State (polity) - Knowledge

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with an economic and social organization that gives the society precise organic characteristics, with one (or multiple) religious organizations, in justification of the power expressed by such a society and in support of the religious beliefs of individuals and accepted by society as a whole. Such a structural universe, evolves in a cyclical manner, presenting two different historical phases (a mercantile phase, or "open society", and a feudal phase or "closed society"), with characteristics so divergent that it can qualify as two different levels of civilization which, however, are never definitive, but that alternate cyclically, being able, each of the two different levels, to be considered progressive (in a partisan way, totally independent of the real value of well-being, degrees of freedom granted, equality realized and a concrete possibility to achieve further progress of the level of civilization), even by the most cultured fractions, educated and intellectually more equipped than the various societies, of both historical phases.

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in: i) reforms to landownership laws with the objective of integrate more lands to the international economy, ii) increase in the taxation of peasants and little landowners, as well as collecting of these taxes in cash instead of in kind as was usual up to that moment and iii) the introduction of new and less costly modes of transportation, mainly railroads. As a result, the traditional forms of social control became obsolete, deteriorating the existing institutions and opening the way to the creation of new ones, that not necessarily lead these countries to build strong states. This fragmentation of the social order induced a political logic in which these states were captured to some extent by "strongmen", who were capable to take advantage of the above-mentioned changes and that challenge the sovereignty of the state. As a result, these decentralization of social control impedes to consolidate strong states.

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concerned with political identity and cultural or historical factors. Importantly, nations do not possess the organizational characteristics like geographic boundaries or authority figures and officials that states do. Additionally, a nation does not have a claim to a monopoly on the legitimate use of force over their populace, while a state does, as Weber indicated. An example of the instability that arises when a state does not have a monopoly on the use of force can be seen in African states which remain weak due to the lack of war which European states relied on. A state should not be confused with a government; a government is an organization that has been granted the authority to act on the behalf of a state. Nor should a state be confused with a society; a society refers to all organized groups, movements, and individuals who are independent of the state and seek to remain out of its influence.

6043:: "State interference in social relations becomes, in one domain after another, superfluous, and then dies out of itself; the government of persons is replaced by the administration of things, and by the conduct of processes of production. The State is not "abolished". It dies out...Socialized production upon a predetermined plan becomes henceforth possible. The development of production makes the existence of different classes of society thenceforth an anachronism. In proportion as anarchy in social production vanishes, the political authority of the State dies out. Man, at last the master of his own form of social organization, becomes at the same time the lord over Nature, his own master – free." 2621:

authors like Jeffrey Herbst add to this idea by arguing that state failure is the result of weak or non-existent institutions, which means that there is no state legitimacy because states are not able to provide goods or services, or maintain order and safety (Herbst, 1990). However, there are also ideas that challenge this notion of state failure. Stephen D. Krasner argues that state failure is not just the result of weak institutions, but rather a very complex phenomenon that varies according to context-specific circumstances, and should therefore not be analyzed through a simplistic understanding like the one normally presented (Krasner, 2004).

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often experience political violence, authoritarian rules, and a number of human rights abuses (Rotberg, 2004). While there is great discussion regarding the direct effects of state failure, its indirect effects should also be highlighted: state failure could lead to refugee flows and cross-border conflicts, while also becoming safe havens for criminal or extremist groups (Corbridge, 2005). In order to solve and prevent these issues in the future, it is necessary to focus on building strong institutions, promoting economic diversification and development, and addressing the causes of violence in each state (Mkandawire, 2001).

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limited international conflict that diminished the incentives to tax and increase military spending. Also, many of these states emerged from colonization in a state of poverty and with institutions designed to extract natural resources, which have made more difficult to form states. European colonization also defined many arbitrary borders that mixed different cultural groups under the same national identities, which has made difficult to build states with legitimacy among all the population, since some states have to compete for it with other forms of political identity.

2064: 1961:, the modern state is different from its predecessor polities in two main aspects: (1) Modern states have greater capacity to intervene in their societies, and (2) Modern states are buttressed by the principle of international legal sovereignty and the juridicial equivalence of states. The two features began to emerge in the Late Middle Ages but the modern state form took centuries to come firmly into fruition. Other aspects of modern states is that they tend to be organized as unified national polities, and that they have 2524:, Chapters XIII–XIV). Locke takes a more benign view of the state of nature and is unwilling to take as hard a stance on the degeneracy of the state of nature. He does agree that it is equally incapable of providing a high quality of life. Locke argues for inalienable human rights. One of the most significant rights for Locke was the right to property. He viewed it as a keystone right that was inadequately protected in the state of nature. Social contract theorists frequently argue for some level of 2488: 591: 2461:, suggest that state actors are to an important degree autonomous. In other words, state personnel have interests of their own, which they can and do pursue independently of (at times in conflict with) actors in society. Since the state controls the means of coercion, and given the dependence of many groups in civil society on the state for achieving any goals they may espouse, state personnel can to some extent impose their own preferences on civil society. 7756: 930:. According to Walter Scheidel, mainstream definitions of the state have the following in common: "centralized institutions that impose rules, and back them up by force, over a territorially circumscribed population; a distinction between the rulers and the ruled; and an element of autonomy, stability, and differentiation. These distinguish the state from less stable forms of organization, such as the exercise of chiefly power." 2330:

institutions, and not enough on the actual practices of government. In Foucault's opinion, the state had no essence. He believed that instead of trying to understand the activities of governments by analyzing the properties of the state (a reified abstraction), political theorists should be examining changes in the practice of government to understand changes in the nature of the state. Foucault developed the concept of

2427:' position of the state is configured in such a way to ensure that the long-term interests of capital are always dominant. Poulantzas' main contribution to the Marxist literature on the state was the concept of 'relative autonomy' of the state. While Poulantzas' work on 'state autonomy' has served to sharpen and specify a great deal of Marxist literature on the state, his own framework came under criticism for its ' 2299:. With power competitively arranged in society, state policy is a product of recurrent bargaining. Although pluralism recognizes the existence of inequality, it asserts that all groups have an opportunity to pressure the state. The pluralist approach suggests that the modern democratic state's actions are the result of pressures applied by a variety of organized interests. Dahl called this kind of state a 2643:

this exercise the power of coercion over them. This kind of social organization required a decline in legitimacy of traditional forms of ruling (like religious authorities) and replaced them with an increase in the legitimacy of depersonalized rule; an increase in the central government's sovereignty; and an increase in the organizational complexity of the central government (

2528:. In order to protect their ability to exercise these rights, they are willing to give up some other rights to the state to allow it to establish governance. Social contract theory then bases government legitimacy on the consent of the governed, but such legitimacy only extends as far as the governed have consented. This line of reasoning figures prominently in 2651:

the increase of the production of food (as a result of productivity improvements), which allowed to sustain a larger population and so increased the complexity and centralization of states. Finally, cultural changes challenged the authority of monarchies and paved the way to the emergence of modern states.

