3446:
3506:
3546:
3466:
3558:
3494:
3570:
3238:
2440:
2293:
3527:
3594:
8926:
3606:
3989:
2085:
1073:
1813:
2703:
62:
282:
3025:
2158:
2567:
520:
1515:
98:
1422:
2285:
1289:
3505:
3172:"Perishing Arabs": These are the ancients of whose history little is known. They include ʿĀd, Thamud, Tasm, Jadis, Imlaq and others. Jadis and Tasm perished because of genocide. ʿĀd and Thamud perished because of their decadence. Some people in the past doubted their existence, but Imlaq is the singular form of 'Amaleeq and is probably synonymous to the biblical
6506:. Contemporary historiography unveiled the lack of inner coherence of this genealogical system and demonstrated that it finds insufficient matching evidence; the distinction between Qahtanites and Adnanites is even believed to be a product of the Umayyad Age, when the war of factions (al-niza al-hizbi) was raging in the young Islamic Empire."
4308:
1388:. Al Janbi's theory is the most widely accepted one by modern scholars, although there are some difficulties with this argument given that Al Ahsa is 60 km inland and thus less likely to be the starting point for a trader's route, making the location within the archipelago of islands comprising the modern
946:. There was a dam in this city, however one year there was so much rain that the dam was carried away by the ensuing flood. Thus the people there had to leave. The inhabitants emigrated seeking to live in less arid lands and became scattered far and wide. The proverb "They were scattered like the people of
4024:
By the time the last
Byzantine-Sassanid war came to an end in 628, Arabia had started to unite under Muhammad's politico-religious leadership. The Muslims were able to launch attacks against both empires, which resulted in destruction of the Sassanid Empire and the conquest of Byzantium's territories
2141:
was able to capture the
Himyarite capital of Thifar in the first quarter of the 3rd century. However, the alliances did not last, and Sha`ir Awtar of Saba unexpectedly turned on Hadramaut, allying again with Aksum and taking its capital in 225. Himyar then allied with Saba and invaded the newly taken
1828:
309:(6th century BCE) and other writings of pre-Islamic Arabia. Thus, studies are no longer limited to the written traditions, which are not local due to the lack of surviving Arab historians' accounts of that era; the paucity of material is compensated for by written sources from other cultures (such as
1678:
as governor of
Eastern Arabia. Shapur constructed a new city there and named it Batan Ardashir after his father. At this time, Eastern Arabia incorporated the southern Sassanid province covering the Persian Gulf's southern shore plus the archipelago of Bahrain. The southern province of the Sassanids
1490:
has been proposed as a
Seleucid base in the Persian Gulf. Alexander had planned to settle the eastern shores of the Persian Gulf with Greek empires, and although it is not clear that this happened on the scale he envisaged, Tylos was very much part of the Hellenised world: the language of the upper
1462:
is believed to have been the first of
Alexander's commanders to visit this islands, and he found a verdant land that was part of a wide trading network; he recorded: "That in the island of Tylos, situated in the Persian Gulf, are large plantations of cotton tree, from which are manufactured clothes
1122:
Dilmun was an important trading center from the late fourth millennium to 1800 BCE. Dilmun was very prosperous during the first 300 years of the second millennium. Dilmun's commercial power began to decline between 2000 BCE and 1800 BCE because piracy flourished in the
Persian Gulf. In 600 BCE, the
2812:
population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Greeks called Yemen "Arabia Felix" (Happy Arabia). The Romans called the vassal nomadic states within the Roman Empire "Arabia
Petraea" after the city of Petra, and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and east Arabia
3929:
However, Justinian could not afford further losses in Arabia. The
Byzantines and the Sasanians sponsored powerful nomadic mercenaries from the desert with enough power to trump the possibility of aggression in Arabia. Justinian viewed his mercenaries as so valued for preventing conflict that he
2019:
in the 4th century BCE, however, Hadramaut became one of its confederates, probably because of commercial interests. It later became independent and was invaded by the growing Yemeni kingdom of Himyar toward the end of the 1st century BCE, but it was able to repel the attack. Hadramaut annexed
3445:
6880:
3465:
2322:
language. The
Lihyanite kingdom went through three different stages, the early phase of Lihyan Kingdom was around the 7th century BC, started as a Sheikdom of Dedan then developed into the Kingdom of Lihyan tribe. Some authors assert that the Lihyanites fell into the hands of the
6608:
That
Manicheism went further on to the Arabian peninsula, up to the Hejaz and Mecca, where it could have possibly contributed to the formation of the doctrine of Islam, cannot be proven. A detailed description of Manichean traces in the Arabian-speaking regions is given by Tardieu
3979:
Meanwhile, the Sassanid Empire broke its alliance with the Lakhmids due to false accusations that the Lakhmids' leader had committed treason; the Sasanians annexed the Lakhmid kingdom in 602. The fertile lands and important trade routes of Iraq were now open ground for upheaval.
2638:. The town grew up around its Colonnaded Street in the 1st century and by the middle of the 1st century had witnessed rapid urbanization. The quarries were probably opened in this period, and there followed virtually continuous building through the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.
2257:
out of Yemen. Southern Arabia became a Persian dominion under a Yemenite vassal and thus came within the sphere of influence of the Sassanid Empire. After the demise of the Lakhmids, another army was sent to Yemen, making it a province of the Sassanid Empire under a Persian
3105:
hunters and salt-traders who once dominated Arabia. Those were assimilated in the next wave of humans consisted of cattle herders in the 6th millennium BCE who introduced cows, wild donkeys, sheep, dogs, camels and goats. Those peoples may have engaged in trade across the
6742:
There was a continuous migration from Arabia to the neighbouring regions, because the Arabian peninsula was overpopulated and lacked resources and periodic drought drove the people out of the region. The overflow of migration accelerated during the Islamic expansion
4020:
When the military stalemate was finally broken and it seemed that Byzantium had finally gained the upper hand in battle, nomadic Arabs invaded from the desert frontiers, bringing with them a new social order that emphasized religious devotion over tribal membership.
3911:. The exact number; however, is often disputed by contemporary historians. Both empires were permanently weakened by the pandemic as their citizens struggled to deal with death as well as heavy taxation, which increased as each empire campaigned for more territory.
1756:
and Ahob of Qatar. Christianity's significance was diminished by the arrival of Islam in Eastern Arabia by 628. In 676, the bishops of Beth Qatraye stopped attending synods; although the practice of Christianity persisted in the region until the late 9th century.
3569:
6852:
1655:. The Parthian dynasty brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman. Because they needed to control the Persian Gulf trade route, the Parthians established garrisons in the southern coast of Persian Gulf.
3511:
South Arabian stele, bust of female raising her hand, with the donor's name, Rathadum, written below; 1st century BC-1st century AD; calcite-alabaster; 32.1 cm (12.6 in) x 23.3 cm (9.1 in) x 3.5 cm (1.3 in);
1177:
at that time. Following the collapse of the Kassite dynasty, Mesopotamian documents make no mention of Dilmun with the exception of Assyrian inscriptions dated to 1250 BCE which proclaimed the Assyrian king to be king of Dilmun and
2905:' forces during the Jewish king's attempt to suppress Christianity in Yemen. They converted to Islam in mid 7th century CE and played a crucial role during the Arab conquest of their surroundings, although some sub-tribes declared
4355:
Rothenberg, "Egyptian Chariots, Midianites from Hijaz/ Midian (Northwest Arabia) and Amalekites from the Negev in the Timna Mines: Rock drawings in the Ancient Copper Mines of the Arabah – new aspects of the region's history II,"
3926:. The drive into Persian territory would also put an end to tribute payments to the Sasanians, which resulted in an agreement to give 11,000 lb (5,000 kg) of tribute to the Persians annually in exchange for a ceasefire.
2490:
of that empire, with revolts against Assyria becoming more common in the 7th century BCE. It is thought that the Qedarites were eventually subsumed into the Nabataean state after their rise to prominence in the 2nd century CE.
168:
Some of the settled communities developed into distinctive civilizations. Information about these communities is limited and has been pieced together from archaeological evidence, accounts written outside of Arabia, and
891:
and the son Imru' al-Qais converted to Christianity. Gradually the whole city converted to that faith. Imru' al-Qais dreamt of a unified and independent Arab kingdom and, following that dream, he seized many cities in
1604:
origins, and the similarity in the words "Tylos" and "Tyre" has been commented upon. However, there is little evidence of occupation at all in Bahrain during the time when such migration had supposedly taken place.
2934:(the people of Thawr), who had sworn allegiance to the king of Saba' and Dhū Raydān. Since later Arab genealogists trace Kindah back to a person called Thawr ibn 'Uqayr, modern historians have concluded that this
1182:. Assyrian inscriptions recorded tribute from Dilmun. There are other Assyrian inscriptions during the first millennium BCE indicating Assyrian sovereignty over Dilmun. Dilmun was also later on controlled by the
3167:
Arab traditions relating to the origins and classification of the Arabian tribes is based on biblical genealogy. The general consensus among 14th-century Arabic genealogists was that Arabs were three kinds:
1566:), having migrated to the Mediterranean and settled in the parts which they now inhabit, began at once, they say, to adventure on long voyages, freighting their vessels with the wares of Egypt and Assyria...
3368:
resulted in Christian communities in the northwest, northeast and south of Arabia. Christianity made a lesser impact, but secured some conversions, in the remainder of the peninsula. With the exception of
2890:; its kings exercised an influence over a number of associated tribes more by personal prestige than by coercive settled authority. Their first capital was Qaryat Dhāt Kāhil, today known as Qaryat Al-Fāw.
3918:(reigned 527–565) attempted to resurrect the might of the Roman Empire by expanding into Arabia. The Arabian Peninsula had a long coastline for merchant ships and an area of lush vegetation known as the
3545:
2852:
by the Abdul Qais Rabi'a tribe. They returned to Yemen and allied themselves with the Himyarites who installed them as a vassal kingdom that ruled Central Arabia from Qaryah dhat Kahl (the present-day
2537:
from the first years of his reign, but does mention them in later texts. This suggests that Darius might have conquered this part of Arabia or that it was originally part of another province, perhaps
1990:
Agriculture in Yemen thrived during this time due to an advanced irrigation system which consisted of large water tunnels in mountains, and dams. The most impressive of these earthworks, known as the
580:
has been sparse; indigenous written sources are limited to the many inscriptions and coins from southern Arabia. Existing material consists primarily of written sources from other traditions (such as
3934:, and king – the highest honours that he could bestow on anyone. By the late 6th century, an uneasy peace remained until disagreements erupted between the mercenaries and their patron empires.
2774:
In Sassanid times, Arabia Petraea was a border province between the Roman and Persian empires, and from the early centuries CE was increasingly affected by South Arabian influence, notably with the
2718:
The Roman province of Arabia Petraea was created at the beginning of the 2nd century by emperor Trajan. It was centered on Petra, but included even areas of northern Arabia under Nabatean control.
2137:
began to interfere in South Arabian affairs, signing an alliance with Saba, and a Himyarite text notes that Hadramaut and Qataban were also allied against the kingdom. As a result of this, the
363:, published by Oxford University Press in 2015. This book collects a diverse range of ancient texts and inscriptions for the history especially of the northern region during this time period.
2835:
they ended up allying with the Sassanid against the Ghassanids and the Byzantine Empire. The Lakhmids contested control of the central Arabian tribes with the Kindites, eventually destroying
2585:
The Nabataeans are not to be found among the tribes that are listed in Arab genealogies because the Nabatean kingdom ended a long time before the coming of Islam. They settled east of the
1471:, states that much of the islands were covered in these cotton trees and that Tylos was famous for exporting walking canes engraved with emblems that were customarily carried in Babylon.
1236:
For Dilmun, the land of my lady's heart, I will create long waterways, rivers and canals, whereby water will flow to quench the thirst of all beings and bring abundance to all that lives.
818:
cited Hieronymus in his report, and added the following: "Just as the Seleucids had tried to subdue them, so the Romans made several attempts to get their hands on that lucrative trade."
3405:
is also but rarely practiced as well. From the fourth-century onwards, monotheism became increasingly prevalent in pre-Islamic Arabia, as is attested in texts like the inscriptions from
2068:
valley. Like the other Southern Arabian kingdoms, it gained great wealth from the trade of frankincense and myrrh incense, which were burned at altars. The capital of Qataban was named
2012:
inscription of Karab'il Watar from the early 7th century BCE, in which the King of Hadramaut, Yada`'il, is mentioned as being one of his allies. When the Minaeans took control of the
1994:, was built ca. 700 BCE and provided irrigation for about 25,000 acres (101 km) of land and stood for over a millennium, finally collapsing in 570 CE after centuries of neglect.
1491:
classes was Greek (although Aramaic was in everyday use), while Zeus was worshipped in the form of the Arabian sun-god Shams. Tylos even became the site of Greek athletic contests.
2486:. An influential force between the 8th and 4th centuries BCE, Qedarite monarchs are first mentioned in inscriptions from the Assyrian Empire. Some early Qedarite rulers were
1119:. The adjective "Dilmun" is used to describe a type of axe and one specific official; in addition there are lists of rations of wool issued to people connected with Dilmun.
3493:
2969:
The first Classical author to mention Kindah was the Byzantine ambassador Nonnosos, who was sent by the Emperor Justinian to the area. He refers to the people in Greek as
2664:(14–37 CE), the already wealthy and elegant north Arabian city of Palmyra, located along the caravan routes linking Persia with the Mediterranean ports of Roman Syria and
1376:
Gerrha was destroyed by the Qarmatians in the end of the 9th century where all inhabitants were massacred (300,000). It was 2 miles from the Persian Gulf near current day
771:. Ships from Himyar regularly traveled the East African coast, and the state also exerted a considerable amount of political control of the trading cities of East Africa.
2314:, also called Dadān or Dedan, was a powerful and highly organized ancient Arab kingdom that played a vital cultural and economic role in the north-western region of the
814:). The first definite appearance was in 312 BC, when Hieronymus of Cardia, a Seleucid officer, mentioned the Nabateans in a battle report. In 50 BC, the Greek historian
412:
5876:
4183:
1467:, a very different degrees of value, some being costly, others less expensive. The use of these is not confined to India, but extends to Arabia." The Greek historian,
2409:(8th century BCE), who defeated these people in a campaign in northern Arabia. The Greeks also refer to these people as "Tamudaei", i.e. "Thamud", in the writings of
4824:
2042:
The ancient Kingdom of Awsān in South Arabia (modern Yemen), with a capital at Ḥagar Yaḥirr in the wadi Markhah, to the south of the Wādī Bayḥān, is now marked by a
6596:
3557:
6571:
748:
c. 300 AD. Its political fortunes relative to Saba changed frequently until it finally conquered the Sabaean Kingdom around 280 CE. It was the dominant state in
3872:. It left both the Byzantine and Sassanid empires exhausted and susceptible to third-party attacks, particularly from nomadic Arabs united under a newly formed
5705:
3976:
from Iraq, believed that God and Jesus Christ were only one nature. This disagreement proved irreconcilable and resulted in a permanent break in the alliance.
2544:
Arabs were not considered as subjects to the Achaemenids, as other peoples were, and were exempt from taxation. Instead, they simply provided 1,000 talents of
1134:
The Dilmun civilization was the centre of commercial activities linking traditional agriculture of the land with maritime trade between diverse regions as the
2478:
The most organized of the Northern Arabian tribes, at the height of their rule in the 6th century BCE, the Kingdom of Qedar spanned a large area between the
1721:
The Christian name used for the region encompassing north-eastern Arabia was Beth Qatraye, or "the Isles". The name translates to 'region of the Qataris' in
6308:
3145:
being of 12th- to 13th-century CE migrants from southern Persia, and the group to the west being composed of communities emerging after their defeat by the
1507:
when the inhabitants are referred to as 'Thilouanoi'. Some place names in Bahrain go back to the Tylos era, for instance, the residential suburb of Arad in
355:, plus a number of ancient Arab documents that survived into medieval times when portions of them were cited or recorded. Archaeological exploration in the
3526:
3141:
criticizes the Crusader origin theory and instead proposes that the term "Solluba" describes a host of groups hailing from different backgrounds: those of
4432:
4037:"Within the lifetime of some of the children who met Muhammad and sat on the Prophet's knees, Arab armies controlled the land mass that extended from the
5366:
Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren, Historical Researches Into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal Nations of Antiquity, Henry Bohn, 1854 p38
3855:
3345:. Deities were venerated and invoked through a variety of rituals, including pilgrimages and divination, as well as ritual sacrifice. Different theories
1906:
During Sabaean rule, trade and agriculture flourished, generating much wealth and prosperity. The Sabaean kingdom was located in Yemen, and its capital,
359:
has been sparse but fruitful; and many ancient sites have been identified by modern excavations. The most recent detailed study of pre-Islamic Arabia is
189:, which arose around the end of the 4th millennium BCE and lasted to around 600 CE. Additionally, from around the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE,
6328:
Le Muséon, 3-4, 1953, P.296, Bulletin Of The School Of Oriental And African Studies, University Of London, Vol., Xvi, Part: 3, 1954, P.434, Ryckmans 508
856:, they were for a time very troublesome, as wreckers and pirates, to the reopened commerce between Egypt and the East, until they were chastised by the
4250:
Kenneth A. Kitchen The World of "Ancient Arabia" Series. Documentation for Ancient Arabia. Part I. Chronological Framework and Historical Sources p.110
2680:, and the Roman Empire. During the following period of great prosperity, the Arab citizens of Palmyra adopted customs and modes of dress from both the
6176:
1744:, but eastern Arabia was outside the Empire's control offering some safety. Several notable Nestorian writers originated from Beth Qatraye, including
2114:, the Himyarite kings launched successful military campaigns, and had stretched its domain at times as far east as eastern Yemen and as far north as
718:. Once it was one of the most important small kingdoms of South Arabia. The city seems to have been destroyed in the 7th century BCE by the king and
285:
Gravestone of a young woman named Aban, portrayed frontally with a raised right hand and a sheaf of a wheat in her left hand, symbolizing fertility.
3040:
Sedentary Arabs who inhabited cities or rural areas (towns, villages or oases). In pre-Islamic Arabia, most sedentary Arabs were of Arabian origin.
6271:
5457:
2882:
Kindah was an Arab kingdom by the Kindah tribe, the tribe's existence dates back to the second century BCE. The Kindites established a kingdom in
2331:, and finally to their capital Dedan in 9 BCE. Werner Cascel consider the Nabataean annexation of Lihyan was around 24 BCE under the reign of the
3580:
2296:
Colossal statue from al-Ula, it followed the standardized artistic sculpting of the Lihyanite kingdom, the original statue was painted with white
707:
396:
2072:
and was located on the trade route which passed through the other kingdoms of Hadramaut, Saba and Ma'in. The chief deity of the Qatabanians was
1624:
in 127 BCE. A building inscriptions found in Bahrain indicate that Hyspoasines occupied the islands, (and it also mention his wife, Thalassia).
627:
inscription of Karab'il Watar from the early 7th century BC, in which the King of Hadramaut, Yada`'il, is mentioned as being one of his allies.
