1640:– show the most marked Danish influence; the best evidence of Scandinavian influence appears in the extensive word borrowings because, as Jespersen indicates, no texts exist in either Scandinavia or Northern England from this time to give certain evidence of an influence on syntax. The effect of Old Norse on Old English was substantive, pervasive, and of a democratic character. Old Norse and Old English resembled each other closely like cousins, and with some words in common, speakers roughly understood each other; in time the inflections melted away and the analytic pattern emerged. It is most important to recognize that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages that only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw, these endings must have led to much confusion, tending gradually to become obscured and finally lost. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in "simplifying English grammar".
889:
1420:
1114:
4901:
6269:
1280:
897:
2896:
4964:, a Christian religious poem. There are also a number of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical translations, and translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers, legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar, medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered the heart of Old English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with a few exceptions, such as
64:
384:
1395:
translations produced under Alfred's programme, many of which were produced by
Mercian scholars. Other dialects certainly continued to be spoken, as is evidenced by the continued variation between their successors in Middle and Modern English. In fact, what would become the standard forms of Middle English and of Modern English are descended from Mercian rather than West Saxon, while
2737:. As in Modern English, and peculiar to the Germanic languages, the verbs formed two great classes: weak (regular), and strong (irregular). Like today, Old English had fewer strong verbs, and many of these have over time decayed into weak forms. Then, as now, dental suffixes indicated the past tense of the weak verbs, as in
5889:Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us ƿel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid-þam mannum þe me mid-foron into Denmearcon, þe eoƿ mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid-godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eoƿ næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hƿile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð.
4926:
The corpus of Old
English literature is small but still significant, with some 400 surviving manuscripts. The pagan and Christian streams mingle in Old English, one of the richest and most significant bodies of literature preserved among the early Germanic peoples. In his supplementary article to the
5991:
At that time, I was told that we had been harmed more than we liked; and I departed with the men who accompanied me into
Denmark, from where the most harm has come to you; and I have already prevented it with God's help, so that from now on, strife will never come to you from there, while you regard
1603:
No less far-reaching was the influence of
Scandinavian upon the inflexional endings of English in hastening that wearing away and leveling of grammatical forms which gradually spread from north to south. It was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss. There was a gain in
1470:
introduced into the language is very small, although dialect and toponymic terms are more often retained in western language contact zones (Cumbria, Devon, Welsh
Marches and Borders and so on) than in the east. However, various suggestions have been made concerning possible influence that Celtic may
6531:
We do not know what languages the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons spoke, nor even whether they were sufficiently similar to make them mutually intelligible, but it is reasonable to assume that by the end of the sixth century there must have been a language that could be understood by all and this we call
4996:
was found as a baby, washed ashore, and adopted by a noble family. The translation is literal and represents the original poetic word order. As such, it is not typical of Old
English prose. The modern cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a close approximation of the
4935:
In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the writings of the Anglo-Saxon period perished. What they contained, how important they were for an understanding of literature before the
Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the scant catalogues of monastic libraries do not help us, and
1579:
texts, which are more often based on eastern dialects, a strong Norse influence becomes apparent. Modern
English contains many, often everyday, words that were borrowed from Old Norse, and the grammatical simplification that occurred after the Old English period is also often attributed to Norse
1394:
Due to the centralisation of power and the destruction wrought by Viking invasions, there is relatively little written record of the non-West Saxon dialects after Alfred's unification. Some
Mercian texts continued to be written, however, and the influence of Mercian is apparent in some of the
1297:
is not monolithic, Old
English varied according to place. Despite the diversity of language of the Germanic-speaking migrants who established Old English in England and southeastern Scotland, it is possible to reconstruct proto-Old English as a fairly unitary language. For the most part, the
6340:
came to refer to all things of the early English period, including language, culture, and people. While it remains the normal term for the latter two aspects, the language began to be called Old English towards the end of the 19th century, as a result of the increasingly strong anti-German
5972:
The following is a natural Modern English translation, with the overall structure of the Old English passage preserved. Even though "earl" is used to translate its Old English cognate "eorl", "eorl" in Old English does not correspond exactly to "earl" of the later medieval period:
5449:
After destitution was first experienced (by him), he met with consolation for that; he grew under the clouds of the sky and flourished in adulation, until all of the neighbouring people had to obey him over the whale-road (i.e. the sea), and pay tribute to the man. That was a good
6110:. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies. Initially issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM, the dictionary is now primarily published online at
1173:
standard", or more commonly as Late West Saxon. It is considered to represent the "classical" form of Old English. It retained its position of prestige until the time of the Norman Conquest, after which English ceased for a time to be of importance as a literary language.