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The transition to this modern state was possible in Europe around 1600 thanks to the confluence of factors like the technological developments in warfare, which generated strong incentives to tax and consolidate central structures of governance to respond to external threats. This was complemented by

2591:, whereby legitimacy is derived from the belief that a certain group has been placed in power in a legal manner, and that their actions are justifiable according to a specific code of written laws. Weber believed that the modern state is characterized primarily by appeals to rational-legal authority. 2439:

It can be considered as a single structural universe: the historical reality that takes shape in societies characterized by a codified or crystallized right, with a power organized hierarchically and justified by the law that gives it authority, with a well-defined social and economic stratification,

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come to some of the same conclusions about the state apparatus as anarchists, but for different reasons. The two principles that anarcho-capitalists rely on most are consent and non-initiation. Consent in anarcho-capitalist theory requires that individuals explicitly assent to the jurisdiction of the

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The earliest forms of the state emerged whenever it became possible to centralize power in a durable way. Agriculture and a settled population have been attributed as necessary conditions to form states. Certain types of agriculture are more conducive to state formation, such as grain (wheat, barley,

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Samuels introduces the idea of state capacity, which he uses to refer to the ability of the state to fulfill its basic functions, such as providing security, maintaining law and order, and delivering public services. When a state does not accomplish this, state failure happens (Samuels, 2012). Other

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bodies also change the boundaries of the state in relation to society. Often the nature of quasi-autonomous organizations is unclear, generating debate among political scientists on whether they are part of the state or civil society. Some political scientists thus prefer to speak of policy networks

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One can commonly and sometimes readily (but not necessarily usefully) classify states according to their apparent make-up or focus. The concept of the nation-state, theoretically or ideally co-terminous with a "nation", became very popular by the 20th century in Europe, but occurred rarely elsewhere

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The first beast comes up from the sea...It is given 'all authority and power over every tribe, every people, every tongue, and every nation' (13:7). All who dwell on earth worship it. Political power could hardly, I think, be more expressly described, for it is this power which has authority, which

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contributed to the formation of weak states. The expansion of international trade that started around 1850, brought profound changes in Africa, Asia and Latin America that were introduced with the objective of assure the availability of raw materials for the European market. These changes consisted

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Pluralism has been challenged on the ground that it is not supported by empirical evidence. Citing surveys showing that the large majority of people in high leadership positions are members of the wealthy upper class, critics of pluralism claim that the state serves the interests of the upper class

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on Rights and Duties of States in 1933. It provides that "he state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states." And that "he federal

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as a central function of the state, since these goods would otherwise be underprovided. Tilly has challenged narratives of the state as being the result of a societal contract or provision of services in a free market – he characterizes the state more akin as a protection racket in the vein of

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compares the formation of European states in the 1600s with the conditions under which more recent states were formed in the twentieth century. In this line of argument, the state allows a population to resolve a collective action problem, in which citizens recognize the authority of the state and

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wasn't (the newly formed voting franchise) as is always painted by both political revolutionaries and political philosophers as a cry for political freedom or wanting to be accepted by the 'ruling elite', Foucault insists, but was a part of a skilled endeavour of switching over new technology such

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argued that the ruling class uses the state as its instrument to dominate society by virtue of the interpersonal ties between state officials and economic elites. For Miliband, the state is dominated by an elite that comes from the same background as the capitalist class. State officials therefore

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Although state-forms existed before the rise of the Ancient Greek empire, the Greeks were the first people known to have explicitly formulated a political philosophy of the state, and to have rationally analyzed political institutions. Prior to this, states were described and justified in terms of

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take place." and that civil society was the nexus connecting the economic and political sphere. Arising out of the collective actions of civil society is what Gramsci calls "political society", which Gramsci differentiates from the notion of the state as a polity. He stated that politics was not a

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In "The Problem of Failed States", Susan Rice argues that state failure is an important threat to global stability and security, since failed states are vulnerable to terrorism and conflict (Rice, 1994). Additionally, it is believed that state failure hinders democratic values, since these states

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Foucault argues that it is technology that has created and made the state so elusive and successful, and that instead of looking at the state as something to be toppled we should look at the state as technological manifestation or system with many heads; Foucault argues instead of something to be

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Liberal thought provides another possible teleology of the state. According to John Locke, the goal of the state or commonwealth is "the preservation of property" (Second Treatise on Government), with 'property' in Locke's work referring not only to personal possessions but also to one's life and

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Tilly defines states as "coercion-wielding organisations that are distinct from households and kinship groups and exercise clear priority in some respects over all other organizations within substantial territories." Tilly includes city-states, theocracies and empires in his definition along with

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Max Weber identified three main sources of political legitimacy in his works. The first, legitimacy based on traditional grounds is derived from a belief that things should be as they have been in the past, and that those who defend these traditions have a legitimate claim to power. The second,

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believed that the base-superstructure framework, used by many Marxist theorists to describe the relation between the state and the economy, was overly simplistic. He felt that the modern state plays a large role in structuring the economy, by regulating economic activity and being a large-scale

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that controls the state apparatus at a given time. That is, governments are the means through which state power is employed. States are served by a continuous succession of different governments. States are immaterial and nonphysical social objects, whereas governments are groups of people with

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The definition of a state is also dependent on how and why they form. The contractarian view of the state suggests that states form because people can all benefit from cooperation with others and that without a state there would be chaos. The contractarian view focuses more on the alignment and