6830:
5773:
5424:
Jean Francois Salles in Traces of Paradise: The Archaeology of Bahrain, 2500BC-300AD in Michael Rice, Harriet Crawford Ed, IB Tauris, 2002 p132
3946:
3877:
3183:): These are traditionally considered to have originated from the progeny of Ya'rub bin Yashjub bin Qahtan so were also called Qahtanite Arabs.
763:. For many years it was also the major intermediary linking East Africa and the Mediterranean world. This trade largely consisted of exporting
406:
384:
6794:"Bowersock", "Brown", and "Grabar", ""Alphabetical Guide" in Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Post-Classical World", "(Cambridge: 2000)", "469".
3082:. The Solubba maintained a distinctive lifestyle as isolated nomads. The origin of the Solluba is obscure. They have been identified with the
2024:
in the second half of the 2nd century CE, reaching its greatest size. The kingdom of Hadramaut was eventually conquered by the Himyarite king
9325:
2047:
1865:
715:
8679:
645:
refers to a type of axe and one specific official; in addition, there are lists of rations of wool issued to people connected with Dilmun.
6486:
through Adnan, but in this case the genealogy does not match the Biblical line exactly. The label 'arabicised' is due to the belief that
5543:
5179:
4862:
4763:
4725:
4500:
4078:, headed by Olivia Munoz believe that these findings illuminate a pastoralist nomadic lifestyle and a ritual used in prehistoric Arabia.
1740:, which had come to dominate the southern shores of the Persian Gulf. As a sect, the Nestorians were often persecuted as heretics by the
6533:
6255:
6113:
5505:
5083:
4920:
4598:
4537:
3883:
The demographic situation also favoured Arab expansion: overpopulation and lack of resources encouraged Arabs to migrate out of Arabia.
1632:
From the 3rd century BCE to arrival of Islam in the 7th century CE, Eastern Arabia was controlled by two other Iranian dynasties of the
6158:
6128:
6098:
5804:
Curtis E. Larsen. Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarchaeology of an Ancient Society University Of Chicago Press, 1984.
5322:
Larsen, Curtis (1983). Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarcheology of an Ancient Society. University of Chicago Press.
4207:
2897:
and Kāhil found in their ancient capital in south-central Arabia (present day Saudi Arabia). It is not clear whether they converted to
2089:
2008:
The first known inscriptions of Hadramaut are known from the 8th century BCE. It was first referenced by an outside civilization in an
1765:
6143:
6083:
1584:
also believed that the homeland of the Phoenicians was Eastern Arabia. This theory was accepted by the 19th-century German classicist
1380:. The researcher Abdulkhaliq Al Janbi argued in his book that Gerrha was most likely the ancient city of Hajar, located in modern-day
9503:
3892:
3767:
888:
2622:
about 80 km (50 mi) south of the Dead Sea. It came into prominence in the late 1st century BCE through the success of the
600:
later recorded by Islamic scholars. Many small kingdoms prospered from Red Sea and Indian Ocean trade. Major kingdoms included the
457:), settling to the east of the Qahtan tribe. They established the Kingdom of ʿĀd around the 10th century BCE to the 3rd century CE.
5684:
5008:
2448:
1707:. The name, meaning 'ewe-fish' would appear to suggest that the name /Tulos/ is related to Hebrew /ṭāleh/ 'lamb' (Strong's 2924).
1189:
Dilmun, sometimes described as "the place where the sun rises" and "the Land of the Living", is the scene of some versions of the
506:
region and imposed themselves on a pre-existing Semitic stratum. The question of the origin of the Midianites still remains open.
9432:
3848:
3209:
The several different tribes throughout Arabian history are traditionally regarded as having emerged from two main branches: the
2142:
Aksumite territories, retaking Thifar, which had been under the control of Gadarat's son Beygat, and pushing Aksum back into the
1596:, which boasted that they were the mother country of the Phoenicians, and exhibited relics of Phoenician temples." The people of
6853:"Marking the sacral landscape of a north Arabian oasis: a sixth-millennium BC monumental stone platform and surrounding burials"
3241:
Rising from a roundel, the sculpture represents a priestess who intercedes with the sun goddess on behalf of the donor, Rathadum
1396:
1036:
at the time of the Arab conquest". Other archaeological assemblages cannot be brought clearly into larger context, such as the
6776:"Egger, Vernon", "Origins" in A History of the Muslim World to 1405: The Making of a Civilization", "(New Jersey: 2005)", "10"
6228:
1346:
in 709 BCE. Gerrha was the center of an Arab kingdom from approximately 650 BCE to circa 300 CE. The kingdom was attacked by
19:
This article is about the peoples, cultures, and traditions within Arabia before Islam. For a religion-specific overview, see
8636:
8611:
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8549:
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8499:
8474:
8445:
8409:
8391:
8356:
8318:
8300:
8282:
8264:
8229:
8183:
8163:
8145:
8127:
8089:
8043:
8022:
7995:
7926:
7906:
7885:
7864:
7843:
7824:
7780:
7762:
7741:
7723:
7705:
7687:
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7628:
7607:
7582:
7561:
7543:
7525:
7507:
7486:
7468:
7450:
7429:
7411:
7376:
7330:
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7263:
7240:
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7198:
7180:
7157:
7139:
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7082:
7064:
7026:
6980:
6962:
6937:
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6447:
6428:
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6066:
6047:
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5582:
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5148:
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806:
grazing lands, Nabataean inscriptions began to be left in Edomite territory (earlier than 312 BC, when they were attacked at
6694:
5237:
4176:
6502:
as their ascendant, and the lineage of Mohammed, the Seal of Prophets (khatim al-anbiya'), can therefore be traced back to
6305:
3593:
2853:
1350:
in 205-204 BCE, though it seems to have survived. It is currently unknown exactly when Gerrha fell, but the area was under
6490:
spoke Hebrew until he got to Mecca, where he married a Yemeni woman and learnt Arabic. Both genealogical lines go back to
5868:
4818:
2856:) in Central Arabia. They ruled much of the Northern/Central Arabian Peninsula until the fall of the Himyarites in 525 CE.
2552:(479-480 BCE) while also helping the Achaemenids invade Egypt by providing water skins to the troops crossing the desert.
9192:
6971:
Bernabé, Alberto; Jáuregui, Miguel Herrero de; Cristóbal, Ana Isabel Jiménez San; Hernández, Raquel Martín, eds. (2013),
6592:
5960:
4152:
4122:
3149:. Another theory sees the Solubba as a former Bedouin group that lost their herds and fell in the eyes of other Bedouin.
537:
2597:. And although the first sure reference to them dates from 312 BCE, it is possible that they were present much earlier.
9247:
6565:
6475:
5750:
5295:
4914:
4592:
4531:
3841:
2651:
1558:
best informed in history, the Phoenicians began the quarrel. These people, who had formerly dwelt on the shores of the
633:
appears first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the end of 4th millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess
61:
6555:
9478:
9318:
7966:
6729:
6688:
6527:
5537:
5499:
5327:
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5127:
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4719:
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4269:
4232:
3721:
2549:
2102:
The Himyarites rebelled against Qataban and eventually united Southwestern Arabia (Hejaz and Yemen), controlling the
1937:. After an unsuccessful siege of Ma'rib, the Roman general retreated to Egypt, while his fleet destroyed the port of
1764:, except for a short period during the mid-to-late seventh century. They were instead subject to the Metropolitan of
559:
5712:
2839:
in 540 after the fall of Kindah's main ally at the time, Himyar. The Sassanids dissolved the Lakhmid kingdom in 602.
1311:. More accurately, the ancient city of Gerrha has been determined to have existed near or under the present fort of
8672:
7941:
7795:
3270:
680:. They lasted from the early 2nd millennium to the 1st century BCE. In the 1st century BCE it was conquered by the
182:
5357:
Security and Territoriality in the Persian Gulf: A Maritime Political Geography By Pirouz Mojtahed-Zadeh, page 119
729:, according to a Sabaean text that reports the victory in terms that attest to its significance for the Sabaeans.
8647:
7979:
Christ in Islam and Christianity: The Representation of Jesus in the Qur'an and the Classical Muslim Commentaries
5041:
3456:
2626:. The city was the principal city of ancient Nabataea and was famous above all for two things: its trade and its
1253:
4946:
Jesper Eidema, Flemming Højlundb (1993). "Trade or diplomacy? Assyria and Dilmun in the eighteenth century BC".
9175:
8957:
8751:
8746:
7189:
Drijvers, H. J. W (1976). van Baaren, Theodoor Pieter; Leertouwer, Lammert; Leemhuis, Fred; Buning, H. (eds.).
4416:
4117:
3711:
3314:
3246:
3094:
and game traps, first attested to in around 7,000 BCE, which makes them the pre-Semitic inhabitants of Arabia.
2987:) were the two most important tribes in the area in terms of territory and number. He calls the king of Kindah
1777:
1716:
1320:
975:
541:
232:
130:
20:
5648:
Conflict and Cooperation: Zoroastrian Subalterns and Muslim Elites in ... By Jamsheed K. Choksy, 1997, page 75
3641:
479:(2nd century CE) refers to the area as the "land of the Iobaritae" a region which legend later referred to as
9417:
9242:
8962:
4286:
4285:
Blom, Ronald G.; Crippen, Robert; Elachi, Charles; Clapp, Nicholas; Hedges, George R.; Zarins, Juris (2007).
7679:
Pre-Islamic Yemen: Socio-political Organization of the Sabaean Cultural Area in the 2nd and 3rd Centuries AD
6170:
4062:
dated back to VI millennium BCE and which was presumably dedicated to ritual practices was published in the
2369:, which was a flourished kingdom from 3000 BCE to 200 BCE. Recent archaeological work has revealed numerous
1983:
and Saba. Though the civilization was indigenous and the royal inscriptions were written in a sort of proto-
1670:
dynasty marched down the Persian Gulf to Oman and Bahrain and defeated Sanatruq (or Satiran), probably the
205:
was inhabited by Semitic-speaking peoples who presumably migrated from the southwest, such as the so-called
9311:
9070:
8945:
5339:
Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarcheology of an Ancient Society By Curtis E. Larsen p. 13
3670:
3381:. The peninsula had been a destination for Jewish migration since pre-Roman times, which had resulted in a
1585:
1407:
preferring Kuwait and C Forster suggesting the ruins at the head of the bay behind the islands of Bahrain.
442:
is attested as the name of a trading partner of the Sumerians. It is often assumed to have been located in
5858:: Ṣayhadic Languages (Epigraphic South Arabian) // Semitic Languages. London: Routledge, 1997, p. 157–183.
3237:
2146:. The standing relief image of a crowned man, is taken to be a representation possibly of the Jewish king
9498:
8972:
8665:
7341:"Arabia In Late Antiquity: An Outline of The Cultural Situation In The Peninsula At The Time of Muhammad"
6622:
M. Tardieu, "Les manichéens en Egypte," Bulletin de la Société Française d'Egyptologie 94, 1982, pp. 5-19
4157:
3869:
3726:
3696:
2893:
The Kindites were polytheistic until the 6th century CE, with evidence of rituals dedicated to the idols
1987:, there were also some Sabaean immigrants in the kingdom as evidenced by a few of the Dʿmt inscriptions.
1984:
692:
reappeared in the early 2nd century. It was finally conquered by the Himyarites in the late 3rd century.
8925:
6275:
5706:"AUB academics awarded $ 850,000 grant for project on the Syriac writers of Qatar in the 7th century AD"
5464:
1080:
The Dilmun civilization was an important trading centre which at the height of its power controlled the
8516:
8491:
8437:
8379:
3784:
3410:
2197:
6296:
D. H. Müller, Al-Hamdani, 53, 124, W. Caskel, Entdeckungen In Arabien, Koln, 1954, S. 9. Mahram, P.318
5634:
Robert G. Hoyland, Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam, Routledge 2001p28
2439:
844:. This migration, the date of which cannot be determined, also made them masters of the shores of the
8992:
8654:: Portal of Pre-Islamic Arabian Studies, University of Pisa - Dipartimento Civiltà e Forme del Sapere
7285:
3651:
3621:
3426:
3357:, especially near the Kaaba, which is said to have contained up to 360 of them in Islamic tradition.
2267:
1373:(lust. Nat. vi. 32) says it was 5 miles in circumference with towers built of square blocks of salt.
174:
6822:
5780:
5206:
4889:
4625:
4564:
2901:
or remained pagan, but there is a strong archaeological evidence that they were among the tribes in
2740:. As a frontier province, it included a desert area of northeastern Arabia populated by the nomadic
2129:
During the 3rd century CE, the South Arabian kingdoms were in continuous conflict with one another.
1948:
The success of the kingdom was based on the cultivation and trade of spices and aromatics including
9455:
8466:
7281:
5928:
4342:
Peter J. Parr, "Further Reflections on Late Second Millennium Settlement in North West Arabia," in
3823:
3789:
3691:
3480:
3262:
1799:
248:
934:
communities. The Ghassanid emigration has been passed down in the rich oral tradition of southern
8572:
5957:"Culture of Yemen - history, people, clothing, traditions, women, beliefs, food, customs, family"
4639:
4107:
4049:. In less than a century, Arabs had come to rule over an area that spanned five thousand miles."
3962:
3656:
3406:
2586:
2292:
1971:
During the 8th and 7th century BCE, there was a close contact of cultures between the Kingdom of
1783:
1761:
1347:
1017:
530:
247:. In addition to Arabian paganism, other religious practices in the region included those of the
244:
26:"Jahili Arabia" redirects here. For the Islamic concept of a pre-Islamic "age of ignorance", see
8967:
8384:
The Places Where Men Pray Together: Cities in Islamic Lands, Seventh Through the Tenth Centuries
3937:
The Byzantines' ally was a Christian Arabic tribe from the frontiers of the desert known as the
1823:, mentioning five South Arabian gods, two reigning sovereigns and two governors, 7th century BCE
1243:, the Sumerian goddess of air and south wind had her home in Dilmun. It is also featured in the
8985:
7294:
6482:"The 'arabicised or arabicising Arabs', on the contrary, are believed to be the descendants of
4793:
4137:
3954:
3646:
3115:
2943:
2765:
2673:
1861:). The Minaean Kingdom was centered in northwestern Yemen, with most of its cities lying along
1737:
1588:
who said that: "In the Greek geographers, for instance, we read of two islands, named Tyrus or
1328:
1173:. These letters and other documents, hint at an administrative relationship between Dilmun and
342:
8193:
8053:
6990:
5527:
5163:
5117:
4974:
4846:
4747:
4709:
4484:
4457:
4222:
2695:
visited the city and was so enthralled by it that he proclaimed it a free city and renamed it
9035:
9030:
8786:
8328:
7936:
7894:
7790:
7595:
7340:
6517:
6252:
5738:
5489:
5067:
4904:
4582:
4521:
3762:
3742:
2627:
2444:
2434:
623:
are known from the 8th century BCE. It was first referenced by an outside civilization in an
620:
345:
of the 7th century. Sources of history include archaeological evidence, foreign accounts and
306:
6803:"Singh, Nagendra", "International encyclopaedia of Islamic dynasties", "(India: 2005)", "75"
3353:
in Meccan religion. Many of the physical descriptions of the pre-Islamic gods are traced to
903:
were a group of South Arabian Christian tribes that emigrated in the early 3rd century from
9144:
8711:
7616:
5823:
5491:
Beyond Price: Pearls and Pearl-fishing : Origins to the Age of Discoveries, Volume 224
4142:
3799:
3579:). Exhibition "Roads of Arabia": Funeral mask and glove (1st century AD), gold, from Thaj,
3360:
Other religions were represented to varying, lesser degrees. The influence of the adjacent
2538:
2534:
2013:
1703:/Pahlavi means "ewe-fish".) which included the Bahrain archipelago that was earlier called
1503:
837:
791:
439:
433:
170:
7657:
The Variety of Local Religious Life in the Near East: In the Hellenistic and Roman Periods
6206:
The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern, chronologically arranged
3868:
The early 7th century in Arabia began with the longest and most destructive period of the
1868:. Minaean inscriptions have been found far afield of the Kingdom of Maīin, as far away as
1100:. The Sumerian tale of the garden paradise of Dilmun may have been an inspiration for the
1028:"descendants of converts from the original population of Christians (Aramaeans), Jews and
8:
9334:
9154:
8603:
7750:
5397:
Classical Greece: Ancient histories and modern archaeologies, Ian Morris, Routledge, p184
4063:
3907:, who witnessed the plague, documented that citizens died at a rate of 10,000 per day in
3896:
3794:
3772:
3752:
3661:
3630:
3274:
3266:
3049:
2402:
2025:
1957:
1519:
1443:
1381:
1037:
993:
480:
475:
252:
206:
91:
8369:
6636:
6519:
Journeys in Holy Lands: The Evolution of the Abraham-Ishmael Legends in Islamic Exegesis
5000:
2733:
area of northwestern Arabia, increasing the extension of the "Arabia Petraea" province.
1662:
succeeded the Parthians and held the area until the rise of Islam four centuries later.
9412:
8430:
8365:
8243:
8173:
8103:
8001:
7390:
7289:
7040:
6951:
6872:
5681:
5194:
4877:
4786:
4667:
4659:
4613:
4552:
4112:
3804:
3513:
3455:
figurines from Yemen that represent seated women and female heads; 3rd-1st century BC;
3111:
2962:
war. Following the Himyarite victory, a branch of Kindah established themselves in the
2797:
2676:. The area steadily grew further in importance as a trade route linking Persia, India,
2611:
2250:
2147:
2043:
1111:
clay tablets dated to the end of fourth millennium BCE, found in the temple of goddess
711:
378:
9483:
8221:
8202:
The Qurʾān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʾānic Milieu
8081:
8062:
The Qurʾān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʾānic Milieu
7368:
7349:
The Qurʾān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʾānic Milieu
7018:
6999:
The Qurʾān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʾānic Milieu
6557:
Ibn García's Shuʻūbiyya Letter: Ethnic and Theological Tensions in Medieval al-Andalus
5415:
W. B. Fisher et al. The Cambridge History of Iran, Cambridge University Press 1968 p40
3439:(the most common material for sculpture) heads of great aesthetic and historic charm.
1511:, is believed to originate from "Arados", the ancient Greek name for Muharraq island.
1046:
was also present in Eastern Arabia. The Zoroastrians of Eastern Arabia were known as "
9445:
9139:
8855:
8801:
8632:
8607:
8576:
8545:
8533:
8520:
8495:
8470:
8441:
8405:
8387:
8352:
8314:
8296:
8278:
8260:
8235:
8225:
8197:
8179:
8159:
8141:
8123:
8107:
8095:
8085:
8057:
8039:
8018:
8005:
7991:
7962:
7958:
7922:
7902:
7881:
7860:
7839:
7820:
7816:
7776:
7758:
7737:
7719:
7701:
7683:
7660:
7642:
7624:
7603:
7578:
7570:
7557:
7539:
7521:
7503:
7482:
7464:
7446:
7425:
7407:
7394:
7382:
7372:
7344:
7326:
7307:
7303:
7259:
7253:
7236:
7230:
7213:
7194:
7176:
7153:
7135:
7114:
7096:
7078:
7060:
7044:
7032:
7022:
6994:
6976:
6958:
6933:
6912:
6876:
6725:
6684:
6656:
6561:
6523:
6471:
6209:
6201:
5831:
5746:
5603:
5578:
5533:
5495:
5323:
5291:
5227:
5169:
5123:
5073:
4980:
4910:
4852:
4797:
4753:
4715:
4692:
4671:
4588:
4527:
4490:
4463:
4422:
4377:
4298:
4265:
4228:
4201:
4097:
4087:
3880:, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam".