1333:
and south of the Humber River; West Saxon lay south and southwest of the Thames; and the smallest, Kentish region lay southeast of the Thames, a small corner of England. The Kentish region, settled by the Jutes from Jutland, has the scantest literary remains. The term
1369:. From that time on, the West Saxon dialect (then in the form now known as Early West Saxon) became standardised as the language of government, and as the basis for the many works of literature and religious materials produced or translated from Latin in that period.
1510:
of Western Europe. It is sometimes possible to give approximate dates for the borrowing of individual Latin words based on which patterns of sound change they have undergone. Some Latin words had already been borrowed into the Germanic languages before the ancestral
4936:
there are no references in extant works to other compositions....How incomplete our materials are can be illustrated by the well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant exceptions, all extant Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts.
5977:
King Cnut kindly greets his archbishops and his provincial bishops and Earl Thorkell, and all his earls, and all his people, both those with a weregild of 1,200 shillings and those with a weregild of 200 shillings, both ordained and layman, in England.
5463:
5464:
1298:
differences between the attested regional dialects of Old English developed within England and southeastern Scotland, rather than on the Mainland of Europe. Although from the tenth century Old English writing from all regions tended to conform to a
5984:
I recalled the writings and words which the archbishop Lyfing brought to me from the Pope of Rome, that I must promote the worship of God everywhere, and suppress unrighteousness, and promote perfect peace with the power which God would give me.
6225:
Like other historical languages, Old English has been used by scholars and enthusiasts of later periods to create texts either imitating Old English literature or deliberately transferring it to a different cultural context. Examples include
8183:. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1983/1994. (Issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM and on the
1570:
in eastern and northern England are of Scandinavian origin. Norse borrowings are relatively rare in Old English literature, being mostly terms relating to government and administration. The literary standard, however, was based on the
698:) as the language of the upper classes. This is regarded as marking the end of the Old English era, since during the subsequent period the English language was heavily influenced by Anglo-Norman, developing into what is now known as
869:
which could refer to curve or hook shapes including fishing hooks. Concerning the second option, it has been hypothesised that the Angles acquired their name either because they lived on a curved promontory of land shaped like a
4671:'s time. From then onward, thorn was used increasingly often at the start of words, while eth was normal in the middle and at the end of words, although usage varied in both cases. Some modern editions use only thorn. See also
5785:
Ic nam me to gemynde þa geƿritu and þa ƿord, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghƿær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið ƿyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan
5460:
6164:. 4th rev. edn by Herbet D. Meritt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Occasionally more accurate than Bosworth-Toller, and widely used as a reading dictionary. Various digitisations are available, including
2922:, extended by five more runes used to represent Anglo-Saxon vowel sounds and sometimes by several more additional characters. From around the 8th century, the runic system came to be supplanted by a (minuscule)
1399:
developed from the Northumbrian dialect. It was once claimed that, owing to its position at the heart of the Kingdom of Wessex, the relics of Anglo-Saxon accent, idiom and vocabulary were best preserved in the
5461:
1196:). This language, or closely related group of dialects, spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and pre-dating documented Old English or Anglo-Saxon, has also been called Primitive Old English.
5000:
The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and the bold words in brackets are explanations of words that have slightly different meanings in a modern context. Notice how
6312:
5676:
and the English people written in AD 1019. Unlike the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For ease of reading, the passage has been divided into sentences while the
804:. Like other old Germanic languages, it is very different from Modern English and Modern Scots, and largely incomprehensible for Modern English or Modern Scots speakers without study. Within
5697:
Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, tƿelfhynde and tƿyhynde, gehadode and læƿede, on Englalande freondlice.
5439:
Here is a natural enough Modern English translation, although the phrasing of the Old English passage has often been stylistically preserved, even though it is not usual in Modern English:
1158:, appear to have been translated by Alfred himself. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, but Alfred chiefly inspired the growth of prose.
7479:(West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction). 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013,
847:
who settled in many parts of Britain in the 5th century. By the 9th century, all speakers of Old English, including those who claimed Saxon or Jutish ancestry, could be referred to as
6257:. However, one investigation found that many Neo-Old English texts published online bear little resemblance to the historical language and have many basic grammatical mistakes.
5019:
English poetry is based on stress and alliteration. In alliteration, the first consonant in a word alliterates with the same consonant at the beginning of another word, as with
2706:, but the latter applied only to "strong" masculine nouns in the nominative and accusative cases; different plural endings were used in other instances. Old English nouns had
1599:
in the Danelaw to communicate with their Anglo-Saxon neighbours produced a friction that led to the erosion of the complicated inflectional word endings. Simeon Potter notes:
1497:
do not become widespread until the late Middle English and Early Modern English periods, in addition to the fact that similar forms exist in other modern Germanic languages.
