in a hospital radiology room
1940:
1486:, as well as a leveling off at higher photon energies due to
1111:
1037:
696:
first mentioned this work in a paper he delivered before the
425:
stumbled on X-rays while experimenting with Lenard tubes and
284:
145:
141:
7914:
6682:"Streamer properties and associated x-rays in perturbed air"
5400:"Talk is cheap? X-ray used by Institute of Phonetics (1920)"
4442:"'I Have Seen My Death': How the World Discovered the X-Ray"
3059:, and it is the amount of radiation required to deposit one
2404:, free air (from visceral perforations), and free fluid (in
2006:
So, the resulting output of a tube consists of a continuous
1651:. These effects can be used for elemental detection through
10709:
10598:
10408:
10366:
8712:
8707:
8474:
A web for learning how X-rays can "see" inside the crystals
7573:
6879:
Roobottom CA, Mitchell G, Morgan-Hughes G (November 2010).
6536:
5296:"Homeopaths to show movies of body's organs at work (1915)"
5001:"Early victims of X-rays: a tribute and current perception"
4419:
4209:
4104:
3707:
2641:
2377:
1459:
1274:. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air; the
1127:
1115:
1080:
developed radiological cars to support soldiers injured in
925:
841:
712:
8164:"Scientists achieve X-ray vision with safe, visible light"
8016:. Doctorspiller.com (9 May 2007). Retrieved on 2011-05-05.
6342:
4378:
Naked to the Bone Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century
3965:
2911:, a method popular in the 1920s but now banned by the FDA.
256:
beams that were first observed in 1869. Many of the early
10682:
10546:
8732:
7088:. Imaging for Interventional Management of Chronic Pain.
6778:
Förster A, Brandstetter S, Schulze-Briese C (June 2019).
6679:
6625:"Electron acceleration during streamer collisions in air"
5684:
5076:
Public Library. San Francisco History and Archive Center.
3358:
3043:
generated. This measure of energy absorbed is called the
2770:
1478:
Attenuation length of X-rays in water showing the oxygen
1322:
988:, Paul Knipping, and Walter Friedrich first observed the
647:
The first use of X-rays under clinical conditions was by
200:
169:
8297:
Milady's Hair Removal Techniques: A Comprehensive Manual
6587:
5997:
5768:
2705:(CT), and to the growth in the use of nuclear medicine.
2372:
Projectional radiographs are useful in the detection of
1494:
X-rays interact with matter in three main ways, through
687:
In early 1896, several weeks after Röntgen's discovery,
215:
7119:
6209:. NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory. 9 December 2011
6039:
5725:
4825:
Eminent Lives in Twentieth-Century Science and Religion
2530:
is an imaging technique commonly used by physicians or
2408:). X-rays may also be used to detect pathology such as
1901:
Spectrum of the X-rays emitted by an X-ray tube with a
7756:
6293:. US: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 116.
5970:
5811:
4998:
4918:
The South in the Building of the Nation: Biography A-J
2388:, which can be used to identify lung diseases such as
1623:
1586:
1562:
1520:
1388:. It is also used for material characterization using
739:. The authors named the technique Röntgen photography.
8208:
7830:
7086:
Techniques in Regional Anesthesia and Pain Management
6953:"Air and Gas in the Soft Tissues: A Radiologic Study"
6343:
Camara CG, Escobar JV, Hird JR, Putterman SJ (2008).
5190:"Structural biology: How proteins got their close-up"
2851:
Authentication and quality control of packaged items.
1439:
through the object and at the same time provide good
1325:, can in this context also be referred to as X-rays.
7713:
7524:
6838:"The first 50 years of military radiology 1895–1945"
6590:
Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics
6287:
Bushburg J, Seibert A, Leidholdt E, Boone J (2002).
6037:
5945:
4785:"The first clinical X-ray made in America—100 years"
2550:), embolization procedures (to stop bleeding during
873:
He died of cancer in 1926. His left hand is kept at
6720:
6622:
2901:, artistic use of X-rays, for example the works by
2380:as well as for detecting some disease processes in
2104:X-rays are also produced in lightning accompanying
2052:
909:or Crookes X-ray tubes were used until about 1920.
11338:
10232:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
7921:. National Academies Press. pp. 5, fig.PS–2.
7694:Shrimpton, P.C; Miller, H.C; Lewis, M.A; Dunn, M.
7525:Oakley PA, Ehsani NN, Harrison DE (1 April 2019).
6836:
5046:
5044:
4999:Sansare K, Khanna V, Karjodkar F (February 2011).
4298:. Medcyclopedia.com, GE Healthcare. Archived from
2570:and is largely used for the management (including
2505:(CT scanning) is a medical imaging modality where
2112:. This produces photons with energies of some few
1635:
1592:
1568:
1548:
1369:, while lower doses can give an increased risk of
16:Form of short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation
7833:""Doctor, will that x-ray harm my unborn child?""
7831:Ratnapalan S, Bentur Y, Koren G (December 2008).
7667:
6680:Köhn C, Chanrion O, Babich LP, Neubert T (2018).
6093:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 38.
6068:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 42.
5950:. Vol. 1. US: Addison-Wesley. pp. 2–8.
5105:
4733:"Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles1"
3742:Caldwell, Wallace E.; Merrill, Edward H. (1964).
2877:use X-rays for inspecting the interior of trucks.
2100:Production in lightning and laboratory discharges
11790:
7459:
7365:
7363:
7361:
7118:Advances in kilovoltage x-ray beam dosimetry in
6022:
5998:Grupen C, Cowan G, Eidelman SD, Stroh T (2005).
5170:Electro-medical Instruments and their Management
3856:. US: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 182–186.
3063:of energy in one kilogram of any kind of matter.
2991:
2929:is a chemical analysis technique relying on the
2167:direct exposure hazard is often evaluated using
787:in an assassination attempt while attending the
248:. They were noticed by scientists investigating
8293:
7052:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
5085:Editor. (5 August 1905). Aschheim. Obituaries.
5041:
4944:Understanding Ionizing Radiation and Protection
3792:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
3741:
2002:is limited by the energy of incident electrons.
1454:to acquire high-resolution images, and also in
901:during the X-ray procedure would be negligible.
799:, another had lodged somewhere deep inside his
329:. However, he did not work with actual X-rays.
164:) and photon energies in the range of 100
6313:
6263:Essentials of Dental Radiography and Radiology
6164:
6025:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th Ed
5854:
5685:David C, Nöhammer B, Solak H, Ziegler (2002).
4623:
4621:
4619:
4617:
4615:
4613:
4350:"Google doodle celebrates 115 years of X-rays"
785:U.S. President William McKinley was shot twice
702:Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles
11324:
10935:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
9485:
9009:
8496:
8363:. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 40–41.
8088:
7358:
7170:
6921:
6919:
6259:
6171:Soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet radiation
5858:Soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet radiation
5173:. Bemrose & Sons Ltd. Printers. pp.
3937:. Electrical Review Publishing Company. 1894.
3843:
3130:
2595:The examples and perspective in this section
2566:The use of X-rays as a treatment is known as
1403:. For this reason, X-rays are widely used to
1365:over a short period of time causes burns and
8510:
8348:European Synchrotron Radiation Facility ID11
8187:
7332:Birth Defects Research. Part C, Embryo Today
7043:
6623:Köhn C, Chanrion O, Neubert T (March 2017).
6502:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
6266:. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 15–20.
5052:"ISU Health Physics Radinf – First 50 Years"
4292:"W. C. Roentgen and the discovery of x-rays"
2384:. Some notable examples are the very common
252:produced by such tubes, which are energetic
7369:
7251:
6828:
5918:
5482:Telegraph (Brisbane, Qld. : 1872–1947)
5162:
5160:
4957:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
4610:
4095:see also pp. 268 and 276 of the same issue.
3853:The Discharge of Electricity through Gasses
2815:, most often X-rays of paintings to reveal
2662:International Agency for Research on Cancer
2339:
1931:that uses a high voltage to accelerate the
1509:
815:due to bacterial infection six days later.
374:was duly published and an article entitled
11331:
11317:
9492:
9478:
9016:
9002:
8572:
8503:
8489:
7797:eMedicine Live online medical consultation
7460:Calabrese EJ, Baldwin LA (February 2003).
6916:
6721:Köhn C, Chanrion O, Neubert T (May 2018).
6336:
5632:
5560:Brisbane Telegraph (Qld. : 1948–1954)
3137:
3123:
2613:, or create a new section, as appropriate.
1707:
1469:
880:
268:of the residual air in the tube by a high
240:, X-rays were just a type of unidentified
93:. In many languages, it is referred to as
8412:
8359:Als-Nielsen, Jens; Mcmorrow, Des (2001).
8323:"Wilhelm Röntgen and the Invisible Light"
8116:
8106:
7856:
7688:
7550:
6950:
6896:
6811:
6754:
6705:
6656:
6521:
6491:
6452:
6434:
5710:
5658:
5508:Sunday Times (Perth, WA : 1902–1954)
5424:
5201:
5115:. Birmingham City Council. Archived from
5024:
4800:
4756:
4666:. Birmingham City Council. Archived from
4558:
4548:
4507:
4243:
4088:
3983:
3803:
3770:
3724:. Harvard University Press. 5th edition.
2629:Learn how and when to remove this message
2297:Learn how and when to remove this message
2151:, but are now mostly replaced by various
1962:The maximum energy of the produced X-ray
1909:. The smooth, continuous curve is due to
1482:at 540 eV, the energy dependence of
889:A patient being examined with a thoracic
733:"Nouvelle Iconographie de la Salpetrière"
203:, cancer, and at high dosages, burns and
109:to signify an unknown type of radiation.
10847:
8464:https://doi.org/10.1177/1559325820957797
8448:"La découverte des rayons X par Röntgen"
8435:"Index of Early Bremsstrahlung Articles"
8278:
8048:. Idaho State University. Archived from
7879:
7462:"Toxicology rethinks its central belief"
6399:
6290:The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging
6116:"RTAB: the Rayleigh scattering database"
6091:The essential physics of medical imaging
6066:The essential physics of medical imaging
5914:
5912:
5680:
5678:
5187:
5181:
5157:
4266:
3825:Transactions of the Faculty of Actuaries
3818:
2880:
2841:
2740:
2707:
2660:by both the World Health Organization's
2640:
2482:
2349:
2316:
2308:
1896:
1473:
1332:
1212:
1148:
1036:
884:
726:
653:
630:
606:
602:
563:
406:
219:
60:
48:
8287:
7793:"Pregnant Women and Radiation Exposure"
7615:
7613:
7286:
7044:Hermena, Shady; Young, Michael (2024),
6027:. US: Chemical Rubber Co. p. 2850.
5946:Feynman R, Leighton R, Sands M (1963).
5848:
4971:
4915:
4782:
4627:
4466:
4320:
4314:
4269:"The Nobel Prizes in Physics 1901–2000"
4216:Occupational and Environmental Medicine
4060:
3849:
3779:
3650:– 1897 British short silent comedy film
2988:is one example of such high intensity.
2986:European Synchrotron Radiation Facility
1951:(5%) and tungsten (95%), but sometimes
1229:
1205:, and high resolution X-ray detectors.
402:
11791:
11672:Wireless electronic devices and health
10862:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
9499:
8445:
7882:AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology
7621:"Radiation Dose in X-Ray and CT Exams"
7079:
7075:
7073:
7039:
7037:
7012:
6834:
6113:
5582:"X-ray shoe sets in S.A. 'controlled'"
5166:
4868:
4789:AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology
4778:
4776:
4530:
4481:
4439:
4409:
4374:
4347:
4289:
4006:
3878:
3785:
3756:
3714:
3118:Ionizing radiation related quantities
2779:, which is an observational branch of
2738:Other notable uses of X-rays include:
2554:), and barium swallow (to examine for
2472:
2179:the person has been exposed to. X-ray
1687:
1294:, while gamma rays are emitted by the
1153:Phase-contrast X-ray image of a spider
11312:
11104:
10867:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
10276:
10263:
9473:
8997:
8484:
7915:US National Research Council (2006).
7416:
7370:Brenner DJ, Hall EJ (November 2007).
7046:"CT-scan Image Production Procedures"
7006:
6686:Plasma Sources Science and Technology
6547:Plasma Sources Science and Technology
5909:
5675:
5612:Canberra Times (ACT : 1926–1995)
5608:"Ban On Shoe X-ray Machines Resented"
5534:Biz (Fairfield, NSW : 1928–1972)
5270:"X-ray moving pictures latest (1913)"
4940:
4573:
4327:. Norman Publishing. pp. 10–15.
3947:
3927:
3925:
2753:in which the pattern produced by the
2325:of a female patient, demonstrating a
1662:
1604:. However, the general trend of high
818:
216:Pre-Röntgen observations and research
11698:List of civilian radiation accidents
11667:Wireless device radiation and health
11662:Biological dose units and quantities
11612:Electromagnetic radiation and health
11291:
10264:
8161:
7610:
6207:"X-ray Transition Energies Database"
5586:News (Adelaide, SA : 1923–1954)
5456:Warwick Daily News (Qld.: 1919–1954)
4703:
4009:Hydroenergy and Its Energy Potential
3798:. Royal Society of London: 272–278.
2581:
2457:, including the arteries and veins (
2365:, which, due to its relatively high
2235:adding citations to reliable sources
2206:
1692:Rayleigh scattering is the dominant
78:explains medical imaging and X-rays.
10872:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
8329:. Oak Ridge Associated Universities
8194:. Tokyo: Kodansha. pp. 291–2.
8191:X-ray diffraction by macromolecules
8143:. Open University. 24 February 2011
7376:The New England Journal of Medicine
7080:Davros, William J. (1 April 2007).
7070:
7034:
6835:Thomas, Adrian M.K. (August 2007).
5861:. Cambridge University. p. 2.
5478:"T. C. BEIRNE'S X-RAY SHOE FITTING"
5322:"How X-Ray Movies Are Taken (1918)"
4920:. Pelican Publishing. p. 300.
4773:
4433:
4011:. Pinnacle Technology. p. 88.
3636:Resonant inelastic X-ray scattering
3607:– 1896 documentary radiography film
1947:or a more crack-resistant alloy of
1161:device was proposed as part of the
836:after taking a picture of Dudley's
795:. While one bullet only grazed his
619:screen. The seated man is taking a
348:Also in 1890, Roentgen's assistant
13:
11647:Radioactivity in the life sciences
10681:
9832:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
8555:
8089:Chalkley M, Listl S (March 2018).
