2514:
it makes little sense to test hypotheses relating national ethnic diversity to civil war outbreak without any explicit reference to how many different ethnic groups actually hold power in the state. This suggests that ethnic, linguistic and religious cleavages can matter, depending on the extent to which the various groups have ability and influence to mobilize on either side of a forming conflict. Themes explored in
Cederman's later work criticizing the use of ethnic fractionalization measures as input variables to predict civil war outbreak relate to these indices not accounting for the geographical distribution of ethnic groups within countries, as this can affect their access to regional resources and commodities, which in turn can lead to conflict. A third theme explored by Cederman is that ethnolinguistic fractionalization does not quantify the extent to which there is pre-existing economic inequality between ethnic groups within countries. In a 2011 article, Cederman and fellow researchers describe finding that “in highly unequal societies, both rich and poor groups fight more often than those groups whose wealth lies closer to the country average”, going against the opportunity-based explanation for civil war outbreak.
147:
2460:
ethnic group comprises a majority of the population, increased the risk of civil war. A country characterized by ethnic dominance has nearly twice the chance of a civil war. However, the combined effects of ethnic and religious fractionalization, i.e. the greater chance that any two randomly chosen people will be from separate ethnic or religious groups, the less chance of a civil war, were also significant and positive, as long as the country avoided ethnic dominance. The study interpreted this as stating that minority groups are more likely to rebel if they feel that they are being dominated, but that rebellions are more likely to occur the more homogeneous the population and thus more cohesive the rebels. These two factors may thus be seen as mitigating each other in many cases.
3179:
other scholars disagree. Knaus and
Stewart are extremely skeptical as to the effectiveness of interventions, holding that they can only work when they are performed with extreme caution and sensitivity to context, a strategy they label 'principled incrementalism'. Few interventions, for them, have demonstrated such an approach. Other scholars offer more specific criticisms; Dube and Naidu, for instance, show that US military aid, a less conventional form of intervention, seems to be siphoned off to paramilitaries thus exacerbating violence. Weinstein holds more generally that interventions might disrupt processes of 'autonomous recovery' whereby civil war contributes to state-building.
2992:
3129:
104:
2928:
2556:
Walter argues that when these issues are properly reversed, they act as political and legal restraints on executive power forcing the established government to better serve the people. Additionally, these political and legal restraints create a standardized avenue to influence government and increase the commitment credibility of established peace treaties. It is the strength of a nation's institutionalization and good governance—not the presence of democracy nor the poverty level—that is the number one indicator of the chance of a repeat civil war, according to Walter.
88:
2310:
3161:(2000) about 2/3rds of the 138 intrastate conflicts between the end of World War II and 2000 saw international intervention, with the United States intervening in 35 of these conflicts. While intervention has been practiced since the international system has existed, its nature changed substantially. It became common for both the state and opposition group to receive foreign support, allowing wars to continue well past the point when domestic resources had been exhausted. Superpowers, such as the European
3070:
2936:
2735:
2525:, which tested numerous variables for their relationship to civil war outbreak with different datasets, including that utilized by Fearon and Laitin. Bleaney concluded that neither ethnoreligious diversity, as measured by fractionalization, nor another variable, ethnic polarization, defined as the extent to which individuals in a population are distributed across different ethnic groups, were "a sufficient measure of diversity as it affects the probability of conflict."
2798:
3196:
2216:
2988:, respectively. The Western process of forming effective and impersonal bureaucracies, developing efficient tax systems, and integrating national territory continued into the 20th century. Nevertheless, Western states that survived into the latter half of the 20th century were considered "strong" by simple reason that they had managed to develop the institutional structures and military capability required to survive predation by their fellow states.
2565:
2717:, divides the modern history of civil wars into the pre-19th century, 19th century to early 20th century, and late 20th century. In 19th-century Europe, the length of civil wars fell significantly, largely due to the nature of the conflicts as battles for the power center of the state, the strength of centralized governments, and the normally quick and decisive intervention by other states to support the government. Following
2440:
civil war of about 1%. The study interpreted these three factors as proxies for earnings forgone by rebellion, and therefore that lower forgone earnings encourage rebellion. Phrased another way: young males (who make up the vast majority of combatants in civil wars) are less likely to join a rebellion if they are getting an education or have a comfortable salary, and can reasonably assume that they will prosper in the future.
45:
2302:, noting that the Conventions are "so general, so vague, that many of the delegations feared that it might be taken to cover any act committed by force of arms". Accordingly, the commentaries provide for different 'conditions' on which the application of the Geneva Convention would depend; the commentary, however, points out that these should not be interpreted as rigid conditions. The conditions listed by the
2840:, led to several civil wars. However, a bi-polar world, divided between the two ideologies, did not develop, largely due to the dominance of monarchists through most of the period. The monarchists would thus normally intervene in other countries to stop democratic movements taking control and forming democratic governments, which were seen by monarchists as being both dangerous and unpredictable. The
2425:
commodity. The authors of the study interpreted this as being the result of the ease by which primary commodities may be extorted or captured compared to other forms of wealth; for example, it is easy to capture and control the output of a gold mine or oil field compared to a sector of garment manufacturing or hospitality services.
3178:
The effectiveness of intervention is widely debated, in part because the data suffers from selection bias; as Fortna has argued, peacekeepers select themselves into difficult cases. When controlling for this effect, Forta holds that peacekeeping is resoundingly successful in shortening wars. However,
2583:
High levels of population dispersion and, to a lesser extent, the presence of mountainous terrain, increased the chance of conflict. Both of these factors favor rebels, as a population dispersed outward toward the borders is harder to control than one concentrated in a central region, while mountains
2513:
used by Fearon, Laitin and other political scientists is flawed. ELF, Cederman states, measures diversity on a country's population-wide level and makes no attempt to determine the number of ethnic groups in relation to what role they play in the power of the state and its military. Cederman believes
3261:
Using a separate statistical evaluation than used above for interventions, civil wars that included pro- or anti-communist forces lasted 141% longer than the average non-Cold War conflict, while a Cold War civil war that attracted superpower intervention resulted in wars typically lasting over three
2967:
and an official economic policy, they were in actuality far weaker than the
Western states they were modeled after. In Western states, the structure of governments closely matched states' actual capabilities, which had been arduously developed over centuries. The development of strong administrative
2538:
In a state torn by civil war, the contesting powers often do not have the ability to commit or the trust to believe in the other side's commitment to put an end to war. When considering a peace agreement, the involved parties are aware of the high incentives to withdraw once one of them has taken an
2485:
James Fearon and David Laitin find that ethnic and religious diversity does not make civil war more likely. They instead find that factors that make it easier for rebels to recruit foot soldiers and sustain insurgencies, such as "poverty—which marks financially & bureaucratically weak states and
2439:
and economic growth rate all had significant effects on reducing the chance of civil war. Specifically, a male secondary school enrollment 10% above the average reduced the chance of a conflict by about 3%, while a growth rate 1% higher than the study average resulted in a decline in the chance of a
2182:
Civil wars since the end of World War II have lasted on average just over four years, a dramatic rise from the one-and-a-half-year average of the 1900–1944 period. While the rate of emergence of new civil wars has been relatively steady since the mid-19th century, the increasing length of those wars
3291:
According to
Barbara F. Walter, post-2003 civil wars are different from previous civil wars in that most are situated in Muslim-majority countries; most of the rebel groups espouse radical Islamist ideas and goals; and most of these radical groups pursue transnational rather than national aims. She
2643:
the rebellion was fought over and thus increase the opportunity cost of restarting the conflict. Alternatively, elapsed time may represent the gradual process of healing of old hatreds. The study found that the presence of a diaspora substantially reduced the positive effect of time, as the funding
2468:
David Keen, a professor at the
Development Studies Institute at the London School of Economics is one of the major critics of greed vs. grievance theory, defined primarily by Paul Collier, and argues the point that a conflict, although he cannot define it, cannot be pinpointed to simply one motive.
2555:
suggests that most contemporary civil wars are actually repeats of earlier civil wars that often arise when leaders are not accountable to the public, when there is poor public participation in politics, and when there is a lack of transparency of information between the executives and the public.
2459:
Most proxies for "grievance"—the theory that civil wars begin because of issues of identity, rather than economics—were statistically insignificant, including economic equality, political rights, ethnic polarization and religious fractionalization. Only ethnic dominance, the case where the largest
3045:
may be included. Neither did imperial powers make territorial integration a priority, and may have discouraged nascent nationalism as a danger to their rule. Many newly independent states thus found themselves impoverished, with minimal administrative capacity in a fragmented society, while faced
2958:
Following World War II, the major
European powers divested themselves of their colonies at an increasing rate: the number of ex-colonial states jumped from about 30 to almost 120 after the war. The rate of state formation leveled off in the 1980s, at which point few colonies remained. More states
2750:
Civil wars in the 19th century and in the early 20th century tended to be short; civil wars between 1900 and 1944 lasted on average one and a half years. The state itself formed the obvious center of authority in the majority of cases, and the civil wars were thus fought for control of the state.
2246:
defines civil war as "armed combat taking place within the boundaries of a recognized sovereign entity between parties that are subject to a common authority at the outset of the hostilities." The intensity at which a civil disturbance becomes a civil war is contested by academics. Some political
3182:
On average, a civil war with interstate intervention was 300% longer than those without. When disaggregated, a civil war with intervention on only one side is 156% longer, while when intervention occurs on both sides the average civil war is longer by an additional 92%. If one of the intervening
3124:
in diplomatic recognition limbo. While there is not a large body of academic work examining the relationship, Hironaka's statistical study found a correlation that suggests that every major international anti-secessionist declaration increased the number of ongoing civil wars by +10%, or a total
2751:
This meant that whoever had control of the capital and the military could normally crush resistance. A rebellion which failed to quickly seize the capital and control of the military for itself normally found itself doomed to rapid destruction. For example, the fighting associated with the 1871
3111:
regime and norms against territorial aggression is strongly associated with the dramatic drop in the number of interstate wars, though it has also been attributed to the effect of the Cold War or to the changing nature of economic development. Consequently, military aggression that results in
2424:
and non-petroleum groupings showed different results: a country with relatively low levels of dependence on petroleum exports is at slightly less risk, while a high level of dependence on oil as an export results in slightly more risk of a civil war than national dependence on another primary
3089:
Historically, the international community would have targeted weak states for territorial absorption or colonial domination or, alternatively, such states would fragment into pieces small enough to be effectively administered and secured by a local power. However, international norms towards
2472:
Beyond Keen, several other authors have introduced works that either disprove greed vs. grievance theory with empirical data, or dismiss its ultimate conclusion. Authors such as
Cristina Bodea and Ibrahim Elbadawi, who co-wrote the entry, "Riots, coups and civil war: Revisiting the greed and
2282:
Based on the 1,000-casualties-per-year criterion, there were 213 civil wars from 1816 to 1997, 104 of which occurred from 1944 to 1997. If one uses the less-stringent 1,000 casualties total criterion, there were over 90 civil wars between 1945 and 2007, with 20 ongoing civil wars as of 2007.