3979:, it is always palatal . Otherwise, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly
5462:
1338:
actually is represented by two different dialects: Early West Saxon and Late West Saxon. Hogg has suggested that these two dialects would be more appropriately named
1128:. The 9th-century English King proposed that primary education be taught in English, with those wishing to advance to holy orders to continue their studies in Latin.
1376:, above), although centred in the same region of the country, appears not to have been directly descended from Alfred's Early West Saxon. For example, the former
7332:
Christina Neuland and Florian Schleburg. (2014). "A New Old English? The Chances of an Anglo-Saxon Revival on the Internet". In: S. Buschfeld et al. (Eds.),
3109:. Macrons are used to indicate long vowels, where usually no distinction was made between long and short vowels in the originals. (In some older editions an
2500:: singular, and plural; and are strong or weak. The instrumental is vestigial and only used with the masculine and neuter singular and often replaced by the
994:. While indicating that the establishment of dates is an arbitrary process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections, a
6739:
6042:
Glossaries. Over time, these word-lists were consolidated and alphabeticised to create extensive Latin-Old English glossaries with some of the character of
1302:
based on Late West Saxon, in speech Old English continued to exhibit much local and regional variation, which remained in Middle English and to some extent
9139:
6317:
4558:. But due to changes over time, a knowledge of the history of the word in question is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty (for details, see
2710:, while modern English has only natural gender. Pronoun usage could reflect either natural or grammatical gender when those conflicted, as in the case of
6073:
Old English lexicography was revived in the early modern period, drawing heavily on Anglo-Saxons' own glossaries. The major publication at this time was
6055:
8484:
8446:
8433:
8425:
7285:
Patrizia Lendinara, 'Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries: An Introduction', in Anglo-Saxon Glosses and Glossaries (Aldershot: Variorum, 1999), pp. 1–26.
863:, which referred to narrowness, constriction or anxiety, perhaps referring to shallow waters near the coast, or else it may derive from a related word
2229:
was an allophone of short /ɑ/ which occurred in stressed syllables before nasal consonants (/m/ and /n/). It was variously spelled either ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩.
8441:
6238:
uses several Old English words, such as syndrigast (singular, peculiar), ymbryne (period, cycle), etc., dubbed as "Old Peculiar" ones. Advocates of
865:
10552:
8461:
5988:
I never hesitated from my peace payments (e.g. to the Vikings) while you had strife at hand. But with God's help and my payments, that went away.
3897:
3828:
3077:
Modern editions of Old English manuscripts generally introduce some additional conventions. The modern forms of Latin letters are used, including
1575:, away from the main area of Scandinavian influence; the impact of Norse may have been greater in the eastern and northern dialects. Certainly in
8184:
859:
6341:
nationalism in English society of the 1890s and early 1900s. However, many authors still also use the term Anglo-Saxon to refer to the language.
10557:
3217:). The following table lists the Old English letters and digraphs together with the phonemes they represent, using the same notation as in the
777:. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the literary standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle and
3066:
over vowels were originally used not to mark long vowels (as in modern editions), but to indicate stress, or as abbreviations for a following
9514:
8592:
8301:
614:
781:
would develop mainly from Mercian, and Scots from Northumbrian. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong
9312:
7535:
4667:. Eth was first attested (in definitely dated materials) in the 7th century, and thorn in the 8th. Eth was more common than thorn before
3975:
in modern editions. Word-initially before another consonant letter, the pronunciation is always the velar fricative . Word-finally after
4559:
3992:
3503:
2439:
For more details of these processes, see the main article, linked above. For sound changes before and after the Old English period, see
8476:
8451:
2594:
for case, gender, and number. Adjectives have both strong and weak sets of endings, weak ones being used when a definite or possessive
7064:Øystein Heggelund (2007) Old English subordinate clauses and the shift to verb-medial order in English, English Studies, 88:3, 351–361
6657:
8212:
3582:. The two geminates were not distinguished in Old English orthography; in modern editions, the palatal geminate is sometimes written
8222:
2339:
1408:
8257:
6207:
5839:
Nu ne ƿandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hƿile þe eoƿ unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid-godes fultume þæt totƿæmde mid-minum scattum.
1085:
8410:
1940:
8549:
8530:
8510:
7484:
6835:
4672:
2938:, a cursive and pointed version of the half-uncial script. This was used until the end of the 12th century when continental
1608:
The strength of the Viking influence on Old English appears from the fact that the indispensable elements of the language –
9129:
8418:
8111:
A Critical Bibliography of Old English Syntax to the end of 1984, including addenda and corrigenda to "Old English Syntax"
7477:
Das Westgermanische : von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert; Analyse und Rekonstruktion
6242:
often look to older forms of English, including Old English, as a means of either reviving old words or coining new ones.