3777:
3757:
3747:
3716:
3701:
3390:
3306:
3294:
3203:
3119:
3087:
3075:
3029:
2688:
2370:
2315:
2097:
1369:, who built their houses of salt and repaired them by the application of salt water.
1335:
1244:
1202:
1170:
1105:
1097:
1055:
726:
661:
653:
609:
577:
491:
356:
326:
298:
256:
126:
8247:
7916:
2848:
migrated from Yemen along with the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, but were turned back in
1929:" by the Romans, who were impressed by its wealth and prosperity. The Roman emperor
341:
by the Qaḥṭānites in the early centuries CE, a pattern of expansion exceeded in the
9450:
9149:
9120:
9025:
9020:
8940:
8906:
8870:
8806:
8791:
8589:
8558:
8344:
8217:
8213:
8077:
8073:
7983:
7954:
7950:
7812:
7808:
7673:
7364:
7360:
7299:
7277:
7014:
7010:
6864:
6722:
The Shaiqiya: the cultural and social change of a Northern Sudanese riverain people
6648:
6499:
6483:
6232:
5855:
4955:
4651:
4369:
4092:
4058:
On 9 June 2020, the discovery of a 35-meter long triangular megalithic monument in
3919:
3472:
3365:
3158:
3133:. One legend mentions that they originated from ancient Christian groups, possibly
3033:
2877:
2836:
2788:
revived the Semitic presence in the then Hellenized Syria. They mainly settled the
2726:
2711:
2657:
2530:
2500:
2394:
2254:
2242:
2203:
invaded and annexed Yemen. The Aksumites controlled Himyar and attempted to invade
2177:
2171:
2037:
2009:
1961:
1885:
1881:
1787:
1753:
1745:
1741:
1487:
1166:
1150:
985:
981:
815:
795:
696:
685:
624:
605:
487:
390:
264:
6337:
Jamme 635. See: Jawād 'Alī: Al-Mufaṣṣal fī Tārīkh al-'Arab Qabl al-Islam, Part 39.
5913:
5444:
Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarchaeology of an Ancient Society
5313:
Gerrha, The Ancient City Of International Trade جره مدينة التجارة العالمية القديمة
4959:
2660:
dating to the reign of Caesar Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE). During the reign of
1169:, in Dilmun to his friend Enlil-kidinni in Mesopotamia. The names referred to are
9479:
Internet Medieval Sourcebook: Pre-Islamic Arabia: The Hanged Poems, before 622 CE
9399:
9184:
9015:
8736:
8651:
8459:
8454:
8425:
7977:
7591:
7170:
6946:
6717:
6678:
6312:
6259:
5688:
5221:
4059:
4015:
3386:
2730:
2483:
2456:
2422:
2418:
2358:
2228:
2208:
2138:
2084:
1749:
1722:
1633:
1483:
1455:
1404:
1370:
1343:
1300:
1274:, are described as taking place in a world "before Dilmun had yet been settled".
1183:
997:
989:
931:
864:
836:
country, and succeeded to its commerce, after the Edomites took advantage of the
689:
495:
243:
was still a notable practice among some of the region's inhabitants, such as the
226:
222:
218:
209:. From 106 CE to 630 CE, Arabia's most northwestern areas were controlled by the
118:
49:
9303:
9202:
9080:
8115:
6851:
Munoz, Olivia; Cotty, Marianne; Charloux, Guillaume; Bouchaud, Charlène (2020).
6103:
4287:"Southern Arabian Desert Trade Routes, Frankincense, Myrrh, and the Ubar Legend"
3988:
2966:
region, while the majority of Kindah remained in their lands in central Arabia.
9349:
9267:
9132:
8890:
8703:
8620:
8031:
7438:
7127:
7052:
6025:
3908:
3605:
3394:
3313:. Arabian polytheism was, according to Islamic tradition, the dominant form of
3298:
3053:
2814:
2769:
2737:
2669:
2647:
2604:
2514:
1933:
sent a military expedition to conquer the "Arabia Felix", under the command of
1700:
1559:
1555:
1447:
1128:
1101:
1051:
1043:
1033:
1029:
971:
876:
597:
400:
346:
286:
214:
202:
8329:"The Earliest Relations of Islam with Other Religions: The Meccan Polytheists"
6148:
6118:
6088:
5956:
4655:
3330:
9492:
9440:
9384:
9225:
8980:
8508:
8239:
8099:
7935:
Robin, Christian Julien (2006). "South Arabia, Religions in Pre-Islamic". In
7873:
7852:
7495:
7386:
7249:
7226:
7166:
7036:
6904:
6660:
6197:
6133:
6073:
4290:
4127:
3973:
3809:
3675:
3422:
3385:
community supplemented by local converts. Additionally, the influence of the
3142:
3138:
2844:
2378:
2216:
2193:
1934:
1812:
1730:
1726:
1597:
1593:
1494:
The name Tylos is thought to be a Hellenisation of the Semitic, Tilmun (from
1316:
1229:
1190:
1143:
853:
845:
267:, which were mostly adhered to by non-native merchants and other travellers.
6767:"Sicker, Martin", "The Pre-Islamic Middle East","(Connecticut:2000)", "201."
4644:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
2702:
1050:" in pre-Islamic times. The sedentary dialects of Eastern Arabia, including
576:
in the 610s is not known in great detail. Archaeological exploration in the
9252:
8761:
7273:
6925:
4684:
4071:
3923:
3828:
3476:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3361:
3321:
and spirits. Worship was directed to various gods and goddesses, including
3286:
3278:
3222:
3102:
3098:
3091:
2722:
2635:
2545:
2479:
2425:, approximately between 400 and 600 CE, the Thamud completely disappeared.
2386:
2111:
2107:
1997:
1949:
1926:
1873:
1807:
1803:
1652:
1601:
1531:
1468:
1385:
1324:
1308:
1135:
1081:
1072:
1013:
1009:
927:
768:
756:
737:
700:
593:
450:
372:
349:
later recorded by Islamic scholars—especially in the pre-Islamic poems—and
318:
276:
210:
190:
8348:
5302:
Hagar is the name of Bahrain and its capital Hagar destroyed by Qarmatians
3202:
Modern historians believe that these distinctions were created during the
2118:
Together with their Kindite allies, it extended maximally as far north as
790:, but modern historians are cautious about an early Nabatean history. The
281:
181:, who arose around 3000 BCE and lasted to around 300 CE; and the earliest
9354:
9262:
8483:
7422:
Close Relationships: Incest and Inbreeding in Classical Arabic Literature
7232:
History of Religious Ideas, Volume 3: From Muhammad to the Age of Reforms
6868:
6785:"Ware, Timothy", "The Orthodox Church", "(New York:1997)", "67 – 69"
4749:
Close Relationships: Incest and Inbreeding in Classical Arabic Literature
4042:
3915:
3398:
3302:
3214:
2973:(Greek Χινδηνοι, Arabic Kindah), and mentions that they and the tribe of
2894:
2623:
2522:
2510:
2151:
2016:
1965:
1817:
1621:
1541:'s account (written c. 440 BCE) refers to the Io and Europa myths. (
1523:
1451:
1217:
1194:
1124:
1093:
1001:
950:" refers to that exodus in history. The emigrants were from the southern
825:
811:
764:
499:
9484:
Ancient History Sourcebook: Ancient Accounts of Arabia, 430 BCE – 550 CE
8513:
The Idea of Idolatry and the Emergence of Islam: From Polemic to History
8194:"Literacy In Pre-Islamic Arabia: An Analysis of The Epigraphic Evidence"
7500:
The Idea of Idolatry and the Emergence of Islam: From Polemic to History
4333:, Vol. 3, ed. A. R. Al-Ansary (Riyadh: King Saud University), pp. 137–45
3961:
forced a schism in the alliances. The Byzantines' official religion was
3028:
Approximate locations of some of the important tribes and Empire of the
2053:
9292:
9105:
9058:
8880:
8865:
8340:
7987:
6953:
The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800
6593:"MANICHEISM v. MISSIONARY ACTIVITY AND TECHNIQUE: Manicheism in Arabia"
5682:"Nestorian Christianity in the Pre-Islamic UAE and Southeastern Arabia"
4132:
4046:
3938:
3354:
3258:
3252:
3024:
2910:
2784:
2775:
2757:
2570:
2561:
2506:
2332:
2324:
2263:
2189:
2031:
2003:
1869:
1836:
1667:
1663:
1392:, particularly the main island of Bahrain itself, another possibility.
1092:. Dilmun is regarded as one of the oldest ancient civilizations in the
924:
900:
872:
613:
544: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
503:
338:
322:
302:
260:
240:
236:
140:
27:
8644:
6652:
5033:
4691:, Abhandlungen Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, vol. 30, Wiesbaden 2014,
4663:
4344:
Retrieving the Past: Essays on Archaeological Research and Methodology
3397:
existed in the eastern and southern Arabia, there was no existence of
2373:
rock writings and pictures. They are mentioned in sources such as the
1891:
1334:
Gerrha and Uqair are archaeological sites on the eastern coast of the
996:. In pre-Islamic times, the population of Eastern Arabia consisted of
486:
The origin of the Midianites has not been established. Because of the
9473:
9257:
9110:
9040:
8875:
8850:
8657:
8599:
8541:
4147:
3904:
3900:
3532:
3517:
3452:
3436:
3290:
3180:
3134:
3130:
2959:
2955:
2902:
2804:. The Ghassanids held Syria until engulfed by the expansion of Islam.
2665:
2566:
2518:
2473:
2410:
2406:
2374:
2336:
2319:
2234:
2181:
2157:
2076:, or "Uncle" and the people called themselves the "children of Amm".
2073:
1991:
1911:
1907:
1854:
1827:
1688:
1659:
1644:
1637:
1613:
1581:
1538:
1425:
Asia in 600 CE, showing the Sassanid Empire before the Arab conquest.
1225:
1108:
1089:
939:
920:
857:
775:
745:
330:
310:
8593:
8562:
7677:
6208:(6th, illustrated ed.), Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, p. 41,
4848:
Non-Arabic Semitic elements in the Arabic dialects of eastern Arabia
2300:
2079:
2064:
Qataban was one of the ancient Yemeni kingdoms which thrived in the
664:; from 2000 BCE to the 8th century BCE. Some Sabaeans also lived in
519:
9389:
9379:
9272:
9075:
9063:
9053:
8950:
8911:
8885:
8781:
8769:
8628:
6755:
5896:
5869:"Yemen's history and its originality:Report. - Free Online Library"
5621:
5619:
4038:
4026:
3942:
3931:
3873:
3402:
3382:
3310:
3210:
3191:
3187:
3122:
arrived from the Near East and marginalised and absorbed the rest.
3048:
Consisted of many major ancient tribes and clans which were mainly
2983:
2906:
2832:
2823:
2753:
2736:
The desert frontier of Arabia Petraea was called by the Romans the
2661:
2590:
2460:
2212:
2200:
1980:
1930:
1897:
1858:
1848:
1692:
1675:
1609:
1508:
1459:
1439:
1351:
1263:
1259:
1198:
1158:
1025:
884:
783:
723:
719:
673:
649:
601:
425:
321:, etc.), so it was not known in great detail. From the 3rd century
297:
of the early 19th century when they managed to decipher epigraphic
198:
194:
162:
9217:
3471:
Stele, male wearing a baldric – an iconic artwork for pre-Islamic
3334:
3056:, since the tribes and clans were named after the male ancestors.
2938:(Rabī'ah of the People of Thawr) must have been a king of Kindah (
1514:
1307:), was an ancient city of Eastern Arabia, on the west side of the
9407:
9374:
9369:
9207:
9127:
9115:
9048:
8796:
8741:
6970:
6503:
6487:
5165:
Traces of Paradise: The Archaeology of Bahrain, 2500 BC to 300 AD
3706:
3431:
The art is similar to that of neighbouring cultures. Pre-Islamic
3282:
3226:
3162:
3146:
3126:
3107:
3071:
3065:
2898:
2849:
2741:
2692:
2684:
2414:
2382:
2185:
2143:
2103:
2059:
2021:
1976:
1832:
1820:
1696:
1671:
1648:
1527:
1499:
1476:
1429:
1389:
1366:
1362:
1179:
1174:
1162:
1021:
1005:
833:
741:
677:
669:
665:
470:
294:
8538:
Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam
7755:
Jealous Gods and Chosen People: The Mythology of the Middle East
7575:
Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam
5616:
4945:
1972:
1842:
9197:
9159:
9100:
8860:
8834:
8824:
8774:
8721:
8716:
8568:
8336:
8209:
8205:
8069:
8065:
7946:
7804:
7800:
7356:
7352:
7006:
7002:
5037:
4346:, ed. J. D. Seger (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1996), pp. 213–18.
4102:
4067:
3972:
and God were two natures within one entity. The Ghassanids, as
3969:
3584:
3576:
3326:
3218:
3173:
2918:
Ancient South Arabian inscriptions mention a tribe settling in
2828:
2801:
2793:
2789:
2761:
2707:
2631:
2619:
2615:
2578:
2487:
2354:
2348:
2311:
2306:
2259:
2238:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2065:
1786:
known as Beth Mazunaye. The name was derived from 'Mazun', the
1617:
1577:
1495:
1421:
1395:
Various other identifications of the site have been attempted,
1358:
1339:
1283:
1240:
1154:
1112:
1067:
980:
The sedentary people of pre-Islamic Eastern Arabia were mainly
959:
916:
908:
893:
779:
749:
733:
681:
634:
630:
589:
585:
462:
429:
351:
334:
314:
186:
178:
6909:
The Emergence of Islam in Late Antiquity: Allah and His People
5774:"Christianity in the Gulf during the first centuries of Islam"
5109:
4523:
E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Volume 5
3551:
Bas-relief with a palm tree; Sana'a, ancient Yemen, alabaster.
2165:
1232:
occurred. The promise of Enki to Ninhursag, the Earth Mother:
1193:, and the place where the deified Sumerian hero of the flood,
9364:
9212:
8829:
8816:
8731:
6724:. Studien zur Kulturkunde. Vol. 49. Steiner. p. 7.
6680:
Expanding Realism: The Historical Dimension of World Politics
6468:
Citizenship in the Arab World: Kin, Religion and Nation-State
6408:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBosworthHeinrichsDonzel2003 (
6154:
6139:
6124:
6109:
6094:
6079:
6035:
6028:, A Late Antique christian king from Ẓafār, southern Arabia,
5223:
The Harps that once--: Sumerian poetry in translation, p. 150
4075:
4030:
3966:
3536:
3484:
3432:
3350:
3342:
3338:
3322:
3318:
3195:
3079:
2963:
2887:
2809:
2677:
2600:
2574:
2526:
2398:
2390:
2366:
2328:
2284:
2279:
2204:
2161:
The 'Crowned Man' excavated from the Stone Building in Zafar.
2134:
2069:
1998:
Kingdom of Hadhramaut (8th century BCE – 3rd century CE)
1953:
1942:
1901:
1877:
1684:
1680:
1589:
1434:
1416:
1400:
1377:
1312:
1288:
1271:
1139:
1096:. The Sumerians described Dilmun as a paradise garden in the
1085:
1047:
947:
943:
935:
912:
904:
868:
849:
841:
821:
807:
803:
760:
657:
581:
573:
494:, some scholars including George Mendenhall, Peter Parr, and
466:
454:
325:, Arabian history becomes more tangible with the rise of the
134:
8311:
The Pagan God: Popular Religion in the Greco-Roman Near East
7404:
Arabic Theology, Arabic Philosophy: From the Many to the One
6672:
6670:
5711:. American University of Beirut. 31 May 2011. Archived from
3257:
Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia included pre-Islamic Arabian
2196:, the Christian King of Aksum with the encouragement of the
1853:
During Minaean rule, the capital was at Karna (now known as
9359:
8726:
6495:
6491:
5385:
5034:"Qal'at al-Bahrain – Ancient Harbour and Capital of Dilmun"
3950:
3914:
Despite almost succumbing to the plague, Byzantine emperor
3499:
Another anthropomorphic stele from pre-Islamic Saudi Arabia
2919:
2883:
2866:
2681:
2594:
2327:
around 65 BCE upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to
2130:
2028:
around 300 CE, unifying all of the South Arabian kingdoms.
1938:
1919:
1915:
1862:
1704:
1472:
1267:
1221:
1146:
in the later period (from the 3rd to the 16th century CE).
1116:
951:
880:
829:
799:
704:
638:
443:
6850:
6754:"Bury, John.", "A history of the later Roman empire: from
4689:
Cross-roads – Early and Late Iron Age South-eastern Arabia
2270:, converted to Islam and Yemen followed the new religion.
2054:
Kingdom of Qataban (4th century BCE – 3rd century CE)
1914:. According to South Arabian tradition, the eldest son of
1498:). The term Tylos was commonly used for the islands until
1446:. From the 6th to 3rd century BCE Bahrain was included in
1149:
Dilmun was mentioned in two letters dated to the reign of
1032:
inhabiting the island and cultivated coastal provinces of
8156:
Tradition and Modernity in Arabic Language and Literature
7554:
Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary
6667:
5736:
5427:
5406:
Phillip Ward, Bahrain: A Travel Guide, Oleander Press p68
4976:
Egypt's Making: The Origins of Ancient Egypt 5000-2000 BC
4906:
Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary
4584:
Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary
4459:
Tradition and Modernity in Arabic Language And Literature
3958:
3899:
had erupted (541–542), spreading through Persia and into
2593:
and the Red Sea, that is, in the land that had once been
2467:
2207:
in the year 570 CE. Eastern Yemen remained allied to the
2032:
Kingdom of Awsān (8th century BCE – 6th century BCE)
1964:, where they were greatly prized by many cultures, using
1580:
believed the Phoenicians originated from Eastern Arabia.
955:
8625:
Himyar–Die Spätantike im Jemen/Himyar Late Antique Yemen
6823:"6th millennium BC structure discovered in Saudi Arabia"
6054:
3206:, to support the cause of different political factions.
3194:): They are traditionally seen as having descended from
1892:
Kingdom of Saba (12th century BCE – 7th century CE)
1857:). Their other important city was Yathill (now known as
1736:
By the 5th century, Beth Qatraye was a major centre for
6403:
5136:
4638:
2401:. They are also mentioned in the victory annals of the
938:. It is said that the Ghassanids came from the city of
887:
their capital in (266). The founder of the dynasty was
875:, hence the name given it. It was formed of a group of
867:
was founded by the Lakhum tribe that immigrated out of
293:
Scientific studies of Pre-Islamic Arabs start with the
255:, of which the emerging Islam would become a part; the
6991:"Mecca On The Caravan Routes In Pre-Islamic Antiquity"
6637:"A Paleo-Arabic inscription on a route north of Ṭāʾif"
4284:
2630:
systems. It was locally autonomous until the reign of
2301:
Kingdom of Lihyan/Dedan (7th century BCE - 24 BC)
2080:
Kingdom of Himyar (late 2nd century BCE – 525 CE)
1910:, is located near what is now Yemen's modern capital,
710:, to the south of the wadi Bayhan, is now marked by a
7716:
A Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses, Devils and Demons
7443:
In Ishmael's House: A History of Jews in Muslim Lands
6446:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDoughtyLawrence2010 (
2494:
2184:, a Himyarite king who changed the state religion to
1835:
from the royal palace at Shabwa, the capital city of
778:
origins remain obscure. On the similarity of sounds,
572:
The history of Pre-Islamic Arabia before the rise of
375:(5300 BCE) – could have originated in Eastern Arabia.