7997:, Princeton University Press, 2010
7803:. 28 December 2008. Archived from
7682:10.1093/oxfordjournals.rpd.a033172
6951:Rhinehart, D. A. (December 1931).
5974:Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis
4978:. Norman Publishing. p. 294.
4107:"Sensitivity of the head to X-ray"
3922:
3722:Squire's Fundamentals of Radiology
2577:
2495:) slice – a modern application of
2354:Plain radiograph of the right knee
2121:and the production of high-energy
1357:, and therefore harmful to living
306:describing the effects of passing
14:
11850:
9855:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
9754:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
9023:
8381:
8320:
5971:L'Annunziata M, Abrade M (2003).
4642:10.1148/radiographics.9.6.2685937
4537:Canadian Journal of Communication
4271:. Stockholm: The Nobel Foundation
4041:, "Incandescent Electric Light".
2693:X-rays only accounted for 10% of
2402:bowel (or intestinal) obstruction
1193:sophisticated equipment, such as
611:Taking an X-ray image with early
24:. For the medical specialty, see
11290:
11279:
11278:
11266:
10955:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
8361:Elements of Modern X-Ray Physics
8352:
8341:
8314:
8272:
8181:
8155:
8141:"Using lasers instead of x-rays"
8133:
8082:
8064:
8038:
8019:
8000:
7987:
7962:
7936:
7908:
7873:
7785:
7750:
7707:
7661:
7639:
7567:
7518:
7453:
7431:10.1097/00004032-200307000-00005
7410:
7323:
7280:
7254:The British Journal of Radiology
7245:
7215:
7164:
7112:
6983:
6944:
5922:Physics for Diagnostic Radiology
5425:Jorgensen TJ (10 October 2017).
5300:The Central New Jersey Home News
3578:
3566:
3513:
3436:
3352:
3284:
3194:
3000:ability is called the exposure:
2927:X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
2586:
2552:hemorrhoidal artery embolization
2211:
2197:hybrid photon counting detectors
2053:Production by fast positive ions
1337:Ionizing radiation hazard symbol
1221:, with wavelengths shorter than
1208:
1095:was developed during the 1950s.
10044:Historical stockpiles and tests
8399:(1369): 274–276. January 1896.
7649:. Seer.cancer.gov. 30 June 2010
7289:Reviews on Environmental Health
7173:Physics in Medicine and Biology
7122:Physics in Medicine and Biology
6771:
6714:
6673:
6616:
6581:
6530:
6485:
6428:
6393:
6307:
6280:
6253:
6221:
6199:
6158:
6120:Radiation Physics and Chemistry
6107:
6082:
6057:
6031:
6016:
5991:
5964:
5948:The Feynman Lectures on Physics
5939:
5887:
5805:
5762:
5719:
5635:"Phase-sensitive x-ray imaging"
5626:
5600:
5574:
5548:
5522:
5496:
5470:
5444:
5418:
5392:
5366:
5340:
5314:
5288:
5262:
5236:
5217:
5131:
5092:
5079:
5069:
4992:
4965:
4934:
4909:
4862:
4837:
4817:
4743:(1432): 539–540. 1 April 1897.
4725:
4682:
4656:
4567:
4524:
4475:
4460:
4403:
4368:
4341:
4283:
4267:Karlsson EB (9 February 2000).
4260:
4203:
4164:
4098:
4054:
4025:
4000:
3941:
3911:
3897:10.1148/radiology.181.3.1947073
2813:Radiography of cultural objects
2561:
2222:needs additional citations for
2202:
2059:particle-induced X-ray emission
1181:using different technologies).
918:cold cathode Crookes X-ray tube
642:Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton
623:of his hand by placing it on a
336:and associate professor of the
327:electromagnetic theory of light
287:or the glass wall of the tube.
10945:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
9827:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
8108:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2017.12.005
7670:Radiation Protection Dosimetry
6471:10.1016/j.atmosres.2013.03.012
6229:"X-Ray Data Booklet Table 1-3"
6173:. Cambridge University Press.
6023:Hodgman, Charles, ed. (1961).
5977:. Academic Press. p. 58.
5143:Engole the Elven for Knowledge
5005:Dento Maxillo Facial Radiology
3872:
3860:
3812:
3750:
3735:
3692:
2885:X-ray fine art photography of
2712:An X-ray protective window at
2516:
1923:X-rays can be generated by an
1711:
1458:to determine the positions of
1030:was invented the same year by
715:, used for holding samples of
191:(e.g., identification of some
120:rays and longer than those of
1:
11273:Nuclear technology portal
8457:Röntgen's discovery of X-rays
8446:Samuel JJ (20 October 2013).
7995:Physics for Future Presidents
7970:"HOW DANGEROUS IS RADIATION?"
7771:10.1016/S0140-6736(56)91923-7
7588:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15433-0
6843:European Journal of Radiology
6567:10.1088/0963-0252/25/4/044002
6314:Emilio B, Ballerna A (1994).
6140:10.1016/S0969-806X(00)00290-5
6114:Kissel L (2 September 2000).
5925:. US: CRC Press. p. 12.
5562:. 28 February 1951. p. 7
5354:. 12 January 1919. p. 16
4827:, page 300, Peter Lang, 2009
4713:. Yale Centre for British Art
4440:Markel H (20 December 2012).
4131:10.1126/science.144.3625.1470
4061:Stanton A (23 January 1896).
3879:Walden, T L (December 1991).
3786:Morgan W (24 February 1785).
3685:
3654:X-ray absorption spectroscopy
2992:Units of measure and exposure
2955:
2921:Roentgen stereophotogrammetry
2733:
2106:terrestrial gamma-ray flashes
1699:
1328:
1321:, in the ranges of 6–20
1281:
1004:, gave birth to the field of
962:In about 1906, the physicist
541:. Röntgen received the first
97:, after the German scientist
11135:Field-reversed configuration
10745:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
7223:"11th Report on Carcinogens"
6727:Geophysical Research Letters
6629:Geophysical Research Letters
6541:, Van Deursen L (May 2016).
6422:10.1016/0370-1573(86)90149-3
6260:Whaites E, Cawson R (2002).
5406:. 2 January 1920. p. 13
5089:. San Francisco, California.
4500:10.1080/13688804.2011.602856
4484:"The Invisible Made Visible"
4482:Natale S (1 November 2011).
4416:The Electromagnetic Spectrum
4348:Arthur C (8 November 2010).
3819:Anderson JG (January 1945).
3642:Small-angle X-ray scattering
3595:Detective quantum efficiency
2453:To generate an image of the
2128:
1905:target, operated at 60
1185:Phase-contrast X-ray imaging
1167:Strategic Defense Initiative
1110:that produce X-rays. Unlike
698:Zoological Society of London
332:In early 1890, photographer
244:emanating from experimental
89:) are a form of high-energy
7:
11535:Cosmic background radiation
11092:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
10277:
10039:States with nuclear weapons
8604:Ultra-high-energy gamma ray
8300:. Thomson Delmar Learning.
8188:Kasai N, Kakudo, M (2005).
8162:Dent S (12 February 2015).
8095:Journal of Health Economics
7193:10.1088/0031-9155/51/13/R20
7142:10.1088/0031-9155/59/6/r183
6855:10.1016/j.ejrad.2007.05.024
6610:10.1016/j.jastp.2009.07.010
6126:(2). Lynn Kissel: 185–200.
5919:Denny PP, Heaton B (1999).
5588:. 27 April 1951. p. 12
5458:. 25 August 1921. p. 4
5380:. 7 January 1918. p. 7
5188:Stoddart C (1 March 2022).
4783:Spiegel PK (January 1995).
4692:. Nova Publishers. p. xxi.
4550:10.22230/cjc.2011v36n2a2368
4033:American Technical Book Co.
3821:"William Morgan and X-rays"
3704:Science Mission Directorate
3558:
3008:per kilogram (C/kg) is the
2875:domestic police departments
2674:threshold dose of radiation
2609:, discuss the issue on the
1657:Auger electron spectroscopy
1647:characteristic X-ray or an
1450:. This property is used in
722:gelatin photographic plates
557:screen painted with barium
421:, German physics professor
10:
11855:
11764:
11622:Lasers and aviation safety
11105:
10930:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
10054:Tests in the United States
9288:X-Ray Fluorescence Imaging
9176:Anomalous X-ray scattering
8599:Very-high-energy gamma ray
8459:(PDF; English translation)
7894:10.2214/ajr.184.2.01840655
7301:10.1515/REVEH.2010.25.1.63
7098:10.1053/j.trap.2007.02.005
7020:(2nd ed.). Springer.
6898:10.1016/j.crad.2010.04.021
5536:. 27 July 1955. p. 10
5452:"X-Rays for Fitting Boots"
5328:. 15 March 1918. p. 2
5276:. 22 June 1913. p. 32
4688:Kudriashov, Y. B. (2008).
4531:Natale S (4 August 2011).
4410:Sample S (27 March 2007).
3720:Novelline, Robert (1997).
2714:Birmingham Dental Hospital
2656:, and are classified as a
2520:
2476:
2343:
2132:
1353:. This makes it a type of
338:University of Pennsylvania
275:of anywhere between a few
236:Before their discovery in
210:
116:are shorter than those of
18:
11762:
11726:
11690:
11652:Radioactive contamination
11577:
11505:Electromagnetic radiation
11495:
11407:
11354:
11347:
11260:
11216:
11168:
11125:
11115:
11067:
11055:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
10968:
10950:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
10915:
10898:
10838:
10765:
10757:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
10731:
10722:
10674:
10654:
10607:
10589:
10545:
10450:
10432:
10300:
10287:
10272:
10259:
10214:
10147:
10092:
10083:
10031:
9939:
9930:
9897:
9840:
9802:
9793:
9714:
9646:
9569:
9511:
9507:
9435:
9367:
9316:
9201:
9194:
9133:
9092:
9031:
8957:
8884:
8813:
8741:
8693:
8635:
8612:
8589:
8518:
8427:The Cathode Ray Tube site
8327:Tales from the Atomic Age
7701:22 September 2011 at the
6322:. IOS Press. p. xv.
6002:. Springer. p. 109.
5614:. 26 June 1957. p. 4
5510:. 15 July 1928. p. 5
5484:. 17 July 1925. p. 8
5250:. 4 April 1913. p. 2
5230:28 September 2012 at the
5223:Birmingham City Council:
5203:10.1146/knowable-022822-1
5113:"Major John Hall-Edwards"
4802:10.2214/ajr.164.1.7998549
4664:"Major John Hall-Edwards"
3837:10.1017/s0071368600003001
3470:
3402:
3325:
3256:
3170:
2915:Shoe-fitting fluoroscopes
2831:show well in radiographs.
2791:electromagnetic radiation
2548:coronary artery blockages
2143:were originally based on
2045:. The intensity of X-ray
1730:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1100:Chandra X-ray Observatory
1049:) was pioneered by Major
731:1896 plaque published in
689:Ivan Romanovich Tarkhanov
91:electromagnetic radiation
11819:IARC Group 1 carcinogens
11814:Electromagnetic spectrum
11765:See also the categories
11703:1996 Costa Rica accident
11364:Acoustic radiation force
10960:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
10576:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
9912:Electron-beam processing
9115:Synchrotron light source
8512:Electromagnetic spectrum
8294:Bickmore, Helen (2003).
8071:D.O.E. – About Radiation
7543:10.1177/1559325819852810
6707:10.1088/1361-6595/aaa5d8
5302:. 10 May 1915. p. 6
4895:10.1126/science.3.67.562
4383:Rutgers University Press
3772:10.1038/npre.2009.3267.4
2359:Projectional radiography
2346:Projectional radiography
2340:Projectional radiographs
2175:are used to measure the
2025:, which is generated by
1549:{\textstyle Z^{3}/E^{3}}
1510:Photoelectric absorption
1371:radiation-induced cancer
1219:electromagnetic spectrum
1179:National Missile Defense
1134:that build up layers of
575:of the Physik Institut,
140:in the range of 30
35:Not to be confused with
11677:Radiation heat-transfer
11530:Gravitational radiation
11075:Organic nuclear reactor
10247:Nuclear power phase-out
10170:Nuclear decommissioning
10110:Reactor-grade plutonium
9860:Targeted alpha-particle
9739:Accidents and incidents
9134:Interaction with matter
9093:Sources and instruments
8470:"X-ray Crystallography"
8389:"On a New Kind of Rays"
7537:(2): 1559325819852810.
6996:Orthopaedic Proceedings
6165:Attwood, David (1999).
5855:Attwood, David (1999).
5691:Applied Physics Letters
5225:Major John Hall-Edwards
5100:San Francisco Chronicle
4869:Daniel J (April 1896).
4576:Literature and Medicine
3101:(Sv) is the SI unit of
3088:Roentgen equivalent man
2728:Early photon tomography
2537:X-ray image intensifier
2155:detector types such as
1708:Production by electrons
1606:absorption coefficients
1470:Interaction with matter
1345:carry enough energy to
1217:X-rays are part of the
881:20th century and beyond
789:Pan American Exposition
694:George Albert Boulenger
304:Royal Society of London
101:, who discovered it in
11718:1990 Zaragoza accident
11713:1984 Moroccan accident
11682:Linear energy transfer
11356:Non-ionizing radiation
9266:Diffraction tomography
8560:
6804:10.1098/rsta.2018.0241
5087:San Francisco Examiner
4471:. Springfield: Thomas.
4381:. Camden, New Jersey:
4177:Acta Médica Portuguesa
3805:10.1098/rstl.1785.0014
3605:Macintyre's X-Ray Film
3520:röntgen equivalent man
3443:röntgen equivalent man
2996:The measure of X-rays
2933:, usually employed in
2893:
2847:
2803:Industrial radiography
2746:
2717:
2649:
2499:
2355:
2329:
2314:
2191:applications, such as
2043:triboelectric charging
1920:
1917:characteristic K lines
1678:conservation of energy
1637:
1594:
1570:
1550:
1491:
1421:industrial CT scanning
1417:industrial radiography
1338:
1226:
1154:
1067:motion picture cameras
1042:
1002:William Lawrence Bragg
975:Nobel Prize in Physics
902:
829:William Lofland Dudley
770:Clarence Madison Dally
740:
700:in May 1896. The book
684:
636:
628:
580:
577:University of Freiburg
543:Nobel Prize in Physics
414:
381:San Francisco Examiner
233:
99:Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen
79:
58:
30:X-ray (disambiguation)
28:. For other uses, see
11708:1987 Goiânia accident
11510:Synchrotron radiation
11500:Earth's energy budget
11482:Radioactive materials
11477:Particle accelerators
10237:Anti-nuclear movement
9377:X-ray crystallography
9246:Soft x-ray microscopy
9214:Panoramic radiography
9054:Synchrotron radiation
8559:
8076:27 April 2012 at the
8012:15 March 2007 at the
7514:on 12 September 2011.