1349:
Each of these four dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the islands. Of these, Northumbria south of the
8267:
2351:
1967:
1946:
1013:(also known as North Sea Germanic) dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the
472:
362:
10041:
5446:
Often Shield the son/descendant of Sheaf ripped away the mead-benches from many tribes' enemy bands – he terrified men!
1232:
to 1150), the final stage of the language leading up to the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent transition to
1098:, which was composed between 658 and 680 but not written down until the early 8th century. There is a limited corpus of
7639:
7500:
3640:
may have been a means of showing that the word was pronounced with a stop rather than a fricative; spellings with just
734:
6413:
5443:
What! We spear-Danes in ancient days inquired about the glory of the nation-kings, how the princes performed bravery.
8120:, PhD dissertation, Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki, vol. LXXX, Helsinki: Société Néophilologique.
7893:
7753:
7676:
7611:
7592:
7556:
7462:
7419:
7246:
7091:
6607:
6555:
6353:
5796:
1453:
987:
679:
6114:. This generally supersedes previous dictionaries where available. As of September 2018, the dictionary covered A-I.
1145:
8585:
8294:
3113:
mark was used for consistency with Old Norse conventions.) Additionally, modern editions often distinguish between
1891:
1822:
1493:. These ideas have generally not received widespread support from linguists, particularly as many of the theorized
1463:
607:
17:
4752:
and derived from the rune of the same name. In earlier texts by continental scribes, and also later in the north,
2661:
of an adposition is marked in the dative case, an adposition may conceivably be located anywhere in the sentence.
998:. Perhaps around 85% of Old English words are no longer in use, but those that survived are the basic elements of
8398:
7660:
6762:
6213:
5488:
5067:
3233:
2440:
1849:
1401:
515:
352:
7933:
Philological Essays: studies in Old and Middle English language and literature in honour of Herbert Dean Merritt
7196:
Flom, George T. (1915). Flom, George T. (ed.). "On the Earliest History of the Latin Script in Eastern Norway".
7297:, ed. by Bogislav von Lindheim, Beiträge zur englischen Philologie, 35 (Bochum-Langendreer: Poppinghaus, 1941).
2815:
Sentences with subordinate clauses of the type "when X, Y" (e.g. "When I got home, I ate dinner") do not use a
2075:
or when doubled. At some point before the Middle English period, also became the pronunciation word-initially.
7787:
Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries: Vol 1: Linguistic Theory and Historical Linguistics
10408:
8252:
7875:
7310:, English Linguistics 1500–1800 (A Collection of Facsimile Reprints), 247 (Menston: The Scholar Press, 1970).
6297:
4039:
may have been realized as devoiced versions of the second consonants instead of as sequences starting with .
1828:
414:
232:
6956:"121028 Charlene Lohmeier "Evolution of the English Language" – 23:40 – 25:00; 30:20 – 30:45; 45:00 – 46:00"
1329:. In terms of geography the Northumbrian region lay north of the Humber River; the Mercian lay north of the
888:
10438:
9608:
9570:
9555:
8321:
7442:
6591:
6307:
6282:
6239:
6227:
2654:
2414:
Diphthongisation of certain vowels before certain consonants when preceding a back vowel ("back mutation").
2397:
2372:("Anglo-Frisian brightening"), partly reversed in certain positions by later "a-restoration" or retraction.
1877:
1855:
295:
31:
8882:
8435:
8427:
5752:
And ic cyðe eoƿ, þæt ic ƿylle beon hold hlaford and unsƿicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre ƿoroldlage.
4843:
4837:
4826:
4822:
4812:
4800:
4785:
4753:
4741:
4735:
4721:
4717:
4707:
4690:
4686:
4637:
4622:
4616:
4604:
4593:
4588:
4576:
4572:
4555:
4546:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4521:
4517:
4508:
4504:
4494:
4485:
4479:
4467:
4451:
4428:
4422:
4403:
4397:
4385:
4375:
4364:
4360:
4350:
4336:
4332:
4322:
4305:
4288:
4276:
4255:
4238:
4227:
4223:
4213:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4176:
4162:
4158:
4148:
4136:
4122:
4118:
4108:
4081:
4069:
4061:
4050:
4017:
4003:
3988:
3980:
3954:
3933:
3922:
3918:
3908:
3885:
3879:
3857:
3853:
3849:
3839:
3816:
3810:
3796:
3792:
3782:
3770:
3736:
3703:
3685:
3679:
3668:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3553:
3549:
3538:
3522:
3499:
3491:
3483:
3475:
3455:
3449:
3420:
3410:
3379:
3375:
3361:
3357:
3347:
3336:
3332:
3311:
3297:
3293:
3283:
3272:
3268:
3250:
3214:
3198:
2761:. Some differences are consequences of the greater level of nominal and verbal inflection, allowing freer
2418:
2390:
2386:
2332:
2328:
2319:
2314:
2304:
2299:
2289:
2284:
2248:
2244:
2236:
2216:
2210:
2203:
2191:
2182:
2170:
2163:
2158:
2103:
2099:
2083:
2072:
2068:
2061:
2046:
2039:
2028:
2024:
1388:
1384:
1380:
10562:
10542:
10418:
10278:
9628:
9587:
9577:
8578:
8287:
7713:
2411:
Loss of certain weak vowels in word-final and medial positions; reduction of remaining unstressed vowels.