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While defining a state, it is important not to confuse it with a nation; an error that occurs frequently in common discussion. A state refers to a political unit with sovereignty over a given territory. While a state is more of a "political-legal abstraction," the definition of a nation is more

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that started this process later. As a result, many of these states lack effective capabilities to tax and extract revenue from their citizens, which derives in problems like corruption, tax evasion and low economic growth. Unlike the European case, late state formation occurred in a context of

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believed that modern political theory was too state-centric, saying "Maybe, after all, the state is no more than a composite reality and a mythologized abstraction, whose importance is a lot more limited than many of us think." He thought that political theory was focusing too much on abstract

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Hendrik Spruyt distinguishes between three prominent categories of explanations for the emergence of the modern state as a dominant polity: (1) Security-based explanations that emphasize the role of warfare, (2) Economy-based explanations that emphasize trade, property rights and capitalism as

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In the past, it was suggested that the centralized state was developed to administer large public works systems (such as irrigation systems) and to regulate complex economies. However, modern archaeological and anthropological evidence does not support this thesis, pointing to the existence of

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as a given, and then concentrate on the function of states in capitalist society. These theories tend to see the state as a neutral entity separated from society and the economy. Marxist and anarchist theories on the other hand, see politics as intimately tied in with economic relations, and

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The idea of Jerusalem as a temple state is an analogy to the temple states of Asia Minor and the Seleucid Empire, but it is an inappropriate analogy. Rostovtzeff referred to Judea as a sort of temple state, notwithstanding his own definition that stipulates ownership of territory and state

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readily available from the past medieval period, into mass persuasion for the future industrial 'political' population (deception over the population) in which the political population was now asked to insist upon itself "the president must be elected". Where these political symbol agents,

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which destroys any concept of government monopoly on force. Coercive monopolies are excluded by the non-initiation of force principle because they must use force in order to prevent others from offering the same service that they do. Anarcho-capitalists start from the belief that replacing

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and Vivek Swaroop Sharma, the "neo-Darwinian" framework for the emergence of sovereign states is the dominant explanation in the scholarship. The neo-Darwininian framework emphasizes how the modern state emerged as the dominant organizational form through natural selection and competition.

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nation-states, but excludes tribes, lineages, firms and churches. According to Tilly, states can be seen in the archaeological record as of 6000 BC; in Europe they appeared around 990, but became particularly prominent after 1490. Tilly defines a state's "essential minimal activities" as:

2568:), not just to the people understood collectively. Both Hobbes and Bodin thought they were defending the power of kings, not advocating for democracy, but their arguments about the nature of sovereignty were fiercely resisted by more traditional defenders of the power of kings, such as 2111:. Unlike Marxists, anarchists believe that revolutionary seizure of state power should not be a political goal. They believe instead that the state apparatus should be completely dismantled, and an alternative set of social relations created, which are not based on state power at all. 1885:

sometimes evolved in the direction of fully-fledged parliaments, but sometimes lost out in their struggles with the monarch, leading to greater centralization of lawmaking and military power in his hands. Beginning in the 15th century, this centralizing process gives rise to the

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Since the late 19th century, virtually the entirety of the world's inhabitable land has been parcelled up into areas with more or less definite borders claimed by various states. Earlier, quite large land areas had been either unclaimed or uninhabited, or inhabited by

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goes so far to say that states "resemble a form of organized crime and should be viewed as extortion rackets." He argued that the state sells protection from itself and raises the question about why people should trust a state when they cannot trust one another.

868:" – noble, common, and clerical), and in particular the special status of the king. The highest estates, generally those with the most wealth and social rank, were those that held power. The word also had associations with Roman ideas (dating back to 2290:

view society as a collection of individuals and groups, who are competing for political power. They then view the state as a neutral body that simply enacts the will of whichever groups dominate the electoral process. Within the pluralist tradition,

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Given the role that many social groups have in the development of public policy and the extensive connections between state bureaucracies and other institutions, it has become increasingly difficult to identify the boundaries of the state.

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by arguing that the power of kings should be justified by reference to the people. Hobbes in particular went further to argue that political power should be justified with reference to the individual (Hobbes wrote in the time of the

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liberty. On this account, the state provides the basis for social cohesion and productivity, creating incentives for wealth-creation by providing guarantees of protection for one's life, liberty and personal property. Provision of

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Confounding the definition problem is that "state" and "government" are often used as synonyms in common conversation and even some academic discourse. According to this definition schema, the states are nonphysical persons of

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The rise of the modern day state system was closely related to changes in political thought, especially concerning the changing understanding of legitimate state power and control. Early modern defenders of absolutism

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understanding of the state. Every single scientific technological advance has come to the service of the state Foucault argues and it is with the emergence of the Mathematical sciences and essentially the formation of

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is generally antithetical to groups considering themselves Marxist but who – not having conquered the existing state power(s) – are not in the situation of supplying the institutional form of an actual society. To the

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live in 'stateless societies', as though their social lives were somehow lacking or unfinished, waiting to be completed by the evolutionary development of a state apparatus. Rather, the principal of their socialty, as

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drivers behind state formation, and (3) Institutionalist theories that sees the state as an organizational form that is better able to resolve conflict and cooperation problems than competing political organizations.

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Each successive government is composed of a specialized and privileged body of individuals, who monopolize political decision-making, and are separated by status and organization from the population as a whole.

1352:"one-way process of political management" but, rather, that the activities of civil organizations conditioned the activities of political parties and state institutions, and were conditioned by them in turn. 2767:)."; Definition 16 (noun): "of or pertaining to the central civil government or authority.". -Webster's New Universal Unabridged Dictionary, Random House/Barnes and Noble, ISBN 9780760702888, pp. 1860-1861. 2422:

theorist argued that capitalist states do not always act on behalf of the ruling class, and when they do, it is not necessarily the case because state officials consciously strive to do so, but because the

879:", the "condition of public matters". In time, the word lost its reference to particular social groups and became associated with the legal order of the entire society and the apparatus of its enforcement. 4881: 1973: 1346:

believed that civil society is the primary locus of political activity because it is where all forms of "identity formation, ideological struggle, the activities of intellectuals, and the construction of

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It has been thought necessary to quote the Lytton Report at such length since it is probably the fullest and most exhaustive description of an allegedly independent, by 'actually' dependent, i.e. Puppet

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conflict of interests between individuals in a state. On the other hand, the predatory view of the state focuses on the potential mismatch between the interests of the people and interests of the state.