6000:Astroparticle Physics
5633:Fitzgerald R (2000).
5530:"X-RAY SHOE FITTINGS"
5348:"X-ray movies (1919)"
5017:10.1259/dmfr/73488299
4296:Textbook of Radiology
2884:
2845:
2789:analysis, which uses
2751:X-ray crystallography
2744:
2711:
2652:X-rays are a form of
2644:
2486:
2455:cardiovascular system
2353:
2320:
2312:
2193:X-ray crystallography
2027:particle accelerators
2023:synchrotron radiation
1915:, and the spikes are
1900:
1674:Klein–Nishina formula
1638:
1595:
1571:
1551:
1477:
1456:X-ray crystallography
1423:) and research (e.g.
1336:
1272:X-ray crystallography
1216:
1163:Reagan Administration
1152:
1040:
1006:X-ray crystallography
888:
875:Birmingham University
833:Vanderbilt University
750:William Francis Magie
730:
657:
634:
610:
603:Advances in radiology
567:
410:
223:
128:ranging from 10
74:
52:
11779:Radiation protection
11632:Radiation protection
11520:Black-body radiation
11427:Background radiation
11342:(physics and health)
11145:Reversed field pinch
10940:Traveling-wave (TWR)
10424:Supercritical (SCWR)
9922:Gemstone irradiation
9146:Photoelectric effect
9079:Characteristic X-ray
8246:Analytical Chemistry
8218:Analytical Chemistry
8031:4 April 2007 at the
7388:10.1056/NEJMra072149
7266:10.1259/bjr/01948454
6747:10.1029/2018GL077788
6649:10.1002/2016GL072216
6596:(17–18): 1890–1898.
6523:10.1002/2014JD022229
6447:. 135–136: 432–465.
6445:Atmospheric Research
5556:"SHOE X-RAY DANGERS"
5326:Davis County Clipper
5119:on 28 September 2012
4941:Ce4Rt (March 2014).
4690:Radiation Biophysics
4670:on 28 September 2012
4588:10.1353/lm.1997.0016
4228:10.1136/oem.51.7.461
3985:10.1148/rg.284075206
3744:History of the World
3631:Reflection (physics)
2931:photoelectric effect
2899:fine art photography
2682:background radiation
2646:Abdominal radiograph
2607:improve this section
2556:esophageal disorders
2532:radiation therapists
2231:improve this article
2165:radiation protection
2161:flat panel detectors
1973:Characteristic X-ray
1669:inelastic scattering
1621:
1584:
1560:
1518:
1431:varies with several
1230:Soft and hard X-rays
1118:being torn apart by
977:for this discovery.
943:, the first kind of
937:John Ambrose Fleming
867:Elizabeth Fleischman
754:Princeton University
403:Discovery by Röntgen
183:(e.g., checking for
53:Natural color X-ray
11749:Radiation hardening
11691:Radiation incidents
11627:Medical radiography
11586:Radiation syndrome
11540:Cherenkov radiation
10310:Aqueous homogeneous
10105:Reprocessed uranium
9778:Safety and security
9166:Photodisintegration
9141:Rayleigh scattering
9120:Free-electron laser
8645:Extreme ultraviolet
8405:1896Natur..53R.274.
8101:(March 2018): 1–9.
7849:10.1503/cmaj.080247
7728:2008MedPh..35.3501G
7481:2003Natur.421..691C
7185:2006PMB....51R.343T
7134:2014PMB....59R.183H
6796:2019RSPTA.37780241F
6739:2018GeoRL..45.5194K
6698:2018PSST...27a5017K
6641:2017GeoRL..44.2604K
6602:2009JASTP..71.1890C
6559:2016PSST...25d4002K
6537:Kochkin P, Köhn C,
6514:2015JGRD..120.1620K
6463:2014AtmRe.135..432K
6414:1986PhR...135...47P
6372:10.1038/nature07378
6364:2008Natur.455.1089C
6358:(7216): 1089–1092.
6187:on 11 November 2012
6146:on 12 December 2011
6132:2000RaPC...59..185K
5875:on 11 November 2012
5783:1995Natur.373..595D
5740:1996Natur.384..335W
5703:2002ApPhL..81.3287D
5651:2000PhT....53g..23F
5139:"JOHN HALL-EDWARDS"
4916:Fleming WL (1909).
4887:1896Sci.....3..562D
4823:Nicolaas A. Rupke,
4749:1897Natur..55..539.
4469:Dr. W. C. Ro ̈ntgen
4123:1964Sci...144.1470G
4117:(3625): 1470–1472.
4081:1896Natur..53R.274.
4044:U.S. patent 454,622
4038:U.S. patent 514,170
3850:Thomson JJ (1903).
3144:
2941:Radiation implosion
2873:truck scanners and
2703:computed tomography
2667:computed tomography
2648:of a pregnant woman
2503:Computed tomography
2497:medical radiography
2473:Computed tomography
2400:, which can detect
2169:ionization chambers
2145:photographic plates
2065:is proportional to
2035:linear polarization
1998:. The frequency of
1996:continuous spectrum
1714:
1688:Rayleigh scattering
1504:Rayleigh scattering
1433:orders of magnitude
1266:used to refer to a
1252:medical radiography
1175:Bush Administration
1124:galactic collisions
1032:William D. Coolidge
1028:Coolidge X-ray tube
998:William Henry Bragg
665:Pelophylax lessonae
579:, on 1 January 1896
545:for his discovery.
357:Stanford University
308:electrical currents
232:that emitted X-rays
181:medical diagnostics
136:, corresponding to
11824:Ionizing radiation
11744:Radioactive source
11565:Radiation exposure
11545:Askaryan radiation
11525:Particle radiation
11409:Ionizing radiation
11224:Dense plasma focus
10139:Actinide chemistry
9604:Isotope separation
9501:Nuclear technology
9407:X-ray reflectivity
9186:X-ray fluorescence
9151:Compton scattering
9084:High-energy X-rays
8650:Vacuum ultraviolet
8561:
8439:Shade Tree Physics
8052:on 7 November 2012
7807:on 23 January 2009
7344:10.1002/bdrc.20099
7233:on 9 December 2010
6885:Clinical Radiology
6790:(2147): 20180241.
5897:. Physics.nist.gov
5895:"Physics.nist.gov"
5826:10.1038/nm0496-473
5248:The News-Palladium
4972:Glasser O (1934).
4467:Glasser O (1958).
4375:Kevles BH (1996).
4321:Glasser O (1993).
4007:Chadda PK (2009).
3867:Wiedmann's Annalen
3669:X-ray reflectivity
3600:High-energy X-rays
3585:Physics portal
3573:Medical portal
3117:
3025:electrostatic unit
3014:ionizing radiation
2963:ionizing radiation
2894:
2848:
2797:X-ray fluorescence
2747:
2718:
2654:ionizing radiation
2650:
2507:tomographic images
2500:
2432:Dental radiography
2412:(which are rarely
2392:, lung cancer, or
2356:
2330:
2315:
2123:run-away electrons
1921:
1919:for rhodium atoms.
1712:
1694:elastic scattering
1663:Compton scattering
1653:X-ray spectroscopy
1633:
1610:penetration depths
1590:
1566:
1546:
1500:Compton scattering
1492:
1488:Compton scattering
1390:X-ray spectroscopy
1367:radiation sickness
1355:ionizing radiation
1349:atoms and disrupt
1339:
1276:attenuation length
1227:
1155:
1043:
903:
899:radiation exposure
819:Hazards discovered
741:
685:
637:
629:
625:photographic plate
581:
415:
359:physics professor
314:and his assistant
234:
205:radiation sickness
197:ionizing radiation
179:is widely used in
80:
59:
11786:
11785:
11767:Radiation effects
11637:Radiation therapy
11573:
11572:
11515:Thermal radiation
11452:Neutron radiation
11417:Radioactive decay
11306:
11305:
11256:
11255:
11252:
11251:
11203:Magnetized-target
11100:
11099:
11063:
11062:
10894:
10893:
10890:
10889:
10834:
10833:
10718:
10717:
10650:
10649:
10255:
10254:
10210:
10209:
10079:
10078:
10066:Weapon-free zones
9893:
9892:
9885:Radiopharmacology
9467:
9466:
9463:
9462:
9455:X-ray lithography
9387:Backscatter X-ray
9382:X-ray diffraction
9209:X-ray radiography
9181:X-ray diffraction
9074:Siegbahn notation
8991:
8990:
8695:Visible (optical)
8423:"Ion X-Ray tubes"
8370:978-0-471-49858-2
8258:10.1021/ac1025122
8230:10.1021/ac102424h
8201:978-3-540-25317-4
7993:Muller, Richard.
7928:978-0-309-09156-5
7843:(12): 1293–1296.
7736:10.1118/1.2952359
7625:RadiologyInfo.org
7582:(9406): 345–351.
7475:(6924): 691–692.
7382:(22): 2277–2284.
7227:Ntp.niehs.nih.gov
7179:(13): R343–R362.
7027:978-1-85233-617-2
6969:10.1148/17.6.1158
6733:(10): 5194–5203.
6300:978-0-683-30118-2
6273:978-0-443-07027-3
6180:978-0-521-65214-8
6100:978-0-683-30118-2
6075:978-0-683-30118-2
6009:978-3-540-25312-9
5984:978-0-12-436603-9
5957:978-0-201-02116-5
5932:978-0-7503-0591-4
5868:978-0-521-65214-8
5777:(6515): 595–598.
5734:(6607): 335–338.
5712:10.1063/1.1516611
5697:(17): 3287–3289.
5660:10.1063/1.1292471
5404:New Castle Herald
5194:Knowable Magazine
5167:Schall K (1905).
4396:978-0-8135-2358-3
4290:Peters P (1995).
4018:978-1-61820-149-2
3763:Nature Precedings
3757:Filler A (2009).
3616:Neutron radiation
3590:Backscatter X-ray
3556:
3555:
3527:100 erg⋅g ×
3450:100 erg⋅g ×
2787:X-ray microscopic
2763:Rosalind Franklin
2759:fiber diffraction
2639:
2638:
2631:
2568:radiation therapy
2511:three-dimensional
2307:
2306:
2299:
2281:
2199:are widely used.
2189:X-ray diffraction
2149:photographic film
2047:triboluminescence
1983:emission spectrum
1895:
1894:
1636:{\textstyle Z=20}
1429:penetration depth
1386:radiation therapy
1234:X-rays with high
1051:John Hall-Edwards
1047:radiation therapy
858:William J. Morton
856:at Edison's lab,
850:Electrical Review
793:Buffalo, New York
762:calcium tungstate
709:Dartmouth College
649:John Hall-Edwards
298:, he presented a
260:(invented around
193:chemical elements
95:Röntgen radiation
72:
11846:
11727:Related articles
11642:Radiation damage
11467:Nuclear reactors
11352:
11351:
11333:
11326:
11319:
11310:
11309:
11294:
11293:
11282:
11281:
11271:
11270:
11269:
11181:
11140:Levitated dipole
11110:
11102:
11101:
11050:Helium gas (GFR)
10913:
10912:
10908:
10845:
10844:
10729:
10728:
10679:
10678:
10672:
10671:
10667:
10666:
10448:
10447:
10444:
10443:
10282:
10274:
10273:
10266:Nuclear reactors
10261:
10260:
10160:High-level (HLW)
10090:
10089:
9937:
9936:
9917:Food irradiation
9907:Atomic gardening
9800:
9799:
9783:Nuclear meltdown
9609:Nuclear material
9599:Fissile material
9594:Fertile material
9509:
9508:
9494:
9487:
9480:
9471:
9470:
9293:X-ray holography
9199:
9198:
9171:Radiation damage
9018:
9011:
9004:
8995:
8994:
8582:
8580:
8573:
8566:
8505:
8498:
8491:
8482:
8481:
8477:
8455:
8452:Bibnum Education
8442:
8441:. 12 April 2010.
8430:
8418:
8416:
8414:10.1038/053274b0
8375:
8374:
8356:
8350:
8345:
8339:
8338:
8336:
8334:
8318:
8312:
8311:
8291:
8285:
8284:
8276:
8270:
8269:
8252:(4): 1224–1231.
8241:
8224:(4): 1214–1223.
8212:
8206:
8205:
8185:
8179:
8178:
8176:
8174:
8159:
8153:
8152:
8150:
8148:
8137:
8131:
8130:
8120:
8110:
8086:
8080:
8068:
8062:
8061:
8059:
8057:
8042:
8036:
8023:
8017:
8004:
7998:
7991:
7985:
7984:
7982:
7980:
7966:
7960:
7959:
7957:
7955:
7946:. Archived from
7940:
7934:
7932:
7912:
7906:
7905:
7877:
7871:
7870:
7860:
7828:
7817:
7816:
7814:
7812:
7789:
7783:
7782:
7754:
7748:
7747:
7722:(8): 3501–3510.
7711:
7705:
7692:
7686:
7685:
7665:
7659:
7658:
7656:
7654:
7643:
7637:
7636:
7634:
7632:
7617:
7608:
7607:
7571:
7565:
7564:
7554:
7522:
7516:
7515:
7513:
7507:. Archived from
7466:
7457:
7451:
7450:
7414:
7408:
7407:
7367:
7356:
7355:
7327:
7321:
7320:
7284:
7278:
7277:
7260:(965): 362–378.
7249:
7243:
7242:
7240:
7238:
7229:. Archived from
7219:
7213:
7212:
7168:
7162:
7161:
7128:(6): R183–R231.
7116:
7110:
7109:
7077:
7068:
7067:
7066:
7064:
7041:
7032:
7031:
7010:
7004:
7003:
6987:
6981:
6980:
6963:(6): 1158–1170.
6948:
6942:
6941:
6939:
6937:
6923:
6914:
6913:
6900:
6876:
6867:
6866:
6840:
6832:
6826:
6825:
6815:
6775:
6769:
6768:
6758:
6718:
6712:
6711:
6709:
6677:
6671:
6670:
6660:
6635:(5): 2604–2613.
6620:
6614:
6613:
6585:
6579:
6578:
6534:
6528:
6527:
6525:
6508:(4): 1620–1635.