7789:
Mir, Mustansir (2006). "Polytheism and Atheism". In
7402:
Frank, Richard M.; Montgomery, James Edward (2007),
4642:(1968). "Fisher-folk and fish-traps in al-Bahrain".
4329:
George Mendenhall, "Qurayya and the Midianites," in
3922:
which could help fund his expansion into Europe and
3090:
records, and a clue to their origin is their use of
2505:
Achaemenid Arabia corresponded to the lands between
752:
until 525 CE. The economy was based on agriculture.
138:
8138:
Scriptural Polemics: The Qur'an and Other Religions
7073:Coulter, Charles Russell; Turner, Patricia (2013),
4745:
2710:control of northwestern Arabia until Hegra (actual
498:have suggested that the Midianites were originally
8458:
8429:
8015:Central Arabia During the Early Hellenistic Period
7836:Men on the Rocks: The Formation of Nabataean Petra
7698:The Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century
6950:
5988:Himyar Spätantike im Jemen Late Antique Yemen 2007
5743:The Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century
4785:
3930:awarded their chief with the titles of patrician,
3337:, at local shrines and temples, maybe such as the
3129:did not consider the Solluba to be descendants of
1941:in order to guarantee the Roman merchant route to
1843:Kingdom of Ma'īn (10th century BCE – 150 BCE)
193:was the home to a number of kingdoms, such as the
9333:
8054:"Sources For The History of Pre-Islamic Religion"
7899:Mecca: A Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land
7172:Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions
6930:Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire
6046:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRohmerCharloux2015 (
5353:
5351:
5349:
5347:
5345:
5219:
5001:"Bahrain digs unveil one of oldest civilisations"
4246:
4244:
3563:Miniature gate; Zafar, Yemen, 2rd-3rd century AD.
3118:. In the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE, speakers of
2886:in central Arabia unlike the organized states of
2529:when he attacked Egypt in 525 BCE. His successor
2266:in 628, the Persian governor in Southern Arabia,
2222:
1674:governor of Eastern Arabia. He appointed his son
1165:. These letters were from a provincial official,
1076:Dilmun and its neighbors in the 10th century BCE.
16:Demography of the Arabian Peninsula before 610 CE
9490:
8204:. Texts and Studies on the Qurʾān. Vol. 6.
8064:. Texts and Studies on the Qurʾān. Vol. 6.
7351:. Texts and Studies on the Qurʾān. Vol. 6.
7001:. Texts and Studies on the Qurʾān. Vol. 6.
6515:
6272:"Saudi Aramco World : Well of Good Fortune"
5926:Sima, Alexander. "Dʿmt" in Siegbert Uhlig, ed.,
4394:Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity
3032:at the dawn of Islam (approximately 600 CE / 50
2468:Kingdom of Qedar (8th century BCE – ?)
2397:source and in Old North Arabian graffiti within
2166:Aksumite occupation of Yemen (525 – 570 CE)
1782:Oman and the United Arab Emirates comprised the
1616:or Mesenian, the state founded in what today is
1482:It is not known whether Bahrain was part of the
688:of the Kings of Saba' and dhu-Raydan the Middle
177:. Among the most prominent communities were the
7734:Jews and Arabs in Pre- and Early Islamic Arabia
7695:
7401:
7150:Islam, Arabs, and Intelligent World of the Jinn
6441:
5933:(Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), p. 185.
3269:which themselves likewise originated among the
1679:was subdivided into three districts of Haggar (
794:that began in 586 BCE opened a power vacuum in
7458:
6634:
6041:
5494:. American Philosophical Society. p. 48.
5342:
5065:
4851:. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 270–279.
4707:
4241:
3152:
2946:inscriptions mention that he was king both of
740:dating from 110 BC. It conquered in c. 25 BC,
9319:
8673:
8051:
7857:Jeremiah in Talmud and Midrash: A Source Book
7696:Kozah, Mario; Abu-Husayn, Abdulrahim (2014),
7602:, Columbia University Press, pp. 17–40,
7072:
6553:
6196:
6190:
5597:
5572:
3849:
1760:The dioceses of Beth Qatraye did not form an
1205:'s translation of the Eridu Genesis calls it
509:
8374:, Oxford At The Clarendon Press, p. 318
8275:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans
8120:Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century
8012:
7833:
7533:
7518:The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus
7459:Gilman, Ian; Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (2013),
6427:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMeeker1979 (
6397:
6389:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMcNutt2003 (
6370:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBlench2010 (
6351:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBlench2010 (
6065:sfn error: no target: CITEREFAl-Ansary1999 (
5850:Nebes, Norbert. "Epigraphic South Arabian",
5668:Hebrew and Aramaic Dictionary of Bible Words
5625:Bahrain By Federal Research Division, page 7
5525:
5487:
5213:
5161:
4376:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 5.
3137:who were taken into slavery by the Bedouin.
2046:or artificial mound, which is locally named
1790:name for Oman and the United Arab Emirates.
1338:. Prior to Gerrha, the area belonged to the
832:; the Nabataeans must have occupied the old
714:or artificial mound, which is locally named
684:, but after the disintegration of the first
217:. A few nodal points were controlled by the
66:Nabataean trade routes in Pre-Islamic Arabia
41:
8326:
7834:Mouton, Michel; Schmid, Stephan G. (2014),
7600:Muslim Identities: An Introduction to Islam
6461:
6459:
6457:
6435:
5946:(Edinburgh: University Press, 1991), p. 58.
5830:. Georgetown University Press. p. 43.
5779:. Oxford Brookes University. Archived from
5644:
5642:
5640:
5122:. Cambridge University Press. p. 152.
5072:. University Press of America. p. 10.
4792:. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. p.
4783:
4358:Institute for Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies
4264:. London: Aurum Press Ltd. pp. 25–31.
2721:Recently evidence has been discovered that
146:
9326:
9312:
8680:
8666:
7770:
6470:. Amsterdam University Press. p. 30.
5768:
5766:
5764:
5762:
5695:, volume 18, number 72, winter 2011, p. 88
5455:
3856:
3842:
3101:sees the Solubba as the last survivors of
3078:who were clearly distinguishable from the
2954:(Qaḥṭān). They played a major role in the
1518:Phoenicians man their ships in service to
1201:), was taken by the gods to live forever.
366:
8588:
8557:
7672:
7615:
7534:Healey, John F.; Porter, Venetia (2003),
7057:The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity
6683:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 170.
6416:
6378:
6359:
6060:
5162:Crawford, Harriet; Rice, Michael (2000).
5147:sfn error: no target: CITEREFLarsen1983 (
4486:The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity
3992:Expansion of the caliphate, 622–750 CE.
3074:tribal group in the northern part of the
2428:
1793:
1612:Greek power, Tylos was incorporated into
1342:civilization, which was conquered by the
840:captivity to press forward into southern
755:Foreign trade was based on the export of
560:Learn how and when to remove this message
419:
8378:
8333:Muslims and Others: Relations in Context
8308:
8290:
7975:
7621:Islamic History: A Framework for Inquiry
7248:
7207:
7188:
7108:
6988:
6903:
6635:Al-Jallad, Ahmad; Sidky, Hythem (2022).
6454:
5944:Aksum: a Civilization of Late Antiquity,
5822:
5677:
5675:
5637:
5115:
5097:
4224:Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture
4221:Jr, William H. Stiebing (July 1, 2016).
3987:
3377:, the dominant form of Christianity was
3236:
3023:
2701:
2565:
2438:
2291:
2283:
2219:into Yemen, ending the Aksumite period.
2156:
2083:
1826:
1811:
1627:
1564:the eastern part of the Arabia peninsula
1513:
1420:
1287:
1138:and Mesopotamia in the early period and
1071:
280:
8532:
8507:
8453:
8399:
7914:
7893:
7872:
7851:
7749:
7636:
7596:"Setting the Stage: Pre-Islamic Arabia"
7569:
7536:Studies on Arabia in Honour of G. Felix
7494:
7479:A History of Christian-Muslim Relations
7476:
7437:
7338:
7165:
7147:
7051:
6715:
6465:
6340:
5759:
5388:, Ares in the Arabian Peninsula section
5220:Thorkild Jacobsen (23 September 1997).
4844:
4482:
3599:Dhamar Ali Yahbur II, King of Himyarite
1925:During Sabaean rule, Yemen was called "
1548:
9491:
8687:
8482:
8424:
8272:
8171:
8114:
8030:
7878:The Great Islamic Conquests AD 632-750
7731:
7713:
7654:
7590:
7515:
7419:
7320:
7225:
7090:
6945:
6422:
6384:
6365:
6346:
5333:
5142:
5028:
5026:
4941:
4939:
4937:
4576:
4574:
4259:
4206:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
3886:
3393:being present in the peninsula. While
3097:Cambridge linguist and anthropologist
2808:Greeks and Romans referred to all the
2778:migrating north from the 3rd century.
1486:, although the archaeological site at
782:suggested a connection with the tribe
449:The A'adids established themselves in
9307:
8661:
8335:, Religion and Reason, vol. 41,
8254:
8191:
8153:
8135:
7934:
7639:The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity
7551:
7126:
6758:to Irene.", "(New York: 1889)", "401"
6676:
6404:Bosworth, Heinrichs & Donzel 2003
5844:
5672:
5446:University Of Chicago Press, 1984 p13
5285:
5061:
5059:
5011:from the original on 13 November 2014
4902:
4580:
4455:
4451:
4449:
4278:
4053:
3225:(and later Muhammad's own tribe, the
2792:region and spread to modern Lebanon,
2541:, but later became its own province.
1968:through Arabia, and to India by sea.
1816:Sabaean inscription addressed to the
1315:. This fort is 50 miles northeast of
8619:
8364:
8257:Who's Who in Non-Classical Mythology
8178:, The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.,
7271:
6924:
6509:
6274:. Saudiaramworld.com. Archived from
5813:Kozah, Abu-Husayn, Abdulrahim. p. 1.
5240:from the original on 17 January 2023
5168:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 217.
5069:Getting Back Into the Garden of Eden
4972:
4752:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 110.
3125:Western travelers reported that the
2871:
1438:, the centre of pearl trading, when
871:in the 2nd century and ruled by the
656:language who lived in what is today
619:The first known inscriptions of the
542:adding citations to reliable sources
513:
337:and the gradual assimilation of the
8013:al-Sa'ud, 'Abd Allah Sa'ud (2011),
7788:
6175:. p. DNa inscription Line 27.
5741:; Al-Murikhi, Saif Shaheen (2014).
5600:The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf
5575:The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf
5023:
4934:
4896:
4571:
4418:Abu Bakr: The Beloved Of My Beloved
4153:Soviet Orientalist studies in Islam
4123:History of the United Arab Emirates
3903:territory. The Byzantine historian
2362:
2246:
2223:Sassanid period (570 – 630 CE)
1880:and Egypt. It was the first of the
1600:in particular have long maintained
1475:was also worshipped by the ancient
1397:Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville
1304:
1258:, the main events, which center on
652:were an ancient people speaking an
409:Late Iron Age (c. 100 BCE–c.300 CE)
165:throughout the region at the time.
122:
42:
13:
8418:
8327:Waardenburg, Jean Jacques (2003),
7637:Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (2012),
7132:Medieval Islamic Political Thought
5056:
4816:
4711:Medieval Islamic Political Thought
4446:
4360:, newsletter no. 23 (2003), p. 12.
4220:
4066:. Archaeological researchers from
4003: Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661
3019:
2652:Arabian Peninsula in the Roman era
2548:a year. They participated in the
2533:does not mention the Arabs in the
2495:The Achaemenids in Northern Arabia
1442:came to discover it serving under
1327:. This site was first proposed by
161:), highlighting the prevalence of
14:
9515:
9467:
8222:10.1163/ej.9789004176881.i-864.58
8082:10.1163/ej.9789004176881.i-864.66
7918:Muhammad and the Origins of Islam
7369:10.1163/ej.9789004176881.i-864.21
7019:10.1163/ej.9789004176881.i-864.25
6641:Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy
5745:. Gorgias Press LLC. p. 24.
5155:
5106:by Harriet E. W. Crawford, page 5
5044:from the original on 5 April 2012
4414:
4311:from the original on 4 March 2018
4009: Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750
3893:Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628
3613:
3413:, and the Abd Shams inscription.
3043:
2860:
2610:, meaning 'of rock') lies in the
2550:Second Persian invasion of Greece
2365:) was an ancient civilization in
2249:), who helped the semi-legendary
2237:sent troops under the command of
1683:, Saudi Arabia), Batan Ardashir (
1666:, the first ruler of the Iranian
1432:was referred to by the Greeks as
1292:Gerrha and its neighbors in 1 CE.
965:
676:, due to their hegemony over the
490:motifs on what is referred to as
461:The ʿĀd nation were known to the
329:, and with the appearance of the
9504:History of the Arabian Peninsula
8924:
7959:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00189
7915:Peters, Francis Edward (1994b),
7817:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00151
7304:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4901
7109:Crawford, Harriet E. W. (1998),
6844:
6815:
6806:
6797:
6788:
6779:
6770:
6761:
6748:
6708:
6628:
6614:
6585:
6547:
5963:from the original on 2006-09-02.
5657:Yoma 77a and Rosh Hashbanah, 23a
5529:Bahrain Through The Ages - Archa
5276:Strabon, Geography, i6. 4. 19-20
5116:Crawford, Harriet E. W. (1998).
4331:Studies in the History of Arabia
3997: Prophet Muhammad, 622–632
3983:
3604:
3592:
3568:
3556:
3544:
3525:
3504:
3492:
3464:
3444:
3271:ancient Semitic-speaking peoples
3221:, from which amongst others the
3213:, from which amongst others the
1771:
1216:Dilmun is also described in the
1058:, Aramaic and Syriac languages.
518:
96:
60:
8386:, University of Chicago Press,
7859:, University Press of America,
7235:, University of Chicago Press,
7075:Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities
6897:
6883:from the original on 2020-09-03
6833:from the original on 2020-09-29
6697:from the original on 2022-04-07
6599:from the original on 2019-11-16
6574:from the original on 2023-01-17
6536:from the original on 2023-01-17
6498:, but only Adnanites can claim
6331:
6322:
6299:
6290:
6264:
6246:
6221:
6179:from the original on 2021-03-25
6163:
6019:
6006:
5993:
5980:
5967:
5949:
5936:
5920:
5902:
5890:
5879:from the original on 2021-10-23
5861:
5816:
5807:
5798:
5730:
5698:
5660:
5651:
5628:
5591:
5566:
5557:
5546:from the original on 2023-01-17
5532:. Routledge. pp. 401–402.
5519:
5508:from the original on 2023-01-17
5481:
5449:
5436:
5418:
5409:
5400:
5391:
5378:
5369:
5360:
5316:
5307:
5279:
5270:
5261:
5252:
5182:from the original on 2023-01-17
5086:from the original on 2023-01-17
4993:
4966:
4923:from the original on 2023-01-17
4865:from the original on 2023-01-17
4838:
4827:from the original on 2023-01-17
4810:
4777:
4766:from the original on 2023-01-17
4739:
4728:from the original on 2021-06-14
4701:
4678:
4632:
4601:from the original on 2023-01-17
4540:from the original on 2023-01-17
4514:
4503:from the original on 2023-01-17
4476:
4435:from the original on 2023-01-17
4408:
4399:
4386:
4189:from the original on 2018-04-30
3475:; 4th millennium BCE, Al-'Ula (
3457:National Museum of Oriental Art
2641:
2389:inscription from the northwest
2180:intervention is connected with
1710:
1695:, Bahrain; also referred to as
1254:Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta
1131:added Dilmun to their empires.
1104:story. Dilmun appears first in
1016:agriculturalists. According to
529:needs additional citations for
123:شبه الجزيرة العربية قبل الإسلام
43:شبه الجزيرة العربية قبل الإسلام
8313:, Princeton University Press,
8052:Seidensticker, Tilman (2009).
8017:, King Fahd National Library,
7901:, Princeton University Press,
7623:, Princeton University Press,
7502:, Cambridge University Press,
7461:Christians in Asia before 1500
7323:Arabs and Empires before Islam
7134:, Edinburgh University Press,
7113:, Cambridge University Press,
7111:Dilmun and Its Gulf Neighbours
6957:, Cambridge University Press,
6911:, Cambridge University Press,
5990:, pp. map. p. 16 Fog. 3,45–55.
5119:Dilmun and Its Gulf Neighbours
5104:Dilmun and Its Gulf Neighbours
4374:Dilmun and its Gulf neighbours
4363:
4349:
4336:
4323:
4253:
4214:
4169:
4118:History of the Arabic alphabet
3315:religion in pre-Islamic Arabia
3247:Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia
2211:via tribal alliances with the
1922:, founded the city of Ma'rib.
1778:Christianity in Eastern Arabia
1717:Christianity in Eastern Arabia
1354:Persian control after 300 CE.
1211:"faraway, half-mythical place"
976:Christianity in Eastern Arabia
858:Ptolemaic rulers of Alexandria
767:from Africa to be sold in the
361:Arabs and Empires Before Islam
233:Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia
21:Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia
1:
8175:Islamic Beliefs and Practices
7420:Gelder, G. J. H. van (2005),
7272:Fahd, T. (2012). "Manāf". In
7152:, Syracuse University Press,
6989:Bukharin, Mikhail D. (2009).
6466:Parolin, Gianluca P. (2009).
6319:. Retrieved 11 February 2012.
5973:Müller, Walter W. "Ḥaḍramawt"
5463:. p. 274. Archived from
4960:10.1080/00438243.1993.9980218
4788:Islamic Beliefs and Practices
4587:. BRILL. pp. XXIV–XXVI.
4295:Remote Sensing in Archaeology
2915:after the death of Muḥammad.
2747:
2658:Roman rule in northern Arabia
2150:or more likely the Christian
2106:as well as the coasts of the
1956:. These were exported to the
1526:, during his war against the
1153:(c. 1370 BCE) recovered from
1008:Christians, Persian-speaking
923:where they intermarried with
183:Semitic-speaking civilization
133:in 610 CE, is referred to in
8038:, Harvard University Press,
7838:, Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH,
7771:McLaughlin, John L. (2012),
7682:, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
7481:, Rowman & Littlefield,
7445:, McClelland & Stewart,
6718:"The Region: Time and Space"
4909:. BRILL. pp. XXIX–XXX.
4746:G. J. H. van Gelder (2005).