3032:
to favor a particular interest group. In such a situation, factions manipulate the state to benefit themselves or, alternatively, state leaders use the bureaucracy to further their own self-interest. The lack of credible governance was compounded by the fact that most colonies were economic
3023:
prohibited any self-government up until it suddenly granted independence to its colonies in 1960. Like
Western states of previous centuries, the new ex-colonies lacked autonomous bureaucracies, which would make decisions based on the benefit to society as a whole, rather than respond to
2608:
and Marta Reynal-Querol argue that the correlation is spurious, and that lower income and heightened conflict are instead products of other phenomena. In contrast, a study by Alex
Braithwaite and colleagues showed systematic evidence of "a causal arrow running from poverty to conflict".
2469:
He believes that conflicts are much more complex and thus should not be analyzed through simplified methods. He disagrees with the quantitative research methods of
Collier and believes a stronger emphasis should be put on personal data and human perspective of the people in conflict.
2380:
which center on factors that make it easier to engage in violent mobilization. According to the study, the most influential explanation for civil war onset is the opportunity-based explanation by James Fearon and David Laitin in their 2003 American Political Science Review article.
2473:
grievance debate", argue that empirical data can disprove many of the proponents of greed theory and make the idea "irrelevant". They examine a myriad of factors and conclude that too many factors come into play with conflict, which cannot be confined to simply greed or grievance.
2290:
do not specifically define the term "civil war"; nevertheless, they do outline the responsibilities of parties in "armed conflict not of an international character". This includes civil wars; however, no specific definition of civil war is provided in the text of the Conventions.
2946:
In the 1990s, about twenty civil wars were occurring concurrently during an average year, a rate about ten times the historical average since the 19th century. However, the rate of new civil wars had not increased appreciably; the drastic rise in the number of ongoing wars after
2404:
in the early 21st century. The study framework, which came to be called the Collier–Hoeffler Model, examined 78 five-year increments when civil war occurred from 1960 to 1999, as well as 1,167 five-year increments of "no civil war" for comparison, and subjected the data set to
2539:
action that weakens their military, political or economical power. Commitment problems may deter a lasting peace agreement as the powers in question are aware that neither of them is able to commit to their end of the bargain in the future. States are often unable to escape
2397:, or do conflicts begin because it is in the economic best interests of individuals and groups to start them? Scholarly analysis supports the conclusion that economic and structural factors are more important than those of identity in predicting occurrences of civil war.
3270:
in 1989 resulted in a reduction in the duration of Cold War civil wars of 92% or, phrased another way, a roughly ten-fold increase in the rate of resolution of Cold War civil wars. Lengthy Cold War-associated civil conflicts that ground to a halt include the wars of
2691:
are not sufficient to explain the emergence of that insurgent movement. Instead, she argues that "emotional engagements" and "moral commitments" are the main reasons why thousand of civilians, most of them from poor and rural backgrounds, joined or supported the
2868:) would frequently coordinate interventions in other nations' civil wars, nearly always on the side of the incumbent government. Given the military strength of the Great Powers, these interventions nearly always proved decisive and quickly ended the civil wars.
2962:
While the new ex-colonial states appeared to follow the blueprint of the idealized state—centralized government, territory enclosed by defined borders, and citizenry with defined rights—as well as accessories such as a national flag, an anthem, a seat at the
3451:
2721:
the duration of civil wars grew past the norm of the pre-19th century, largely due to weakness of the many postcolonial states and the intervention by major powers on both sides of conflict. The most obvious commonality to civil wars are that they occur in
2183:
has resulted in increasing numbers of wars ongoing at any one time. For example, there were no more than five civil wars underway simultaneously in the first half of the 20th century while there were over 20 concurrent civil wars close to the end of the
2625:
or population size are known to increase civil war risk, also, one may conclude that "the discontent of the colonized, caused by the creation of borders across tribal lines and bad treatment by the colonizers" is one important cause of civil conflicts.
2330:(1) That the Party in revolt against the de jure Government possesses an organized military force, an authority responsible for its acts, acting within a determinate territory and having the means of respecting and ensuring respect for the Convention.
2432:, which can fund rebellions and insurgencies from abroad. The study found that statistically switching the size of a country's diaspora from the smallest found in the study to the largest resulted in a sixfold increase in the chance of a civil war.
3033:
loss-makers at independence, lacking both a productive economic base and a taxation system to effectively extract resources from economic activity. Among the rare states profitable at decolonization was India, to which scholars credibly argue that
2634:
The more time that has elapsed since the last civil war, the less likely it is that a conflict will recur. The study had two possible explanations for this: one opportunity-based and the other grievance-based. The elapsed time may represent the
2238:, defines a civil war as "a violent conflict within a country fought by organized groups that aim to take power at the center or in a region, or to change government policies". Ann Hironaka further specifies that one side of a civil war is the
3169:
of 1821 for events in its Central American "backyard". However, the large population of weak states after 1945 allowed intervention by former colonial powers, regional powers and neighboring states who themselves often had scarce resources.
2959:
also meant more states in which to have long civil wars. Hironaka statistically measures the impact of the increased number of ex-colonial states as increasing the post-World War II incidence of civil wars by +165% over the pre-1945 number.
3125:+114% from 1945 to 1997. The diplomatic and legal protection given by the international community, as well as economic support to weak governments and discouragement of secession, thus had the unintended effect of encouraging civil wars.
3215:(1947–1991) provided a global network of material and ideological support that often helped perpetuate civil wars, which were mainly fought in weak ex-colonial states rather than the relatively strong states that were aligned with the
3120:, international military intervention to reverse the territorial aggression. Similarly, the international community has largely refused to recognize secessionist regions, while keeping some secessionist self-declared states such as
3106:
to weak states, which helps maintain the facade of a functioning modern state by giving the appearance that the state is capable of fulfilling its implied responsibilities of control and order. The formation of a strong
2476:
Anthony Vinci makes a strong argument that "fungible concept of power and the primary motivation of survival provide superior explanations of armed group motivation and, more broadly, the conduct of internal conflicts".
3187:, in which there is two-sided foreign intervention, including by a superpower (actually, two superpowers in the case of Angola), would be 538% longer on average than a civil war without any international intervention.
4090:
2657:
greatly increased the frequency of civil wars but not interstate wars. Gleditsch et al. did not find a relationship between ethnic groups with polygyny and increased frequency of civil wars but nations having legal
3411:
2347:(d) That the dispute has been admitted to the agenda of the Security Council or the General Assembly of the United Nations as being a threat to international peace, a breach of the peace, or an act of aggression.
3112:
territorial annexation became increasingly likely to prompt international condemnation, diplomatic censure, a reduction in international aid or the introduction of economic sanction, or, as in the case of 1990
3529:
2696:, despite individually facing both high risks and virtually no foreseeable gains. Wood also attributes participation in the civil war to the value that insurgents assigned to changing social relations in
3230:
would superimpose Cold War ideology onto local conflicts, while in others local actors using Cold War ideology would attract the attention of a superpower to obtain support. A notable example is the
2489:
Such research finds that civil wars happen because the state is weak; both authoritarian and democratic states can be stable if they have the financial and military capacity to put down rebellions.
3102:
sovereignty or control of their own territory, including the privileges of international diplomatic recognition and an equal vote in the United Nations. Further, the international community offers
2251:, a dataset widely used by scholars of conflict, classifies civil wars as having over 1000 war-related casualties per year of conflict. This rate is a small fraction of the millions killed in the
3007:
was an entirely different process of state formation. Most imperial powers had not foreseen a need to prepare their colonies for independence; for example, Britain had given limited self-rule to
2621:
and the probability of civil war outbreak, relative deprivation may actually be a more pertinent possible cause. Historically, higher inequality levels led to higher civil war probability. Since
2592:
The various factors contributing to the risk of civil war rise increase with population size. The risk of a civil war rises approximately proportionately with the size of a country's population.
2604:
and civil war, but the causality (which causes the other) is unclear. Some studies have found that in regions with lower income per capita, the likelihood of civil war is greater. Economists
2409:
to see the effect of various factors. The factors that were shown to have a statistically significant effect on the chance that a civil war would occur in any given five-year period were:
2334:(2) That the legal Government is obliged to have recourse to the regular military forces against insurgents organized as military and in possession of a part of the national territory.
3621:
3165:, had always felt no compunction in intervening in civil wars that affected their interests, while distant regional powers such as the United States could declare the interventionist
2968:
structures, in particular those related to extraction of taxes, is closely associated with the intense warfare between predatory European states in the 17th and 18th centuries, or in
3668:
2510:
4080:
3815:, Anke Hoeffler and Nicholas Sambanis, "The Collier-Hoeffler Model of Civil War Onset and the Case Study Project Research Design," in Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 13
3738:
on Third 1949 Geneva Convention, Article III, Section "A. Cases of armed conflict" for the ICRC's reading of the definition and a listing of proposed alternative wording
3486:
2543:(recurring civil war conflicts) due to the lack of strong political and legal institutions that motivate bargaining, settle disputes, and enforce peace settlements.