6489:
6483:
6482:
6456:
6432:
6426:
6425:
6397:
6391:
6390:
6388:
6386:
6349:
6340:
6334:
6333:
6311:
6305:
6304:
6284:
6278:
6277:
6257:
6251:
6250:
6248:
6246:
6241:on 23 April 2009
6240:
6233:
6225:
6219:
6218:
6216:
6214:
6203:
6197:
6196:
6194:
6192:
6183:. Archived from
6162:
6156:
6155:
6153:
6151:
6142:. Archived from
6111:
6105:
6104:
6086:
6080:
6079:
6061:
6055:
6054:
6052:
6050:
6035:
6029:
6028:
6020:
6014:
6013:
5995:
5989:
5988:
5968:
5962:
5961:
5943:
5937:
5936:
5916:
5907:
5906:
5904:
5902:
5891:
5885:
5884:
5882:
5880:
5871:. Archived from
5852:
5846:
5845:
5809:
5803:
5802:
5791:10.1038/373595a0
5766:
5760:
5759:
5748:10.1038/384335a0
5723:
5717:
5716:
5714:
5682:
5673:
5672:
5662:
5630:
5624:
5623:
5621:
5619:
5604:
5598:
5597:
5595:
5593:
5578:
5572:
5571:
5569:
5567:
5552:
5546:
5545:
5543:
5541:
5526:
5520:
5519:
5517:
5515:
5500:
5494:
5493:
5491:
5489:
5474:
5468:
5467:
5465:
5463:
5448:
5442:
5441:
5439:
5437:
5431:The Conversation
5422:
5416:
5415:
5413:
5411:
5396:
5390:
5389:
5387:
5385:
5370:
5364:
5363:
5361:
5359:
5344:
5338:
5337:
5335:
5333:
5318:
5312:
5311:
5309:
5307:
5292:
5286:
5285:
5283:
5281:
5266:
5260:
5259:
5257:
5255:
5240:
5234:
5221:
5215:
5214:
5212:
5210:
5205:
5185:
5179:
5178:
5164:
5155:
5154:
5152:
5150:
5135:
5129:
5128:
5126:
5124:
5109:
5103:
5096:
5090:
5083:
5077:
5073:
5067:
5066:
5064:
5062:
5056:Sites.Google.com
5048:
5039:
5038:
5028:
4996:
4990:
4989:
4969:
4963:
4962:
4956:
4948:
4938:
4932:
4931:
4913:
4907:
4906:
4866:
4860:
4859:
4857:
4855:
4841:
4835:
4821:
4815:
4814:
4804:
4780:
4771:
4770:
4760:
4758:10.1038/055539a0
4729:
4723:
4722:
4720:
4718:
4707:
4701:
4686:
4680:
4679:
4677:
4675:
4660:
4654:
4653:
4636:(6): 1113–1128.
4625:
4608:
4607:
4571:
4565:
4564:
4562:
4552:
4528:
4522:
4521:
4511:
4479:
4473:
4472:
4464:
4458:
4457:
4455:
4453:
4437:
4431:
4430:
4428:
4426:
4407:
4401:
4400:
4372:
4366:
4365:
4363:
4361:
4345:
4339:
4338:
4318:
4312:
4311:
4309:
4307:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4278:
4276:
4264:
4258:
4257:
4247:
4207:
4201:
4200:
4168:
4162:
4161:
4102:
4096:
4094:
4092:
4090:10.1038/053274b0
4058:
4052:
4046:
4040:
4029:
4023:
4022:
4004:
3998:
3997:
3987:
3978:(4): 1189–1192.
3963:
3954:
3953:
3945:
3939:
3938:
3929:
3920:
3915:
3909:
3908:
3876:
3870:
3864:
3858:
3857:
3847:
3841:
3840:
3816:
3810:
3809:
3807:
3783:
3777:
3776:
3774:
3754:
3748:
3747:
3739:
3733:
3718:
3712:
3711:
3696:
3583:
3582:
3571:
3570:
3569:
3379:
3377:
3321:
3319:
3308:
3306:
3251:
3250:
3247:
3223:
3214:
3212:
3145:
3139:
3132:
3125:
3116:
3034:
3032:
2872:
2871:
2861:Airport security
2765:to discover the
2699:nuclear medicine
2634:
2627:
2623:
2620:
2614:
2590:
2589:
2582:
2493:transverse plane
2323:chest radiograph
2302:
2295:
2291:
2288:
2282:
2280:
2239:
2215:
2207:
1715:
1642:
1640:
1639:
1634:
1602:absorption edges
1599:
1597:
1596:
1591:
1575:
1573:
1572:
1567:
1555:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1545:
1544:
1535:
1530:
1529:
1452:X-ray microscopy
1413:airport security
1375:cancer treatment
1256:airport security
1093:X-ray microscope
1059:X-ray dermatitis
994:Paul Peter Ewald
953:electric current
941:thermionic diode
675:Zootoca vivipara
670:Lacerta vivipara
435:Greek letter Chi
378:appeared in the
361:Fernando Sanford
334:William Jennings
189:material science
172:, respectively.
163:
161:
155:
153:
76:William Coolidge
73:
44:
33:
11854:
11853:
11849:
11848:
11847:
11845:
11844:
11843:
11839:Wilhelm Röntgen
11829:Medical physics
11809:1895 in science
11804:1895 in Germany
11789:
11788:
11787:
11782:
11781:
11758:
11754:Havana syndrome
11739:Nuclear physics
11722:
11686:
11579:
11569:
11555:Unruh radiation
11491:
11472:Nuclear weapons
11457:Nuclear fission
11403:
11343:
11337:
11307:
11302:
11267:
11265:
11248:
11212:
11179:
11164:
11121:
11111:
11106:
11096:
11059:
10964:
10909:
10902:
10901:
10886:
10830:
10761:
10736:
10714:
10686:
10668:
10661:
10660:
10659:
10646:
10612:
10603:
10585:
10550:
10541:
10455:
10438:
10437:
10436:
10428:
10342:Natural fission
10296:
10295:
10283:
10278:
10268:
10251:
10227:Nuclear weapons
10206:
10165:Low-level (LLW)
10143:
10075:
10027:
9926:
9889:
9836:
9789:
9710:
9642:
9565:
9503:
9498:
9468:
9459:
9443:X-ray astronomy
9431:
9363:
9312:
9298:X-ray telescope
9190:
9161:Photoionization
9129:
9125:X-ray nanoprobe
9088:
9044:Absorption edge
9032:Characteristics
9027:
9022:
8992:
8987:
8953:
8880:
8855:
8841:
8809:
8737:
8689:
8631:
8608:
8585:
8578:
8571:
8564:
8562:
8514:
8509:
8468:
8433:
8421:
8387:
8384:
8379:
8378:
8371:
8357:
8353:
8346:
8342:
8332:
8330:
8319:
8315:
8308:
8292:
8288:
8277:
8273:
8213:
8209:
8202:
8186:
8182:
8172:
8170:
8160:
8156:
8146:
8144:
8139:
8138:
8134:
8087:
8083:
8078:Wayback Machine
8069:
8065:
8055:
8053:
8046:"Dental X-Rays"
8044:
8043:
8039:
8033:Wayback Machine
8024:
8020:
8014:Wayback Machine
8005:
8001:
7992:
7988:
7978:
7976:
7974:PhyAst.Pitt.edu
7968:
7967:
7963:
7953:
7951:
7942:
7941:
7937:
7929:
7913:
7909:
7878:
7874:
7829:
7820:
7810:
7808:
7791:
7790:
7786:
7755:
7751:
7716:Medical Physics
7712:
7708:
7703:Wayback Machine
7693:
7689:
7666:
7662:
7652:
7650:
7645:
7644:
7640:
7630:
7628:
7619:
7618:
7611:
7572:
7568:
7523:
7519:
7511:
7489:10.1038/421691a
7464:
7458:
7454:
7415:
7411:
7368:
7359:
7328:
7324:
7285:
7281:
7250:
7246:
7236:
7234:
7221:
7220:
7216:
7169:
7165:
7117:
7113:
7078:
7071:
7062:
7060:
7042:
7035:
7028:
7011:
7007:
6988:
6984:
6949:
6945:
6935:
6933:
6925:
6924:
6917:
6891:(11): 859–867.
6877:
6870:
6833:
6829:
6776:
6772:
6719:
6715:
6678:
6674:
6621:
6617:
6586:
6582:
6535:
6531:
6490:
6486:
6433:
6429:
6402:Physics Reports
6398:
6394:
6384:
6382:
6347:
6341:
6337:
6330:
6312:
6308:
6301:
6285:
6281:
6274:
6258:
6254:
6244:
6242:
6238:
6231:
6227:
6226:
6222:
6212:
6210:
6205:
6204:
6200:
6190:
6188:
6181:
6163:
6159:
6149:
6147:
6112:
6108:
6101:
6087:
6083:
6076:
6062:
6058:
6048:
6046:
6036:
6032:
6021:
6017:
6010:
5996:
5992:
5985:
5969:
5965:
5958:
5944:
5940:
5933:
5917:
5910:
5900:
5898:
5893:
5892:
5888:
5878:
5876:
5869:
5853:
5849:
5814:Nature Medicine
5810:
5806:
5767:
5763:
5724:
5720:
5683:
5676:
5631:
5627:
5617:
5615:
5606:
5605:
5601:
5591:
5589:
5580:
5579:
5575:
5565:
5563:
5554:
5553:
5549:
5539:
5537:
5528:
5527:
5523:
5513:
5511:
5504:"THE PEDOSCOPE"
5502:
5501:
5497:
5487:
5485:
5476:
5475:
5471:
5461:
5459:
5450:
5449:
5445:
5435:
5433:
5423:
5419:
5409:
5407:
5398:
5397:
5393:
5383:
5381:
5372:
5371:
5367:
5357:
5355:
5352:Tampa Bay Times
5346:
5345:
5341:
5331:
5329:
5320:
5319:
5315:
5305:
5303:
5294:
5293:
5289:
5279:
5277:
5274:Chicago Tribune
5268:
5267:
5263:
5253:
5251:
5242:
5241:
5237:
5232:Wayback Machine
5222:
5218:
5208:
5206:
5186:
5182:
5165:
5158:
5148:
5146:
5137:
5136:
5132:
5122:
5120:
5111:
5110:
5106:
5097:
5093:
5084:
5080:
5074:
5070:
5060:
5058:
5050:
5049:
5042:
4997:
4993:
4986:
4970:
4966:
4950:
4949:
4939:
4935:
4928:
4914:
4910:
4881:(67): 562–563.
4867:
4863:
4853:
4851:
4843:
4842:
4838:
4822:
4818:
4781:
4774:
4731:
4730:
4726:
4716:
4714:
4709:
4708:
4704:
4687:
4683:
4673:
4671:
4662:
4661:
4657:
4626:
4611:
4572:
4568:
4529:
4525:
4480:
4476:
4465:
4461:
4451:
4449:
4438:
4434:
4424:
4422:
4408:
4404:
4397:
4373:
4369:
4359:
4357:
4346:
4342:
4335:
4319:
4315:
4305:
4303:
4288:
4284:
4274:
4272:
4265:
4261:
4208:
4204:
4169:
4165:
4103:
4099:
4075:(1369): 274–6.