1920:
1899:
1523:
and Latin-speaking priests became influential. It was also through Irish Christian missionaries that the
1520:
1445:
600:
80:", translated as "over the whale's road (sea)". It is an example of an Old English stylistic device, the
6623:
6165:
5981:
And I declare to you, that I will be a kind lord, and faithful to God's laws and to proper secular law.
8794:
7571:
7548:
6274:
6063:
4972:. Cædmon, the earliest English poet known by name, served as a lay brother in the monastery at Whitby.
2890:
2720:
1955:
1863:
1777:
1763:
1458:
The language of the Anglo-Saxon settlers appears not to have been significantly affected by the native
1449:
1358:
1107:
821:
456:
273:
8150:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. (Based on Bosworth's 1838 dictionary, his papers & additions by Toller)
6792:
Robert McColl Millar, "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change", in
2563:
2550:
1162:
10537:
10135:
8179:
8146:
8125:
A History of English Syntax: a transformational approach to the history of English sentence structure
7668:
7584:
6201:
6195:
6179:, Costerus New Series, 131–32, 2nd rev. impression, 2 vols (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2000), also available
6126:
6106:
5493:
2665:
2546:
1907:
1883:
754:
6031:
4189:
in every dialect but Northumbrian, where it was preserved until Middle English. In Early West Saxon
1595:
most likely made a greater impact on the English language than any other language. The eagerness of
1102:
from the 5th to 7th centuries, but the oldest coherent runic texts (notably the inscriptions on the
10413:
10367:
10362:
10286:
9896:
9880:
9759:
9618:
9509:
9504:
8356:
6703:
6101:
3545:
2931:
2327:
Other dialects had different systems of diphthongs. For example, the Northumbrian dialect retained
1988:
1728:
1494:
1459:
1314:
1140:
in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the
1070:
770:
552:
523:
424:
242:
6138:. Due to errors and omissions in the 1898 publication, this needs to be read in conjunction with:
6130:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. The main research dictionary for Old English, unless superseded by the
3648:
are also found. To disambiguate, the cluster ending in the palatal affricate is sometimes written
2421:
between vowels or between a voiced consonant and a vowel, with lengthening of the preceding vowel.
1419:
1161:
A later literary standard, dating from the late 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop
1042:
10352:
10296:
10291:
10211:
9884:
9834:
9134:
8952:
8708:
8636:
8624:
8336:
8331:
8326:
8118:
Non-finite Constructions in Old English, with Special Reference to Syntactic Borrowing from Latin
6721:
6599:
3035:
2824:
2791:
2602:
2567:
2233:
2226:
1869:
1793:
1782:
1768:
793:
537:
176:
166:
156:
10474:
10194:
9592:
3556:) was rare in Old English, and its etymological origin in the words in which it occurs (such as
3490:
of the word is needed to predict the pronunciation with certainty, although it is most commonly
2091:
1148:
alongside Latin, and had many works translated into the English language; some of them, such as
10357:
9839:
9805:
9423:
9239:
9099:
8939:
8834:
7391:
6250:
4921:
4484:
Between vowels in the middle of a word, the pronunciation can be either a palatalized geminate
3487:
1912:
1688:
1531:, replacing the earlier runic system. Nonetheless, the largest transfer of Latin-based (mainly
1346:
respectively, so that the naive reader would not assume that they are chronologically related.
1189:
1113:
1089:
1026:
1006:
683:
485:
7931:
Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). "On the consonantal phonemes of Old English". In: J. L. Rosier (ed.)
7083:
6253:
offer reference material and forums promoting the active use of Old English. There is also an
4916:"Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
2868:
is used, often preceded by (or replaced by) the appropriate form of the article/demonstrative
2618:
10515:
10479:
9747:
9740:
9692:
9462:
9433:
9402:
9365:
9290:
9047:
8960:
8821:
8783:
8368:
8047:
Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)
7808:
Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet)
7226:
6825:
4952:
3317:
3024:
2939:
1994:
1929:
1734:
1718:
1649:
1633:
691:
497:
467:
9980:
8855:
6058:. In some cases, the material in these glossaries continued to be circulated and updated in
10547:
10484:
10464:
10433:
10306:
10166:
9912:
9730:
9322:
9149:
9111:
9106:
8980:
8927:
8685:
8517:
8378:
7411:
6794:
Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English
6664:
6185:
6067:
6047:
4900:
4432:
3327:
became more common during the 8th century, and was standard after 800. Modern editions use
3042:
2724:
2530:
Adjectives agree with nouns in case, gender, and number, and can be either strong or weak.