3712:Pre-Islamic Arabian religion
2831:region around their capital
2555:
2393:of 169 CE, in a 5th-century
984:, Arabic and to some degree
930:settlers and Greek-speaking
848:and the important harbor of
173:that were later recorded by
7:
8488:The Early Islamic Conquests
8400:Zeitlin, Irving M. (2007),
8140:, Oxford University Press,
7942:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān
7796:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān
7757:, Oxford University Press,
7538:, Oxford University Press,
7258:, Oxford University Press,
7255:The Oxford History of Islam
7210:Cults and Beliefs at Edessa
7208:Drijvers, H. J. W. (1980),
6442:Doughty & Lawrence 2010
5999:Sima, Alexander. "GDR(T)",
4526:. BRILL. 1993. p. 98.
4158:Women in pre-Islamic Arabia
4081:
3941:. The Sasanians' ally; the
3535:sculpture from pre-Islamic
3232:
3153:Arab genealogical tradition
2513:, later known to Romans as
2188:and began to persecute the
2110:. From their capital city,
1658:In the 3rd century CE, the
1250:However, in the early epic
828:was the ancient capital of
139:
131:Muhammad's first revelation
10:
9520:
8517:Cambridge University Press
8492:Princeton University Press
8438:Cambridge University Press
8036:The Middle East Under Rome
7095:, University of Michigan,
6522:. SUNY Press. p. 72.
6306:History of Arabia – Kindah
6258:November 12, 2007, at the
6042:Rohmer & Charloux 2015
5854:pp. 334; Leonid Kogan and
5458:"Canaan. Phoenicia. Sidon"
4979:. Routledge. p. 230.
4489:. Routledge. p. 185.
4013:
3420:
3265:(religions predating the
3250:
3244:
3156:
3063:
3059:
2875:
2864:
2751:
2706:Map showing Roman emperor
2687:world to the east and the
2645:
2634:, but it flourished under
2559:
2498:
2471:
2432:
2346:
2304:
2277:
2226:
2215:, which later brought the
2169:
2095:
2057:
2035:
2001:
1895:
1876:and even on the island of
1846:
1797:
1775:
1714:
1647:lost their territories to
1414:
1281:
1065:
969:
962:branch of Qahtani tribes.
510:Overview of major kingdoms
423:
274:
270:
25:
18:
9431:
9398:
9342:
9285:
9235:
9183:
9174:
9093:
9008:
9001:
8993:Ancient South Arabian art
8933:
8922:
8899:
8843:
8815:
8760:
8702:
8695:
8309:Teixidor, Javier (2015),
8291:Teixidor, Javier (1979),
8200:; Sinai, Nicolai (eds.).
8060:; Sinai, Nicolai (eds.).
7347:; Sinai, Nicolai (eds.).
7339:Finster, Barbara (2009).
6997:; Sinai, Nicolai (eds.).
6516:Reuven Firestone (1990).
5693:Journal of Social Affairs
5602:. Routledge. p. 21.
5577:. Routledge. p. 20.
5433:Jean Francois Salles p132
5375:Arnold Heeren, ibid, p441
5226:. Yale University Press.
4820:Glossary Of Islamic Terms
4656:10.1017/s0041977x00125522
4293:; El-Baz, Farouk (eds.).
4237:– via Google Books.
3876:. According to historian
3427:Ancient South Arabian art
3373:in the northeast and the
3317:, based on veneration of
3263:ancient Semitic religions
3014:
2813:Magna (Larger Arabia) or
2342:
2262:. Following the death of
1277:
1228:as the site at which the
1061:
413:Recent Pre-Islamic Period
249:ancient Semitic religions
71:
59:
35:
8467:Harvard University Press
7732:Lecker, Michael (1998),
7714:Lurker, Manfred (2015),
7516:Healey, John F. (2001),
6716:Ibrahim, Hayder (1979).
5929:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica
4483:Cameron, Averil (1993).
4421:. Mohammad Hafiz Ganie.
4405:See, e.g., Bafaqih 1990.
4297:. Springer. p. 71.
4163:
3481:National Museum of Korea
3052:. The ancestral lineage
2926:, who had a king called
2273:
2092:, 1st century BCE, Yemen
1800:Ancient history of Yemen
1651:, an Iranian tribe from
1410:
1357:Gerrha was described by
1030:ancient Persians (Majus)
185:in the eastern part was
156:The period of ignorance
9474:Ancient Arabia Database
8573:Oxford University Press
8461:The Camel and the Wheel
8402:The Historical Muhammad
8293:The Pantheon of Palmyra
8255:Sykes, Egerton (2014),
7976:Robinson, Neal (1991).
7298:(2nd ed.). Brill.
7191:The Religion of Palmyra
7148:El-Zein, Amira (2009),
6947:Berkey, Jonathan Porter
6317:Encyclopædia Britannica
6202:Langer, William Leonard
5828:Qatar: A Modern History
5066:Edward Conklin (1998).
4817:Zanaty, Anwer Mahmoud.
4708:Patricia Crone (2005).
4640:Robert Bertram Serjeant
4415:Ganie, Mohammad Hafiz.
4370:Crawford, Harriet E. W.
4108:History of Saudi Arabia
3949:, but from what is now
3870:Byzantine–Sassanid Wars
2668:, was made part of the
1784:ecclesiastical province
1762:ecclesiastical province
1725:. It included Bahrain,
1479:and the Greek empires.
1348:Antiochus III the Great
1262:'s construction of the
1018:Robert Bertram Serjeant
736:was a state in ancient
367:Prehistoric to Iron Age
213:, which governed it as
9418:Levant (Greater Syria)
8986:Nabataean architecture
8432:The Formation of Islam
8136:Sirry, Mun'im (2014),
7937:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen
7895:Peters, Francis Edward
7791:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen
7700:, Gorgias Press, LLC,
7477:Goddard, Hugh (2000),
7406:, Peeters Publishers,
7295:Encyclopaedia of Islam
6677:Liska, George (1998).
6560:. BRILL. p. 170.
6554:Göran Larsson (2003).
5873:www.thefreelibrary.com
5739:Abu-Husayn, Abdulrahim
5598:Rice, Michael (1994).
5573:Rice, Michael (1994).
4973:Rice, Michael (1991).
4845:Jastrow, Otto (2002).
4138:Pre-Islamic Arab trade
4051:
4011:
3974:Monophysite Christians
3965:, which believed that
3416:
3349:regarding the role of
3242:
3054:followed through males
3037:
2766:Syria (Roman province)
2715:
2582:
2464:
2429:North Arabian kingdoms
2385:annals (Tamudi), in a
2297:
2289:
2162:
2093:
1839:
1824:
1794:South Arabian Kingdoms
1738:Nestorian Christianity
1643:By about 250 BCE, the
1574:
1535:
1426:
1329:Robert Ernest Cheesman
1293:
1238:
1209:which he locates as a
1077:
879:who lived in Southern
502:who migrated from the
420:Magan, Midian, and ʿĀd
415:(c. 150 BCE–c. 325 CE)
290:
235:was diverse; although
9071:Ancient South Arabian
9036:Ancient North Arabian
9031:South Semitic scripts
8349:10.1515/9783110200959
8273:Taylor, Jane (2001),
8192:Stein, Peter (2009).
8172:Stefon, Matt (2009),
8154:Smart, J. R. (1996),
7880:, Osprey Publishing,
7773:The Ancient Near East
7617:Humphreys, R. Stephen
7552:Holes, Clive (2001),
7321:Fisher, Greg (2015),
7091:Cramer, Marc (1979),
6975:, Walter de Gruyter,
6812:"Egger", "2005", "33"
5526:Michael Rice (1986).
5488:R. A. Donkin (1998).
4903:Holes, Clive (2001).
4581:Holes, Clive (2001).
4456:Smart, J. R. (2013).
4260:Taylor, Jane (2005).
4035:
3991:
3963:Orthodox Christianity
3539:that represents a ram
3479:); exhibition at the
3421:Further information:
3240:
3027:
2876:Further information:
2865:Further information:
2752:Further information:
2705:
2656:There is evidence of
2628:hydraulic engineering
2569:
2445:Old Persian cuneiform
2442:
2435:Ancient North Arabian
2347:Further information:
2295:
2287:
2278:Further information:
2160:
2087:
1888:died around 100 CE .
1830:
1815:
1687:, Saudi Arabia), and
1628:Parthian and Sassanid
1552:
1517:
1424:
1291:
1234:
1075:
1054:, were influenced by
852:. Here, according to
621:Kingdom of Hadhramaut
424:Further information:
307:Ancient North Arabian
284:
8216:. pp. 255–280.
8196:. In Marx, Michael;
8158:, Psychology Press,
8076:. pp. 293–322.
8056:. In Marx, Michael;
7751:Leeming, David Adams
7655:Kaizer, Ted (2008),
7343:. In Marx, Michael;
7013:. pp. 115–134.
6993:. In Marx, Michael;
6869:10.15184/aqy.2020.81
6253:Encyclopædia Iranica
5258:Potts (1990), p. 56.
4784:Matt Stefon (2009).
4462:. Psychology Press.
4143:Pre-Islamic calendar
3957:disagreements about
3795:Religious conversion
2539:Achaemenid Babylonia
2535:Behistun inscription
2192:in Yemen. Outraged,
1576:The Greek historian
1549:Phoenicians Homeland
1458:. The Greek admiral
1084:trading routes. The
792:Babylonian captivity
538:improve this article
434:Magan (civilization)
171:Arab oral traditions
125:), referring to the
9335:Classical antiquity
9286:Islamic perspective
8934:Society and culture
8604:Harrassowitz Verlag
8455:Bulliet, Richard W.
8426:Berkey, Jonathan P.
8366:Watt, W. Montgomery
7363:. pp. 61–114.
7175:, Merriam-Webster,
6973:Redefining Dionysos
6001:Encyclopaedia: D-Ha
5975:Encyclopaedia: D-Ha
5942:Munro-Hay, Stuart.
5852:Encyclopaedia: D-Ha
5563:Arnold Heeren, p441
5267:Bibby, pp. 317-318.
4025:in the Levant, the
3897:Plague of Justinian
3887:Fall of the Empires
3632:Abrahamic religions
3624:and other religions
3275:Abrahamic religions
3267:Abrahamic religions
3070:The Solluba were a
2817:(Deserted Arabia).
2525:did not subdue the
2148:Malkīkarib Yuhaʾmin
2122:and as far east as
1608:With the waning of
1444:Alexander the Great
1088:regarded Dilmun as
1038:Samad Late Iron Age
998:Christianized Arabs
994:liturgical language
810:without success by
263:; and, rarely, the
253:Abrahamic religions
225:and then under the
92:First Islamic State
9499:Pre-Islamic Arabia
8977:Nabataean culture
8689:Pre-Islamic Arabia
8650:2006-02-16 at the
8534:Hoyland, Robert G.
8371:Muhammad At Medina
8343:, pp. 89–91,
8198:Neuwirth, Angelika
8122:, Dumbarton Oaks,
8058:Neuwirth, Angelika
7775:, Abingdon Press,
7571:Hoyland, Robert G.
7345:Neuwirth, Angelika
6995:Neuwirth, Angelika
6311:2015-04-03 at the
6032:87, 2013, 1124-35.
5687:2012-04-19 at the
5442:Curtis E. Larsen.
4392:Stuart Munro-Hay,
4113:History of Bahrain
4054:Recent discoveries
4039:Pyrenees Mountains
4033:and North Africa.
4012:
3583:(National Museum,
3514:Walters Art Museum
3435:produced stylized
3347:have been proposed
3325:and the goddesses
3243:
3038:
2716:
2612:Jordan Rift Valley
2583:
2465:
2298:
2290:
2251:Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan
2163:
2094:
1840:
1825:
1536:
1427:
1390:Kingdom of Bahrain
1294:
1078:
699:with a capital at
379:Umm Al Nar culture
291:
221:, first under the
137:in the context of
115:Pre-Islamic Arabia
37:Pre-Islamic Arabia
9464:
9463:
9301:
9300:
9281:
9280:
9170:
9169:
9140:Old South Arabian
8920:
8919:
8856:Achaemenid Arabia
8638:978-3-929290-35-6
8613:978-3-447-03679-5
8595:Pre-Islamic Yemen
8590:Korotayev, Andrey
8582:978-0-19-922237-7
8559:Korotayev, Andrey
8551:978-0-415-19535-5
8526:978-0-521-65165-3
8501:978-0-691-10182-8
8476:978-0-674-09130-6
8447:978-0-521-58813-3
8411:978-0-7456-3999-4
8393:978-0-226-89428-7
8358:978-3-11-017627-8
8320:978-1-4008-7139-1
8302:978-90-04-05987-0
8295:, Brill Archive,
8284:978-1-86064-508-2
8266:978-1-136-41437-4
8231:978-90-04-17688-1
8185:978-1-61530-017-4
8165:978-0-7007-0411-8
8147:978-0-19-935937-0
8129:978-0-88402-284-8
8091:978-90-04-17688-1
8045:978-0-674-01683-5
8024:978-9-960-00097-8
7997:978-0-7914-0558-1
7928:978-0-7914-1875-8
7908:978-0-691-03267-2
7887:978-1-78096-998-5
7866:978-0-7618-3487-8
7845:978-3-8325-3313-7
7826:978-90-04-14743-0
7782:978-1-4267-6550-6
7764:978-0-19-534899-6
7743:978-0-86078-784-6
7725:978-1-136-10628-6
7707:978-1-4632-0355-9
7689:978-3-447-03679-5
7666:978-90-04-16735-3
7648:978-0-19-533693-1
7630:978-1-85043-360-6
7609:978-0-231-53192-4
7584:978-1-134-64634-0
7563:978-90-04-10763-2
7545:978-0-19-851064-2
7527:978-90-04-10754-0
7509:978-1-139-42635-0
7488:978-1-56663-340-6
7470:978-1-136-10978-2
7452:978-1-55199-342-3
7431:978-1-85043-855-7
7413:978-90-429-1778-1
7378:978-90-04-17688-1
7332:978-0-19-105699-4
7313:978-90-04-16121-4
7286:van Donzel, E. J.
7265:978-0-19-510799-9
7242:978-0-226-14772-7
7219:978-90-04-06050-0
7212:, Brill Archive,
7200:978-0-585-36013-3
7182:978-0-87779-044-0
7159:978-0-8156-3200-9
7141:978-0-7486-2194-1
7120:978-0-521-58679-5
7102:978-0-491-02366-5
7084:978-1-135-96390-3
7066:978-1-134-98081-9
7028:978-90-04-17688-1
6982:978-3-11-030132-8
6964:978-0-521-58813-3
6939:978-1-134-82387-1
6918:978-1-316-64155-2
6653:10.1111/aae.12203
6215:978-0-395-65237-4
6198:Stearns, Peter N.
5837:978-1-58901-910-2
5826:(13 April 2012).
5691:, Peter Hellyer,
5609:978-0-415-03268-1
5584:978-0-415-03268-1
5233:978-0-300-07278-5
4948:World Archaeology
4697:978-3-447-10127-1
4304:978-0-387-44455-0
4291:Wiseman, James R.
4098:Arabian mythology
4088:Ancient Near East
4064:journal Antiquity
4041:in Europe to the
3866:
3865:
3575:Pergamon Museum (
3391:Iranian religions
3307:Dharmic religions
3295:Iranian religions
3217:emerged, and the
3120:Semitic languages
3110:with speakers of
3076:Arabian Peninsula
3030:Arabian Peninsula
2999:), the nephew of
2872:Kingdom of Kindah
2587:Syro-African rift
2459:, circa 480 BCE.
2316:Arabian Peninsula
2288:Location of Dedan
2233:The Persian king
2198:Byzantine Emperor
2098:Himyarite Kingdom
1685:al-Qatif province
1554:According to the
1336:Arabian Peninsula
1245:Epic of Gilgamesh
1203:Thorkild Jacobsen
1115:, in the city of
1098:Epic of Gilgamesh
744:in c. 200 CE and
662:Arabian Peninsula
654:Old South Arabian
637:, in the city of
578:Arabian peninsula
570:
569:
562:
492:Midianite pottery
357:Arabian Peninsula
299:Old South Arabian
261:Gnostic religions
257:Iranian religions
175:Muslim historians
127:Arabian Peninsula
112:
111:
108:
107:
104:
103:
9511:
9328:
9321:
9314:
9305:
9304:
9181:
9180:
9121:Nabataean Arabic
9026:Nabataean script
9021:Aramaic alphabet
9006:
9005:
8928:
8700:
8699:
8682:
8675:
8668:
8659:
8658:
8641:
8616:
8585:
8554:
8529:
8504:
8479:
8464:
8450:
8435:
8414:
8396:
8375:
8361:
8323:
8305:
8287:
8277:, I. B. Tauris,
8269:
8251:
8214:Brill Publishers
8188:
8168:
8150:
8132:
8111:
8074:Brill Publishers
8048:
8027:
8009:
7984:Albany, New York
7972:
7951:Brill Publishers
7931:
7911:
7890:
7869:
7848:
7830:
7809:Brill Publishers
7799:. Vol. IV.
7785:
7767:
7746:
7728:
7710:
7692:
7674:Korotayev, A. V.
7669:
7651:
7633:
7612:
7592:Hughes, Aaron W.
7587:
7566:
7548:
7530:
7512:
7491:
7473:
7455:
7434:
7424:, I. B. Tauris,
7416:
7398:
7361:Brill Publishers
7335:
7317:
7290:Heinrichs, W. P.
7268:
7245:
7222:
7204:
7185:
7162:
7144:
7123:
7105:
7093:The Devil Within
7087:
7069:
7048:
7011:Brill Publishers
6985:
6967:
6956:
6942:
6921:
6892:
6891:
6889:
6888:
6863:(375): 601–621.
6848:
6842:
6841:
6839:
6838:
6819:
6813:
6810:
6804:
6801:
6795:
6792:
6786:
6783:
6777:
6774:
6768:
6765:
6759:
6752:
6746:
6745:
6739:
6738:
6712:
6706:
6705:
6703:
6702:
6674:
6665:
6664:
6632:
6626:
6625:
6618:
6612:
6611:
6605:
6604:
6589:
6583:
6582:
6580:
6579:
6551:
6545:
6544:
6542:
6541:
6513:
6507:
6481:
6463:
6452:
6451:
6439:
6433:
6432:
6420:
6414:
6413:
6401:
6395:
6394:
6382:
6376:
6375:
6363:
6357:
6356:
6344:
6338:
6335:
6329:
6326:
6320:
6303:
6297:
6294:
6288:
6287:
6285:
6283:
6268:
6262:
6250:
6244:
6243:
6241:
6240:
6231:. Archived from
6225:
6219:
6218:
6194:
6188:
6187:
6185:
6184:
6167:
6161:
6152:
6146:
6137:
6131:
6122:
6116:
6107:
6101:
6092:
6086:
6077:
6071:
6070:
6058:
6052:
6051:
6039:
6033:
6023:
6017:
6010:
6004:
5997:
5991:
5984:
5978:
5971:
5965:
5964:
5953:
5947:
5940:
5934:
5924:
5918:
5917:
5912:. Archived from
5906:
5900:
5894:
5888:
5887:
5885:
5884:
5865:
5859:
5856:Andrey Korotayev
5848:
5842:
5841:
5820:
5814:
5811:
5805:
5802:
5796:
5795:
5793:
5791:
5785:
5778:
5770:
5757:
5756:
5734:
5728:
5727:
5725:
5723:
5717:
5710:
5702:
5696:
5679:
5670:
5664:
5658:
5655:
5649:
5646:
5635:
5632:
5626:
5623:
5614:
5613:
5595:
5589:
5588:
5570:
5564:
5561:
5555:
5554:
5552:
5551:
5523:
5517:
5516:
5514:
5513:
5485:
5479:
5478:
5476:
5475:
5469:
5462:
5456:Ju. B. Tsirkin.