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Turchin, Peter; Whitehouse, Harvey; Gavrilets, Sergey; Hoyer, Daniel; François, Pieter; Bennett, James S.; Feeney, Kevin C.; Peregrine, Peter; Feinman, Gary; Korotayev, Andrey; Kradin, Nikolay (2022).

1108:, the modern state was differentiated from "leagues of independent cities, empires, federations held together by loose central control, and theocratic federations" by four characteristics: 952:

Neuberger offers a slightly different definition of the state with respect to the nation: the state is "a primordial, essential, and permanent expression of the genius of a specific ."

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within a certain territory. Weber writes that the state "is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory."

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activities. Because of the way these activities structure the economic framework, Habermas felt that the state cannot be looked at as passively responding to economic class interests.

1680:. The ruling classes began to differentiate themselves through forms of architecture and other cultural practices that were different from those of the subordinate laboring classes. 1877:

The formalization of the struggles over taxation between the monarch and other elements of society (especially the nobility and the cities) gave rise to what is now called the

1236:, once a relatively common and often successful form of polity, have become rarer and comparatively less prominent in modern times. Modern-day independent city-states include 1093:

Empires had a "compound of diverse groups and territorial units with asymmetric links with the center" whereas a state had "supreme authority over a territory and population"

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Anarchists believe that the state is inherently an instrument of domination and repression, no matter who is in control of it. Anarchists note that the state possesses the

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have explored the emergence of weak states, how they are different from Western "strong" states and its consequences to the economic development of developing countries.

1572:" which do not hold de facto control over all of their claimed territory or where this control is challenged. Currently the international community comprises around 200 788:

that "do not have either purely or even primarily political institutions or roles". The degree and extent of governance of a state is used to determine whether it has

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Cultural and national homogenization figured prominently in the rise of the modern state system. Since the absolutist period, states have largely been organized on a

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on the definition of the state. The term "state" refers to a set of different, but interrelated and often overlapping, theories about a certain range of political

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relations in society in general, acting as a regulator and repressor of class struggle, and as a tool of political power and domination for the ruling class. The

1954:(Dublin 1729 - Beaconsfield 1797), "a state without the means of some change is without the means of its conservation" (Reflections on the Revolution in France). 2005:

and settled populations as necessary conditions. Some argue that climate change led to a greater concentration of human populations around dwindling waterways.

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have existed without any full-time specialized state organization, and these "stateless" forms of political organization have in fact prevailed for all of the

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are part of an "ideological state apparatus" which complements the "repressive state apparatus" (such as police and military) in reproducing social relations.

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Most political theories of the state can roughly be classified into two categories. The first are known as "liberal" or "conservative" theories, which treat

4235: 687:, except being under their federation and without the same capacity to act internationally. (Other terms that are used in such federal systems may include " 4079:

organization. Hengel also claims that Judea was a temple state, ignoring his own evidence that the Ptolemies hardly would have tolerated such a situation.

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Various social contract theories have been proffered to establish state legitimacy and to explain state formation. Common elements in these theories are a

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Charles Tilly argues that the number of total states in Western Europe declined rapidly from the Late Middle Ages to Early Modern Era during a process of

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State autonomy theorists believe that the state is an entity that is impervious to external social and economic influence, and has interests of its own.

2220:, there is no single "Marxist theory of state", but rather several different purportedly "Marxist" theories have been developed by adherents of Marxism. 1668:

of plants and animals, and larger family sizes. It also provided the basis for an external centralized state. By producing a large surplus of food, more

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was not a historical accident but a deliberate production in which the modern state had to now manage coincidentally with the emerging practice of the

9821: 5270: 1881:, or the state of Estates, characterized by parliaments in which key social groups negotiated with the king about legal and economic matters. These 1015:

Modern academic definitions of the state frequently include the criterion that a state has to be recognized as such by the international community.

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that one gets an understanding of the complex technology of producing how the modern state was so successfully created. Foucault insists that the

6030: 5920: 7975: 1051:, governments are organizations of people. The relationship between a government and its state is one of representation and authorized agency. 2587:

legitimacy based on charismatic leadership, is devotion to a leader or group that is viewed as exceptionally heroic or virtuous. The third is

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that any and all government functions could better be fulfilled by private actors including: defense, infrastructure, and legal adjudication.

1657:, the formation of sedentary societies and fixed settlements, increasing population densities, and the use of pottery and more complex tools. 1463:

of people who did not have to spend most of their time providing for their own subsistence, and writing (or an equivalent of writing, like

3861: 3183: 6802: 6771: 6740: 6628: 6564: 6438: 6275: 6136: 6110: 5834: 5217: 5072: 5039: 5006: 4444: 4380: 4347: 4185: 3121: 7776: 6609: 6590: 6339: 6213: 6155: 6068: 5482: 5473: 5440: 5358: 5327: 5250: 5157: 5124: 5089: 4517: 4411: 4202: 3245: 3214: 3014: 2938: 2609:'s words "...a failed state occurs when sovereignty over claimed territory has collapsed or was never effectively at all". Authors like 8765: 8406: 6372: 6244: 5865: 3152: 3052: 3037: 619: 6405: 5508: 1470:) because it made possible the centralization of vital information. Bureaucratization made expansion over large territories possible. 9866: 3070: 2529: 3793:

Robinson, Edward Heath (August 2013). "The Distinction Between State and Government: The Distinction Between State and Government".

8950: 7806: 1268:, the creation of a new city-state (sovereign or federated), continues to be discussed in the early 21st century in cities such as 2211:, and address past or then extant state forms from an analytical and tactical viewpoint, but not future social forms, speculation 9558: 8860: 942: 892:) played a central role in popularizing the use of the word "state" in something similar to its modern sense. The contrasting of 758: 1672:

was realized, which enabled people to specialize in tasks other than food production. Early states were characterized by highly

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Hechter, Michael; Brustein, William (1980). "Regional Modes of Production and Patterns of State Formation in Western Europe".