4059:
4055:
4042:
4036:
4030:
4026:
4019:
4005:
4001:
3964:
3957:
3946:
3942:
3931:
3930:
3923:
3916:
3912:
3877:
3873:
3865:
3861:
3848:
3844:
3817:
3813:
3784:
3780:
3755:
3751:
3740:
3736:
3719:
3715:
3698:
3697:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3664:X-ray nanoprobe
3577:
3567:
3565:
3561:
3545:
3536:
3507:
3498:
3459:
3430:
3404:Equivalent dose
3392:100 erg⋅g
3375:
3373:
3317:
3315:
3304:
3302:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3221:
3210:
3208:
3143:
3103:equivalent dose
3076:equivalent dose
3030:
3028:
2994:
2971:phosphorescence
2958:
2935:surface science
2867:
2866:
2777:X-ray astronomy
2736:
2635:
2624:
2618:
2615:
2604:
2591:
2587:
2580:
2578:Adverse effects
2564:
2525:
2519:
2481:
2475:
2398:abdominal x-ray
2394:pulmonary edema
2378:skeletal system
2348:
2342:
2334:medical imaging
2303:
2292:
2286:
2283:
2240:
2238:
2228:
2216:
2205:
2137:
2131:
2102:
2095:
2084:
2077:
2071:
2055:
1759:
1753:
1747:
1740:
1724:
1719:
1710:
1702:
1690:
1665:
1622:
1619:
1618:
1608:and thus short
1585:
1582:
1581:
1561:
1558:
1557:
1540:
1536:
1531:
1525:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1496:photoabsorption
1484:photoabsorption
1480:absorption edge
1472:
1425:small animal CT
1351:molecular bonds
1331:
1284:
1236:photon energies
1232:
1211:
1201:X-ray sources,
951:that caused an
916:connected to a
883:
821:
720:broken bone on
605:
569:Hand mit Ringen
423:Wilhelm Röntgen
419:8 November 1895
412:Wilhelm Röntgen
405:
371:Physical Review
316:Michael Faraday
246:discharge tubes
218:
213:
159:
157:
151:
149:
61:
45:
34:
19:
17:
12:
11:
5:
11852:
11842:
11841:
11836:
11831:
11826:
11821:
11816:
11811:
11806:
11801:
11784:
11783:
11763:
11760:
11759:
11757:
11756:
11751:
11746:
11741:
11736:
11730:
11728:
11724:
11723:
11721:
11720:
11715:
11710:
11705:
11700:
11694:
11692:
11688:
11687:
11685:
11684:
11679:
11674:
11669:
11664:
11659:
11654:
11649:
11644:
11639:
11634:
11629:
11624:
11619:
11614:
11609:
11604:
11602:Health physics
11599:
11598:
11597:
11592:
11583:
11581:
11575:
11574:
11571:
11570:
11568:
11567:
11562:
11560:Dark radiation
11557:
11552:
11550:Bremsstrahlung
11547:
11542:
11537:
11532:
11527:
11522:
11517:
11512:
11507:
11502:
11496:
11493:
11492:
11490:
11489:
11484:
11479:
11474:
11469:
11464:
11462:Nuclear fusion
11459:
11454:
11449:
11444:
11439:
11434:
11432:Alpha particle
11429:
11424:
11419:
11413:
11411:
11405:
11404:
11402:
11401:
11396:
11391:
11386:
11381:
11376:
11371:
11366:
11360:
11358:
11349:
11345:
11344:
11336:
11335:
11328:
11321:
11313:
11304:
11303:
11301:
11300:
11288:
11276:
11261:
11258:
11257:
11254:
11253:
11250:
11249:
11247:
11246:
11241:
11236:
11234:Muon-catalyzed
11231:
11226:
11220:
11218:
11214:
11213:
11211:
11210:
11205:
11200:
11195:
11194:
11193:
11183:
11174:
11172:
11166:
11165:
11163:
11162:
11157:
11152:
11147:
11142:
11137:
11131:
11129:
11123:
11122:
11116:
11113:
11112:
11098:
11097:
11095:
11094:
11089:
11088:
11087:
11082:
11071:
11069:
11065:
11064:
11061:
11060:
11058:
11057:
11052:
11047:
11042:
11041:
11040:
11035:
11030:
11025:
11020:
11015:
11010:
11005:
11000:
10995:
10990:
10985:
10974:
10972:
10966:
10965:
10963:
10962:
10957:
10952:
10947:
10942:
10937:
10932:
10927:
10925:Integral (IFR)
10922:
10916:
10910:
10899:
10896:
10895:
10892:
10891:
10888:
10887:
10885:
10884:
10879:
10874:
10869:
10864:
10859:
10853:
10851:
10842:
10836:
10835:
10832:
10831:
10829:
10828:
10827:
10826:
10821:
10820:
10819:
10814:
10809:
10804:
10789:
10784:
10783:
10782:
10771:
10769:
10763:
10762:
10760:
10759:
10754:
10749:
10740:
10738:
10734:
10726:
10720:
10719:
10716:
10715:
10713:
10712:
10707:
10702:
10697:
10691:
10689:
10684:
10676:
10669:
10655:
10652:
10651:
10648:
10647:
10645:
10644:
10643:
10642:
10637:
10632:
10627:
10616:
10614:
10610:
10605:
10604:
10602:
10601:
10595:
10593:
10587:
10586:
10584:
10583:
10578:
10573:
10572:
10571:
10566:
10555:
10553:
10548:
10543:
10542:
10540:
10539:
10538:
10537:
10532:
10527:
10522:
10517:
10516:
10515:
10510:
10505:
10495:
10490:
10489:
10488:
10483:
10480:
10477:
10474:
10460:
10458:
10453:
10445:
10430:
10429:
10427:
10426:
10421:
10420:
10419:
10416:
10411:
10406:
10405:
10404:
10399:
10389:
10384:
10379:
10374:
10369:
10364:
10359:
10354:
10344:
10339:
10338:
10337:
10332:
10327:
10322:
10312:
10306:
10304:
10298:
10297:
10289:
10288:
10285:
10284:
10270:
10269:
10257:
10256:
10253:
10252:
10250:
10249:
10244:
10242:Uranium mining
10239:
10234:
10229:
10224:
10218:
10216:
10212:
10211:
10208:
10207:
10205:
10204:
10199:
10198:
10197:
10192:
10182:
10177:
10172:
10167:
10162:
10157:
10151:
10149:
10145:
10144:
10142:
10141:
10136:
10135:
10134:
10124:
10119:
10118:
10117:
10115:Minor actinide
10112:
10107:
10096:
10094:
10087:
10081:
10080:
10077:
10076:
10074:
10073:
10068:
10063:
10058:
10057:
10056:
10051:
10041:
10035:
10033:
10029:
10028:
10026:
10025:
10024:
10023:
10013:
10008:
10007:
10006:
10001:
9991:
9986:
9981:
9980:
9979:
9969:
9964:
9959:
9954:
9949:
9943:
9941:
9934:
9928:
9927:
9925:
9924:
9919:
9914:
9909:
9903:
9901:
9895:
9894:
9891:
9890:
9888:
9887:
9882:
9877:
9872:
9867:
9862:
9857:
9852:
9846:
9844:
9838:
9837:
9835:
9834:
9829:
9824:
9819:
9814:
9812:Autoradiograph
9808:
9806:
9797:
9791:
9790:
9788:
9787:
9786:
9785:
9775:
9774:
9773:
9763:
9762:
9761:
9751:
9746:
9741:
9736:
9731:
9726:
9720:
9718:
9712:
9711:
9709:
9708:
9703:
9698:
9693:
9688:
9683:
9678:
9673:
9668:
9663:
9658:
9652:
9650:
9644:
9643:
9641:
9640:
9639:
9638:
9633:
9628:
9627:
9626:
9621:
9606:
9601:
9596:
9591:
9586:
9581:
9575:
9573:
9567:
9566:
9564:
9563:
9562:
9561:
9556:
9546:
9541:
9536:
9534:Atomic nucleus
9531:
9526:
9521:
9515:
9513:
9505:
9504:
9497:
9496:
9489:
9482:
9474:
9465:
9464:
9461:
9460:
9458:
9457:
9452:
9451:
9450:
9439:
9437:
9433:
9432:
9430:
9429:
9424:
9419:
9414:
9409:
9404:
9399:
9394:
9389:
9384:
9379:
9373:
9371:
9365:
9364:
9362:
9361:
9356:
9351:
9346:
9341:
9336:
9331:
9326:
9320:
9318:
9314:
9313:
9311:
9310:
9305:
9300:
9295:
9290:
9285:
9284:
9283:
9278:
9273:
9263:
9258:
9253:
9248:
9243:
9242:
9241:
9236:
9226:
9221:
9216:
9211:
9205:
9203:
9196:
9192:
9191:
9189:
9188:
9183:
9178:
9173:
9168:
9163:
9158:
9153:
9148:
9143:
9137:
9135:
9131:
9130:
9128:
9127:
9122:
9117:
9112:
9107:
9102:
9096:
9094:
9090:
9089:
9087:
9086:
9081:
9076:
9071:
9066:
9061:
9056:
9051:
9046:
9041:
9035:
9033:
9029:
9028:
9021:
9020:
9013:
9006:
8998:
8989:
8988:
8986:
8985:
8980:
8975:
8970:
8964:
8962:
8955:
8954:
8952:
8951:
8946:
8941:
8936:
8931:
8926:
8921:
8916:
8911:
8906:
8901:
8896:
8890:
8888:
8882:
8881:
8879:
8878:
8873:
8868:
8863:
8858:
8853:
8849:
8844:
8839:
8835:
8830:
8825:
8819:
8817:
8811:
8810:
8808:
8807:
8802:
8797:
8775:
8770:
8747:
8745:
8739:
8738:
8736:
8735:
8730:
8725:
8720:
8715:
8710:
8705:
8699:
8697:
8691:
8690:
8688:
8687:
8682:
8677:
8672:
8667:
8662:
8657:
8652:
8647:
8641:
8639:
8633:
8632:
8630:
8629:
8624:
8618:
8616:
8610:
8609:
8607:
8606:
8601:
8595:
8593:
8587:
8586:
8584:
8583:
8550:
8545:
8540:
8535:
8530:
8525:
8519:
8516:
8515:
8508:
8507:
8500:
8493:
8485:
8479:
8478:
8466:
8460:
8443:
8431:
8419:
8383:
8382:External links
8380:
8377:
8376:
8369:
8351:
8340:
8313:
8307:978-1401815554
8306:
8286:
8271:
8207:
8200:
8180:
8154:
8132:
8081:
8063:
8037:
8018:
7999:
7986:
7961:
7950:on 16 May 2012
7935:
7927:
7907:
7888:(2): 655–657.
7872:
7818:
7784:
7749:
7706:
7687:
7676:(4): 445–448.
7660:
7638:
7609:
7566:
7517:
7452:
7419:Health Physics
7409:
7357:
7338:(3): 177–182.
7322:
7279:
7244:
7214:
7163:
7111:
7069:
7033:
7026:
7005:
6982:
6943:
6915:
6868:
6849:(2): 214–219.
6827:
6770:
6713:
6672:
6615:
6580:
6529:
6484:
6427:
6392:
6335:
6328:
6306:
6299:
6279:
6272:
6252:
6220:
6198:
6179:
6157:
6106:
6099:
6081:
6074:
6056:
6030:
6015:
6008:
5990:
5983:
5963:
5956:
5938:
5931:
5908:
5886:
5867:
5847:
5820:(4): 473–475.
5804:
5761:
5718:
5674:
5625:
5599:
5573:
5547:
5521:
5495:
5469:
5443:
5417:
5391:
5365:
5339:
5313:
5287:
5261:
5235:
5216:
5180:
5156:
5145:. 15 June 2018
5130:
5104:
5091:
5078:
5068:
5040:
5011:(2): 123–125.
4991:
4985:978-0930405229
4984:
4964:
4947:. p. 174.
4933:
4927:978-1589809468
4926:
4908:
4861:
4836:
4816:
4795:(1): 241–243.
4772:
4724:
4702:
4681:
4655:
4609:
4582:(2): 141–173.
4566:
4543:(2): 263–276.
4523:
4494:(4): 345–358.
4474:
4459:
4432:
4402:
4395:
4367:
4340:
4334:978-0930405229
4333:
4313:
4302:on 11 May 2008
4282:
4259:
4222:(7): 461–469.
4202:
4163:
4097:
4053:
4024:
4017:
3999:
3955:
3940:
3921:
3910:
3891:(3): 635–639.
3871:
3869:, Vol. XLVIII.
3859:
3842:
3811:
3778:
3749:
3734:
3713:
3690:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3681:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3645:
3639:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3575:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3554:
3553:
3552:0.010 Sv
3550:
3547:
3541:
3532:
3525:
3522:
3516:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3503:
3494:
3487:
3484:
3479:
3472:Effective dose
3468:
3467:
3466:0.010 Sv
3464:
3461:
3455:
3448:
3445:
3439:
3438:
3435:
3432:
3426:
3419:
3416:
3411:
3400:
3399:
3398:0.010 Gy
3396:
3393:
3390:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3371:
3368:
3365:
3362:
3355:
3354:
3351:
3348:
3342:
3339:
3334:
3323:
3322:
3313:
3310:
3296:
3293:
3287:
3286:
3283:
3280:
3277:
3274:
3265:
3254:
3253:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3226:
3225:
3218:
3215:
3206:
3203:
3197:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3179:
3168:
3167:
3161:
3158:
3155:
3152:
3149:
3142:
3141:
3134:
3127:
3119:
3115:
3114:
3107:effective dose
3105:, and also of
3095:
3072:
3071:
3064:
3037:
3036:
3017:
2993:
2990:
2957:
2954:
2953:
2952:
2938:
2924:
2918:
2912:
2905:
2897:X-ray art and
2879:
2878:
2869:Border control
2864:
2858:
2852:
2840:
2839:
2832:
2810:
2800:
2794:
2784:
2774:
2767:double helical
2761:, was used by
2735:
2732:
2637:
2636:
2619:September 2024
2601:of the subject
2599:worldwide view
2594:
2592:
2585:
2579:
2576:
2563:
2560:
2521:Main article:
2518:
2515:
2477:Main article:
2474:
2471:
2463:contrast agent
2344:Main article:
2341:
2338:
2305:
2304:
2219:
2217:
2210:
2204:
2201:
2177:radiation dose
2135:X-ray detector
2133:Main article:
2130:
2127:
2110:Bremsstrahlung
2101:
2098:
2093:
2085:refers to the
2082:
2075:
2069:
2054:
2051:
2016:electric power
2008:Bremsstrahlung
2004:
2003:
2000:Bremsstrahlung
1991:Bremsstrahlung
1987:
1979:electron shell
1935:released by a
1912:bremsstrahlung
1893:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1845:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1833:
1827:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1783:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1761:
1760:
1757:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1745:
1742:
1738:
1733:
1732:
1729:
1728:Photon energy
1726:
1721:
1709:
1706:
1701:
1698:
1689:
1686:
1664:
1661:
1649:Auger electron
1632:
1629:
1626:
1593:{\textstyle E}
1589:
1569:{\textstyle Z}
1565:
1543:
1539:
1534:
1528:
1524:
1511:
1508:
1471:
1468:
1443:in the image.