1799:
1637:
1617:
1550:, which came into contact with Old English via the Scandinavian rulers and settlers in the
1245:
1233:
647:
576:
392:
94:
30:
This article is about the early medieval language of the Anglo-Saxons. For other uses, see
10140:
7032:
2629:; and are strong (exhibiting ablaut) or weak (exhibiting a dental suffix). Verbs have two
2098:) have generally been lost, while the voiced affricate and fricatives (now also including
1519:
left continental Europe for Britain. More entered the language when the Anglo-Saxons were
1428:('Here the Word is revealed to thee'). Old English inscription over the arch of the south
1166:
8:
10423:
9659:
9613:
9547:
9300:
8947:
8860:
8658:
8346:
6121:
6011:
3426:
Used in this way in early texts (before 800). For example, the word "sheaves" is spelled
3168:
2848:
2452:
1843:
1810:
1613:
1361:
during the 9th century. The portion of Mercia that was successfully defended, and all of
1318:
1021:. This included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern
805:
762:
462:
212:
9970:
9815:
9062:
7834:; E. L. Deuschle (transl.). (Oudgermaansche Handboeken; No. 4). Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink.
6644:
6254:
4961:
2637:: present and past. The subjunctive has past and present forms. Finite verbs agree with
1437:
1094:
695:
502:
10469:
10393:
10321:
10311:
10266:
10028:
9955:
9852:
9697:
9672:
9667:
9560:
9388:
9273:
9094:
8872:
8867:
8846:
8807:
8611:
8601:
8466:
8361:
8310:
7995:
7966:
7950:
7920:
7862:
7205:
6882:"[BBC World News] BBC Documentary English Birth of a Language – 35:00 to 37:20"
6807:
6754:
6402:. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 60–83, 110–130 (Scandinavian influence).
6015:
5468:
A recording of how the Lord's Prayer probably sounded in Old English, pronounced slowly
3063:
2778:
2774:
2728:
2707:
2683:
2650:
2606:
2539:
2497:
2493:
2268:
1746:
1683:
1584:
1572:
1476:
1322:
1141:
1034:
1018:
1010:
995:
883:
774:
429:
247:
171:
161:
9623:
2375:
Monophthongisation of the diphthong , and modification of remaining diphthongs to the
342:
10443:
10242:
10158:
10151:
10106:
10050:
9810:
9800:
9783:
9778:
9682:
9444:
9244:
9205:
9185:
9023:
8915:
8897:
8749:
8456:
8167:
8014:
7999:
7889:
7820:
7749:
7672:
7635:
7607:
7588:
7552:
7496:
7480:
7458:
7415:
7383:
7242:
7087:
7076:
6831:
6603:
6551:
6349:
6157:
6027:
5673:
3118:
3046:
2915:
2886:
2794:
2638:
2610:
2509:
2489:
1705:
1695:
1659:
1621:
1588:
1480:
1299:
1193:
1099:
817:
668:
452:
265:
7942:. (Cambridge studies in linguistics; No. 14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
7778:
Chapter 3, pp. 50–52. Edited by Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott.
6781:
Nominal vs. Verbal -ing Constructions and the Development of the English Progressive
6758:
358:
10398:
10189:
10123:
10079:
10074:
10034:
10023:
10015:
9820:
9788:
9735:
9724:
9637:
9346:
9285:
9075:
9057:
8892:
8653:
8645:
8522:
7987:
7912:
7881:
7854:
7234:
6231:
5473:
4865:
4668:
3552:). Consequently, the voiced velar geminate (which can be phonemically analyzed as
3548:, resulting in the voiced palatal geminate (which can be phonemically analyzed as
3172:
2859:
2809:
2658:
2622:
2614:
2542:
2469:
2054:
1678:
1673:
1655:
1366:
1303:
1137:
1117:
1054:
1038:
1030:
742:
656:
181:
10235:
2382:
Diphthongisation of long and short front vowels in certain positions ("breaking").