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of state, and considers the way in which an individual's understanding of governance can influence the function of the state.

1232:. The concept of temple states centred on religious shrines occurs in some discussions of the ancient world. Relatively small 8967: 7706: 7685: 7662: 7641: 7620: 7599: 7576: 7555: 7534: 7511: 7490: 7469: 7448: 7427: 7406: 7362: 7341: 7320: 7297: 7276: 7253: 7221: 7175: 7152: 7131: 7089: 7068: 7047: 7026: 6982: 6961: 6938: 6796: 6765: 6734: 6558: 6461: 6432: 6399: 6366: 6333: 6306: 6269: 6238: 6207: 6104: 5859: 5828: 5765: 5730: 5547: 5467: 5352: 5321: 5244: 5211: 5182: 5151: 5118: 5066: 5033: 5000: 4971: 4864: 4618: 4577: 4550: 4498: 4469: 4438: 4405: 4374: 4341: 4312: 4179: 4059: 4031: 3949: 3881: 3844: 3633: 3598: 3546: 3511: 3471: 3444: 3308: 3270: 3239: 3208: 3146: 3115: 4583: 4065: 2250:

For Marxist theorists, the role of the modern bourgeois state is determined by its function in the global capitalist order.

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Zaleski, Pawel (2008). "Tocqueville on Civilian Society: A Romantic Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of Social Reality".

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and decentralized governance in modern societies rather than of state bureaucracies and direct state control over policy.

9668: 9578: 5172: 2639: 2610: 2606: 1988:" – the notion that bounded, unitary states interact with equivalent states – "has more to do with 1948 than 1648." 1012:

Importantly, Tilly makes the case that war is an essential part of state-making; that wars create states and vice versa.

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Over time, a variety of forms of states developed, which used many different justifications for their existence (such as

9693: 4427:"Gramsci and international relations: a general perspective with examples from recent US policy towards the Third World" 2753:

Definition 7 (noun): "a politically unified people occupying a definite territory; nation."; Definition 10 (noun): "the

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developed the theory of the state as a neutral arena for contending interests or its agencies as simply another set of

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Poggi, G. 1978. The Development of the Modern State: A Sociological Introduction. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

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Strang, David (1991). "Anomaly and commonplace in European political expansion: realist and institutional accounts".

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Patrick, Stewart (10 December 2007). "'Failed' States and Global Security: Empirical Questions and Policy Dilemmas".

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The modern state achieved unprecedented control over social, economic, and cultural activities within its boundaries

9638: 8088: 2685: 1415: 836:, "to stand", or remain or be permanent, thus providing the sacred or magical connotation of the political entity. 93: 8594: 8445: 4232: 2858:

Wimmer, Andreas; Feinstein, Yuval (October 2010). "The Rise of the Nation-State across the World, 1816 to 2001".

2525: 2067: 9795: 9648: 8534: 6993: 3751: 3409: 2265:

theories of state emphasized that the state is only one of the institutions in society that helps maintain the

1540:

The primary competing organizational forms to the state were religious organizations (such as the Church), and

612: 482: 260: 108: 9835: 9708: 8930: 7961: 7381: 6726: 2403:

represented by the pope and the president are now democratised. Foucault calls these new forms of technology

2187: 1829: 727: 497: 9856: 9733: 9728: 9422: 8460: 8093: 7799: 5879: 2287: 2217: 2071: 1981: 1290:. The state is the organization while the government is the particular group of people, the administrative 1133:

if they are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Other states are subject to external

246: 78: 49: 1459:

are almost everywhere associated with this process: agriculture because it allowed for the emergence of a

9748: 9743: 9528: 4737: 2398: 2208: 550: 8413: 8073: 4814: 1874:

became central to social organization. Feudalism led to the development of greater social hierarchies.

1644: 1060: 83: 54: 8730: 6359:

Michel Foucault and power today: international multidisciplinary studies in the history of the present

6024: 2161:

monopolistic states with competitive providers is necessary from a normative, justice-based scenario.

2049:. They see the state as a partisan instrument that primarily serves the interests of the upper class. 1059:

Charles Tilly distinguished between empires, theocracies, city-states and nation-states. According to

864:

in 14th-century Europe, the term came to refer to the legal standing of persons (such as the various "

8777: 8720: 8305: 7389:

Green, Penny & Ward, Tony (2009). "Violence and the State". In Coleman, Roy; et al. (eds.).

6532:

Giano Rocca "The Faces of Belial – The Scientific Method Applied to Human Condition – Book V" (2020)

1705: 1701: 1096:

Empires had multi-level, overlapping jurisdictions whereas a state sought monopoly and homogenization

605: 210: 1653:

period, human societies underwent major cultural and economic changes, including the development of

9618: 6866:

Strong societies and weak states: state-society relations and state capabilities in the Third World

6851:

Strong societies and weak states: state-society relations and state capabilities in the Third World

3780: 3767: 2705: 2588: 2581: 2428: 2256: 1962: 843:

in the generic sense "condition, circumstances" predates the political sense. It was introduced to

325: 215: 1173:

or at other times. In contrast, some states have sought to make a virtue of their multi-ethnic or

9871: 9598: 9518: 8935: 8524: 8435: 7792: 5613: 5374:"Disentangling the evolutionary drivers of social complexity: A comprehensive test of hypotheses" 2700: 2519: 2497: 2352: 2224: 2165: 2082: 1985: 1486: 1020: 780:, although other definitions are common. Absence of a state does not preclude the existence of a 664: 255: 9332: 7398: 4304: 2572:

in England, who thought that such defenses ultimately opened the way to more democratic claims.