2420:, has a 22% risk of falling into civil war in a given five-year period, while a country with no primary commodity exports has a 1% risk. When disaggregated, only
3858:
3692:
3517:
3304:
growth by about 2%. It also has a regional effect, reducing the GDP growth of neighboring countries. Civil wars also have the potential to lock the country in a
2995:
An American Cadillac Gage Light Armored Reconnaissance Vehicle and Italian Fiat-OTO Melara Type 6614 Armored Personnel Carrier guard an intersection during the
4062:
2794:
did not have sovereign status, but had significant political and economic independence coupled with weak federal control, reducing the incentive to secede.
4454:
2951:
was a result of the tripling of the average duration of civil wars to over four years. This increase was a result of the increased number of states, the
2713:
4573:
4878:
4474:
Baten, Joerg; Mumme, Christina (2011). "Does Inequality Lead to Civil Wars? A global long-term study using anthropometric indicators (1816-1999)".
3153:
There has been an enormous amount of international intervention in civil wars since 1945 that some have argued served to extend wars. According to
2875:(1861–1865) was unusual for at least two reasons: it was fought around regional identities as well as political ideologies, and it ended through a
2502:
2443:
Low per capita income has also been proposed as a cause for grievance, prompting armed rebellion. However, for this to be true, one would expect
2247:
scientists define a civil war as having more than 1,000 casualties, while others further specify that at least 100 must come from each side. The
5146:
5117:
2354:(b) That the insurgent civil authority exercises de facto authority over the population within a determinate portion of the national territory.
2708:
2584:
offer terrain where rebels can seek sanctuary. Rough terrain was highlighted as one of the more important factors in a 2006 systematic review.
55:
3996:
Anthony Vinci. "Greed-Grievance Reconsidered: The Role of Power and Survival in the Motivation of Armed Groups." Civil Wars "8(1)" (2007): 35.
3595:
2272:
2693:
3791:
3636:
2653:
has argued that an important cause of intergroup conflict may be the relative availability of women of reproductive age. He found that
3731:
3090:
sovereignty changed in the wake of World War II in ways that support and maintain the existence of weak states. Weak states are given
3725:
2416:
in national exports significantly increases the risk of a conflict. A country at "peak danger", with commodities comprising 32% of
2295:
1070:
2357:(c) That the armed forces act under the direction of an organized authority and are prepared to observe the ordinary laws of war.
1497:
5369:
5497:
5156:
5135:
3654:
4116:
3483:
3987:
Christina Bodea. "Riots, coups and civil war : revisiting the greed and grievance debate." Policy Research 1 (2007).
3300:
Civil wars often have severe economic consequences: two studies estimate that each year of civil war reduces a country's
2985:
2447:
to also be a significant factor in rebellions, which it is not. The study therefore concluded that the economic model of
1853:
146:
2486:
also favors rebel recruitment—political instability, rough terrain, and large populations" make civil wars more likely.
2344:(c) That it has accorded the insurgents recognition as belligerents for the purposes only of the present Convention; or
5345:
4971:
3855:
3615:
3338:
3220:
2972:'s famous formulation: "War made the state and the state made war". For example, the formation of the modern states of
2048:
1826:
441:
3689:
2670:
were associated with fewer civil wars and that legal polygamy had no effect after women's rights were controlled for.
5329:
4901:
4854:
4635:
4608:
3566:
3292:
attributes this shift to changes in information technology, especially the advent of the Web 2.0 in the early 2000s.
3050:. The "strong"-"weak" categorization is not the same as "Western"-"non-Western", as some Latin American states like
1502:
4925:
Dube, Vargas (2015). "Bases, Bullets and Ballots; The Effect of US-Military Aid on Political Conflict in Colombia".
4267:
Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, and James Robinson. 2005. "Institutions as a fundamental cause of long-run growth".
2505:, have criticized the data used by Fearon and Laitin to determine ethnic and religious diversity. In his 2007 paper
4284:
3133:
1580:
3046:
with the expectation of immediately meeting the demands of a modern state. Such states are considered "weak" or "
1925:
1563:
1350:
195:
2207:
are examples of nations that were considered to have had promising futures before being engulfed in civil wars.
5391:
4423:
1689:
2991:
2368:
According to a 2017 review study of civil war research, there are three prominent explanations for civil war:
5301:
2106:
1553:
3234:(1946–1949), which erupted shortly after the end of World War II. This conflict saw the communist-dominated
4540:
3332:
2043:
747:
507:
2683:
offers yet another rationale for why civilians rebel and/or support civil war. Through her studies of the
3344:
3019:
as little more than a trading post, while all major decisions for French colonies were made in Paris and
2053:
1240:
1042:
913:
451:
2782:– their nominal state government – to gain recognition of their sovereignty. Conversely, states such as
3128:
3078:
1517:
20:
4356:"Complicit States and the Governing Strategy of Privilege Violence: When Weakness is Not the Problem"
3932:
3416:
3235:
2647:
2268:
2252:
1627:
1135:
484:
358:
212:
4972:"Autonomous Recovery and International Intervention in Comparative Perspective, CGDEV Working Paper"
4939:
4560:
4023:
2351:(4) (a) That the insurgents have an organization purporting to have the characteristics of a State.
5057:"The Consequences of Contention: Understanding the Aftereffects of Political Conflict and Violence"
3712:
2759:, and ended quickly once the military sided with the government at Versailles and conquered Paris.
2518:
2078:
1945:
1492:
1185:
1003:
851:
103:
2778:
states because of their military power. The Barbary pirates thus had no need to rebel against the
5441:
2912:
2766:
in the 18th and 19th centuries, which further reduced the number of civil wars. For example, the
2568:
2031:
2013:
1769:
1328:
1250:
1195:
793:
456:
5386:
4387:
Djankov, Simeon; Reynal-Querol, Marta (2010). "Poverty and Civil War: Revisiting the Evidence".
4243:
3978:
David Keen. "Complex Emergencies: David Keen Responds" African Arguments: Royal African Society.
2871:
There were several exceptions from the general rule of quick civil wars during this period. The
5458:"A Review of Recent Advances and Future Directions in the Quantitative Literature on Civil War"
4934:
4555:
4018:
2896:
2802:
2417:
2390:
2360:(d) That the insurgent civil authority agrees to be bound by the provisions of the Convention.
2187:. Since 1945, civil wars have resulted in the deaths of over 25 million people, as well as the
1898:
1873:
1595:
1507:
1380:
1255:
856:
833:
279:
178:
5202:
Licklider, Roy (1995). "The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945–1993".
3607:
2980:
in the 19th century is closely associated with the wars of expansion and consolidation led by
5527:
4056:
3559:
Neverending Wars: The International Community, Weak States, and the Perpetuation of Civil War
2940:
2904:
1487:
1420:
1373:
1027:
990:
953:
871:
823:
707:
517:
325:
234:
3752:
5502:
3927:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3141:
3025:
2813:
2684:
2220:
1878:
1780:
1637:
1632:
1450:
1415:
1150:
970:
828:
764:
618:
588:
185:
92:
5322:
The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Identity, Interests, and the Indivisibility of Territory
5300:(2011). internal insurrections in Russia, Spain, Greece, Yugoslavia, and other countries;
5073:
5056:
5040:
5023:
4372:
4355:
3728:
3140:
in 2003 passes the hulk of an LTTE supply ship that had been sunk by government aircraft,
2175:, that is sustained, organized and large-scale. Civil wars may result in large numbers of
8:
5522:
4085:
3263:
2927:
2688:
2676:
2640:
2444:
2406:
2322:
2256:
2235:
1729:
1714:
1590:
1477:
1455:
1430:
1390:
1300:
1110:
1015:
965:
732:
722:
687:
479:
469:
239:
163:
5151:. Vol. 2: Europe, Central Asia, and Other Regions. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
3395:
Higgins, Noelle (2019). "The Geneva Conventions and Non-International Armed Conflicts".
5479:
5285:
5256:
5227:
5219:
5183:
4952:
4872:
4521:
4446:
4404:
4336:
4044:
4036:
3908:
3783:
3660:
3443:
3429:
3327:
3204:
3113:
3082:
3066:
are considered to have "strong" administrative structures and economic infrastructure.
3016:
2879:, rather than with a decisive battle over control of the capital, as was the norm. The
2872:
2845:
2498:
2394:
2299:
2287:
2224:
2063:
1918:
1838:
1759:
1704:
1679:
1600:
1546:
1512:
1443:
1360:
1270:
1175:
1120:
1010:
975:
928:
803:
774:
727:
665:
640:
474:
288:
207:
24:
5366:
5055:
Davenport, Christian; Mokleiv NygĂĄrd, HĂĄvard; Fjelde, Hanne; Armstrong, David (2019).
2393:. Roughly stated: are conflicts caused by differences of ethnicity, religion or other
2389:
Scholars investigating the cause of civil war are attracted by two opposing theories,
2145:
5483:
5341:
5325:
5289:
5260:
5231:
5187:
5152:
5131:
4956:
4907:
4897:
4860:
4850:
4631:
4604:
4340:
4328:
4224:
4175:
4136:
3949:
3928:"The inequality–conflict nexus re-examined: Income, education and popular rebellions"
3900:
3787:
3775:
3650:
3611:
3562:
3247:
3184:
3183:
states was a superpower, a civil war is a further 72% longer; a conflict such as the
3117:
3108:
2880:
2876:
2825:
2743:
2673:
2667:
2576:
2552:
2436:
2248:
2176:
2135:). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve
2099:
2008:
1955:
1858:
1848:
1843:
1813:
1796:
1791:
1764:
1709:
1410:
1400:
1395:
1385:
1305:
1295:
1290:
1265:
1235:
1125:
1095:
1090:
1080:
1075:
1065:
980:
933:
903:
742:
535:
512:
446:
112:
96:
4408:
3664:
3447:
2376:
which center on conflict as a response to socioeconomic or political injustice, and
2338:(3) (a) That the de jure Government has recognized the insurgents as belligerents;
2068:
87:
5469:
5407:
5277:
5248:
5211:
5175:
5123:
5068:
5035:
4944:
4565:
4525:
4513:
4501:
4487:
4483:
4450:
4438:
4396:
4367:
4320:
4214:
4206:
4167:
4128:
4048:
4028:
4009:
Fearon, James D.; Laitin, David D. (2003). "Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War".