986:
Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the
10428:
10388:
10221:
10128:
10111:
10096:
10091:
10084:
9793:
9702:
9687:
9642:
9494:
9457:
9449:
9428:
9415:
9395:
9381:
9144:
9121:
9052:
9042:
9034:
8814:
8351:
8273:
8261:
8226:
8216:
7760:
6545:
6246:
6117:
6082:
6051:
6039:
6035:
4659:
was used for this phoneme, but these were later replaced in this function by eth
3114:
2758:
2626:
2477:
2473:
2376:
2369:
1977:
1712:
1700:
1536:
1362:
1310:
991:
962:
766:
746:
718:
687:
419:
237:
148:
10509:
10403:
10383:
10335:
10227:
10101:
9771:
9538:
9477:
9256:
9213:
9170:
9087:
9082:
8971:
8921:
8772:
8723:
8678:
8671:
8502:
8383:
8373:
7523:
6183:. A thesaurus based on the definitions in Bosworth-Toller and the structure of
6074:
6059:
6019:
5666:
5497:
4644:
4440:
3720:
3010:
2935:
2927:
2911:
2904:
2900:
2695:
2571:
2517:
2011:
The sounds enclosed in parentheses in the chart above are not considered to be
1757:
1576:
1540:
1524:
1512:
1396:
1294:
1249:
1241:
1149:
1062:
999:
973:
918:
907:
855:
844:
840:
778:
722:
699:
586:
581:
571:
258:
217:
134:
7991:
7511:
The Cambridge History of the English Language: (Vol 1): the Beginnings to 1066
7238:
6955:
6881:
6180:
1206:
to 900), the period of the oldest manuscript traditions, with authors such as
10531:
10459:
10301:
10057:
10008:
9825:
9764:
9677:
9582:
9520:
9467:
9351:
9278:
7472:
6414:"Why is the English spelling system so weird and inconsistent? | Aeon Essays"
6172:
4957:
4436:
4265:
3180:
3028:
2919:
2844:
2677:
2646:
2575:
2513:
2512:
forms. There is also sparse early Northumbrian evidence of a sixth case: the
2481:
2079:
1506:
1154:
1103:
978:
738:
710:
675:
3386:
is used as a modern editorial substitution for the modified Kentish form of
3097:, and others which may differ considerably from the insular script, notably
2360:
occurring in the pre-history and history of Old English were the following:
10328:
9752:
9716:
9649:
9472:
9295:
9268:
9251:
9195:
9154:
8736:
8715:
7627:
6527:
An Outline of English Literature; Anglo-Saxon and Middle English Literature
6235:
6007:
3716:
3110:
3006:
2642:
2357:
1330:
1268:
1257:
269:
123:
9975:
8232:
7885:
6722:"The Rise and Fall of Constructions and the History of English Do-Support"
4091:
2064:
occurring at the beginning of a word or after a front vowel, respectively.
312:
10145:
10118:
9936:
9844:
9526:
9487:
9070:
8765:
8729:
8542:
8537:
8013:
Moulton, WG (1972). "The Proto-Germanic non-syllabics (consonants)". In:
7978:
McCully, CB; Hogg, Richard M (1990). "An account of Old English stress".
6287:
4940:
Some of the most important surviving works of Old English literature are
3984:
3495:
3023:, which are borrowings from the futhorc. A few letter pairs were used as
2923:
2798:
2770:
2719:
In Old English's verbal compound constructions are the beginnings of the
2501:
2485:
2365:
2153:
2135:
2117:
1484:
1253:
1132:
With the unification of several of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (outside the
950:
929:
797:
703:
671:
138:
9990:
8244:
7632:
The Development of Old English: A Linguistic History of English, vol. II
7210:
4540:) at the time of palatalization, as illustrated by the contrast between
4085:
900:
The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century:
816:
is much freer. The oldest Old English inscriptions were written using a
9985:
9965:
9330:
9000:
8701:
8494:
7970:
6302:
6043:
6023:
3755:
as a form of normalization and means of imposing consistency. Also see
2808:
Multiple negatives can stack up in a sentence intensifying each other (
2784:
2762:
2634:
2630:
2595:
2591:
2559:
2535:
2465:
2198:
2122:
2095:
2032:
1532:
1488:
1350:
1279:
1170:
1121:
813:
809:
714:
8247:
by Jonathan Slocum and Winfred P. Lehmann, free online lessons at the
7924:
7866:
7803:. North-Holland linguistics series (No. 33). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
7789:(pp. 753–762). Edited by Dieter Kastovsky and Aleksander Szwedek.
6543:
6313:
List of generic forms in place names in the United Kingdom and Ireland
3562:'frog') is unclear. Alternative spellings of either geminate included
733:. As the Germanic settlers became dominant in England, their language
10171:
9919:
9565:
9482:
9263:
9218:
9190:
9016:
8570:
8279:
8248:
7198:
Publications of the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study
6622:
Hogg (1992), p. 117; but for a different interpretation of this, see
6292:
4947:
3961:
3459:
3391:
3264:
3090:
3082:
2664:
Remnants of the Old English case system in Modern English are in the
2177:
2020:
1592:
1547:
1377:
1125:
1074:
1014:
958:
954:
801:
782:
758:
547:
335:
321:
305:
287:
9995:
7845:
Hockett, Charles F (1959). "The stressed syllabics of Old English".