5453:
5447:
5440:
5434:
5431:
5425:
5422:
5416:
5413:
5407:
5404:
5398:
5395:
5389:
5382:
5376:
5373:
5367:
5364:
5358:
5355:
5340:
5337:
5331:
5320:
5314:
5311:
5305:
5304:
5283:
5277:
5274:
5268:
5265:
5259:
5256:
5250:
5249:
5247:
5245:
5217:
5211:
5210:
5204:
5200:
5198:
5190:
5188:
5187:
5159:
5153:
5152:
5145:, p. 50-51.
5140:
5134:
5133:
5113:
5107:
5101:
5095:
5094:
5092:
5091:
5063:
5054:
5053:
5051:
5049:
5030:
5021:
5020:
5018:
5016:
4997:
4991:
4990:
4970:
4964:
4963:
4943:
4932:
4931:
4929:
4928:
4900:
4894:
4893:
4887:
4883:
4881:
4873:
4871:
4870:
4842:
4836:
4835:
4833:
4832:
4814:
4808:
4807:
4791:
4781:
4775:
4774:
4772:
4771:
4743:
4737:
4736:
4734:
4733:
4705:
4699:
4682:
4676:
4675:
4636:
4630:
4629:
4623:
4619:
4617:
4609:
4607:
4606:
4578:
4569:
4568:
4562:
4558:
4556:
4548:
4546:
4545:
4518:
4512:
4511:
4509:
4508:
4480:
4474:
4473:
4453:
4444:
4443:
4441:
4440:
4412:
4406:
4403:
4397:
4390:
4384:
4367:
4361:
4353:
4347:
4340:
4334:
4327:
4321:
4320:
4318:
4316:
4282:
4276:
4275:
4257:
4251:
4248:
4239:
4238:
4218:
4212:
4211:
4205:
4197:
4195:
4194:
4188:
4181:
4173:
4093:Arab (etymology)
4008:
4002:
3996:
3920:Fertile Crescent
3858:
3851:
3844:
3633:
3618:
3617:
3608:
3596:
3572:
3560:
3548:
3529:
3508:
3496:
3468:
3448:
3159:Tribes of Arabia
2878:Kingdom of Kinda
2827:settled the mid
2697:Palmyra Hadriana
2573:in the ruins of
2531:Darius the Great
2501:Arabia (satrapy)
2364:
2248:
2172:Kingdom of Aksum
2038:Kingdom of Awsan
2026:Shammar Yahri'sh
1966:camels on routes
1886:Minaean language
1884:to end, and the
1872:in northwestern
1754:Gabriel of Qatar
1746:Isaac of Nineveh
1742:Byzantine Empire
1572:
1488:Qalat Al Bahrain
1361:as inhabited by
1321:Eastern Province
1306:
1186:in Mesopotamia.
1151:Burna-Buriash II
992:functioned as a
986:Persian speakers
816:Diodorus Siculus
697:Kingdom of Awsan
686:Himyarite empire
660:, in south west
641:. The adjective
565:
558:
554:
551:
545:
522:
514:
471:Claudius Ptolemy
391:Wadi Suq Culture
343:Muslim conquests
265:Indian religions
207:Samad population
160:
157:
154:
151:
148:
144:
124:
100:
99:
88:
87:
73:
72:
64:
53:
45:
44:
33:
32:
9519:
9518:
9514:
9513:
9512:
9510:
9509:
9508:
9489:
9488:
9470:
9465:
9460:
9427:
9394:
9338:
9332:
9302:
9297:
9277:
9236:Other religions
9231:
9166:
9089:
9016:Arabic alphabet
8997:
8929:
8916:
8895:
8839:
8811:
8756:
8691:
8686:
8652:Wayback Machine
8639:
8621:Yule, Paul Alan
8614:
8583:
8552:
8527:
8502:
8477:
8448:
8421:
8419:Further reading
8412:
8394:
8359:
8321:
8303:
8285:
8267:
8232:
8186:
8166:
8148:
8130:
8092:
8046:
8032:Sartre, Maurice
8025:
7998:
7969:
7945:. Vol. V.
7929:
7909:
7888:
7867:
7846:
7827:
7783:
7765:
7744:
7726:
7708:
7690:
7667:
7649:
7631:
7610:
7585:
7564:
7546:
7528:
7510:
7489:
7471:
7453:
7439:Gilbert, Martin
7432:
7414:
7379:
7333:
7314:
7282:Bosworth, C. E.
7266:
7243:
7220:
7201:
7183:
7160:
7142:
7128:Crone, Patricia
7121:
7103:
7085:
7067:
7053:Cameron, Averil
7029:
6983:
6965:
6940:
6919:
6900:
6895:
6886:
6884:
6849:
6845:
6836:
6834:
6821:
6820:
6816:
6811:
6807:
6802:
6798:
6793:
6789:
6784:
6780:
6775:
6771:
6766:
6762:
6753:
6749:
6736:
6734:
6732:
6713:
6709:
6700:
6698:
6691:
6675:
6668:
6633:
6629:
6620:
6619:
6615:
6602:
6600:
6591:
6590:
6586:
6577:
6575:
6568:
6552:
6548:
6539:
6537:
6530:
6514:
6510:
6478:
6464:
6455:
6445:
6440:
6436:
6426:
6421:
6417:
6407:
6402:
6398:
6388:
6383:
6379:
6369:
6364:
6360:
6350:
6345:
6341:
6336:
6332:
6327:
6323:
6313:Wayback Machine
6304:
6300:
6295:
6291:
6281:
6279:
6270:
6269:
6265:
6260:Wayback Machine
6251:
6247:
6238:
6236:
6227:
6226:
6222:
6216:
6195:
6191:
6182:
6180:
6169:
6168:
6164:
6153:
6149:
6138:
6134:
6123:
6119:
6108:
6104:
6093:
6089:
6078:
6074:
6064:
6059:
6055:
6045:
6040:
6036:
6024:
6020:
6011:
6007:
5998:
5994:
5985:
5981:
5972:
5968:
5955:
5954:
5950:
5941:
5937:
5925:
5921:
5908:
5907:
5903:
5895:
5891:
5882:
5880:
5867:
5866:
5862:
5849:
5845:
5838:
5824:Fromherz, Allen
5821:
5817:
5812:
5808:
5803:
5799:
5789:
5787:
5783:
5776:
5772:
5771:
5760:
5753:
5735:
5731:
5721:
5719:
5715:
5708:
5704:
5703:
5699:
5689:Wayback Machine
5680:
5673:
5665:
5661:
5656:
5652:
5647:
5638:
5633:
5629:
5624:
5617:
5610:
5596:
5592:
5585:
5571:
5567:
5562:
5558:
5549:
5547:
5540:
5524:
5520:
5511:
5509:
5502:
5486:
5482:
5473:
5471:
5467:
5460:
5454:
5450:
5441:
5437:
5432:
5428:
5423:
5419:
5414:
5410:
5405:
5401:
5396:
5392:
5383:
5379:
5374:
5370:
5365:
5361:
5356:
5343:
5338:
5334:
5321:
5317:
5312:
5308:
5298:
5284:
5280:
5275:
5271:
5266:
5262:
5257:
5253:
5243:
5241:
5234:
5218:
5214:
5202:
5201:
5192:
5191:
5185:
5183:
5176:
5160:
5156:
5146:
5141:
5137:
5130:
5114:
5110:
5102:
5098:
5089:
5087:
5080:
5064:
5057:
5047:
5045:
5032:
5031:
5024:
5014:
5012:
5007:. 21 May 2013.
4999:
4998:
4994:
4987:
4971:
4967:
4944:
4935:
4926:
4924:
4917:
4901:
4897:
4885:
4884:
4875:
4874:
4868:
4866:
4859:
4843:
4839:
4830:
4828:
4815:
4811:
4804:
4782:
4778:
4769:
4767:
4760:
4744:
4740:
4731:
4729:
4722:
4714:. p. 371.
4706:
4702:
4683:
4679:
4637:
4633:
4621:
4620:
4611:
4610:
4604:
4602:
4595:
4579:
4572:
4560:
4559:
4550:
4549:
4543:
4541:
4534:
4520:
4519:
4515:
4506:
4504:
4497:
4481:
4477:
4470:
4454:
4447:
4438:
4436:
4429:
4413:
4409:
4404:
4400:
4391:
4387:
4368:
4364:
4354:
4350:
4341:
4337:
4328:
4324:
4314:
4312:
4305:
4283:
4279:
4272:
4258:
4254:
4249:
4242:
4235:
4219:
4215:
4199:
4198:
4192:
4190:
4186:
4179:
4177:"Archived copy"
4175:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4084:
4060:Dumat al-Jandal
4056:
4018:
4016:Spread of Islam
4010:
4006:
4004:
4000:
3998:
3994:
3986:
3947:Christian Arabs
3889:
3862:
3833:
3707:Pagan Sabianism
3684:Other religions
3631:
3623:
3616:
3609:
3600:
3597:
3588:
3573:
3564:
3561:
3552:
3549:
3540:
3530:
3521:
3509:
3500:
3497:
3488:
3469:
3460:
3449:
3429:
3419:
3387:Sasanian Empire
3255:
3249:
3235:
3165:
3157:Main articles:
3155:
3068:
3062:
3050:pastoral nomads
3046:
3022:
3020:Sedentary Arabs
3017:
2930:(Rabi'ah) from
2880:
2874:
2869:
2863:
2772:
2750:
2731:Hijaz mountains
2654:
2646:Main articles:
2644:
2564:
2558:
2517:. According to
2503:
2497:
2476:
2470:
2457:Achaemenid army
2437:
2431:
2351:
2345:
2309:
2303:
2282:
2276:
2231:
2229:Sassanid Empire
2225:
2174:
2168:
2139:Aksumite Empire
2100:
2082:
2062:
2056:
2040:
2034:
2006:
2000:
1904:
1896:Main articles:
1894:
1882:Yemeni kingdoms
1851:
1845:
1810:
1798:Main articles:
1796:
1780:
1774:
1750:Dadisho Qatraya
1719:
1713:
1630:
1573:
1570:
1551:
1484:Seleucid Empire
1456:Iranian dynasty
1419:
1413:
1405:Carsten Niebuhr
1371:Pliny the Elder
1344:Assyrian Empire
1286:
1280:
1184:Kassite dynasty
1070:
1064:
978:
970:Main articles:
968:
932:Early Christian
877:Arab Christians
865:Lakhmid Kingdom
690:Sabaean Kingdom
598:oral traditions
566:
555:
549:
546:
535:
523:
512:
496:Beno Rothenberg
436:
422:
393:(1900–1300 BCE)
381:(2600–2000 BCE)
369:
347:oral traditions
279:
273:
239:was prevalent,
219:Iranian peoples
191:Southern Arabia
158:
155:
152:
149:
97:
67:
55:
54:
47:
38:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
9517:
9507:
9506:
9501:
9487:
9486:
9481:
9476:
9469:
9468:External links
9466:
9462:
9461:
9459:
9458:
9453:
9448:
9443:
9437:
9435:
9429:
9428:
9426:
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9410:
9404:
9402:
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9395:
9393:
9392:
9387:
9382:
9377:
9372:
9367:
9362:
9357:
9352:
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9344:
9340:
9339:
9331:
9330:
9323:
9316:
9308:
9299:
9298:
9296:
9295:
9289:
9287:
9283:
9282:
9279:
9278:
9276:
9275:
9270:
9268:Zoroastrianism
9265:
9260:
9255:
9250:
9245:
9239:
9237:
9233:
9232:
9230:
9229:
9222:
9221:
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9200:
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9168:
9167:
9165:
9164:
9163:
9162:
9157:
9152:
9147:
9137:
9136:
9135:
9133:Hatran Aramaic
9125:
9124:
9123:
9118:
9113:
9108:
9097:
9095:
9091:
9090:
9088:
9087:
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8954:
8953:
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8923:
8921:
8918:
8917:
8915:
8914:
8909:
8903:
8901:
8900:Central Arabia
8897:
8896:
8894:
8893:
8891:Arabia Petraea
8888:
8883:
8878:
8873:
8868:
8863:
8858:
8853:
8847:
8845:
8841:
8840:
8838:
8837:
8832:
8827:
8821:
8819:
8813:
8812:
8810:
8809:
8804:
8799:
8794:
8789:
8784:
8779:
8778:
8777:
8766:
8764:
8758:
8757:
8755:
8754:
8749:
8744:
8739:
8734:
8729:
8724:
8719:
8714:
8708:
8706:
8704:Eastern Arabia
8697:
8693:
8692:
8685:
8684:
8677:
8670:
8662:
8656:
8655:
8642:
8637:
8617:
8612:
8586:
8581:
8555:
8550:
8530:
8525:
8509:Hawting, G. R.
8505:
8500:
8480:
8475:
8451:
8446:
8420:
8417:
8416:
8415:
8410:
8397:
8392:
8380:Wheatley, Paul
8376:
8362:
8357:
8324:
8319:
8306:
8301:
8288:
8283:
8270:
8265:
8252:
8230:
8189:
8184:
8169:
8164:
8151:
8146:
8133:
8128:
8112:
8090:
8049:
8044:
8028:
8023:
8010:
7996:
7973:
7967:
7932:
7927:
7921:, SUNY Press,
7912:
7907:
7891:
7886:
7874:Nicolle, David
7870:
7865:
7853:Neusner, Jacob
7849:
7844:
7831:
7825:
7786:
7781:
7768:
7763:
7747:
7742:
7729:
7724:
7711:
7706:
7693:
7688:
7670:
7665:
7652:
7647:
7634:
7629:
7613:
7608:
7588:
7583:
7567:
7562:
7549:
7544:
7531:
7526:
7513:
7508:
7496:Hawting, G. R.
7492:
7487:
7474:
7469:
7456:
7451:
7435:
7430:
7417:
7412:
7399:
7377:
7336:
7331:
7325:, OUP Oxford,
7318:
7312:
7274:Bearman, P. J.
7269:
7264:
7250:Esposito, John
7246:
7241:
7227:Eliade, Mircea
7223:
7218:
7205:
7199:
7186:
7181:
7169:, ed. (1999),
7167:Doniger, Wendy
7163:
7158:
7145:
7140:
7124:
7119:
7106:
7101:
7088:
7083:
7070:
7065:
7049:
7027:
6986:
6981:
6968:
6963:
6943:
6938:
6922:
6917:
6905:al-Azmeh, Aziz
6899:
6896:
6894:
6893:
6843:
6814:
6805:
6796:
6787:
6778:
6769:
6760:
6747:
6730:
6707:
6689:
6666:
6647:(1): 202–215.
6627:
6613:
6584:
6567:978-9004127401
6566:
6546:
6528:
6508:
6477:978-9089640451
6476:
6453:
6434:
6415:
6396:
6377:
6358:
6349:, pp. 4–5
6339:
6330:
6321:
6298:
6289:
6263:
6245:
6220:
6214:
6189:
6162:
6147:
6132:
6117:
6102:
6087:
6072:
6063:, p. 192.
6061:Al-Ansary 1999
6053:
6044:, p. 297.
6034:
6018:
6005:
5992:
5979:
5966:
5948:
5935:
5919:
5916:on 2007-11-12.
5901:
5889:
5860:
5843:
5836:
5815:
5806:
5797:
5786:on 28 May 2015
5758:
5752:978-1463203559
5751:
5737:Kozah, Mario;
5729:
5718:on 28 May 2015
5697:
5671:
5659:
5650:
5636:
5627:
5615:
5608:
5590:
5583:
5565:
5556:
5538:
5518:
5500:
5480:
5448:
5435:
5426:
5417:
5408:
5399:
5390:
5377:
5368:
5359:
5341:
5332:
5315:
5306:
5297:978-9004082687
5296:
5290:. E.J. Brill.
5286:Yaqut (1959).
5278:
5269:
5260:
5251:
5232:
5212:
5174:
5154:
5135:
5128:
5108:
5096:
5078:
5055:
5022:
4992:
4985:
4965:
4954:(3): 441–448.
4933:
4916:978-9004107632
4915:
4895:
4857:
4837:
4809:
4802:
4776:
4758:
4738:
4720:
4700:
4677:
4650:(3): 486–514.
4631:
4594:978-9004107632
4593:
4570:
4533:978-9004097919
4532:
4513:
4495:
4475:
4468:
4445:
4427:
4407:
4398:
4385:
4362:
4348:
4335:
4322:
4303:
4277:
4270:
4252:
4240:
4233:
4213:
4167:
4165:
4162:
4161:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4083:
4080:
4055:
4052:
4014:Main article:
4005:
3999:
3993:
3985:
3982:
3955:denominational
3909:Constantinople
3888:
3885:
3864:
3863:
3861:
3860:
3853:
3846:
3838:
3835:
3834:
3832:
3831:
3826:
3820:
3817:
3816:
3815:
3814:
3813:
3812:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3781:
3780:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3737:
3736:
3732:
3731:
3730:
3729:
3727:Zoroastrianism
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3686:
3685:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3667:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3654:
3644:
3636:
3635:
3627:
3626:
3615:
3614:Late Antiquity
3612:
3611:
3610:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3591:
3589:
3574:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3543:
3541:
3531:
3524:
3522:
3510:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3491:
3489:
3470:
3463:
3461:
3450:
3443:
3418:
3415:
3411:Ri al-Zallalah
3395:Zoroastrianism
3299:Zoroastrianism
3245:Main article:
3234:
3231:
3204:Umayyad period
3200:
3199:
3184:
3179:"Pure Arabs" (
3177:
3154:
3151:
3064:Main article:
3061:
3058:
3045:
3044:Bedouin tribes
3042:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
2873:
2870:
2862:
2861:Central Arabia
2859:
2858:
2857:
2840:
2815:Arabia Deserta
2806:
2805:
2770:Arabia Petraea
2749:
2746:
2738:Limes Arabicus
2691:west. In 129,
2670:Roman province
2648:Arabia Petraea
2643:
2640:
2560:Main article:
2557:
2554:
2515:Arabia Petraea
2499:Main article:
2496:
2493:
2472:Main article:
2469:
2466:
2443:Arab soldier (
2430:
2427:
2379:Arabian poetry
2344:
2341:
2305:Main article:
2302:
2299:
2275:
2272:
2227:Main article:
2224:
2221:
2170:Main article:
2167:
2164:
2154:(Samu Yafa').