3941:
3892:
3767:
3642:
3603:
3433:
3425:
3154:
2996:
2900:
2892:
2817:
2810:
2739:
2650:
2572:
2448:
2318:
2264:
2188:
2157:
2150:
2073:
2038:
1970:
1863:
1801:
1694:
1622:
1615:
1472:
1405:
1355:
1345:
1220:
1140:
1100:
1085:
1052:
1037:
908:
893:
846:
754:
712:
655:
650:
608:
431:
408:
315:
244:
173:
156:
63:
5373:
4978:
4625:
4598:
4311:
Walter, Barbara F. (2015-10-01). "Why Bad Governance Leads to Repeat Civil War".
4288:
4193:
CEDERMAN, LARS-ERIK; WEIDMANN, NILS B.; GLEDITSCH, KRISTIAN SKREDE (2011-07-11).
3862:
3735:
3696:
3495:
3490:
3317:
3251:
3231:
3166:
3103:
2853:
2680:
2309:
2243:
2128:
1883:
1868:
1786:
1742:
1684:
1340:
1335:
1225:
1215:
1130:
1105:
1047:
888:
818:
808:
660:
645:
568:
540:
340:
320:
168:
5281:
5252:
5166:
Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2001). ""New" and "Old" Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?".
4424:"Does poverty cause conflict? Isolating the causal origins of the conflict trap"
5127:
4219:
4194:
3004:
2964:
2849:
2779:
2767:
2605:
2239:
2058:
1806:
1230:
1190:
1168:
1155:
1145:
1115:
1032:
985:
788:
779:
670:
623:
603:
593:
563:
530:
418:
375:
330:
202:
135:
67:
31:
5239:
Mack, Andrew (2002). "Civil War: Academic Research and the Policy Community".
4569:
4517:
4210:
4155:
4132:
4032:
3912:
3880:
2935:
5516:
4911:
4864:
4442:
4332:
4324:
4228:
4195:"Horizontal Inequalities and Ethnonationalist Civil War: A Global Comparison"
4179:
4171:
4140:
3953:
3945:
3904:
3779:
3771:
3646:
3305:
3255:
3047:
2969:
2952:
2791:
2787:
2771:
2752:
2723:
2540:
2463:
1905:
1893:
1749:
1669:
1585:
1568:
1425:
1280:
1260:
943:
938:
918:
898:
813:
784:
759:
635:
613:
598:
573:
413:
335:
298:
293:
190:
5196:
The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation
3518:"Civil Wars and Foreign Powers: Outside Intervention in Intrastate Conflict"
3499:, March/April 2007. For further discussion on civil war classification, see
3069:
2955:
formed after 1945, the decline in interstate war, and the Cold War rivalry.
2156:
Most modern civil wars involve intervention by outside powers. According to
5474:
5457:
5427:
5113:
4117:"Beyond Fractionalization: Mapping Ethnicity onto Nationalist Insurgencies"
3812:
3479:
3243:
3162:
2948:
2908:
2888:
2734:
2718:
2636:
2276:
2260:
2231:
2172:
2165:
2164:(2000) about two thirds of the 138 intrastate conflicts between the end of
2136:
2092:
2018:
1998:
1993:
1888:
1833:
1467:
1462:
1285:
1200:
948:
682:
583:
380:
284:
5308:
Civil Wars and Foreign Powers: Outside Intervention in Intrastate Conflict
4541:"Polygyny or Misogyny? Reexamining the "First Law of Intergroup Conflict""
5423:
5179:
4400:
4282:
Fostering Peace after Civil War: Commitment Problems and Agreement Design
3690:"A Matter of Definition: What Makes a Civil War, and Who Declares It So?"
3372:
3267:
3250:, which was backed by the United Kingdom and the United States under the
3216:
3200:
2841:
2797:
2763:
2697:
2622:
2507:
Beyond Fractionalization: Mapping Ethnicity onto Nationalist Insurgencies
2314:
2298:
has sought to provide some clarification through its commentaries on the
2259:, for example, but excludes several highly publicized conflicts, such as
2191:
of millions more. Civil wars have further resulted in economic collapse;
2003:
1754:
1719:
1558:
1245:
1210:
923:
866:
769:
553:
274:
269:
4630:(Reprint. ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 17–20.
4281:
5411:
5223:
4603:(Reprint. ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 1–16.
4244:"Incidence, onset and duration of civil wars: A review of the evidence"
4040:
3322:
3239:
3227:
3195:
3121:
2833:
2806:
2644:
from diasporas offsets the depreciation of rebellion-specific capital.
2401:
2215:
1960:
1930:
1652:
1021:
108:
5434:
5054:
4539:
Gleditsch, K. S.; Wucherpfennig, J.; Hug, S.; Reigstad, K. G. (2011).
3096:
sovereignty equal to that of other states, even when they do not have
2887:
sides in the struggle received support from intervening great powers:
2400:
A comprehensive study of civil war was carried out by a team from the
4847:
Does peacekeeping work? shaping belligerents' choices after civil war
3438:
3137:
3051:
3012:
2916:
2837:
2564:
2523:
Incidence, Onset and Duration of Civil Wars: A Review of the Evidence
2421:
2413:
1950:
1774:
1724:
1674:
1664:
1659:
1524:
1315:
1310:
1275:
717:
403:
370:
259:
5215:
30:"Civil conflict" redirects here. For the college football game, see
5506:
4948:
4154:
Cederman, Lars-Erik; Buhaug, Halvard; Rød, Jan Ketil (2009-05-27).
3896:
3308:, where each conflict increases the likelihood of future conflict.
3212:
3098:
3038:
3029:
2783:
2663:
2659:
2654:
2429:
2341:(b) That it has claimed for itself the rights of a belligerent; or
2184:
1965:
1940:
1573:
1205:
1180:
798:
353:
227:
3594:
Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2009). Boix, Carles; Stokes, Susan C (eds.).
2762:
The power of non-state actors resulted in a lower value placed on
4538:
3092:
3074:
3020:
2981:
2973:
2857:
2666:
is a better explanation than polygyny. They found that increased
2618:
2601:
2192:
2132:
1975:
1935:
1699:
1533:
1529:
876:
861:
737:
398:
393:
363:
302:
264:
5268:
Mason, T. David; Fett, Patrick J. (1996). "How Civil Wars End".
4504:(2009). "Evolutionary Psychological Foundations of Civil Wars".
3085:(1975–1990) was characterized by multiple foreign interventions.
2617:
While there is a supposed negative correlation between absolute
2171:
A civil war is often a high-intensity conflict, often involving
5498:
Royal Air Force Doctrine – The Nature of War and Armed Conflict
4081:"Americans hate each other. But we aren't headed for civil war"
3063:
3055:
3042:
3034:
2865:
2861:
2821:
2372:
which center on individuals' desire to maximize their profits,
2204:
2200:
2140:
1482:
883:
700:
436:
4728:
2139:
for a region, or to change government policies. The term is a
3059:
3008:
2977:
2756:
2517:
Michael Bleaney, Professor of International Economics at the
2196:
958:
494:
489:
5356:
Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars
5107:
Breaking the Conflict Trap: civil war and development policy
5398:
Blattman, Christopher; Miguel, Edward (2010). "Civil War".
3856:
A CLASH OF GENERATIONS? YOUTH BULGES AND POLITICAL VIOLENCE
3575:
2303:
254:
249:
5442:
Stathis Kalyvas on 20 years of studying political violence
4716:
4422:
Braithwaite, Alex; Dasandi, Niheer; Hudson, David (2016).
2492:
111:
after a raid by German aircraft on 31 May 1938 during the
5315:
Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements
5000:
4988:
4826:
4790:
4668:
4192:
3561:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. p. 3.
3412:"Towards an Understanding of Contemporary Intrastate War"
3301:
2700:, an experience she defines as the "pleasure of agency".
2124:
127:
5379:
5091:
Ali, Taisier Mohamed Ahmed and Robert O. Matthews, eds.
4627:
Insurgent collective action and civil war in El Salvador
4600:
Insurgent collective action and civil war in El Salvador
4421:
5361:
Elisabeth Jean Wood; "Civil Wars: What We Don't Know,"
2729:
4814:
4802:
4764:
4752:
4740:
4704:
4692:
4680:
4644:
4656:
4386:
4115:
Cederman, Lars-Erik; Girardin, Luc (February 2007).
3511:
3509:
5100:
Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars
3262:times as long as other civil wars. Conversely, the
5324:(Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003).
3148:
2738:An artillery school set up by the anti-socialist "
5335:
4153:
4061:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
3506:
5514:
5145:Collier, Paul; Sambanis, Nicholas, eds. (2005).
4500:
4114:
4110:
4108:
3881:"Income Inequality and the Taste for Revolution"
3751:Cederman, Lars-Erik; Vogt, Manuel (2017-07-26).
3173:
2501:of the Center for Security Studies (CSS) at the
2464:Criticism of the "greed versus grievance" theory
5430:, 416–434. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
5144:
5112:
4353:
4078:
2931:Civil conflicts vs other conflicts 1946 to 2016
5397:
2687:, Wood finds that traditional explanations of
2511:ethno-linguistic fractionalization index (ELF)
2179:and the consumption of significant resources.
5148:Understanding Civil War:Evidence and Analysis
5119:Understanding Civil War:Evidence and Analysis
5017:
5015:
4105:
3925:
2100:
52:The examples and perspective in this article
4924:
4877:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4008:
3750:
3397:Revisiting the Geneva Conventions: 1949-2019
3600:The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics
3552:
3550:
3548:
3546:
2662:may have more civil wars. They argued that
5338:How Civil Wars Start: And How to Stop Them
5093:Civil Wars in Africa: roots and resolution
5012:
4473:
4074:
4072:
3878:
3500:
2107:
2093:
5473:
5440:Kalyvas, Stathis; Straus, Scott (2020). "
5385:Lars-Erik Cederman; Manuel Vogt (2017). "
5267:
5201:
5072:
5039:
4969:
4938:
4845:Page), Fortna, V. Page (Virginia (2008).
4559:
4371:
4354:Kleinfeld, Rachel; Barham, Elena (2018).