1363:radiation dose
1361:. A very high
1330:
1327:
1296:atomic nucleus
1283:
1280:
1231:
1228:
1210:
1207:
1102:, launched on
968:X-ray spectrum
964:Charles Barkla
947:. This used a
914:Ruhmkorff coil
882:
879:
820:
817:
746:platinocyanide
681:Lacerta agilis
660:Rana esculenta
604:
601:
573:Ludwig Zehnder
559:platinocyanide
404:
401:
397:radiant energy
366:6 January 1893
350:Ludwig Zehnder
292:William Morgan
230:discharge tube
217:
214:
212:
209:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11851:
11840:
11837:
11835:
11832:
11830:
11827:
11825:
11822:
11820:
11817:
11815:
11812:
11810:
11807:
11805:
11802:
11800:
11797:
11796:
11794:
11780:
11776:
11772:
11771:Radioactivity
11768:
11761:
11755:
11752:
11750:
11747:
11745:
11742:
11740:
11737:
11735:
11732:
11731:
11729:
11725:
11719:
11716:
11714:
11711:
11709:
11706:
11704:
11701:
11699:
11696:
11695:
11693:
11689:
11683:
11680:
11678:
11675:
11673:
11670:
11668:
11665:
11663:
11660:
11658:
11655:
11653:
11650:
11648:
11645:
11643:
11640:
11638:
11635:
11633:
11630:
11628:
11625:
11623:
11620:
11618:
11615:
11613:
11610:
11608:
11605:
11603:
11600:
11596:
11593:
11591:
11588:
11587:
11585:
11584:
11582:
11576:
11566:
11563:
11561:
11558:
11556:
11553:
11551:
11548:
11546:
11543:
11541:
11538:
11536:
11533:
11531:
11528:
11526:
11523:
11521:
11518:
11516:
11513:
11511:
11508:
11506:
11503:
11501:
11498:
11497:
11494:
11488:
11485:
11483:
11480:
11478:
11475:
11473:
11470:
11468:
11465:
11463:
11460:
11458:
11455:
11453:
11450:
11448:
11445:
11443:
11440:
11438:
11437:Beta particle
11435:
11433:
11430:
11428:
11425:
11423:
11422:Cluster decay
11420:
11418:
11415:
11414:
11412:
11410:
11406:
11400:
11397:
11395:
11392:
11390:
11387:
11385:
11382:
11380:
11377:
11375:
11372:
11370:
11367:
11365:
11362:
11361:
11359:
11357:
11353:
11350:
11348:Main articles
11346:
11341:
11334:
11329:
11327:
11322:
11320:
11315:
11314:
11311:
11299:
11298:
11289:
11287:
11286:
11277:
11275:
11274:
11263:
11262:
11259:
11245:
11242:
11240:
11237:
11235:
11232:
11230:
11227:
11225:
11222:
11221:
11219:
11215:
11209:
11206:
11204:
11201:
11199:
11196:
11192:
11191:electrostatic
11189:
11188:
11187:
11184:
11182:
11176:
11175:
11173:
11171:
11167:
11161:
11158:
11156:
11153:
11151:
11148:
11146:
11143:
11141:
11138:
11136:
11133:
11132:
11130:
11128:
11124:
11120:
11114:
11109:
11103:
11093:
11090:
11086:
11083:
11081:
11078:
11077:
11076:
11073:
11072:
11070:
11066:
11056:
11053:
11051:
11048:
11046:
11043:
11039:
11036:
11034:
11031:
11029:
11026:
11024:
11021:
11019:
11016:
11014:
11011:
11009:
11006:
11004:
11001:
10999:
10996:
10994:
10991:
10989:
10986:
10984:
10981:
10980:
10979:
10976:
10975:
10973:
10971:
10970:Generation IV
10967:
10961:
10958:
10956:
10953:
10951:
10948:
10946:
10943:
10941:
10938:
10936:
10933:
10931:
10928:
10926:
10923:
10921:
10920:Breeder (FBR)
10918:
10917:
10914:
10911:
10906:
10897:
10883:
10880:
10878:
10875:
10873:
10870:
10868:
10865:
10863:
10860:
10858:
10855:
10854:
10852:
10850:
10846:
10843:
10841:
10837:
10825:
10822:
10818:
10815:
10813:
10810:
10808:
10805:
10803:
10800:
10799:
10798:
10795:
10794:
10793:
10790:
10788:
10785:
10781:
10778:
10777:
10776:
10773:
10772:
10770:
10768:
10764:
10758:
10755:
10753:
10750:
10748:
10746:
10742:
10741:
10739:
10737:
10730:
10727:
10725:
10721:
10711:
10708:
10706:
10703:
10701:
10698:
10696:
10693:
10692:
10690:
10688:
10680:
10677:
10673:
10670:
10665:
10658:
10653:
10641:
10638:
10636:
10633:
10631:
10628:
10626:
10623:
10622:
10621:
10618:
10617:
10615:
10613:
10606:
10600:
10597:
10596:
10594:
10592:
10588:
10582:
10579:
10577:
10574:
10570:
10567:
10565:
10562:
10561:
10560:
10557:
10556:
10554:
10552:
10544:
10536:
10533:
10531:
10528:
10526:
10523:
10521:
10518:
10514:
10511:
10509:
10506:
10504:
10501:
10500:
10499:
10496:
10494:
10491:
10487:
10484:
10481:
10478:
10475:
10472:
10471:
10470:
10467:
10466:
10465:
10462:
10461:
10459:
10457:
10449:
10446:
10442:
10435:
10431:
10425:
10422:
10417:
10415:
10412:
10410:
10407:
10403:
10400:
10398:
10395:
10394:
10393:
10390:
10388:
10385:
10383:
10380:
10378:
10375:
10373:
10370:
10368:
10365:
10363:
10360:
10358:
10355:
10353:
10350:
10349:
10348:
10345:
10343:
10340:
10336:
10333:
10331:
10328:
10326:
10323:
10321:
10318:
10317:
10316:
10313:
10311:
10308:
10307:
10305:
10303:
10299:
10294:
10293:
10286:
10281:
10275:
10271:
10267:
10262:
10258:
10248:
10245:
10243:
10240:
10238:
10235:
10233:
10230:
10228:
10225:
10223:
10222:Nuclear power
10220:
10219:
10217:
10213:
10203:
10202:Transmutation
10200:
10196:
10193:
10191:
10188:
10187:
10186:
10183:
10181:
10178:
10176:
10173:
10171:
10168:
10166:
10163:
10161:
10158:
10156:
10153:
10152:
10150:
10146:
10140:
10137:
10133:
10130:
10129:
10128:
10125:
10123:
10120:
10116:
10113:
10111:
10108:
10106:
10103:
10102:
10101:
10098:
10097:
10095:
10091:
10088:
10086:
10082:
10072:
10069:
10067:
10064:
10062:
10059:
10055:
10052:
10050:
10047:
10046:
10045:
10042:
10040:
10037:
10036:
10034:
10030:
10022:
10019:
10018:
10017:
10014:
10012:
10009:
10005:
10002:
10000:
9999:high-altitude
9997:
9996:
9995:
9992:
9990:
9989:Proliferation
9987:
9985:
9982:
9978:
9975:
9974:
9973:
9970:
9968:
9965:
9963:
9960:
9958:
9955:
9953:
9950:
9948:
9945:
9944:
9942:
9938:
9935:
9933:
9929:
9923:
9920:
9918:
9915:
9913:
9910:
9908:
9905:
9904:
9902:
9900:
9896:
9886:
9883:
9881:
9878:
9876:
9875:Brachytherapy
9873:
9871:
9868:
9866:
9863:
9861:
9858:
9856:
9853:
9851:
9848:
9847:
9845:
9843:
9839:
9833:
9830:
9828:
9825:
9823:
9820:
9818:
9815:
9813:
9810:
9809:
9807:
9805:
9801:
9798:
9796:
9792:
9784:
9781:
9780:
9779:
9776:
9772:
9769:
9768:
9767:
9764:
9760:
9757:
9756:
9755:
9752:
9750:
9747:
9745:
9742:
9740:
9737:
9735:
9732:
9730:
9727:
9725:
9722:
9721:
9719:
9717:
9713:
9707:
9704:
9702:
9699:
9697:
9694:
9692:
9689:
9687:
9684:
9682:
9679:
9677:
9674:
9672:
9671:Cross section
9669:
9667:
9664:
9662:
9659:
9657:
9654:
9653:
9651:
9649:
9645:
9637:
9634:
9632:
9629:
9625:
9622:
9620:
9617:
9616:
9615:
9612:
9611:
9610:
9607:
9605:
9602:
9600:
9597:
9595:
9592:
9590:
9587:
9585:
9582:
9580:
9577:
9576:
9574:
9572:
9568:
9560:
9557:
9555:
9552:
9551:
9550:
9547:
9545:
9542:
9540:
9537:
9535:
9532:
9530:
9527:
9525:
9522:
9520:
9517:
9516:
9514:
9510:
9506:
9502:
9495:
9490:
9488:
9483:
9481:
9476:
9475:
9472:
9456:
9453:
9449:
9446:
9445:
9444:
9441:
9440:
9438:
9434:
9428:
9425:
9423:
9420:
9418:
9415:
9413:
9410:
9408:
9405:
9403:
9400:
9398:
9395:
9393:
9390:
9388:
9385:
9383:
9380:
9378:
9375:
9374:
9372:
9370:
9366:
9360:
9357:
9355:
9352:
9350:
9347:
9345:
9342:
9340:
9337:
9335:
9332:
9330:
9327:
9325:
9322:
9321:
9319:
9315:
9309:
9306:
9304:
9301:
9299:
9296:
9294:
9291:
9289:
9286:
9282:
9279:
9277:
9274:
9272:
9269:
9268:
9267:
9264:
9262:
9259:
9257:
9254:
9252:
9249:
9247:
9244:
9240:
9237:
9235:
9232:
9231:
9230:
9227:
9225:
9222:
9220:
9219:Tomosynthesis
9217:
9215:
9212:
9210:
9207:
9206:
9204:
9200:
9197:
9193:
9187:
9184:
9182:
9179:
9177:
9174:
9172:
9169:
9167:
9164:
9162:
9159:
9157:
9154:
9152:
9149:
9147:
9144:
9142:
9139:
9138:
9136:
9132:
9126:
9123:
9121:
9118:
9116:
9113:
9111:
9108:
9106:
9103:
9101:
9098:
9097:
9095:
9091:
9085:
9082:
9080:
9077:
9075:
9072:
9070:
9067:
9065:
9062:
9060:
9057:
9055:
9052:
9050:
9049:Moseley's law
9047:
9045:
9042:
9040:
9037:
9036:
9034:
9030:
9026:
9025:X-ray science
9019:
9014:
9012:
9007:
9005:
9000:
8999:
8996:
8984:
8981:
8979:
8976:
8974:
8971:
8969:
8966:
8965:
8963:
8960:
8956:
8950:
8947:
8945:
8942:
8940:
8937:
8935:
8932:
8930:
8927:
8925:
8922:
8920:
8917:
8915:
8912:
8910:
8907:
8905:
8902:
8900:
8897:
8895:
8892:
8891:
8889:
8887:
8883:
8877:
8874:
8872:
8869:
8867:
8864:
8862:
8859:
8857:
8850:
8848:
8845:
8843:
8836:
8834:
8831:
8829:
8826:
8824:
8821:
8820:
8818:
8816:
8812:
8806:
8803:
8801:
8798:
8795:
8791:
8787:
8783:
8779:
8776:
8774:
8771:
8768:
8764:
8760:
8756:
8752:
8749:
8748:
8746:
8744:
8740:
8734:
8731:
8729:
8726:
8724:
8721:
8719:
8716:
8714:
8711:
8709:
8706:
8704:
8701:
8700:
8698:
8696:
8692:
8686:
8683:
8681:
8678:
8676:
8673:
8671:
8668:
8666:
8663:
8661:
8658:
8656:
8653:
8651:
8648:
8646:
8643:
8642:
8640:
8638:
8634:
8628:
8625:
8623:
8620:
8619:
8617:
8615:
8611:
8605:
8602:
8600:
8597:
8596:
8594:
8592:
8588:
8581:
8577:
8570:
8558:
8554:
8551:
8549:
8546:
8544:
8541:
8539:
8536:
8534:
8531:
8529:
8526:
8524:
8521:
8520:
8517:
8513:
8506:
8501:
8499:
8494:
8492:
8487:
8486:
8483:
8475:
8471:
8467:
8465:
8461:
8458:
8453:
8449:
8444:
8440:
8436:
8432:
8428:
8424:
8420:
8415:
8410:
8406:
8402:
8398:
8394:
8390:
8386:
8385:
8372:
8366:
8362:
8355:
8349:
8344:
8328:
8324:
8317:
8309:
8303:
8299:
8298:
8290:
8282:
8275:
8267:
8263:
8259:
8255:
8251:
8247:
8239:
8235:
8231:
8227:
8223:
8219:
8211:
8203:
8197:
8193:
8192:
8184:
8169:
8165:
8158:
8142:
8136:
8128:
8124:
8119:
8114:
8109:
8104:
8100:
8096:
8092:
8085:
8079:
8075:
8072:
8067:
8051:
8047:
8041:
8034:
8030:
8027:
8022:
8015:
8011:
8008:
8003:
7996:
7990:
7975:
7971:
7965:
7949:
7945:
7939:
7930:
7924:
7920:
7919:
7911:
7903:
7899:
7895:
7891:
7887:
7883:
7876:
7868:
7864:
7859:
7854:
7850:
7846:
7842:
7838:
7834:
7827:
7825:
7823:
7806:
7802:
7798:
7794:
7788:
7780:
7776:
7772:
7768:
7765:(6940): 447.
7764:
7760:
7753:
7745:
7741:
7737:
7733:
7729:
7725:
7721:
7717:
7710:
7704:
7700:
7697:
7691:
7683:
7679:
7675:
7671:
7664:
7648:
7642:
7626:
7622:
7616:
7614:
7605:
7601:
7597:
7593:
7589:
7585:
7581:
7577:
7570:
7562:
7558:
7553:
7548:
7544:
7540:
7536:
7532:
7531:Dose-Response
7528:
7521:
7510:
7506:
7502:
7498:
7494:
7490:
7486:
7482:
7478:
7474:
7470:
7463:
7456:
7448:
7444:
7440:
7436:
7432:
7428:
7424:
7420:
7413:
7405:
7401:
7397:
7393:
7389:
7385:
7381:
7377:
7373:
7366:
7364:
7362:
7353:
7349:
7345:
7341:
7337:
7333:
7326:
7318:
7314:
7310:
7306:
7302:
7298:
7294:
7290:
7283:
7275:
7271:
7267:
7263:
7259:
7255:
7248:
7232:
7228:
7224:
7218:
7210:
7206:
7202:
7198:
7194:
7190:
7186:
7182:
7178:
7174:
7167:
7159:
7155:
7151:
7147:
7143:
7139:
7135:
7131:
7127:
7123:
7115:
7107:
7103:
7099:
7095:
7091:
7087:
7083:
7076:
7074:
7059:
7055:
7051:
7047:
7040:
7038:
7029:
7023:
7019:
7015:
7009:
7001:
6997:
6993:
6986:
6978:
6974:
6970:
6966:
6962:
6958:
6954:
6947:
6932:
6928:
6922:
6920:
6912:
6908:
6904:
6899:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6882:
6875:
6873:
6864:
6860:
6856:
6852:
6848:
6844:
6839:
6831:
6823:
6819:
6814:
6809:
6805:
6801:
6797:
6793:
6789:
6785:
6781:
6774:
6766:
6762:
6757:
6752:
6748:
6744:
6740:
6736:
6732:
6728:
6724:
6717:
6708:
6703:
6699:
6695:
6692:(1): 015017.
6691:
6687:
6683:
6676:
6668:
6664:
6659:
6654:
6650:
6646:
6642:
6638:
6634:
6630:
6626:
6619:
6611:
6607:
6603:
6599:
6595:
6591:
6584:
6576:
6572:
6568:
6564:
6560:
6556:
6553:(4): 044002.