1801: 8925: 8905: 8755: 8425: 8053: 7014: 6039: 4542: 4118: 3167: 2476: 2470: 2335: 2153: 2127: 2096:

which considers the state and hierarchies to be unnecessary and harmful and instead promotes a

1249: 1008:– "control of the creation and transformation of goods and services produced by the population" 762: 754: 492: 434: 380: 20: 8792: 7587: 7264: 6949: 6786: 6755: 6720: 6625: 6546: 6420: 6259: 6133: 6094: 5818: 5342: 5199: 5054: 5021: 4988: 4486: 4426: 4362: 4329: 4167: 4122: 3105: 3080: 2999: 2659:

The conditions that enabled the emergence of modern states in Europe were different for other

1031:

While economic and political philosophers have contested the monopolistic tendency of states,

9079: 9034: 8845: 8440: 7522: 7308: 7209: 7186: 6606: 6587: 6323: 6298: 6197: 6152: 6065: 5904: 5479: 5457: 5437: 5309: 5232: 5139: 5106: 5086: 4514: 4459: 4395: 4199: 3873: 3392: 3229: 3198: 3049: 3034: 3011: 2935: 2672: 2560: 2541: 2241:

claims the state to be nothing more than "a committee for managing the common affairs of the

1968:

Sovereign equality did not become fully global until after World War II amid decolonization.

1673: 1193: 1039: 734: 707: 312: 145: 8895: 7241: 6387: 6354: 6294: 6228: 5849: 5663: 5646: 5233:"The emergence of stratification, states, and multi-power-actor civilization in Mesopotamia" 3136: 706:. The earliest forms of states arose about 5,500 years ago. Over time societies became more 9588: 9468: 9237: 9044: 8885: 8812: 8504: 8465: 8450: 7984: 7892: 7827: 5385: 4709:

Allen, Robert C (April 1997). "Agriculture and the Origins of the State in Ancient Egypt".

4659: 4126: 2814: 2449: 2393: 2115: 2108: 2093: 1882: 1494: 1126: 1118:

The modern state established ruling institutions that were separate from other institutions

865: 777: 422: 293: 283: 268: 195: 113: 9059: 5237:

The sources of social power: A history of power from the beginning to A. D. 1760, Volume 1

2063: 8: 9778: 9658: 9628: 9548: 9074: 9014: 8335: 8255: 6644: 4146: 4142: 4090: 3421: 2725: 2270: 2237: 2204: 1817: 1780: 1730: 1595: 1589: 1269: 1174: 1105: 805: 703: 534: 444: 298: 200: 150: 88: 8822: 5699: 5389: 4663: 3728: 2818: 1976:

that the international legal context for popular sovereignty was instituted. Historians

9790: 9785: 9768: 9763: 9232: 8740: 8677: 7847: 7674: 7391: 7164: 6701: 6007: 5736: 5668: 5594: 5537: 5419: 5406: 5373: 5290: 4937: 4910: 4837: 4795: 4691: 4675: 4632: 4624: 4535: 4297: 4277: 4269: 4150: 4138: 4110: 3922: 3914: 3716: 3674: 3623: 3604: 3536: 3501: 3461: 3357: 3349: 2875: 2835: 2802: 2690: 2389: 2207:", replaced only by "administration of things". Their views are found throughout their 2144: 2139: 1844:

form of government that was to have a long afterlife in political thought and history.

1837: 1792: 1565: 1556:. However, even within present-day states there are vast areas of wilderness, like the 1166: 923: 572: 165: 9222: 5344:

Myths of the archaic state: evolution of the earliest cities, states and civilizations

3044:. Recognized as apocryphal in the early 19th century. Jean Etienne François Marignié, 2671:

gives a historical account on how sudden social changes in the Third World during the

2434: 2315: 2104:, a self-managed, self-governed society based on voluntary, cooperative institutions. 1932:

homogeneous societies there is not always a complete correspondence between state and

1371: 1212:. Other states may bring ideas of commonality and inclusiveness to the fore: note the 692: 9753: 9698: 9538: 9327: 8989: 8915: 8890: 8692: 8494: 7932: 7770: 7736: 7721: 7702: 7681: 7658: 7637: 7616: 7595: 7572: 7551: 7530: 7507: 7486: 7465: 7444: 7423: 7402: 7373: 7358: 7337: 7316: 7293: 7272: 7249: 7217: 7194: 7171: 7148: 7127: 7106: 7085: 7064: 7043: 7022: 6999: 6995:

The Return of the State: And Why It Is Essential For Our Health, Wealth and Happiness

6978: 6957: 6934: 6913: 6906: 6890: 6792: 6761: 6730: 6705: 6554: 6467: 6457: 6428: 6395: 6362: 6329: 6302: 6265: 6234: 6203: 6176: 6100: 5948: 5910: 5855: 5824: 5797: 5761: 5726: 5672: 5553: 5543: 5519: 5463: 5423: 5411: 5348: 5317: 5294: 5286: 5240: 5207: 5178: 5147: 5114: 5062: 5029: 4996: 4967: 4942: 4889: 4860: 4841: 4683: 4636: 4614: 4573: 4546: 4494: 4465: 4434: 4401: 4370: 4337: 4308: 4281: 4175: 4134: 4102: 4055: 4027: 4010:

such a community forming part of a federal republic, esp the United States of America

3972: 3945: 3926: 3877: 3840: 3747: 3724: 3678: 3639: 3629: 3608: 3594: 3552: 3542: 3517: 3507: 3477: 3467: 3440: 3384: 3361: 3314: 3304: 3266: 3235: 3204: 3173: 3142: 3111: 3084: 2985: 2840: 2569: 2565: 2548: 2212: 2200: 2097: 1887: 1878: 1734: 1726: 1669: 1599: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1502: 1209: 1178: 1048: 897: 567: 241: 103: 98: 59: 32: 8807: 5598: 5459:

People/states/territories: the political geographies of British state transformation

4799: 4695: 3046:

The king can do no wrong: Le roi ne peut jamais avoit tort, le roi ne peut mal faire

2879: 1451:

millet), because they are suited to concentrated production, taxation, and storage.

1321:

refers to a situation where a single ethnicity is associated with a specific state.