4218:
4022:
3641:. Cambridge University Press. p. 5.
3515:
3437:
3190:
2694:Farabundo MartĂ National Liberation Front
2435:Higher male secondary school enrollment,
2168:and 2000 saw international intervention.
2127:between organized groups within the same
5455:
5006:
4994:
4832:
4820:
4808:
4796:
4770:
4758:
4746:
4734:
4722:
4710:
4698:
4686:
4674:
4662:
4650:
3808:
3726:International Committee of the Red Cross
3581:
3556:
3543:
3475:
3473:
3471:
3469:
3194:
3127:
3068:
2990:
2934:
2926:
2796:
2733:
2563:
2308:
2296:International Committee of the Red Cross
2214:
2210:
1071:List of military strategies and concepts
102:
86:
5420:Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics
5418:Kalyvas Stathis N. 2007. "Civil Wars."
5165:
4891:
4241:
4156:"Ethno-Nationalist Dyads and Civil War"
4069:
3972:
3965:
3963:
3841:
3839:
3837:
3835:
3825:
3823:
3821:
3713:Diplomatic Conference of Geneva of 1949
3634:
3608:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199566020.003.0018
3593:
3409:
3394:
2883:(1936–1939) proved exceptional because
2703:
2493:Critical Responses to Fearon and Laitin
2428:A second source of finance is national
2149:which was used to refer to the various
5515:
5194:David Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds.
5021:
4310:
2939:Members of ARDE Frente Sur during the
2533:
19:For specific wars and other uses, see
5435:Conflict: Trajectories and Challenges
5380:Review articles of civil war research
5074:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064057
5041:10.1146/annurev-polisci-060415-093921
4844:
4783:
4781:
4779:
4469:
4467:
4431:Conflict Management and Peace Science
4373:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041916-015628
4306:
4304:
4280:Mattes, M., & Savun, B. (2009). "
4011:The American Political Science Review
4004:
4002:
3746:
3744:
3466:
2559:
2503:Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
5238:
4623:
4596:
4476:European Review of Political Economy
3969:Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 18
3960:
3845:Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 16
3832:
3829:Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 17
3818:
2730:In the 19th and early 20th centuries
38:
5358:(Princeton University Press, 2002),
5198:(Princeton University Press, 1996).
5116:; Sambanis, Nicholas, eds. (2005).
3501:the section "Formal classification"
3454:from the original on 5 January 2017
13:
5446:Violence: An International Journal
5085:
5061:Annual Review of Political Science
5028:Annual Review of Political Science
4776:
4464:
4389:Review of Economics and Statistics
4360:Annual Review of Political Science
4301:
4093:from the original on 19 April 2021
3999:
3885:The Journal of Law & Economics
3753:"Dynamics and Logics of Civil War"
3741:
3638:The Logic of Violence in Civil War
3430:10.1111/j.1477-7053.2007.00215_1.x
3410:Jackson, Richard (28 March 2014).
3339:The Logic of Violence in Civil War
3221:North Atlantic Treaty Organization
2587:
2306:in its commentary are as follows:
14:
5539:
5491:
5204:American Political Science Review
5098:Mats Berdal and David M. Malone,
5022:Walter, Barbara F. (2017-01-01).
4199:American Political Science Review
4121:American Political Science Review
3516:Ikenberry, G. John (2009-01-28).
2832:The two major global ideologies,
5387:Dynamics and Logics of Civil War
4970:Weinstein, Jeremy (April 2005).
4460:from the original on 2020-03-10.
3926:BartuseviÄŤius, Henrikas (2014).
3797:from the original on 2018-07-23.
3624:from the original on 2012-12-31.
3365:non-international armed conflict
2521:, published a 2009 paper titled
2480:
2151:civil wars of the Roman Republic
145:
43:
5313:Stephen John and others., eds.
5048:
4963:
4918:
4885:
4838:
4617:
4590:
4579:from the original on 2017-09-21
4532:
4494:
4415:
4380:
4347:
4293:International Studies Quarterly
4274:
4261:
4235:
4186:
4147:
4079:Richard Hanania (29 Oct 2020).
3990:
3981:
3919:
3872:
3848:
3801:
3718:
3705:
3682:
3671:from the original on 2021-11-09
3532:from the original on 2021-03-08
3149:Interventions by outside powers
3058:and Middle Eastern states like
2600:There is a correlation between
2528:
2451:better explained the findings.
5400:Journal of Economic Literature
5392:Journal of Conflict Resolution
5298:Civil War in Europe, 1905–1949
5270:Journal of Conflict Resolution
4849:. Princeton University Press.
4488:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2013.06.007
4313:Journal of Conflict Resolution
4160:Journal of Conflict Resolution
3760:Journal of Conflict Resolution
3628:
3587:
3403:
3388:
3357:
2378:opportunity-based explanations
1:
5433:Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2024). "
5109:World Bank (2003) – 320 pages
4896:. National Geographic Books.
4624:Wood, Elisabeth Jean (2003).
4597:Wood, Elisabeth Jean (2003).
3381:
3174:Effectiveness of intervention
3159:Civil Wars and Foreign Powers
2922:
2612:
2546:
2412:A high proportion of primary
2234:, a scholar of civil wars at
2162:Civil Wars and Foreign Powers
66:and discuss the issue on the
3635:Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2006).
3367:(NIAC) and also known as an
3333:List of wars of independence
3286:
2899:supported opposition leader
2755:occurred almost entirely in
2454:
2374:grievance-based explanations
7:
5462:Defence and Peace Economics
5456:Sambanis, Nicholas (2002).
5282:10.1177/0022002796040004002
5253:10.1177/0022343302039005001
4269:Handbook of Economic Growth
3879:MacCulloch, Robert (2005).
3869:Retrieved 28 December 2012.
3345:Wars of national liberation
3311:
3199:Fall and demolition of the
3073:A checkpoint manned by the
2509:, Cederman argues that the
1564:Military–industrial complex
1043:Operational manoeuvre group
107:The destruction wrought on
10:
5544:
5336:Barbara F. Walter (2022).
3399:. Brill. pp. 168–189.
3295:
3266:marked by the fall of the
3132:A fast attack boat of the
2595:
29:
21:Civil War (disambiguation)
18:
5503:"What makes a civil war?"
5241:Journal of Peace Research
4570:10.1017/S0022381610001003
4518:10.1017/S0022381608090026
4242:Bleaney, Michael (2009).
4211:10.1017/s0003055411000207
4133:10.1017/S0003055407070086
4033:10.1017/S0003055403000534
3933:Journal of Peace Research
3417:Government and Opposition
3236:Democratic Army of Greece
2648:Evolutionary psychologist
2363:
2269:African National Congress
2253:Second Sudanese Civil War
1628:Loss-of-strength gradient
485:Combat information center
5024:"The New New Civil Wars"
4443:10.1177/0738894214559673
4325:10.1177/0022002714528006
4172:10.1177/0022002709336455
3946:10.1177/0022343313503179
3772:10.1177/0022002717721385
3647:10.1017/cbo9780511818462
3350:
2792:United States of America
2519:University of Nottingham
2384:
2370:greed-based explanations
2313:Tanks in the streets of
2267:and the struggle of the
1946:Military science fiction
1431:Technology and equipment
852:List of military tactics
5122:. Vol. 1: Africa.
4927:The Journal of Politics
4892:Gerald., Knaus (2012).
4548:The Journal of Politics
4506:The Journal of Politics
4035:(inactive 2024-09-20).
3766:(9): 0022002717721385.
3715:, (Volume II-B, p. 121)
2820:'s Nationalists, bombs
2629:
2497:Some scholars, such as
2321:the capital during the
2153:in the 1st century BC.
2014:Wartime sexual violence
1770:Full-spectrum dominance
1581:Supply-chain management
5475:10.1080/10242690210976
5102:(Lynne Rienner, 2000).
4894:Can intervention work?
4737:, pp. 7 & 23.
3557:Hironaka, Ann (2005).
3208:
3191:Effect of the Cold War
3145:
3086:
3000:
2943:
2932:
2829:
2807:smaller fighter planes
2747:
2580:
2418:gross domestic product
2391:greed versus grievance
2326:
2228:
1926:Awards and decorations
1899:Peace through strength
1874:Low-intensity conflict
1508:Conscientious objector
1381:Area of responsibility
115:
100:
5365:Vol. 9, 2003 pp 247+
4251:CREDIT Research Paper
3811:, pp. 9–10, and
3198:
3131:
3072:
2994:
2941:Nicaraguan Revolution
2938:
2930:
2844:(defined in the 1815
2800:
2737:
2567:
2312:
2218:
2211:Formal classification
518:Torpedo data computer
508:Ship gun fire-control
106:
90:
5180:10.1353/wp.2001.0022
4787:Hironaka, 2005, p. 6
4401:10.1162/REST_a_00046
3711:Final Record of the
3602:. pp. 416–434.
3584:, pp. 1–2, 4–5.
3528:(July/August 2000).
3142:Sri Lankan Civil War
2704:Duration and effects
2685:Salvadoran Civil War
2571:soldiers during the
2551:Political scientist
2221:Battle of Gettysburg
2173:regular armed forces
2044:Military occupations
1879:Military engineering
1781:Unrestricted Warfare
1638:Force multiplication
536:Military manoeuvrers
64:improve this article
54:may not represent a
16:War within a country
5354:Barbara F. Walter,
5320:Monica Duffy Toft,
5296:Stanley G. Payne,
4220:20.500.11850/160115
4086:The Washington Post
3702:. November 26, 2006
3264:end of the Cold War
3003:In sharp contrast,
2953:fragility of states
2814:Legionary Air Force
2774:were recognized as
2689:greed and grievance
2534:Bargaining problems
2445:economic inequality
2407:regression analysis
2323:Ethiopian Civil War
2257:Cambodian Civil War
2236:Stanford University
2189:forced displacement
1730:Penal military unit
1715:Rules of engagement
1391:Command and control
1016:Operations research
480:Director (military)
470:Fire-control system
240:Command and control
121:Part of a series on
5437:". World Politics.