2096:Main article:
2081:
2078:
2058:Main article:
2055:
2052:
2036:Main article:
2033:
2030:
2002:Main article:
1999:
1996:
1893:
1890:
1847:Main article:
1844:
1841:
1795:
1792:
1776:Main article:
1773:
1770:
1715:Main article:
1712:
1709:
1701:Middle-Persian
1629:
1626:
1568:
1560:Erythraean Sea
1550:
1547:
1448:Persian Empire
1415:Main article:
1412:
1409:
1282:Main article:
1279:
1276:
1207:"Mount Dilmun"
1127:and later the
1102:Garden of Eden
1066:Main article:
1063:
1060:
1052:Bahrani Arabic
1044:Zoroastrianism
1034:Eastern Arabia
972:Eastern Arabia
967:
966:Eastern Arabia
964:
727:Karib'il Watar
568:
567:
526:
524:
517:
511:
508:
459:
458:
447:
421:
418:
417:
416:
410:
404:
403:(1300–300 BCE)
401:Early Iron Age
394:
388:
382:
376:
368:
365:
301:(10th century
287:British Museum
272:
269:
215:Arabia Petraea
203:Eastern Arabia
110:
109:
106:
105:
102:
101:
94:
85:
82:
81:
76:
69:
68:
65:
57:
56:
40:
39:
36:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9516:
9505:
9502:
9500:
9497:
9496:
9494:
9485:
9482:
9480:
9477:
9475:
9472:
9471:
9457:
9454:
9452:
9449:
9447:
9444:
9442:
9439:
9438:
9436:
9434:
9430:
9424:
9421:
9419:
9416:
9414:
9411:
9409:
9406:
9405:
9403:
9401:
9397:
9391:
9388:
9386:
9383:
9381:
9378:
9376:
9373:
9371:
9368:
9366:
9363:
9361:
9358:
9356:
9353:
9351:
9348:
9347:
9345:
9341:
9336:
9329:
9324:
9322:
9317:
9315:
9310:
9309:
9306:
9294:
9291:
9290:
9288:
9284:
9274:
9271:
9269:
9266:
9264:
9261:
9259:
9256:
9254:
9251:
9249:
9246:
9244:
9241:
9240:
9238:
9234:
9228:
9227:
9226:Book of Idols
9223:
9219:
9216:
9214:
9211:
9209:
9206:
9204:
9201:
9199:
9196:
9195:
9194:
9191:
9190:
9188:
9186:
9182:
9179:
9177:
9173:
9161:
9158:
9156:
9153:
9151:
9148:
9146:
9143:
9142:
9141:
9138:
9134:
9131:
9130:
9129:
9126:
9122:
9119:
9117:
9114:
9112:
9109:
9107:
9104:
9103:
9102:
9099:
9098:
9096:
9092:
9082:
9079:
9077:
9074:
9073:
9072:
9069:
9065:
9062:
9060:
9057:
9055:
9052:
9050:
9047:
9044:
9042:
9039:
9038:
9037:
9034:
9033:
9032:
9029:
9027:
9024:
9022:
9019:
9017:
9014:
9013:
9011:
9007:
9004:
9000:
8994:
8991:
8987:
8984:
8982:
8981:Nabataean art
8979:
8978:
8976:
8974:
8971:
8969:
8966:
8964:
8961:
8959:
8956:
8952:
8949:
8948:
8947:
8944:
8942:
8939:
8938:
8936:
8932:
8927:
8913:
8910:
8908:
8905:
8904:
8902:
8898:
8892:
8889:
8887:
8884:
8882:
8879:
8877:
8874:
8872:
8869:
8867:
8864:
8862:
8859:
8857:
8854:
8852:
8849:
8848:
8846:
8842:
8836:
8833:
8831:
8828:
8826:
8823:
8822:
8820:
8818:
8814:
8808:
8805:
8803:
8800:
8798:
8795:
8793:
8790:
8788:
8785:
8783:
8780:
8776:
8773:
8772:
8771:
8768:
8767:
8765:
8763:
8759:
8753:
8752:Beth Manuzaye
8750:
8748:
8745:
8743:
8740:
8738:
8735:
8733:
8730:
8728:
8725:
8723:
8720:
8718:
8715:
8713:
8710:
8709:
8707:
8705:
8701:
8698:
8694:
8690:
8683:
8678:
8676:
8671:
8669:
8664:
8663:
8660:
8653:
8649:
8646:
8645:Arabia Antica
8643:
8640:
8634:
8630:
8626:
8622:
8618:
8615:
8609:
8605:
8601:
8597:
8596:
8591:
8587:
8584:
8578:
8574:
8570:
8566:
8565:
8564:Ancient Yemen
8560:
8556:
8553:
8547:
8543:
8539:
8535:
8531:
8528:
8522:
8518:
8514:
8510:
8506:
8503:
8497:
8493:
8489:
8485:
8481:
8478:
8472:
8468:
8463:
8462:
8456:
8452:
8449:
8443:
8439:
8434:
8433:
8427:
8423:
8422:
8413:
8407:
8403:
8398:
8395:
8389:
8385:
8381:
8377:
8373:
8372:
8367:
8363:
8360:
8354:
8350:
8346:
8342:
8338:
8334:
8330:
8325:
8322:
8316:
8312:
8307:
8304:
8298:
8294:
8289:
8286:
8280:
8276:
8271:
8268:
8262:
8259:, Routledge,
8258:
8253:
8249:
8245:
8241:
8237:
8233:
8227:
8223:
8219:
8215:
8211:
8207:
8203:
8199:
8195:
8190:
8187:
8181:
8177:
8176:
8170:
8167:
8161:
8157:
8152:
8149:
8143:
8139:
8134:
8131:
8125:
8121:
8117:
8116:Shahîd, Irfan
8113:
8109:
8105:
8101:
8097:
8093:
8087:
8083:
8079:
8075:
8071:
8067:
8063:
8059:
8055:
8050:
8047:
8041:
8037:
8033:
8029:
8026:
8020:
8016:
8011:
8007:
8003:
7999:
7993:
7989:
7985:
7981:
7980:
7974:
7970:
7968:90-04-14743-8
7964:
7960:
7956:
7952:
7948:
7944:
7943:
7938:
7933:
7930:
7924:
7920:
7919:
7913:
7910:
7904:
7900:
7896:
7892:
7889:
7883:
7879:
7875:
7871:
7868:
7862:
7858:
7854:
7850:
7847:
7841:
7837:
7832:
7828:
7822:
7818:
7814:
7810:
7806:
7802:
7798:
7797:
7792:
7787:
7784:
7778:
7774:
7769:
7766:
7760:
7756:
7752:
7748:
7745:
7739:
7735:
7730:
7727:
7721:
7718:, Routledge,
7717:
7712:
7709:
7703:
7699:
7694:
7691:
7685:
7681:
7680:
7675:
7671:
7668:
7662:
7658:
7653:
7650:
7644:
7640:
7635:
7632:
7626:
7622:
7618:
7614:
7611:
7605:
7601:
7597:
7593:
7589:
7586:
7580:
7577:, Routledge,
7576:
7572:
7568:
7565:
7559:
7555:
7550:
7547:
7541:
7537:
7532:
7529:
7523:
7519:
7514:
7511:
7505:
7501:
7497:
7493:
7490:
7484:
7480:
7475:
7472:
7466:
7463:, Routledge,
7462:
7457:
7454:
7448:
7444:
7440:
7436:
7433:
7427:
7423:
7418:
7415:
7409:
7405:
7400:
7396:
7392:
7388:
7384:
7380:
7374:
7370:
7366:
7362:
7358:
7354:
7350:
7346:
7342:
7337:
7334:
7328:
7324:
7319:
7315:
7309:
7305:
7301:
7297:
7296:
7291:
7287:
7283:
7279:
7278:Bianquis, Th.
7275:
7270:
7267:
7261:
7257:
7256:
7251:
7247:
7244:
7238:
7234:
7233:
7228:
7224:
7221:
7215:
7211:
7206:
7202:
7196:
7192:
7187:
7184:
7178:
7174:
7173:
7168:
7164:
7161:
7155:
7151:
7146:
7143:
7137:
7133:
7129:
7125:
7122:
7116:
7112:
7107:
7104:
7098:
7094:
7089:
7086:
7080:
7077:, Routledge,
7076:
7071:
7068:
7062:
7059:, Routledge,
7058:
7054:
7050:
7046:
7042:
7038:
7034:
7030:
7024:
7020:
7016:
7012:
7008:
7004:
7000:
6996:
6992:
6987:
6984:
6978:
6974:
6969:
6966:
6960:
6955:
6954:
6948:
6944:
6941:
6935:
6932:, Routledge,
6931:
6927:
6926:Ball, Warwick
6923:
6920:
6914:
6910:
6906:
6902:
6901:
6882:
6878:
6874:
6870:
6866:
6862:
6858:
6854:
6847:
6832:
6828:
6824:
6818:
6809:
6800:
6791:
6782:
6773:
6764:
6757:
6751:
6744:
6733:
6731:9783515029070
6727:
6723:
6719:
6711:
6696:
6692:
6690:9780847686797
6686:
6682:
6681:
6673:
6671:
6662:
6658:
6654:
6650:
6646:
6642:
6638:
6631:
6623:
6617:
6610:
6598:
6594:
6588:
6573:
6569:
6563:
6559:
6558:
6550:
6535:
6531:
6529:9780791403310
6525:
6521:
6520:
6512:
6505:
6501:
6497:
6493:
6489:
6485:
6479:
6473:
6469:
6462:
6460:
6458:
6449:
6444:, p. 282
6443:
6438:
6430:
6424:
6419:
6411:
6406:, p. 814
6405:
6400:
6392:
6386:
6381:
6373:
6367:
6362:
6354:
6348:
6343:
6334:
6325:
6318:
6314:
6310:
6307:
6302:
6293:
6278:on 2014-10-23
6277:
6273:
6267:
6261:
6257:
6254:
6249:
6235:on 2013-09-01
6234:
6230:
6224:
6217:
6211:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6193:
6178:
6174:
6173:
6166:
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6145:
6141:
6136:
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6100:
6096:
6091:
6085:
6081:
6076:
6068:
6062:
6057:
6049:
6043:
6038:
6031:
6027:
6022:
6015:
6009:
6002:
5996:
5989:
5983:
5977:, pp. 965–66.
5976:
5970:
5962:
5958:
5952:
5945:
5939:
5932:
5930:
5923:
5915:
5911:
5905:
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5857:
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5833:
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5819:
5810:
5801:
5782:
5775:
5769:
5767:
5765:
5763:
5754:
5748:
5744:
5740:
5733:
5714:
5707:
5701:
5694:
5690:
5686:
5683:
5678:
5676:
5669:
5663:
5654:
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5643:
5641:
5631:
5622:
5620:
5611:
5605:
5601:
5594:
5586:
5580:
5576:
5569:
5560:
5545:
5541:
5539:9780710301123
5535:
5531:
5530:
5522:
5507:
5503:
5501:9780871692245
5497:
5493:
5492:
5484:
5470:on 2013-12-03
5466:
5459:
5452:
5445:
5439:
5430:
5421:
5412:
5403:
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5387:
5381:
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5352:
5350:
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5346:
5336:
5329:
5328:0-226-46906-9
5325:
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5181:
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5175:9781860647420
5171:
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5139:
5131:
5129:9780521586795
5125:
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5112:
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5100:
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5081:
5079:9780761811404
5075:
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5070:
5062:
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5043:
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5029:
5027:
5010:
5006:
5002:
4996:
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4986:9781134492633
4982:
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4922:
4918:
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4908:
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4858:9783447044912
4854:
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4805:
4803:9781615300174
4799:
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4759:9781850438557
4755:
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4721:9780748621941
4717:
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4496:9781134980819
4492:
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4469:9780700704118
4465:
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4428:9798411225921
4424:
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4395:
4389:
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4382:0-521-58348-9
4379:
4375:
4371:
4366:
4359:
4352:
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4339:
4332:
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4310:
4306:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4281:
4273:
4271:9957-451-04-9
4267:
4263:
4256:
4247:
4245:
4236:
4234:9781315511153
4230:
4227:. Routledge.
4226:
4225:
4217:
4209:
4203:
4185:
4178:
4172:
4168:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4128:Incense Route
4126:
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4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
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4061:
4050:
4048:
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4040:
4034:
4032:
4028:
4022:
4017:
3990:
3984:Rise of Islam
3981:
3977:
3975:
3971:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3935:
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3808:
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3798:
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3723:
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3713:
3710:
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3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3688:
3687:
3683:
3682:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3658:
3657:Protestantism
3655:
3653:
3650:
3649:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3639:
3638:
3637:
3634:
3629:
3628:
3625:
3620:
3619:
3607:
3602:
3595:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3581:Tell Al-Zayer
3578:
3571:
3566:
3559:
3554:
3547:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3528:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3507:
3502:
3495:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3467:
3462:
3459:(Rome, Italy)
3458:
3454:
3447:
3442:
3441:
3440:
3438:
3434:
3428:
3424:
3423:Nabataean art
3414:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3367:
3363:
3358:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3305:, as well as
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3254:
3248:
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3230:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3207:
3205:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3182:
3178:
3175:
3171:
3170:
3169:
3164:
3160:
3150:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3139:Werner Caskel
3136:
3132:
3128:
3123:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3104:
3100:
3095:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3067:
3057:
3055:
3051:
3041:
3035:
3031:
3026:
3012:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2985:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2967:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2950:(Kindah) and
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2916:
2914:
2913:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2891:
2889:
2885:
2879:
2868:
2855:
2854:Qaryat al-Fāw
2851:
2847:
2846:
2841:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2825:
2820:
2819:
2818:
2816:
2811:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2786:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2745:
2743:
2739:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2727:Mada'in Saleh
2724:
2723:Roman legions
2719:
2713:
2712:Mada'in Saleh
2709:
2704:
2700:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2653:
2649:
2639:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2553:
2551:
2547:
2542:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2502:
2492:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2426:
2424:
2423:rise of Islam
2421:. Before the
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2308:
2294:
2286:
2281:
2271:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2256:
2253:to drive the
2252:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2230:
2220:
2218:
2217:Sassanid army
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2173:
2159:
2155:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2127:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2099:
2091:
2086:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2039:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2015:
2011:
2005:
1995:
1993:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1979:and northern
1978:
1974:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1960:, India, and
1959:
1958:Mediterranean
1955:
1951:
1946:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1935:Aelius Gallus
1932:
1928:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1903:
1899:
1889:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1850:
1838:
1834:
1829:
1822:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1779:
1772:Beth Mazunaye
1769:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1734:
1733:, and Qatar.
1732:
1728:
1727:Tarout Island
1724:
1718:
1708:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1656:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1641:
1639:
1635:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1606:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1594:Arad, Bahrain
1591:
1587:
1586:Arnold Heeren
1583:
1579:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1512:
1510:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1489:
1485:
1480:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1436:
1431:
1423:
1418:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1302:
1298:
1290:
1285:
1275:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1255:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1237:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1191:Eridu Genesis
1187:
1185:
1181:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1157:, during the
1156:
1152:
1147:
1145:
1144:Mediterranean
1141:
1137:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1074:
1069:
1059:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
977:
973:
963:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
897:
895:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
861:
859:
855:
854:Agatharchides
851:
847:
846:Gulf of Aqaba
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
786:mentioned in
785:
781:
777:
772:
770:
766:
762:
758:
753:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
730:
728:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
706:
702:
698:
693:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
672:and northern
671:
668:, located in
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
646:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
626:
622:
617:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
564:
561:
553:
543:
539:
533:
532:
527:This section
525:
521:
516:
515:
507:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
484:
482:
478:
477:
472:
468:
464:
456:
452:
448:
445:
441:
438:
437:
435:
431:
427:
414:
411:
408:
405:
402:
398:
397:Lizq/Rumaylah
395:
392:
389:
386:
383:
380:
377:
374:
371:
370:
364:
362:
358:
354:
353:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
288:
283:
278:
268:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
245:Jewish tribes
242:
238:
234:
230:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
166:
164:
143:
142:
136:
132:
128:
120:
116:
95:
93:
90:
89:
86:
84:
83:
80:
77:
75:
74:
70:
63:
58:
51:
34:
29:
22:
9422:
9253:Samaritanism
9248:Christianity
9224:
8844:North Arabia
8762:South Arabia
8747:Beth Qatraye
8688:
8624:
8594:
8563:
8537:
8512:
8487:
8484:Donner, Fred
8460:
8431:
8401:
8383:
8370:
8332:
8310:
8292:
8274:
8256:
8201:
8174:
8155:
8137:
8119:
8061:
8035:
8014:
7978:
7940:
7917:
7898:
7877:
7856:
7835:
7794:
7772:
7754:
7733:
7715:
7697:
7678:
7656:
7638:
7620:
7599:
7574:
7553:
7535:
7517:
7499:
7478:
7460:
7442:
7421:
7403:
7348:
7322:
7293:
7254:
7231:
7209:
7190:
7171:
7149:
7131:
7110:
7092:
7074:
7056:
6998:
6972:
6952:
6929:
6908:
6898:Bibliography
6885:. Retrieved
6860:
6856:
6846:
6835:. Retrieved
6826:
6817:
6808:
6799:
6790:
6781:
6772:
6763:
6750:
6741:
6735:. Retrieved
6721:
6710:
6699:. Retrieved
6679:
6644:
6640:
6630:
6621:
6616:
6607:
6601:. Retrieved
6587:
6576:. Retrieved
6556:
6549:
6538:. Retrieved
6518:
6511:
6467:
6437:
6425:, p. 22
6418:
6399:
6387:, p. 43
6380:
6368:, p. 10
6361:
6342:
6333:
6324:
6316:
6301:
6292:
6280:. Retrieved
6276:the original
6266:
6248:
6237:. Retrieved
6233:the original
6223:
6205:
6192:
6181:. Retrieved
6172:DNa - Livius
6171:
6165:
6150:
6135:
6120:
6105:
6090:
6075:
6056:
6037:
6029:
6021:
6013:
6008:
6000:
5995:
5987:
5986:Yule, Paul.
5982:
5974:
5969:
5951:
5943:
5938:
5927:
5922:
5914:the original
5904:
5892:
5881:. Retrieved
5872:
5863:
5851:
5846:
5827:
5818:
5809:
5800:
5788:. Retrieved
5781:the original
5742:
5732:
5720:. Retrieved
5713:the original
5700:
5692:
5667:
5662:
5653:
5630:
5599:
5593:
5574:
5568:
5559:
5548:. Retrieved
5528:
5521:
5510:. Retrieved
5490:
5483:
5472:. Retrieved
5465:the original
5451:
5443:
5438:
5429:
5420:
5411:
5402:
5393:
5380:
5371:
5362:
5335:
5318:
5309:
5301:
5288:Mujam Buldan
5287:
5281:
5272:
5263:
5254:
5242:. Retrieved
5222:
5215:
5184:. Retrieved
5164:
5157:
5138:
5118:
5111:
5103:
5099:
5088:. Retrieved
5068:
5046:. Retrieved
5013:. Retrieved
5004:
4995:
4975:
4968:
4951:
4947:
4925:. Retrieved
4905:
4898:
4867:. Retrieved
4847:
4840:
4829:. Retrieved
4819:
4812:
4787:
4779:
4768:. Retrieved
4748:
4741:
4730:. Retrieved
4710:
4703:
4688:
4685:Paul A. Yule
4680:
4647:
4643:
4634:
4603:. Retrieved
4583:
4542:. Retrieved
4522:
4516:
4505:. Retrieved
4485:
4478:
4458:
4437:. Retrieved
4417:
4410:
4401:
4393:
4388:
4373:
4365:
4357:
4351:
4343:
4338:
4330:
4325:
4313:. Retrieved
4294:
4280:
4261:
4255:
4223:
4216:
4191:. Retrieved
4171:
4072:Saudi Arabia
4057:
4036:
4023:
4019:
3978:
3945:, were also
3936:
3928:
3924:North Africa
3913:
3890:
3882:
3878:George Liska
3867:
3743:Antisemitism
3735:Islam and...