9758: 9688: 9458: 9377: 9372: 9297: 9272: 9217: 9207: 9197: 9167: 9147: 9137: 9004: 8999: 8957: 8900: 8697: 8380: 8375: 8350: 8295: 8270: 7832: 7676:

Seeing like a state: how certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed

7098: 6697: 6693: 5984: 5980: 5789: 5718: 5695: 5658: 5584: 5401: 5393: 5282: 4932: 4922: 4829: 4787: 4760: 4752: 4718: 4667: 4606: 4261: 4130: 3906: 3869: 3802: 3666: 3586: 3578: 3341: 3076: 2981: 2867: 2830: 2822: 2763: 2415: 2262: 2196: 2174: 2018: 1841: 1618: 1573: 1357: 1329:

In the classical thought, the state was identified with both political society and

1205: 893: 723: 517: 273: 127: 9362: 1121:

The ruler of the modern state was far better at monopolizing the means of violence

730:, with centralisation often spurred on by insecurity and territorial competition. 9815: 9488: 9407: 9367: 9337: 9322: 9287: 9282: 9252: 9227: 9212: 9187: 9172: 9107: 9084: 9069: 9054: 9039: 8910: 8865: 8850: 8840: 8662: 8657: 8514: 8509: 8489: 8477: 7927: 7696: 7652: 7631: 7610: 7566: 7545: 7501: 7480: 7459: 7438: 7417: 7352: 7331: 7287: 7142: 7121: 7100: 7079: 7058: 7037: 6972: 6928: 6884: 6632: 6613: 6594: 6159: 6140: 6072: 6034: 5755: 5515: 5486: 5444: 5093: 4961: 4671: 4567: 4521: 4239: 4206: 4049: 4006:

an organized political community under one government; a commonwealth; a nation.

3582: 3396: 3056: 3041: 3018: 2942: 2758: 2511: 2505: 2331: 2326: 2273:

of the institutions of civil society, such as churches, schools, and mass media.

2172:

can better provide the services provided by the state. Murray Rothbard argues in

2148: 2123: 2046: 1944: 1718: 1661: 1623: 1603: 1510: 1439: 1434: 1419: 1404: 1387: 1353: 1343: 1265: 1162: 1142: 1130: 1101: 1090:

Empires lacked fixed or permanent boundaries whereas a state had fixed boundaries

746: 738: 684: 676: 595: 577: 402: 387: 5926:

controls military force, and which compels adoration (i.e., absolute obedience).

5204:

Cambridge history of the Native peoples of the Americas: South America, Volume 3

5059:

Sustainability or collapse?: an integrated history and future of people on earth

2231:, and working against the public interest. He also wrote that the state mirrors 1676:

societies, with a privileged and wealthy ruling class that was subordinate to a

9805: 9713: 9703: 9432: 9307: 9292: 9267: 9262: 9257: 9202: 9177: 9132: 9112: 8974: 8945: 8920: 8875: 8855: 8817: 8772: 8652: 8642: 8499: 8330: 6722:

The end of the world as we know it: social science for the twenty-first century

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Thomas, George M.; Meyer, John W. (August 1984). "The Expansion of the State".

5055:"The Lie of History: Nation-States and the Contradictions of Complex Societies" 4537:

Reading Freire and Habermas: critical pedagogy and transformative social change

4114: 4106: 2668: 2614: 2296: 2251: 1958: 1821: 1796: 1617:

It is not enough to observe, in a now rather dated anthropological idiom, that

1577: 1514: 1429: 1220: 1002:– "intervention in the allocation of goods among the members of the population" 907: 844: 719: 715: 392: 346: 288: 6533: 5793: 5589: 5572: 5557: 4833: 4791: 4756: 4265: 3670: 3643: 3556: 3521: 3481: 2518:

described the state of nature as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" (

1598:, characterized by a lack of concentrated authority, and the absence of large 9850: 9738: 9568: 9478: 9427: 9397: 9387: 9317: 9312: 9302: 9162: 9152: 9142: 9117: 8984: 8962: 8880: 8787: 8760: 8745: 8687: 8370: 7942: 7857: 6471: 5900: 3388: 3318: 2871: 2552: 2515: 2492: 2487: 2458: 2424: 2380: 2320: 2169: 2119: 1974:

Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples

1969: 1915: 1911: 1862:

During Medieval times in Europe, the state was organized on the principle of

1806: 1697: 1665: 1541: 1530: 1482: 1424: 1410: 1383: 1375: 1333:

as a form of political community, while the modern thought distinguished the

1330: 1158: 1146: 1080: 1032: 957: 785: 668: 397: 375: 350: 180: 7166:

The art of not being governed: an anarchist history of upland Southeast Asia

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Block, Walter (2005). "Ayn Rand and Austrian Economics: Two Peas in a Pod".

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The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution

4927: 4628: 1112:

The modern state sought and achieved territorial expansion and consolidation

9718: 9402: 9392: 9382: 9247: 9242: 9182: 9157: 9127: 9122: 9029: 9024: 8870: 8750: 8484: 8420: 8290: 8280: 8275: 8194: 8184: 8128: 8018: 7912: 7902: 7887: 7852: 5740: 5415: 5397: 5200:"The Maritime, Highland, Forest Dynamic and the Origins of Complex Culture" 4946: 4722: 4687: 4532: 4163: 4098: 3072:

The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean

2844: 2754: 2710: 2600: 2356: 2232: 2035: 1977: 1951: 1925: 1903: 1825: 1749: 1714: 1569: 1534: 1460: 1334: 1318: 1308: 1237: 1185: 1150: 789: 742: 160: 7760: 7523:"Redesigning the State, Reorienting State Power, and Rethinking the State" 7440:

States of imagination: ethnographic explorations of the postcolonial state

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Ahmed, Ali T.; Stasavage, David (May 2020). "Origins of Early Democracy".

4172:

The Blackwell dictionary of political science: a user's guide to its terms

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This global outcome—the almost universal adoption of the nation-state form

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Another commonly accepted definition of the state is the one given at the

9417: 9412: 9347: 9342: 9192: 9064: 9019: 9009: 8802: 8797: 8735: 8672: 8455: 8430: 8355: 8315: 8285: 8260: 8240: 8219: 8199: 8179: 8169: 8138: 8003: 7897: 7588:"The Autonomous Power of the State: Its Origins, Mechanisms, and Results" 5784:

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Tilly, Charles (1985). "War Making and State Making as Organized Crime".