5412:10.1257/jel.48.1.3
5372:2012-06-28 at the
5363:Global Governance,
5306:Patrick M. Regan.
4725:, pp. 1, 4–5.
4287:2018-09-08 at the
3861:2017-07-03 at the
3807:See, for example,
3734:2016-03-22 at the
3695:2021-05-23 at the
3489:2007-03-17 at the
3484:"Iraq's Civil War"
3328:List of civil wars
3209:
3205:Checkpoint Charlie
3146:
3114:invasion of Kuwait
3087:
3083:Lebanese Civil War
3017:British Somaliland
3001:
2944:
2933:
2873:American Civil War
2846:Congress of Vienna
2830:
2748:
2581:
2560:Military advantage
2499:Lars-Erik Cederman
2395:social affiliation
2327:
2300:Geneva Conventions
2294:Nevertheless, the
2288:Geneva Conventions
2229:
2225:American Civil War
1839:Counter-insurgency
1760:Command of the sea
1705:Jewish laws on war
1680:Geneva Conventions
1216:Divide and conquer
1011:Military operation
976:Tactical objective
475:Fire-control radar
452:Electronic-warfare
116:
101:
25:List of civil wars
5317:(2002), 729 pages
5158:978-0-8213-6049-1
5137:978-0-8213-6047-7
5095:(1999), 322 pages
5009:, pp. 48–50.
4997:, pp. 50–51.
4835:, pp. 37–40.
4799:, pp. 59–61.
4677:, pp. 28–29.
3656:978-0-521-85409-2
3363:Legally known as
3248:Kingdom of Greece
3185:Angolan Civil War
3109:international law
3015:, while treating
2986:Sardinia-Piedmont
2881:Spanish Civil War
2826:Spanish Civil War
2744:Finnish Civil War
2674:Political scholar
2577:Chinese Civil War
2553:Barbara F. Walter
2437:per capita income
2249:Correlates of War
2219:Aftermath of the
2117:
2116:
2009:Horses in warfare
1956:Anti-war movement
1859:Gunboat diplomacy
1849:Disaster response
1797:Philosophy of war
1792:Principles of war
1765:Deterrence theory
1710:Right of conquest
1633:Lanchester's laws
1401:Principles of war
1091:Counter-offensive
1076:Military campaign
981:Target saturation
904:Counterinsurgency
513:Gun data computer
447:Close air support
409:Aircraft carriers
113:Spanish Civil War
97:Finnish Civil War
85:
84:
5535:
5487:
5477:
5415:
5351:
5310:(2000) 172 pages
5293:
5264:
5235:
5191:
5162:
5141:
5124:Washington, D.C.
5079:
5078:
5076:
5052:
5046:
5045:
5043:
5019:
5010:
5004:
4998:
4992:
4986:
4985:
4983:
4977:. Archived from
4976:
4967:
4961:
4960:
4942:
4922:
4916:
4915:
4889:
4883:
4882:
4876:
4868:
4842:
4836:
4830:
4824:
4818:
4812:
4806:
4800:
4794:
4788:
4785:
4774:
4768:
4762:
4756:
4750:
4744:
4738:
4732:
4726:
4720:
4714:
4708:
4702:
4696:
4690:
4684:
4678:
4672:
4666:
4660:
4654:
4648:
4642:
4641:
4621:
4615:
4614:
4594:
4588:
4587:
4585:
4584:
4578:
4563:
4545:
4536:
4530:
4529:
4502:Satoshi Kanazawa
4498:
4492:
4491:
4471:
4462:
4461:
4459:
4428:
4419:
4413:
4412:
4395:(4): 1035–1041.
4384:
4378:
4377:
4375:
4351:
4345:
4344:
4319:(7): 1242–1272.
4308:
4299:
4278:
4272:
4265:
4259:
4258:
4248:
4239:
4233:
4232:
4222:
4190:
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4112:
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4076:
4067:
4066:
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4052:
4026:
4006:
3997:
3994:
3988:
3985:
3979:
3976:
3970:
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3958:
3957:
3923:
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3876:
3870:
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3846:
3843:
3830:
3827:
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3805:
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3722:
3716:
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3686:
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3477:
3464:
3463:
3461:
3459:
3441:
3407:
3401:
3400:
3392:
3375:
3361:
3279:(1979–1991) and
3155:Patrick M. Regan
2997:Somali Civil War
2901:Francisco Franco
2877:war of attrition
2854:Habsburg Austria
2818:Francisco Franco
2714:Neverending Wars
2651:Satoshi Kanazawa
2573:Battle of Siping
2449:opportunity cost
2265:Northern Ireland
2158:Patrick M. Regan
2109:
2102:
2095:
1864:Humanitarian aid
1802:Security dilemma
1623:Power projection
1406:Economy of force
1386:Chain of command
1101:Defence in depth
1086:Commerce raiding
909:Defeat in detail
245:Defense ministry
149:
140:
139:
130:
118:
117:
80:
77:
71:
47:
46:
39:
5543:
5542:
5538:
5537:
5536:
5534:
5533:
5532:
5513:
5512:
5509:, 20 April 2006
5494:
5428:Stokes Susan C.
5382:
5374:Wayback Machine
5348:
5216:10.2307/2082982
5159:
5138:
5088:
5086:Further reading
5083:
5082:
5053:
5049:
5020:
5013:
5005:
5001:
4993:
4989:
4981:
4974:
4968:
4964:
4940:10.1.1.622.2394
4923:
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4870:
4869:
4857:
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4831:
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4580:
4576:
4561:10.1.1.518.5482
4543:
4537:
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4472:
4465:
4457:
4426:
4420:
4416:
4385:
4381:
4352:
4348:
4309:
4302:
4289:Wayback Machine
4279:
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4054:
4053:
4024:10.1.1.453.3913
4007:
4000:
3995:
3991:
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3982:
3977:
3973:
3968:
3961:
3924:
3920:
3877:
3873:
3863:Wayback Machine
3854:Henrik Urdal –
3853:
3849:
3844:
3833:
3828:
3819:
3806:
3802:
3794:
3755:
3749:
3742:
3736:Wayback Machine
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3697:Wayback Machine
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3569:
3555:
3544:
3535:
3533:
3522:Foreign Affairs
3514:
3507:
3496:Foreign Affairs
3491:Wayback Machine
3478:
3467:
3457:
3455:
3408:
3404:
3393:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3378:
3362:
3358:
3353:
3318:Frozen conflict
3314:
3298:
3289:
3252:Truman Doctrine
3246:, opposing the
3238:, supported by
3232:Greek Civil War
3226:In some cases,
3193:
3176:
3167:Monroe Doctrine
3151:
3104:development aid
2925:
2805:, supported by
2732:
2706:
2681:Yale University
2632:
2615:
2598:
2590:
2588:Population size
2562:
2549:
2536:
2531:
2495:
2483:
2466:
2457:
2387:
2366:
2350:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2244:Stathis Kalyvas
2213:
2113:
2084:
2083:
2034:
2024:
2023:
1989:
1981:
1980:
1921:
1911:
1910:
1884:Multilateralism
1869:Law enforcement
1829:
1819:
1818:
1787:Just war theory
1745:
1735:
1734:
1685:Geneva Protocol
1655:
1645:
1644:
1618:
1608:
1607:
1549:
1539:
1538:
1446:
1436:
1435:
1376:
1366:
1365:
1331:
1321:
1320:
1251:Network-centric
1171:
1161:
1160:
1068:
1058:
1057:
1006:
996:
995:
944:Rapid dominance
849:
839:
838:
794:Electromagnetic
703:
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679:
632:
580:
556:
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545:
541:Combat training
522:
499:
465:Combat systems:
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419:Auxiliary ships
385:
345:
341:Military police
307:
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91:Members of the
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5493:
5492:External links
5490:
5489:
5488:
5468:(3): 215–243.
5453:
5438:
5431:
5416:
5395:
5381:
5378:
5377:
5376:
5367:online version
5359:
5352:
5347:978-0593137789
5346:
5333:
5318:
5311:
5304:
5294:
5276:(4): 546–568.
5265:
5247:(5): 515–525.
5236:
5210:(3): 681–690.
5199:
5192:
5168:World Politics
5163:
5157:
5142:
5136:
5128:The World Bank
5110:
5105:Paul Collier,
5103:
5096:
5087:
5084:
5081:
5080:
5047:
5034:(1): 469–486.
5011:
4999:
4987:
4984:on 2012-05-28.
4962:
4949:10.1086/679021
4933:(1): 249–267.
4917:
4902:
4884:
4855:
4837:
4825:
4813:
4801:
4789:
4775:
4763:
4751:
4749:, pp. 36.
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4205:(3): 478–495.
4185:
4166:(4): 496–525.
4146:
4127:(1): 173–185.
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3913:10.1086/426881
3897:10.1086/426881
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3817:
3800:
3740:
3717:
3704:
3700:New York Times
3681:
3655:
3627:
3617:978-0199566020
3616:
3586:
3574:
3567:
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3505:
3465:
3424:(1): 121–128.
3402:
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3377:
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3369:intrastate war
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3005:decolonization
2965:United Nations
2924:
2921:
2913:the government
2850:United Kingdom
2780:Ottoman Empire
2731:
2728:
2724:fragile states
2705:
2702:
2677:Elisabeth Wood
2668:women's rights
2631:
2628:
2619:welfare levels
2614:
2611:
2606:Simeon Djankov
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2589:
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2541:conflict traps
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384:
383:
378:
376:Special forces
373:
368:
367:
366:
356:
351:
344:
343:
338:
333:
331:Reconnaissance
328:
323:
318:
313:
306:
305:
296:
291:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
231:
226:
225:
222:
221:
218:
217:
216:
215:
210:
200:
199:
198:
193:
183:
182:
181:
174:Post-classical
171:
166:
160:
155:
154:
151:
150:
142:
141:
123:
122:
83:
82:
58:of the subject
51:
49:
42:
32:Civil Conflict
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5540:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5521:
5520:
5518:
5508:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5495:
5485:
5481:
5476:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5454:
5452:(2): 389–407.