6552:
6548:
6544:
6540:
6533:
6524:
6519:
6515:
6511:
6507:
6503:
6499:
6495:
6488:
6480:
6476:
6472:
6468:
6464:
6460:
6455:
6450:
6446:
6442:
6438:
6431:
6423:
6419:
6415:
6411:
6407:
6403:
6396:
6381:
6377:
6373:
6369:
6365:
6361:
6357:
6353:
6346:
6339:
6331:
6329:90-5199-248-3
6325:
6321:
6317:
6310:
6302:
6296:
6292:
6291:
6283:
6275:
6269:
6265:
6264:
6256:
6237:
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6202:
6186:
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6176:
6172:
6168:
6161:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6129:
6125:
6121:
6117:
6110:
6102:
6096:
6092:
6085:
6077:
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6067:
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6045:
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6026:
6019:
6011:
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6001:
5994:
5986:
5980:
5976:
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5967:
5959:
5953:
5949:
5942:
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5924:
5923:
5915:
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5890:
5874:
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5851:
5843:
5839:
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5831:
5827:
5823:
5819:
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5808:
5800:
5796:
5792:
5788:
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5776:
5772:
5765:
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5708:
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5692:
5688:
5681:
5679:
5670:
5666:
5661:
5656:
5652:
5648:
5644:
5640:
5639:Physics Today
5636:
5629:
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5609:
5603:
5587:
5583:
5577:
5561:
5557:
5551:
5535:
5531:
5525:
5509:
5505:
5499:
5483:
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5473:
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5453:
5447:
5432:
5428:
5421:
5405:
5401:
5395:
5379:
5375:
5369:
5353:
5349:
5343:
5327:
5323:
5317:
5301:
5297:
5291:
5275:
5271:
5265:
5249:
5245:
5239:
5233:
5229:
5226:
5220:
5204:
5199:
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5184:
5176:
5172:
5171:
5163:
5161:
5144:
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5134:
5118:
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5101:
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5072:
5057:
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5047:
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5027:
5022:
5018:
5014:
5010:
5006:
5002:
4995:
4987:
4981:
4977:
4976:
4968:
4960:
4954:
4946:
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4876:
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4840:
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4820:
4812:
4808:
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4794:
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4779:
4777:
4768:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4728:
4712:
4706:
4699:
4698:9781600212802
4695:
4691:
4685:
4669:
4665:
4659:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4630:Radiographics
4624:
4622:
4620:
4618:
4616:
4614:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4577:
4570:
4561:
4556:
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4546:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4527:
4519:
4515:
4510:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4488:Media History
4485:
4478:
4470:
4463:
4447:
4443:
4436:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4406:
4398:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4379:
4371:
4356:. Guardian US
4355:
4351:
4344:
4336:
4330:
4326:
4325:
4317:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4286:
4270:
4263:
4255:
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4241:
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4233:
4229:
4225:
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4217:
4213:
4206:
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4190:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4167:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4101:
4091:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4069:
4064:
4057:
4050:
4045:
4039:
4034:
4028:
4020:
4014:
4010:
4003:
3995:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3972:Radiographics
3969:
3962:
3960:
3951:
3944:
3936:
3935:
3928:
3926:
3919:
3914:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3875:
3868:
3863:
3855:
3854:
3846:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3815:
3806:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3782:
3773:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3753:
3745:
3738:
3731:
3730:0-674-83339-2
3727:
3723:
3717:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3695:
3691:
3680:
3679:X-ray welding
3677:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3649:
3646:
3643:
3640:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3574:
3564:
3563:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3544:
3540:
3535:
3531:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3517:
3510:
3508:
3506:
3502:
3497:
3493:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3458:
3454:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3440:
3433:
3431:
3429:
3425:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3394:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3372:
3369:
3366:
3363:
3360:
3357:
3356:
3349:
3346:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3332:
3328:
3327:Absorbed dose
3324:
3314:
3311:
3300:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3288:
3281:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3269:
3266:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3242:
3239:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3227:
3219:
3216:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3198:
3191:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3162:
3159:
3156:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3140:
3135:
3133:
3128:
3126:
3121:
3120:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3084:
3083:
3081:
3080:absorbed dose
3077:
3069:
3065:
3062:
3058:
3057:absorbed dose
3054:
3050:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3045:absorbed dose
3042:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2999:
2989:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2974:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2939:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2925:
2922:
2919:
2916:
2913:
2910:
2906:
2904:
2903:Stane Jagodič
2900:
2896:
2895:
2892:
2891:Peter Dazeley
2888:
2883:
2876:
2870:
2865:
2862:
2859:
2856:
2855:Industrial CT
2853:
2850:
2849:
2844:
2837:
2833:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2811:
2808:
2804:
2801:
2798:
2795:
2792:
2788:
2785:
2782:
2778:
2775:
2772:
2769:structure of
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2743:
2739:
2731:
2729:
2725:
2722:
2715:
2710:
2706:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2690:
2686:
2683:
2678:
2675:
2670:
2668:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2647:
2643:
2633:
2630:
2622:
2612:
2608:
2602:
2600:
2593:
2584:
2583:
2575:
2573:
2569:
2559:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2542:
2538:
2533:
2529:
2524:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2470:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2451:
2449:
2445:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2418:kidney stones
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2370:
2368:
2367:atomic number
2364:
2360:
2352:
2347:
2337:
2335:
2328:
2327:hiatal hernia
2324:
2319:
2311:
2301:
2298:
2290:
2287:November 2017
2279:
2276:
2272:
2269:
2265:
2262:
2258:
2255:
2251:
2248: –
2247:
2243:
2242:Find sources:
2236:
2232:
2226:
2225:
2220:This section
2218:
2214:
2209:
2208:
2200:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2185:spectrometers
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2136:
2126:
2124:
2120:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2087:atomic number
2081:
2074:
2068:
2064:
2063:cross section
2060:
2050:
2048:
2044:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2019:
2017:
2012:
2009:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1969:
1968:
1965:
1960:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1918:
1914:
1913:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1828:
1824:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1799:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1784:
1780:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1755:
1749:
1743:
1741:
1735:
1734:
1716:
1705:
1697:
1695:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1670:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1644:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1616:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1587:
1579:
1578:atomic number
1563:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1526:
1522:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1335:
1326:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1264:metonymically
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1248:tender X-rays
1245:
1241:
1237:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1209:Energy ranges
1206:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1151:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1132:neutron stars
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1112:visible light
1109:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1094:
1089:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1068:
1062:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1039:
1035:
1033:
1029:
1024:
1022:
1021:Moseley's law
1018:
1017:Henry Moseley
1014:
1009:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
978:
976:
973:
970:. He won the
969:
965:
960:
958:
955:to flow in a
954:
950:
946:
942:
939:invented the
938:
934:
929:
927:
921:
919:
915:
910:
908:
900:
896:
892:
887:
878:
876:
870:
868:
863:
859:
855:
854:Elihu Thomson
851:
846:
843:
839:
834:
830:
826:
816:
814:
810:
806:
805:X-ray machine
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
781:
779:
778:Mihajlo Pupin
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
758:Thomas Edison
755:
751:
747:
738:
734:
729:
725:
723:
718:
714:
710:
705:
703:
699:
695:
690:
683:
682:
677:
676:
671:
667:
666:
661:
656:
652:
650:
645:
643:
633:
626:
622:
618:
614:
609:
600:
597:
596:
590:
585:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
560:
556:
551:
546:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
427:Crookes tubes
424:
420:
413:
409:
400:
398:
394:
390:
385:
383:
382:
377:
373:
372:
367:
362:
358:
353:
351:
346:
344:
343:Crookes tubes
339:
335:
330:
328:
323:
319:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
288:
286:
282:
278:
274:
271:
267:
263:
259:
258:Crookes tubes
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
231:
227:
224:Example of a
222:
208:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
173:
171:
167:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
110:
108:
105:and named it
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
77:
56:
51:
47:
42:
38:
31:
27:
23:
11775:Radiobiology
11657:Radiobiology
11617:Laser safety
11486:
11295:
11283:
11264:
11244:Pyroelectric
11198:Laser-driven
10978:Sodium (SFR)
10905:fast-neutron
10744:
10290:
10180:Reprocessing
10061:WMD treaties
9880:Radiosurgery
9850:Fast-neutron
9822:Scintigraphy
9317:Spectroscopy
9261:Ptychography
9195:Applications
9156:Auger effect
9059:Water window
9038:
9024:
8613:
8563:
8527:
8473:
8454:(in French).
8451:
8438:
8426:
8396:
8392:
8360:
8354:
8343:
8331:. Retrieved
8326:
8316:
8296:
8289:
8280:
8274:
8249:
8245:
8221:
8217:
8210:
8190:
8183:
8171:. Retrieved
8167:
8157:
8145:. Retrieved
8135:
8098:
8094:
8084:
8066:
8054:. Retrieved
8050:the original
8040:
8026:X-Ray Safety
8021:
8002:
7994:
7989:
7977:. Retrieved
7973:
7964:
7952:. Retrieved
7948:the original
7938:
7917:
7910:
7885:
7881:
7875:
7840:
7836:
7809:. Retrieved
7805:the original
7796:
7787:
7762:
7758:
7752:
7719:
7715:
7709:
7690:
7673:
7669:
7663:
7651:. Retrieved
7641:
7629:. Retrieved
7624:
7579:
7575:
7569:
7534:
7530:
7520:
7509:the original
7472:
7468:
7455:
7425:(1): 15–22.
7422:
7418:
7412:
7379:
7375:
7335:
7331:
7325:
7295:(1): 63–68.
7292:
7288:
7282:
7257:
7253:
7247:
7235:. Retrieved
7231:the original
7226:
7217:
7176:
7172:
7166:
7125:
7121:
7114:
7092:(2): 44–54.
7089:
7085:
7061:, retrieved
7049:
7017:
7008:
6999:
6995:
6985:
6960:
6956:
6946:
6934:. Retrieved
6931:ScienceDaily
6930:
6910:
6888:
6884:
6846:
6842:
6830:
6787:
6783:
6773:
6730:
6726:
6716:
6689:
6685:
6675:
6632:
6628:
6618:
6593:
6589:
6583:
6550:
6546:
6532:
6505:
6501:
6487:
6444:
6430:
6408:(2): 47–97.
6405:
6401:
6395:
6383:. Retrieved
6355:
6351:
6338:
6319:
6309:
6289:
6282:
6262:
6255:
6243:. Retrieved
6236:the original
6223:
6211:. Retrieved
6201:
6189:. Retrieved
6185:the original
6170:
6160:
6148:. Retrieved
6144:the original
6123:
6119:
6109:
6090:
6084:
6065:
6059:
6047:. Retrieved
6043:
6033:
6024:
6018:
5999:
5993:
5973:
5966:
5947:
5941:
5921:
5899:. Retrieved
5889:
5877:. Retrieved
5873:the original
5857:
5850:
5817:
5813:
5807:
5774:
5770:
5764:
5731:
5727:
5721:
5694:
5690:
5645:(7): 23–26.
5642:
5638:
5628:
5616:. Retrieved
5611:
5602:
5590:. Retrieved
5585:
5576:
5564:. Retrieved
5559:
5550:
5538:. Retrieved
5533:
5524:
5512:. Retrieved
5507:
5498:
5486:. Retrieved
5481:
5472:
5460:. Retrieved
5455:
5446:
5434:. Retrieved
5430:
5420:
5408:. Retrieved
5403:
5394:
5382:. Retrieved
5377:
5368:
5356:. Retrieved
5351:
5342:
5330:. Retrieved
5325:
5316:
5304:. Retrieved
5299:
5290:
5278:. Retrieved
5273:
5264:
5252:. Retrieved
5247:
5238:
5219:
5207:. Retrieved
5193:
5183:
5169:
5147:. Retrieved
5142:
5133:
5121:. Retrieved
5117:the original
5107:
5099:
5094:
5086:
5081:
5071:
5059:. Retrieved
5055:
5008:
5004:
4994:
4974:
4967:
4943:
4936:
4917:
4911:
4878:
4874:
4871:"THE X-RAYS"
4864:
4852:. Retrieved
4848:
4839:
4824:
4819:
4792:
4788:
4740:
4736:
4727:
4715:. Retrieved
4705:
4689:
4684:
4672:. Retrieved
4668:the original
4658:
4633:
4629:
4579:
4575:
4569:
4560:2318/1770480
4540:
4536:
4526:
4491:
4487:
4477:
4468:
4462:
4450:. Retrieved
4446:PBS NewsHour
4445:
4435:
4423:. Retrieved
4415:
4405:
4377:
4370:
4358:. Retrieved
4354:The Guardian
4353:
4343:
4323:
4316:
4304:. Retrieved
4300:the original
4295:
4285:
4273:. Retrieved
4262:
4219:
4215:
4205:
4183:(1): 19–24.
4180:
4176:
4166:
4158:
4114:
4110:
4100:
4072:
4066:
4056:
4032:
4027:
4008:
4002:
3975:
3971:
3949:
3943:
3933:
3913:
3888:
3884:
3874:
3866:
3862:
3852:
3845:
3828:
3824:
3814:
3795:
3791:
3781:
3762:
3752:
3743:
3737:
3721:
3716:
3703:
3694:
3674:X-ray vision
3659:X-ray marker
3626:Radiographer
3542:
3538:
3533:
3529:
3504:
3500:
3495:
3491:
3475:
3456:
3452:
3427:
3423:
3407:
3330:
3320:10 C/kg
3279:C⋅kg of air
3261:
3175:
3073:
3038:
3033:10 C/kg
2995:
2975:
2959:
2909:hair removal
2817:underdrawing
2737:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2694:
2691:
2687:
2679:
2671:
2651:
2625:
2616:
2596:
2565:
2562:Radiotherapy
2544:video camera
2526:
2501:
2452:
2447:
2444:X-ray filter
2440:
2430:
2371:
2357:
2331:
2293:
2284:
2274:
2267:
2260:
2253:
2241:
2229:Please help
2224:verification
2221:
2203:Medical uses
2157:image plates
2138:
2109:
2103:
2090:
2089:of the ion,
2079:
2072:
2066:
2056:
2039:
2020:
2013:
2007:
2005:
1999:
1989:
1971:
1961:
1922:
1910:
1731:Wavelength
1703:
1691:
1666:
1645:
1513:
1493:
1445:
1437:transmission
1394:
1340:
1319:radiotherapy
1285:
1268:radiographic
1259:
1258:). The term
1247:
1243:
1239:
1233:
1203:X-ray optics
1183:
1156:
1104:23 July 1999
1097:
1090:
1086:
1071:
1063:
1061:on his arm.
1044:
1025:
1010:
986:Max von Laue
979:
961:
930:
922:
911:
907:cold cathode
904:
871:
862:Nikola Tesla
849:
847:
822:
813:septic shock
782:
742:
732:
706:
701:
686:
679:
673:
669:
663:
659:
646:
638:
613:Crookes tube
593:
586:
582:
568:
547:
443:Röntgen rays
442:
438:
416:
393:Nikola Tesla
386:
379:
375:
369:
354:
347:
331:
324:
320:
312:Humphry Davy
289:
250:cathode rays
235:
228:, a type of
226:Crookes tube
185:broken bones
174:
168:to 100
111:
106:
94:
86:
82:
81:
46:
11834:Radiography
11399:Ultraviolet
11394:Radio waves
11155:Stellarator
11119:confinement
11013:Superphénix
10840:Molten-salt
10792:VHTR (HTGR)
10569:HW BLWR 250
10535:R4 Marviken
10464:Pressurized
10434:Heavy water
10418:many others
10347:Pressurized
10302:Light water
10004:underground
9962:Disarmament
9870:Tomotherapy
9865:Proton-beam
9729:Power plant
9691:Temperature
9524:Engineering
9110:Synchrotron
8978:Medium wave
8655:Lyman-alpha
8637:Ultraviolet
8576:wavelengths
8569:frequencies
8533:Ultraviolet
8118:2066/190628
6245:19 February
6213:19 February
5462:27 November
5436:23 February
5410:26 November
5384:26 November
5358:26 November
5332:26 November
5306:26 November
5280:26 November
5254:26 November
4849:NLM.NIH.gov
4717:24 November
4385:. pp.