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as a political society from civil society as a form of economic society.

1291: 1214: 1134: 938: 883: 875: 750: 711: 675:; in the latter type, the term "state" is sometimes used to refer to the 464: 429: 332: 320: 185: 6011: 5722: 4888:. Vol. II: The Nation-State and Violence. Cambridge: Polity Press. 4273: 3720: 2826: 1924:

basis. The concept of a national state, however, is not synonymous with

1684:

several non-stratified and politically decentralized complex societies.

1317:", where "nation" refers to a cultural-political community of people. A 1043:

state shall constitute a sole person in the eyes of international law."

996:– "authoritative settlement of disputes among members of the population" 656:

is considered to form the fundamental apparatus of contemporary states.

590: 9800: 9608: 9508: 9357: 9277: 9049: 8940: 8782: 8725: 8702: 8667: 8616: 8606: 8574: 8519: 8345: 8325: 8250: 8214: 8118: 8103: 8028: 7953: 7922: 7872: 7842: 4738:"Transition to agriculture and first state presence: A global analysis" 4679: 3918: 3806: 3707:

Holcombe, Randall G. (2004). "Government: Unnecessary but Inevitable".

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Thus in the modern thought the state is contrasted with civil society.

1287: 1281: 1233: 1165:

in that they have transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a

1154: 1024: 978:– "eliminating or neutralizing their rivals inside their own territory" 888: 854: 699: 680: 672: 653: 645: 554: 544: 539: 278: 140: 7060:

Ideology, legitimacy and the new state: Yugoslavia, Serbia and Croatia

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Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy: Entries P-Z

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Clark, William Roberts; Golder, Matt; Golder, Sona Nadenichek (2018).

1248:. Other city-states survive as federated states, like the present day 937:

who describes the state as a compulsory political organization with a

914:, although probably apocryphal, is recorded in the late 18th century. 9498: 9437: 8994: 8637: 8564: 8549: 8470: 8390: 8385: 8310: 8265: 8245: 8224: 8209: 8189: 8174: 8038: 7998: 3138:

Controlling the State: Constitutionalism from Ancient Athens to Today

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in the use of bronze weaponry, which facilitated the rise of states.

1650: 1640: 1257: 1253: 1252:, or as otherwise autonomous entities with limited sovereignty, like 1245: 1189: 934: 927: 911: 861: 769: 649: 439: 337: 220: 175: 155: 6684:

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2457:"New institutionalist" writings on the state, such as the works of 2435:

Structural universe of the state or structural reality of the state

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Miliband, Ralph. 1983. Class power and state power. London: Verso.

2307:

rather than equitably serving the interests of all social groups.

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Marx's early writings portrayed the bourgeois state as parasitic,

1141:

where ultimate sovereignty lies in another state. Many states are

990:– "acquiring the means of carrying out the first three activities" 9810: 9723: 8611: 8579: 8569: 8340: 8300: 8133: 8058: 8043: 8023: 7937: 7877: 7784: 7755: 7564: 5715:

Worldmaking after Empire: The Rise and Fall of Self-Determination

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People, power, and politics: an introduction to political science

2730: 2720: 2660: 2375: 2343: 2228: 2101: 1947:. Other research has disputed whether such a decline took place. 1761: 1738: 1677: 1518: 1456: 1201: 781: 660: 641: 477: 135: 7144:

Against the state: an introduction to anarchist political theory

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Rueschemeyer, Dietrich; Skocpol, Theda; Evans, Peter B. (1985).

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Democracy and Dictatorship: The Nature and Limits of State Power

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8559: 8360: 8148: 8123: 8113: 8083: 8068: 7867: 5371: 4424: 2695: 2360: 2002: 1933: 1929: 1921: 1871: 1833: 1722: 1378:

that was distinct from both the economic and political sphere.

1365: 1361: 1314: 1241: 1083:

distinguished between empires and states in the following way:

1035:

argues that the use of force naturally tends towards monopoly.

869: 773: 527: 469: 367: 6974:

Political Geography: World Economy, Nation-State, and Locality

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Critical Theories of State: Marxist, Neo-Marxist, Post-Marxist

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Betrachtungen über Leopolds des Weisen Gesetzgebung in Toscana

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of the ruling class, and that state power is bolstered by the

2259:

through a wide array of social, economic, and political ties.

768:

Definitions of a state are disputed. According to sociologist

745:

is the predominant form of state to which people are subject.

8589: 8078: 8013: 7882: 7862: 7650: 7568:

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Theories for the emergence of the earliest states emphasize

1936:, hence the active role often taken by the state to promote 1505:" forms of political organization of societies all over the 984:– "eliminating or neutralizing the enemies of their clients" 8584: 8008: 4533:

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Gramsci, historical materialism and international relations

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economic consumer/producer, and through its redistributive

1867: 1769: 1713:

is generally considered to be the location of the earliest

1464: 900:

were called "states" as early as the 1630s. The expression

824:

in German and Dutch) ultimately derive from the Latin word

7329: 6227:

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and form part of our political inheritance which he calls

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through emphasis on shared symbols and national identity.

1501:

that states have almost completely displaced alternative "

8153: 8048: 7242:"The Miliband-Poulantzas Debate: An Intellectual History" 6970: 6551:

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Some states are often labeled as "weak" or "failed". In

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States can also be distinguished from the concept of a "

1188:), and have emphasised unifying characteristics such as 7503:

State theory: putting the Capitalist state in its place

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share the same interests as owners of capital and are

2164:

Anarcho-capitalists believe that the market values of

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in order to maintain domination over their subjects.

2310: 1063:, the four persistent types of state activities are: 6538: 6051: 6049: 4991:. In Lee, Richard B.; Daly, Richard Heywood (eds.). 4963:

State Formation in Europe, 843–1789: A Divided World

1772:. Bronze metallurgy spread within Afro-Eurasia from 1576:, the vast majority of which are represented in the 972:– "eliminating or neutralizing their outside rivals" 7715: 7437:Hansen, Thomas Blom; Stepputat, Finn, eds. (2001). 7354:

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