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5436:
5432:
5429:
5425:
5421:
5417:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5401:
5396:
5394:
5393:
5388:
5384:
5383:
5375:
5371:
5368:
5364:
5360:
5357:
5353:
5349:
5343:
5339:
5334:
5331:
5330:0-691-12383-7
5327:
5323:
5319:
5316:
5312:
5309:
5305:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5237:
5233:
5229:
5225:
5221:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5200:
5197:
5193:
5189:
5185:
5181:
5177:
5173:
5169:
5164:
5160:
5154:
5150:
5149:
5143:
5139:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5120:
5115:
5114:Collier, Paul
5111:
5108:
5104:
5101:
5097:
5094:
5090:
5089:
5075:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5058:
5051:
5042:
5037:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5018:
5016:
5008:
5007:Hironaka 2005
5003:
4996:
4995:Hironaka 2005
4991:
4980:
4973:
4966:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4921:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4903:9780393342246
4899:
4895:
4888:
4880:
4874:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4856:9780691136714
4852:
4848:
4841:
4834:
4833:Hironaka 2005
4829:
4823:, p. 16.
4822:
4821:Hironaka 2005
4817:
4811:, p. 56.
4810:
4809:Hironaka 2005
4805:
4798:
4797:Hironaka 2005
4793:
4784:
4782:
4780:
4773:, p. 54.
4772:
4771:Hironaka 2005
4767:
4761:, p. 40.
4760:
4759:Hironaka 2005
4755:
4748:
4747:Hironaka 2005
4743:
4736:
4735:Hironaka 2005
4731:
4724:
4723:Hironaka 2005
4719:
4713:, p. 31.
4712:
4711:Hironaka 2005
4707:
4701:, p. 30.
4700:
4699:Hironaka 2005
4695:
4689:, p. 29.
4688:
4687:Hironaka 2005
4683:
4676:
4675:Hironaka 2005
4671:
4664:
4663:Hironaka 2005
4659:
4653:, p. 28.
4652:
4651:Hironaka 2005
4647:
4639:
4637:9780521010504
4633:
4629:
4628:
4620:
4612:
4610:9780521010504
4606:
4602:
4601:
4593:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4542:
4535:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4497:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4470:
4468:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4425:
4418:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4383:
4374:
4369:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4350:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4307:
4305:
4298:(3), 737–759.
4297:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4283:
4277:
4270:
4264:
4256:
4252:
4245:
4238:
4230:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4189:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4150:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4111:
4109:
4092:
4088:
4087:
4082:
4075:
4073:
4064:
4058:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4005:
4003:
3993:
3984:
3975:
3966:
3964:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3934:
3929:
3922:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3891:(1): 93–123.
3890:
3886:
3882:
3875:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3857:
3851:
3842:
3840:
3838:
3836:
3826:
3824:
3822:
3814:
3813:Collier, Paul
3810:
3809:Hironaka 2005
3804:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3754:
3747:
3745:
3737:
3733:
3730:
3727:
3724:See also the
3721:
3714:
3708:
3701:
3698:
3694:
3691:
3688:Edward Wong,
3685:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3639:
3631:
3623:
3619:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3590:
3583:
3582:Hironaka 2005
3578:
3570:
3568:0-674-01532-0
3564:
3560:
3553:
3551:
3549:
3547:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3512:
3510:
3502:
3498:
3497:
3492:
3488:
3485:
3481:
3476:
3474:
3472:
3470:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3418:
3413:
3406:
3398:
3391:
3387:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3360:
3356:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3340:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3315:
3309:
3307:
3306:conflict trap
3303:
3293:
3284:
3283:(1970–1990).
3282:
3278:
3275:(1960–1996),
3274:
3269:
3265:
3259:
3257:
3256:Marshall Plan
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3224:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3206:
3202:
3197:
3188:
3186:
3180:
3171:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3130:
3126:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3101:
3100:
3095:
3094:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3071:
3067:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3031:
3027:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
2998:
2993:
2989:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2970:Charles Tilly
2966:
2960:
2956:
2954:
2950:
2942:
2937:
2929:
2920:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2869:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2799:
2795:
2793:
2789:
2788:Massachusetts
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2772:Barbary Coast
2769:
2765:
2760:
2758:
2754:
2753:Paris Commune
2745:
2742:" during the
2741:
2736:
2727:
2725:
2720:
2716:
2715:
2710:
2701:
2699:
2695:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2675:
2671:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2649:
2645:
2642:
2638:
2627:
2624:
2623:colonial rule
2620:
2610:
2607:
2603:
2593:
2585:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2557:
2554:
2544:
2542:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2515:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2490:
2487:
2481:Opportunities
2478:
2474:
2470:
2461:
2452:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2438:
2433:
2431:
2426:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2396:
2392:
2382:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2361:
2358:
2355:
2352:
2348:
2345:
2342:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2324:
2320:
2317:after rebels
2316:
2311:
2307:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2292:
2289:
2284:
2280:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2226:
2222:
2217:
2208:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2180:
2178:
2174:
2169:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2154:
2152:
2148:
2147:
2146:bellum civile
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2110:
2105:
2103:
2098:
2096:
2091:
2090:
2088:
2087:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2028:
2027:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1991:
1985:
1984:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1936:Warrior caste
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1923:
1920:
1915:
1914:
1907:
1906:Show of force
1904:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1894:Peacebuilding
1892:
1891:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1831:
1828:
1823:
1822:
1815:
1812:
1808:
1805:
1804:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1782:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1750:Air supremacy
1748:
1747:
1744:
1739:
1738:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1690:Islamic rules
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1670:Court-martial
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1657:
1654:
1649:
1648:
1639:
1636:
1635:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1617:
1612:
1611:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1569:Arms industry
1567:
1566:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1548:
1543:
1542:
1535:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1519:
1516:
1515:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1457:
1454:
1453:
1452:
1449:
1448:
1445:
1440:
1439:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1375:
1370:
1369:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1333:
1330:
1325:
1324:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1186:Broken-backed
1184:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1173:
1170:
1165:
1164:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1073:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1061:
1054:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1028:Expeditionary
1026:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1008:
1005:
1000:
999:
992:
989:
987:
984:
982:
979:
977:
974:
972:
969:
967:
964:
960:
957:
956:
955:
952:
950:
947:
945:
942:
940:
937:
935:
932:
930:
927:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
905:
902:
900:
899:Counterattack
897:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
864:
863:
860:
858:
855:
854:
853:
848:
843:
842:
835:
832:
830:
827:
825:
824:Psychological
822:
820:
817:
815:
812:
810:
807:
805:
802:
800:
797:
795:
792:
790:
786:
783:
781:
778:
776:
773:
771:
768:
766:
763:
761:
760:Combined arms
758:
756:
753:
749:
746:
744:
741:
740:
739:
736:
734:
731:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
714:
711:
709:
706:
705:
702:
697:
696:
689:
686:
684:
681:
680:
672:
669:
668:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
638:
637:
634:
633:
625:
622:
621:
620:
617:
615:
612:
610:
607:
605:
602:
600:
599:Fortification
597:
595:
592:
590:
587:
586:
585:
582:
581:
575:
572:
570:
567:
565:
562:
561:
559:
558:
555:
550:
549:
542:
539:
537:
534:
532:
529:
527:
524:
523:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
504:
501:
500:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
462:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
424:
420:
417:
415:
414:Landing craft
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
386:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
365:
362:
361:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
346:
342:
339:
337:
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
308:
304:
300:
299:Standing army
297:
295:
292:
290:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
233:
232:
229:
224:
223:
214:
211:
209:
206:
205:
204:
201:
197:
194:
192:
191:pike and shot
189:
188:
187:
184:
180:
177:
176:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
161:
158:
153:
152:
148:
144:
143:
137:
129:
125:
124:
120:
119:
114:
110:
105:
98:
94:
89:
79:
69:
65:
59:
57:
50:
41:
40:
37:
33:
26:
22:
5528:Wars by type
5465:
5461:
5449:
5445:
5422:, edited by
5419:
5403:
5399:
5390:
5362:
5355:
5337:
5321:
5314:
5307:
5297:
5273:
5269:
5244:
5240:
5207:
5203:
5195:
5171:
5167:
5147:
5118:
5106:
5099:
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4979:the original
4965:
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4887:
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4840:
4828:
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4804:
4792:
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4754:
4742:
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4694:
4682:
4670:
4665:, p. 1.
4658:
4646:
4626:
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4599:
4592:
4581:. Retrieved
4551:
4547:
4534:
4509:
4505:
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4475:
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4388:
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4263:
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4250:
4237:
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4198:
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4159:
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4120:
4095:. Retrieved
4084:
4057:cite journal
4017:(1): 75–90.
4014:
4010:
3992:
3983:
3974:
3940:(1): 35–50.
3937:
3931:
3921:
3888:
3884:
3874:
3866:
3850:
3803:
3763:
3759:
3720:
3707:
3699:
3684:
3673:. Retrieved
3637:
3630:
3599:
3596:"Civil Wars"
3589:
3577:
3558:
3534:. Retrieved
3525:
3521:
3494:
3480:James Fearon
3456:. Retrieved
3421:
3415:
3405:
3396:
3390:
3368:
3364:
3359:
3337:
3299:
3290:
3260:
3244:Soviet Union
3225:
3210:
3181:
3177:
3163:great powers
3158:
3157:in his book
3152:
3144:(1983–2009).
3097:
3091:
3088:
3081:, 1982. The
3002:
2961:
2957:
2949:World War II
2945:
2909:Soviet Union
2884:
2870:
2842:Great Powers
2831:
2816:, allied to
2775:
2761:
2749:
2719:World War II
2712:
2711:, author of
2709:Ann Hironaka
2707:
2672:
2646:
2639:of whatever
2637:depreciation
2633:
2616:
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2591:
2582:
2550:
2537:
2529:Other causes
2522:
2516:
2506:
2496:
2488:
2484:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2458:
2442:
2434:
2427:
2411:
2399:
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2369:
2367:
2359:
2356:
2353:
2349:
2346:
2343:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2293:
2285:
2281:
2277:South Africa
2261:The Troubles
2232:James Fearon
2230:
2181:
2170:
2166:World War II
2161:
2160:in his book
2155:
2144:
2137:independence
2120:
2118:
2019:Fifth column
1999:War resister
1994:Women in war
1889:Peacekeeping
1834:Arms control
1779:
1468:Mobilization
1463:Conscription
1421:Intelligence
1374:Organization
1020:
949:Encirclement
829:Radiological
765:Conventional
619:Subterranean
526:Development:
525:
502:
464:
426:
389:Naval units:
388:
381:Signal corps
348:
326:Intelligence
311:Specialties:
310:
235:Organization
186:Early modern
73:
53:
36:
5424:Boix Carles
5067:: 361–377.