3647:Christianity
3642:Baháʼí Faith
3477:Saudi Arabia
3430:
3389:resulted in
3379:Miaphysitism
3375:Persian Gulf
3371:Nestorianism
3359:
3287:Samaritanism
3279:Christianity
3256:
3223:Banu Kinanah
3208:
3201:
3166:
3124:
3116:Nilo-Saharan
3103:Palaeolithic
3099:Roger Blench
3096:
3092:desert kites
3083:
3069:
3047:
3039:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2968:
2951:
2947:
2939:
2936:rbˁt ḏw ṯwrm
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2917:
2911:
2892:
2881:
2843:
2822:
2807:
2783:
2773:
2735:
2720:
2717:
2696:
2689:Graeco-Roman
2655:
2642:Roman Arabia
2607:
2599:
2589:between the
2584:
2546:frankincense
2543:
2509:(Egypt) and
2504:
2480:Persian Gulf
2477:
2463:tomb relief.
2452:
2403:Neo-Assyrian
2387:Greek temple
2352:
2310:
2232:
2175:
2128:
2108:Gulf of Aden
2101:
2063:
2041:
2007:
1989:
1985:Ethiosemitic
1970:
1950:frankincense
1947:
1927:Arabia Felix
1924:
1905:
1874:Saudi Arabia
1852:
1808:Zafar, Yemen
1804:South Arabia
1781:
1759:
1735:
1729:, Al-Khatt,
1720:
1711:Beth Qatraye
1657:
1653:Central Asia
1642:
1631:
1607:
1602:Persian Gulf
1575:
1563:
1553:
1542:
1537:
1534:, c. 700 BCE
1532:Persian Gulf
1502:
1493:
1481:
1469:Theophrastus
1464:
1452:Achaemenians
1433:
1428:
1394:
1386:Saudi Arabia
1375:
1365:exiles from
1356:
1333:
1325:Saudi Arabia
1309:Persian Gulf
1296:
1295:
1251:
1249:
1239:
1235:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1188:
1148:
1136:Indus Valley
1133:
1121:
1082:Persian Gulf
1079:
1042:
1010:Zoroastrians
979:
911:in southern
898:
862:
820:
787:
773:
769:Roman Empire
757:frankincense
754:
738:South Arabia
731:
701:Hagar Yahirr
695:The ancient
694:
647:
642:
629:
618:
596:, etc.) and
571:
556:
547:
536:Please help
531:verification
528:
485:
474:
460:
453:(modern-day
451:South Arabia
407:Samad Period
385:Sabr culture
373:Ubaid period
360:
350:
292:
277:Arab studies
231:
211:Roman Empire
167:
114:
113:
79:Succeeded by
78:
9263:Manichaeism
9145:Ḥaḍramautic
8696:Settlements
7736:, Ashgate,
7641:, OUP USA,
6423:Meeker 1979
6385:McNutt 2003
6366:Blench 2010
6347:Blench 2010
6282:11 December
6012:Munro-Hay,
6003:, p. 718–9.
5910:"Dead link"
5203:|work=
5143:Larsen 1983
5015:11 December
4886:|work=
4622:|work=
4561:|work=
4043:Indus River
3953:. However,
3916:Justinian I
3891:Before the
3652:Catholicism
3407:Jabal Dabub
3399:Manichaeism
3303:Manichaeism
3229:) emerged.
3215:Banu Hanifa
2909:during the
2624:spice trade
2616:Wadi `Araba
2511:Mesopotamia
2247:اسپهبد وهرز
2152:Esimiphaios
2048:Ḥajar Asfal
1622:Hyspaosines
1524:Sennacherib
1195:Utnapishtim
1167:Ilī-ippašra
1161:dynasty of
1125:Babylonians
1094:Middle East
1024:may be the
1002:Abd al-Qays
1000:(including
883:, and made
812:Antigonus I
802:moved into
716:Hagar Asfal
550:August 2020
500:Sea Peoples
9493:Categories
9293:Jahiliyyah
9185:Polytheism
9155:Qatabanian
9106:Old Arabic
9059:Taymanitic
8881:Ghassanids
8631:: Linden,
8404:, Polity,
8341:De Gruyter
7988:SUNY Press
6887:2020-09-11
6837:2020-09-11
6737:2018-02-08
6701:2018-02-08
6603:2019-09-26
6578:2020-11-07
6540:2015-08-13
6239:2007-05-22
6183:2020-03-26
6114:26:141–158
6026:Yule, Paul
5883:2022-10-17
5550:2015-08-13
5512:2015-08-13
5474:2014-03-12
5186:2015-08-13
5090:2015-08-13
4927:2015-08-13
4869:2015-08-13
4831:2020-11-07
4770:2015-08-13
4732:2015-08-13
4605:2015-08-13
4544:2015-08-13
4507:2015-08-13
4439:2022-03-09
4193:2017-05-13
4133:Jahiliyyah
4047:South Asia
4045:valley in
3939:Ghassanids
3800:Secularism
3790:Shia–Sunni
3768:Liberalism
3401:in Mecca.
3259:polytheism
3253:Jahiliyyah
3251:See also:
3007:, Arabic:
2995:, Arabic:
2981:, Arabic:
2785:Ghassanids
2776:Ghassanids
2758:Ghassanids
2748:Qahtanites
2636:Roman rule
2614:, east of
2603:(from the
2571:Al Khazneh
2562:Nabataeans
2507:Nile Delta
2449:𐎠𐎼𐎲𐎠𐎹
2433:See also:
2333:Nabataeans
2325:Nabataeans
2264:Khosrau II
2190:Christians
2133:(GDRT) of
2088:Statue of
2010:Old Sabaic
2004:Hadhramaut
1837:Hadhramaut
1668:Sassanians
1504:Geographia
925:Hellenized
901:Ghassanids
873:Banu Lakhm
838:Babylonian
682:Himyarites
625:Old Sabaic
476:Geographos
387:(2000 BCE)
352:the Ḥadīth
339:Nabataeans
331:Qaḥṭānites
275:See also:
241:monotheism
237:polytheism
141:jahiliyyah
28:Jahiliyyah
9456:Igbo-Ukwu
9385:Britannia
9337:by region
9258:Mandaeism
9111:Dadanitic
9094:Languages
9041:Dadanitic
9002:Languages
8787:Ḥaḍramawt
8600:Wiesbaden
8542:Routledge
8240:1567-2808
8108:161557309
8100:1567-2808
8006:169122179
7897:(1994a),
7659:, Brill,
7556:, Brill,
7520:, Brill,
7395:160525414
7387:1567-2808
7193:. Brill.
7045:127529256
7037:1567-2808
6877:225721042
6857:Antiquity
6714:Compare:
6661:0905-7196
6494:, son of
6030:Antiquity
5666:Strong's
5205:ignored (
5195:cite book
5048:17 August
4888:ignored (
4878:cite book
4672:128833964
4624:ignored (
4614:cite book
4563:ignored (
4553:cite book
4148:Rahmanism
4029:, Egypt,
3905:Procopius
3901:Byzantine
3778:Modernism
3773:Modernity
3758:Democracy
3753:Blasphemy
3676:Mandaeism
3662:Mormonism
3533:Limestone
3518:Baltimore
3453:alabaster
3437:alabaster
3291:Mandaeism
3181:Qahtanite
3135:Crusaders
3084:Selappayu
2971:Khindynoi
2960:Ḥaḑramite
2956:Himyarite
2903:Dhū Nuwās
2798:Palestine
2725:occupied
2666:Phoenicia
2556:Nabateans
2519:Herodotus
2474:Qedarites
2455:) of the
2411:Aristotle
2407:Sargon II
2395:Byzantine
2337:Aretas IV
2320:Dadanitic
2318:and used
2255:Aksumites
2235:Khosrau I
2209:Sassanids
2182:Dhu Nuwas
1992:Marib Dam
1962:Abyssinia
1689:Mishmahig
1660:Sassanids
1649:Parthians
1645:Seleucids
1638:Sassanids
1634:Parthians
1614:Characene
1582:Herodotus
1571:Herodotus
1539:Herodotus
1528:Chaldeans
1500:Ptolemy's
1399:choosing
1331:in 1924.
1264:ziggurats
1226:Ninhursag
1220:story of
1109:cuneiform
1090:holy land
1086:Sumerians
954:tribe of
921:Holy Land
798:, and as
776:Nabataean
746:Hadramaut
614:Nabateans
582:Egyptians
488:Mycenaean
467:Egyptians
327:Ḥimyarite
311:Egyptians
227:Sasanians
223:Parthians
9451:Carthage
9446:Aegyptus
9413:Anatolia
9390:Germania
9380:Hispania
9273:Buddhism
9203:Al-‘Uzzá
9176:Religion
9076:Hasaitic
9064:Thamudic
9054:Safaitic
9045:Dumaitic
8958:Marriage
8946:Calendar
8912:Al-Magar
8886:Salīḥids
8866:Nabataea
8648:Archived
8629:Aichwald
8623:(2007),
8592:(1996),
8561:(1995),
8536:(2001),
8511:(1999),
8486:(1981),
8457:(1975),
8428:(2003),
8382:(2001),
8368:(1956),
8248:68889318
8118:(1995),
8034:(2005),
7876:(2012),
7855:(2006),
7753:(2004),
7676:(1996),
7619:(1991),
7594:(2013),
7573:(2002),
7498:(1999),
7441:(2010),
7292:(eds.).
7252:(1999),
7229:(2013),
7130:(2005),
7055:(2002),
6949:(2003),
6928:(2002),
6907:(2017),
6881:Archived
6831:Archived
6827:phys.org
6756:Arcadius
6695:Archived
6597:Archived
6572:Archived
6534:Archived
6309:Archived
6256:Archived
6229:"Arabia"
6204:(2001),
6177:Archived
6159:91:11–15
6129:54:23–31
6099:11:61–69
6016:, p. 72.
5961:Archived
5897:Minaeans
5877:Archived
5685:Archived
5544:Archived
5506:Archived
5238:Archived
5180:Archived
5084:Archived
5042:Archived
5009:Archived
5005:BBC News
4921:Archived
4863:Archived
4825:Archived
4764:Archived
4726:Archived
4599:Archived
4538:Archived
4501:Archived
4433:Archived
4372:(1998).
4309:Archived
4202:cite web
4184:Archived
4082:See also
4027:Caucasus
3943:Lakhmids
3932:phylarch
3874:religion
3824:Category
3805:Violence
3785:Politics
3748:Apostasy
3722:Yazidism
3697:Hinduism
3692:Buddhism
3403:Buddhism
3383:diaspora
3366:Aksumite
3331:Al-'Uzzá
3311:Buddhism
3309:such as
3297:such as
3277:such as
3233:Religion
3192:Adnanite
3190:Arabs" (
3188:Arabized
3147:Wahhabis
3112:Cushitic
3088:Akkadian
3003:(Greek:
2991:(Greek:
2979:Μααδηνοι
2977:(Greek:
2975:Maadynoi
2932:ḏw ṯwr-m
2907:apostasy
2845:Kindites
2833:Al-Hirah
2824:Lakhmids
2754:Lakhmids
2742:Saraceni
2685:Parthian
2662:Tiberius
2591:Dead Sea
2523:Cambyses
2482:and the
2461:Xerxes I
2383:Assyrian
2371:Thamudic
2213:Lakhmids
2201:Justin I
2178:Aksumite
2090:Ammaalay
1981:Ethiopia
1931:Augustus
1898:Sabaeans
1859:Baraqish
1849:Minaeans
1818:moon-god
1693:Muharraq
1676:Shapur I
1672:Parthian
1664:Ardashir
1610:Seleucid
1569:—
1556:Persians
1543:History,
1520:Assyrian
1509:Muharraq
1465:sindones
1460:Nearchus
1440:Nearchus
1363:Chaldean
1352:Sassanid
1260:Enmerkar
1230:Creation
1199:Ziusudra
1171:Akkadian
1142:and the
1129:Persians
1106:Sumerian
1056:Akkadian
1026:Arabized
919:and the
885:al-Hirah
800:Edomites
784:Nebaioth
720:mukarrib
674:Ethiopia
650:Sabaeans
612:and the
602:Sabaeans
590:Persians
295:Arabists
289:, London
199:Minaeans
197:and the
195:Sabaeans
163:paganism
9408:Scythia
9375:Illyria
9370:Thracia
9350:Graecia
9243:Judaism
9208:Dushara
9193:Deities
9160:Sabaean
9150:Minaean
9128:Aramaic
9116:Hismaic
9049:Hismaic
9009:Scripts
8963:Slavery
8835:Yathrib
8797:Qatabān
8742:Parthia
8737:Lakhmid
7939:(ed.).
7793:(ed.).
6609:(1994).
6504:Abraham
6500:Abraham
6488:Ishmael
6484:Ishmael
6144:89:6–13
6084:7:73–79
4396:, 1991.
4315:4 March
3717:Sikhism
3702:Jainism
3671:Judaism
3451:Votive
3319:deities
3283:Judaism
3227:Quraysh
3211:Rabi`ah
3163:Bedouin
3143:al-Ḥasā
3127:Bedouin
3108:Red Sea
3072:Ḥutaymi
3066:Solluba
3060:Solluba
2942:); the
2922:called
2899:Judaism
2850:Bahrain
2810:nomadic
2729:in the
2693:Hadrian
2682:Iranian
2488:vassals
2453:Arabāya
2415:Ptolemy
2243:Persian
2186:Judaism
2131:Gadarat
2104:Red Sea
2060:Qataban
2022:Qataban
2014:caravan
1977:Eritrea
1870:al-'Ula
1833:Griffin
1821:Almaqah
1788:Persian
1731:Al-Hasa
1697:Samahij
1530:in the
1477:Baharna
1463:called
1430:Bahrain
1382:Al Ahsa
1367:Babylon
1319:in the
1317:al-Hasa
1180:Meluhha
1175:Babylon
1163:Babylon
1159:Kassite
1022:Baharna
1006:Aramean
982:Aramaic
958:of the
907:to the
834:Edomite
804:Judaean
788:Genesis
742:Qataban
703:in the
678:Red Sea
670:Eritrea
333:in the
271:Studies
150:
129:before
9433:Africa
9423:Arabia
9360:Gallia
9355:Italia
9343:Europa
9198:Al-Lat
9101:Arabic
8968:Poetry
8941:Tribes
8876:Tanukh
8861:Lihyan
8825:Thamud
8802:Himyar
8775:Kahlan
8722:Gerrha
8717:Dilmun
8635:
8610:
8579:
8569:Oxford
8548:
8523:
8498:
8473:
8444:
8408:
8390:
8355:
8337:Berlin
8317:
8299:
8281:
8263:
8246:
8238:
8228:
8210:Boston
8206:Leiden
8182:
8162:
8144:
8126:
8106:
8098:
8088:
8070:Boston
8066:Leiden
8042:
8021:
8004:
7994:
7965:
7947:Leiden
7925:
7905:
7884:
7863:
7842:
7823:
7805:Boston
7801:Leiden
7779:
7761:
7740:
7722:
7704:
7686:
7663:
7645:
7627:
7606:
7581:
7560:
7542:
7524:
7506:
7485:
7467:
7449:
7428:
7410:
7393:
7385:
7375:
7357:Boston
7353:Leiden
7329:
7310:
7262:
7239:
7216:
7197:
7179:
7156:
7138:
7117:
7099:
7081:
7063:
7043:
7035:
7025:
7007:Boston
7003:Leiden
6979:
6961:
6936:
6915:
6875:
6728:
6687:
6659:
6564:
6526:
6474:
6212:
6157:
6142:
6127:
6112:
6097:
6082:
5931:: D-Ha
5834:
5790:27 May
5749:
5722:12 May
5606:
5581:
5536:
5498:
5326:
5294:
5244:2 July
5230:
5172:
5126:
5076:
5038:UNESCO
4983:
4913:
4855:
4800:
4756:
4718:
4695:
4670:
4664:614301
4662:
4591:
4530:
4493:
4466:
4425:
4380:
4301:
4268:
4231:
4103:Dilmun
4068:France
4007:
4001:
3995:
3970:Christ
3895:, the
3829:Portal
3585:Riyadh
3577:Berlin
3473:Arabia
3327:al-Lāt
3293:, and
3289:, and
3219:Mudhar
3174:Amalek
3131:Qaḥṭān
3015:People
3009:Ḥārith
3001:Aretha
2993:Καισος
2989:Kaïsos
2944:Musnad
2895:Athtar
2837:Kindah
2829:Tigris
2802:Jordan
2794:Israel
2790:Hauran
2768:, and
2762:Kahlan
2708:Trajan
2632:Trajan
2620:Jordan
2579:Jordan
2417:, and
2405:King,
2377:, old
2375:Qur'an
2359:Arabic
2355:Thamud
2349:Thamud
2343:Thamud
2312:Lihyan
2307:Lihyan
2268:Badhan
2260:satrap
2239:Vahriz
2144:Tihama
2124:Yabrin
2120:Riyadh
2116:Najran
2066:Beihan
2017:routes
1912:Sana'a
1908:Ma'rib
1866:Madhab
1855:Sa'dah
1806:; and
1723:Syriac
1699:) (In
1618:Kuwait
1592:, and
1578:Strabo
1545:I:1).
1496:Dilmun
1359:Strabo
1340:Dilmun
1301:Arabic
1297:Gerrha
1284:Gerrha
1278:Gerrha
1241:Ninlil
1155:Nippur
1113:Inanna
1068:Dilmun
1062:Dilmun
1048:Majoos
1020:, the
1014:Jewish
990:Syriac
988:while
960:Kahlan
940:Ma'rib
917:Jordan
909:Hauran
894:Arabia
842:Judaea
780:Jerome
750:Arabia
734:Himyar
708:Markha
643:Dilmun
635:Inanna
631:Dilmun
610:Himyar
594:Romans
586:Greeks
504:Aegean
463:Greeks
432:, and
430:Midian
335:Levant
319:Romans
315:Greeks
259:; the
251:; the
201:, and
187:Dilmun
179:Thamud
119:Arabic
50:Arabic
46:
9441:Libya
9365:Dacia
9218:Manāt
9213:Hubal
9081:Geʽez
8973:Women
8951:Nasi'
8907:Kinda
8871:Hatra
8851:Qedar
8830:Mecca
8817:Hejaz
8807:Aksum
8792:Awsān
8782:Maʿīn
8732:Tylos
8712:Magan
8244:S2CID
8104:S2CID
8002:S2CID
7391:S2CID
7041:S2CID
6873:S2CID
6155:Quran
6140:Quran
6125:Quran
6110:Quran
6095:Quran
6080:Quran
6014:Aksum
5784:(PDF)
5777:(PDF)
5716:(PDF)
5709:(PDF)
5468:(PDF)
5461:(PDF)
4668:S2CID
4660:JSTOR
4289:. In
4262:Petra
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