4275:24 November
3831:: 219–221.
3224:10 Bq
3166:equivalent
3157:Derivation
2755:diffraction
2528:Fluoroscopy
2523:Fluoroscopy
2517:Fluoroscopy
2467:radiologist
2459:angiography
2386:chest X-ray
2382:soft tissue
2141:radiography
2031:collimation
1937:hot cathode
1929:vacuum tube
1409:radiography
1312:radioactive
1308:X-ray tubes
1244:soft X-rays
1240:hard X-rays
1195:synchrotron
1159:X-ray laser
1120:black holes
1082:World War I
1078:Marie Curie
990:diffraction
949:hot cathode
945:vacuum tube
891:fluoroscope
766:fluoroscope
737:radiography
717:fluorescent
617:fluoroscope
555:fluorescent
177:radiography
144:to 30
138:frequencies
132:to 10
118:ultraviolet
114:wavelengths
107:X-radiation
87:X-radiation
22:Radiography
11793:Categories
11580:and health
11578:Radiation
11447:Cosmic ray
11180:(acoustic)
10797:PBR (PBMR)
10185:Spent fuel
10175:Repository
10155:Fuel cycle
10122:Activation
9899:Processing
9766:Propulsion
9724:by country
9656:Activation
9369:Scattering
9234:Helical CT
9100:X-ray tube
8959:Wavelength
8815:Microwaves
8627:Hard X-ray
8622:Soft X-ray
8591:Gamma rays
8523:Gamma rays
8333:11 October
8056:7 November
7979:24 January
7811:16 January
7653:8 November
7631:24 January
7237:8 November
7050:StatPearls
6936:24 January
6385:2 February
6191:4 November
6150:8 November
5901:8 November
5879:4 November
5618:5 November
5592:5 November
5566:5 November
5540:5 November
5514:5 November
5488:5 November
5149:27 October
5102:. Page 10.
5061:24 January
4854:24 January
4833:3631581203
4509:2134/19408
4425:3 December
4360:5 February
4049:Tesla coil
3686:References
3648:The X-Rays
3378:10 Gy
3237:10 s
3230:rutherford
2978:ionization
2956:Visibility
2887:needlefish
2829:lead white
2821:pentimenti
2734:Other uses
2658:carcinogen
2572:palliation
2414:radiopaque
2410:gallstones
2396:, and the
2257:newspapers
2173:dosimeters
2147:and later
1953:molybdenum
1925:X-ray tube
1700:Production
1448:microscope
1329:Properties
1288:gamma rays
1282:Gamma rays
1199:microfocus
1138:that then
1055:Birmingham
621:radiograph
511:Lithuanian
483:Portuguese
266:ionization
162:10 Hz
154:10 Hz
134:picometers
130:nanometers
126:wavelength
122:gamma rays
11734:Half-life
11607:Dosimetry
11442:Gamma ray
11389:Microwave
11379:Starlight
11340:Radiation
11150:Spheromak
10849:Fluorides
10513:IPHWR-700
10508:IPHWR-540
10503:IPHWR-220
10292:Moderator
9972:Explosion
9947:Arms race
9734:Economics
9686:Reflector
9681:Radiation
9676:Generator
9631:Plutonium
9584:Deuterium
9549:Radiation
9519:Chemistry
8973:Shortwave
8968:Microwave
8548:Microwave
8321:Frame P.
7106:1084-208X
7014:Herman GT
7002:(Supp 4).
6977:0033-8419
6957:Radiology
6454:1202.4879
6316:"Preface"
5669:121322301
4953:cite book
4518:142518799
4236:1351-0711
4189:0870-399X
4139:0036-8075
4035:, p. 68.
3905:0033-8419
3885:Radiology
3361:per gram
3252: Bq
3213:10 s
3182:becquerel
3148:Quantity
2967:rhodopsin
2781:astronomy
2611:talk page
2448:hardening
2390:pneumonia
2374:pathology
2129:Detectors
2119:streamers
1933:electrons
1401:scattered
1379:malignant
1292:electrons
1171:death ray
783:In 1901,
774:amputated
550:lab notes
539:Norwegian
535:Icelandic
495:Slovenian
471:Bulgarian
455:Ukrainian
451:Hungarian
277:kilovolts
242:radiation
142:petahertz
55:photogram
26:Radiology
11384:Sunlight
11369:Infrared
11285:Category
11239:Polywell
11170:Inertial
11127:Magnetic
10882:TMSR-LF1
10877:TMSR-500
10857:Fuji MSR
10817:THTR-300
10657:Graphite
10520:PHWR KWU
10486:ACR-1000
10414:IPWR-900
10397:ACPR1000
10392:HPR-1000
10382:CPR-1000
10357:APR-1400
10148:Disposal
10100:Actinide
10093:Products
9952:Delivery
9795:Medicine
9624:depleted
9619:enriched
9589:Helium-3
9554:ionizing
9105:Betatron
8983:Longwave
8743:Infrared
8543:Infrared
8266:21314202
8238:21314201
8168:Engadget
8127:29408150
8074:Archived
8029:Archived
8010:Archived
7902:15671393
7867:19047611
7801:Medscape
7779:13358242
7744:18777910
7699:Archived
7596:15070562
7561:31217755
7497:12610596
7447:13301920
7439:12852466
7396:18046031
7352:17963274
7317:17264651
7309:20429161
7274:18440940
7201:16790912
7158:18082594
7150:24584183
7063:20 April
7058:34662062
7016:(2009).
6907:20933639
6863:17629432
6822:31030653
6765:30034044
6667:28503005
6575:43609721
6496:(2015).
6492:Köhn C,
6479:10679475
6439:(2014).
6435:Köhn C,
6044:CCOHS.ca
5842:23523144
5228:Archived
5209:25 March
5123:23 April
5035:21239576
4903:17779817
4604:35604474
4452:23 March
4412:"X-Rays"
4155:44719943
4147:14171545
3994:18635636
3700:"X-Rays"
3559:See also
3514:SI unit
3437:SI unit
3353:SI unit
3285:SI unit
3272:kilogram
3258:Exposure
3195:SI unit
3172:Activity
3021:roentgen
3012:unit of
2998:ionizing
2984:at the
2836:van Gogh
2827:such as
2825:pigments
2605:You may
2436:cavities
2171:, while
2078:, where
1975:emission
1945:tungsten
1720:material
1682:momentum
1556:, where
1464:crystals
1441:contrast
1397:absorbed
1377:to kill
1223:UV light
1108:universe
809:gangrene
527:Georgian
519:Japanese
515:Albanian
487:Estonian
431:Würzburg
254:electron
146:exahertz
11595:chronic
11297:Commons
11208:Z-pinch
11178:Bubble
11160:Tokamak
11023:FBR-600
11003:CFR-600
10998:BN-1200
10664:coolant
10591:Organic
10476:CANDU 9
10473:CANDU 6
10441:coolant
10402:ACP1000
10377:CAP1400
10315:Boiling
10280:Fission
10127:Fission
10071:Weapons
10011:Warfare
9994:Testing
9984:History
9977:effects
9932:Weapons
9842:Therapy
9817:RadBall
9804:Imaging
9696:Thermal
9661:Capture
9648:Neutron
9636:Thorium
9614:Uranium
9579:Tritium
9559:braking
9539:Fission
9529:Physics
9512:Science
9448:History
9202:Imaging
8574:longer
8567:higher
8538:Visible
8401:Bibcode
8173:28 July
8147:28 July
7858:2585137
7724:Bibcode
7604:8516754
7552:6560808
7505:4419048
7477:Bibcode
7404:2760372
7209:7672187
7181:Bibcode
7130:Bibcode
6813:6501887
6792:Bibcode
6756:6049893
6735:Bibcode
6694:Bibcode
6658:5405581
6637:Bibcode
6598:Bibcode
6555:Bibcode
6539:Ebert U
6510:Bibcode
6494:Ebert U
6459:Bibcode
6437:Ebert U
6410:Bibcode
6380:4372536
6360:Bibcode
6128:Bibcode
5834:8597962
5799:4287341
5779:Bibcode
5756:4273199
5736:Bibcode
5699:Bibcode
5647:Bibcode
5378:The Sun
5026:3520298
4883:Bibcode
4875:Science
4811:7998549
4767:4054184
4745:Bibcode
4650:2685937
4596:9368224
4254:8044245
4245:1128015
4197:8475784
4119:Bibcode
4111:Science
4077:Bibcode
3952:: 5–15.
3489:J⋅kg ×
3482:sievert
3421:J⋅kg ×
3414:sievert
3309:of air
3307: g
3291:röntgen
3268:coulomb
3154:Symbol
3099:sievert
3006:coulomb
2982:wiggler
2489:CT scan
2479:CT scan
2426:implant
2406:ascites
2376:of the
2363:calcium
2271:scholar
2246:"X-ray"
2181:spectra
2153:digital
1949:rhenium
1903:rhodium
1891:0.0455
1847:0.0497
1803:0.0632
1781:0.0184
1615:calcium
1576:is the
1427:). The
1343:photons
1300:photons
1140:explode
801:abdomen
797:sternum
678:), and
595:Science
507:Latvian
503:Russian
499:Turkish
479:Finnish
475:Swedish
368:to the
302:to the
281:cathode
273:voltage
211:History
11799:X-rays
11777:, and
11108:Fusion
11068:Others
11008:Phénix
10993:BN-800
10988:BN-600
10983:BN-350
10812:HTR-PM
10807:HTR-10
10787:UHTREX
10752:Magnox
10747:(UNGG)
10640:Lucens
10635:KS 150
10372:ATMEA1
10352:AP1000
10335:Kerena
10215:Debate
9967:Ethics
9957:Design
9940:Topics
9771:rocket
9749:Fusion
9744:Policy
9706:Fusion
9666:Poison
9544:Fusion
9436:Others
9397:GISAXS
9069:L-edge
9064:K-edge
8876:L band
8871:S band
8866:C band
8861:X band
8847:K band
8833:Q band
8828:V band
8823:W band
8728:Orange
8723:Yellow
8703:Violet
8614:X-rays
8528:X-rays
8393:Nature
8367:
8304:
8264:
8236:
8198:
8125:
8007:X-Rays
7954:16 May
7925:
7900:
7865:
7855:
7777:
7759:Lancet
7742:
7602:
7594:
7576:Lancet
7559:
7549:
7503:
7495:
7469:Nature
7445:
7437:
7402:
7394:
7350:
7315:
7307:
7272:
7207:
7199:
7156:
7148:
7104:
7056:
7024:
6975:
6905:
6861:
6820:
6810:
6763:
6753:
6665:
6655:
6573:
6477:
6378:
6352:Nature
6326:
6297:
6270:
6177:
6097:
6072:
6006:
5981:
5954:
5929:
5865:
5840:
5832:
5797:
5771:Nature
5754:
5728:Nature
5667:
5177:, 107.
5033:
5023:
4982:
4924:
4901:
4831:
4809:
4765:
4737:Nature
4696:
4674:17 May
4648:
4602:
4594:
4516:
4393:
4331:
4252:
4242:
4234:
4195:
4187:
4153:
4145:
4137:
4068:Nature
4015:
3992:
3903:
3728:
3644:(SAXS)
3638:(RIXS)
3621:NuSTAR
3367:erg⋅g
3364:erg/g
3041:charge
2949:H-bomb
2945:A-bomb
2907:X-ray
2422:muscle
2273:
2266:
2259:
2252:
2244:
2187:. For
2163:. For
2033:, and
1964:photon
1957:cobalt
1888:0.0512
1869:0.121
1844:0.0559
1825:0.139
1800:0.0709
1778:0.0209
1725:number
1723:Atomic
1502:, and
1384:using
1359:tissue
1347:ionize
1341:X-ray
1315:nuclei
1190:Talbot
1136:plasma
1130:, and
1126:, and
1000:, and
957:vacuum
860:, and
537:, and
531:Hebrew
491:Slovak
463:Polish
459:Danish
447:German
187:) and
112:X-ray
83:X-rays
41:X-band
37:X-wave
11590:acute
11487:X-ray
11374:Light
11229:Migma
11217:Other
11186:Fusor
11085:Piqua
11080:Arbus
11038:PRISM
10780:MHR-T
10775:GTMHR
10705:EGP-6
10700:AMB-X
10675:Water
10620:HWGCR
10559:HWLWR
10498:IPHWR
10469:CANDU
10330:ESBWR
10085:Waste
10049:Tests
10032:Lists
10016:Yield
9759:MMRTG
9716:Power
9427:EDXRD
9349:XANES
9344:EXAFS
9334:ARPES
9281:3DXRD
9039:X-ray
8961:types
8886:Radio
8782:Bands
8755:Bands
8718:Green
8553:Radio
7600:S2CID
7512:(PDF)
7501:S2CID
7465:(PDF)
7443:S2CID
7400:S2CID
7313:S2CID
7205:S2CID
7154:S2CID
6571:S2CID
6475:S2CID
6449:arXiv
6376:S2CID
6348:(PDF)
6239:(PDF)
6232:(PDF)
6049:9 May
5838:S2CID
5795:S2CID
5752:S2CID
5665:S2CID
4763:S2CID
4600:S2CID
4514:S2CID
4448:. PBS
4387:19–22
4306:5 May
4151:S2CID
3611:N ray
3549:1971
3511:1977
3463:1971
3434:1977
3395:1953
3370:1950
3350:1974
3312:1928
3303:0.001
3282:1974
3276:C/kg
3240:1946
3217:1953
3201:curie
3192:1974
3160:Year
3151:Unit
3061:joule
2807:welds
2695:total
2487:Head
2416:) or
2278:JSTOR
2264:books
1941:anode
1866:0.134
1863:10.26
1822:0.154
1718:Anode
1460:atoms
1405:image
1382:cells
1260:X-ray
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