4554:: 265–270.
4366:: 215–238.
4271:1: 385–472.
3373:war studies
3277:El Salvador
3268:Berlin Wall
3228:superpowers
3217:Warsaw Pact
3201:Berlin Wall
2828:(1936–1939)
2824:during the
2764:sovereignty
2698:El Salvador
2414:commodities
2315:Addis Ababa
2199:(Myanmar),
2004:War studies
1827:Non-warfare
1755:Appeasement
1720:Martial law
1559:War economy
1498:Transgender
1451:Recruitment
1211:Containment
1096:Culminating
1004:Operational
924:Envelopment
867:Air assault
748:Air cavalry
708:Air defence
688:Information
589:Cold-region
554:Battlespace
503:Historical:
349:Land units:
275:Space force
270:Coast guard
203:Late modern
164:Prehistoric
95:during the
5523:Civil wars
5517:Categories
5174:: 99–118.
4583:2017-10-24
3729:commentary
3675:2021-11-09
3536:2015-11-06
3382:References
3323:Insurgency
3240:Yugoslavia
3134:rebel LTTE
3122:Somaliland
3079:US Marines
3026:corruption
2923:Since 1945
2911:supported
2834:monarchism
2613:Inequality
2547:Governance
2402:World Bank
2177:casualties
2064:War crimes
2054:Operations
1961:Foot drill
1931:Battle cry
1844:deterrence
1503:Harassment
1478:Specialism
1301:Technology
1296:Succession
1241:Liberation
1176:Asymmetric
1111:Empty fort
1022:Blitzkrieg
991:Withdrawal
954:Investment
733:Camouflage
728:Biological
666:Underwater
641:Amphibious
560:Aerospace
427:Air units:
404:Submarines
213:fourth-gen
208:industrial
196:napoleonic
109:Granollers
93:Red Guards
5484:153678074
5340:. Crown.
5290:155874771
5261:145668725
5232:144717008
5188:144164335
4957:220454361
4935:CiteSeerX
4912:916002160
4873:cite book
4865:785583130
4556:CiteSeerX
4512:: 25–34.
4482:: 56–79.
4437:: 45–66.
4341:154632359
4333:0022-0027
4229:0003-0554
4180:0022-0027
4141:0003-0554
4019:CiteSeerX
3954:0022-3433
3905:0022-2186
3788:149212588
3780:0022-0027
3458:5 January
3439:2160/1963
3287:Post-2003
3281:Nicaragua
3273:Guatemala
3138:Sri Lanka
3077:army and
3052:Argentina
3013:Sri Lanka
2917:proxy war
2838:democracy
2569:Communist
2455:Grievance
2430:diasporas
2422:petroleum
2273:Apartheid
2143:of Latin
2121:civil war
1951:War novel
1854:Grey-zone
1814:War games
1775:Overmatch
1725:War crime
1675:Desertion
1665:Ceasefire
1660:Armistice
1547:Logistics
1525:Mercenary
1513:Volunteer
1444:Personnel
1416:Engineers
1361:Sociology
1316:World war
1311:Total war
1291:Strategic
1281:Religious
1266:Political
1261:Perpetual
1236:Irregular
1151:Offensive
1126:Defensive
1121:Deception
1081:Attrition
934:Guerrilla
929:Formation
872:Airbridge
804:Loitering
718:Artillery
371:Artillery
321:Engineers
289:Irregular
260:Air force
68:talk page
56:full view
5507:BBC News
5406:: 3–57.
5370:Archived
4574:Archived
4455:Archived
4409:18168622
4285:Archived
4257:(8): 29.
4097:15 April
4091:Archived
3859:Archived
3792:Archived
3732:Archived
3693:Archived
3669:Archived
3665:14897960
3622:Archived
3530:Archived
3487:Archived
3452:Archived
3448:56449614
3312:See also
3254:and the
3242:and the
3213:Cold War
3099:de facto
3075:Lebanese
3048:fragile"
3039:Malaysia
3030:nepotism
2907:and the
2903:, while
2897:Portugal
2784:Virginia
2776:de facto
2664:misogyny
2660:polygamy
2655:polygyny
2185:Cold War
1966:War song
1941:War film
1574:Materiel
1493:Children
1473:Training
1411:Medicine
1396:Doctrine
1351:Training
1286:Resource
1271:Princely
1221:Economic
1206:Conquest
1201:Colonial
1196:Cold war
1181:Blockade
1066:Strategy
1038:Maneuver
799:Infantry
755:Chemical
609:Mountain
569:Airborne
432:Fighters
399:Warships
354:Infantry
280:Reserves
228:Military
76:May 2019
5224:2082982
4526:1492307
4451:3460450
4049:8303905
4041:3118222
3867:un.org.
3296:Effects
3093:de jure
3021:Belgium
2999:(1993).
2982:Prussia
2974:Germany
2889:Germany
2858:Prussia
2848:as the
2811:Italian
2790:in the
2770:of the
2768:pirates
2641:capital
2602:poverty
2596:Poverty
2193:Somalia
2133:country
2079:Writers
2074:Weapons
2039:Battles
1988:Related
1976:Wargame
1971:Uniform
1919:Culture
1700:Perfidy
1695:Justice
1616:Science
1601:Outpost
1554:History
1534:Warrior
1530:Soldier
1518:foreign
1456:counter
1356:Service
1306:Theater
1246:Limited
1226:Endemic
1141:Nuclear
914:Foxhole
889:Cavalry
877:Airdrop
862:Airlift
847:Tactics
819:Nuclear
809:Missile
738:Cavalry
723:Barrage
701:Weapons
661:Surface
442:Command
437:Bombers
394:Frogman
364:Cavalry
336:Medical
303:Militia
285:Regular
265:Marines
179:castles
169:Ancient
157:History
136:outline
99:of 1918
62:Please
5482:
5344:
5328:
5302:online
5288:
5259:
5230:
5222:
5186:
5155:
5134:
4955:
4937:
4910:
4900:
4863:
4853:
4634:
4607:
4558:
4524:
4449:
4407:
4339:
4331:
4227:
4178:
4139:
4047:
4039:
4021:
3952:
3911:
3903:
3786:
3778:
3663:
3653:
3614:
3565:
3446:
3207:(1990)
3064:Israel
3056:Brazil
3043:Angola
3035:Uganda
2905:France
2895:, and
2866:Russia
2864:, and
2862:France
2822:Madrid
2746:, 1918
2740:Whites
2579:, 1946
2364:Causes
2325:(1991)
2319:seized
2227:, 1863
2205:Angola
2201:Uganda
2141:calque
2059:Sieges
1743:Theory
1483:Morale
1341:Policy
1336:Branch
1116:Mosaic
1106:Fabian
1053:Covert
986:Trench
971:Screen
894:Charge
884:Battle
857:Aerial
775:Denial
743:Horses
671:Seabed
624:Tunnel
604:Jungle
594:Desert
564:Aerial
5480:S2CID
5286:S2CID
5257:S2CID
5228:S2CID
5220:JSTOR
5184:S2CID
4982:(PDF)
4975:(PDF)
4953:S2CID
4577:(PDF)
4544:(PDF)
4522:S2CID
4458:(PDF)
4447:S2CID
4427:(PDF)
4405:S2CID
4337:S2CID
4247:(PDF)
4045:S2CID
4037:JSTOR
3909:JSTOR
3795:(PDF)
3784:S2CID
3756:(PDF)
3661:S2CID
3444:S2CID
3351:Notes
3060:Egypt
3009:India
2978:Italy
2915:(see
2893:Italy
2809:, of
2803:plane
2757:Paris
2679:from
2385:Greed
2275:-era
2240:state
2197:Burma
2129:state
2123:is a
2032:Lists
1488:Women
1426:Ranks
1346:Staff
1276:Proxy
1191:Class
1146:Naval
1131:Depth
966:Swarm
959:Siege
939:Naval
919:Drone
814:Music
789:Robot
785:Drone
770:Cyber
713:Armor
683:Cyber
656:Green
651:Brown
614:Urban
574:Space
495:Radar
490:Sonar
359:Armor
316:Staff
294:Ranks
5342:ISBN
5326:ISBN
5153:ISBN
5132:ISBN
4908:OCLC
4898:ISBN
4879:link
4861:OCLC
4851:ISBN
4632:ISBN
4605:ISBN
4329:ISSN
4225:ISSN
4176:ISSN
4137:ISSN
4099:2021
4063:link
3950:ISSN
3901:ISSN
3776:ISSN
3651:ISBN
3612:ISBN
3563:ISBN
3460:2017
3219:and
3211:The
3118:Iraq
3062:and
3054:and
3041:and
3028:and
3011:and
2984:and
2976:and
2885:both
2836:and
2786:and
2630:Time
2304:ICRC
2286:The
2255:and
2203:and
2131:(or
2069:Wars
1586:Base
1136:Goal
1048:Raid
646:Blue
584:Land
255:Navy
250:Army
23:and
5470:doi
5444:".
5408:doi
5389:".
5278:doi
5249:doi
5212:doi
5176:doi
5069:doi
5036:doi
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4566:doi
4514:doi
4484:doi
4439:doi
4397:doi
4368:doi
4321:doi
4291:".
4215:hdl
4207:doi
4203:105
4168:doi
4129:doi
4125:101
4029:doi
3942:doi
3893:doi
3768:doi
3643:doi
3604:doi
3493:in
3434:hdl
3426:doi
3371:in
3302:GDP
3203:at
3136:in
3116:by
2919:).
2271:in
2263:of
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1653:Law
1596:FOB
1591:MOB
636:Sea
128:War
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