7493:
An introductory grammar of Old English with an anthology of readings
6544:
Fuster-Márquez, Miguel; Calvo García de Leonardo, Juan José (2011).
4969:
1207:
896:
9960:
9308:
8489:
7916:
7903:
Kuhn, Sherman M (1961). "On the Syllabic Phonemes of Old English".
7858:
7730:
6943:. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books Ltd. p. 33.
5723:
5720:
4989:
4982:
The first example is taken from the opening lines of the folk epic
4648:
3747:
in the middle or at the end of a word. Some modern editors replace
2240:
1467:
1429:
1215:
1046:
1022:
871:
664:
370:
109:
108:(except Cornwall and the extreme north-west), southern and eastern
7687:
An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary
7530:. 7 vols. Heidelberg: C. Winter & Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard
6097:
In modern scholarship, the following dictionaries remain current:
6030:
glosses, but soon came to be gathered into word-lists such as the
2895:
63:
10001:
9597:
9499:
6704:"Function and Grammar in the History of English: Periphrastic Do"
5677:
5398:
5070:
4984:
4942:
4905:
3176:
2977:. The remaining 20 Latin letters were supplemented by four more:
2531:
2505:
2012:
1609:
1596:
1567:
1551:
1219:
1133:
1078:
1058:
990:
in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the
892:(Pre-)Old English and other West Germanic languages around 580 CE
786:
757:. Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular
660:
492:
383:
366:
105:
81:
70:
6982:
6980:
6978:
6134:. Various digitisations are available open-access, including at
5887:
5837:
5783:
5750:
5695:
5642:
5623:
5604:
5585:
5566:
5547:
5528:
5509:
5411:
5379:
5346:
5310:
5277:
5237:
5204:
5173:
5139:
5106:
5080:
5047:
5038:
5029:
5020:
4910:
4853:
4847:
4566:
4550:
4541:
4512:
4498:
4489:
4474:
3710:
3557:
3433:
3427:
3184:
3053:
3000:
2986:
2869:
2863:
2834:
2828:
2732:
2711:
2585:
2579:
2553:
1583:
The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a
1423:
1192:
as no literary witnesses survive (with the exception of limited
637:
631:
75:
53:
47:
9304:
8082:
Syntactic Case and Morphological Case in the History of English
7744:; with supplement prepared by Neil Ker originally published in
6740:"On the progression of the progressive in early Modern English"
6467:. Second edition of Barber (1993). Cambridge: University Press.
5606:
And forġief ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġiefaþ ūrum gyltendum.
4473:
At the start of a word, the usual pronunciation is palatalized
4261:
3739:, voiceless or voiced , but some texts show a tendency to use
3175:, with a mostly predictable correspondence between letters and
3094:
2754:
2609:: first, second, and third; two numbers: singular, plural; two
1516:
1472:
1407:
For details of the sound differences between the dialects, see
1354:
1169:("the Grammarian"). This form of the language is known as the "
726:
8204:
7347:
6135:
6111:
6014:
period itself, when English-speaking scholars created English
4912:
Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon...
2690:, which derives from the masculine and neuter genitive ending
9222:
8104:
Vol.2: Subordination, independent elements, and element order
6975:
6645:
The Somersetshire dialect: its pronunciation, 2 papers (1861)
5055:. In the text below, the letters that alliterate are bolded.
4993:
2790:
in questions and negatives. Questions were usually formed by
2050:
1501:
1066:
1050:
750:
730:
542:
113:
7823:(1983). "The Development of */k/ and */sk/ in Old English".
6960:
121028 Charlene Lohmeier "Evolution of the English Language"
2727:, which form the past tense by altering the root vowel, and
7839:
English Stress: its form, its growth, and its role in verse
7708:
L'orthographie de l'anglais: Histoire et situation actuelle
5706:-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his
5670:
5635:
And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.
5632:
And not lead thou us in temptations, but allay us of evil.
5476:
is presented in the standardised Early West Saxon dialect.
4965:
4749:
3968:
3059:
3017:
2657:
are mostly before but are often after their object. If the
2538:
agree in case, gender, and number. First-person and second-
2462:
1559:
1211:
8162:
An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda
8061:
Generative grammatical studies in the Old English language
8033:
Generative Grammatical Studies in the Old English language
6150:
An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda
5016:, both an expression of surprise and a call to attention.
3397:
2980:
1962:
1372:
The later literary standard known as Late West Saxon (see
1073:); except in the areas of Scandinavian settlements, where
369:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
8098:(Vols. 1–2). Oxford: Clarendon Press (no more published)
5613:
And forgive us our guilts, as we forgiveth our guilters.
4988:, a poem of some 3,000 lines. This passage describes how
3993:
Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization
3960:
In Old English manuscripts, this letter usually took its
3504:
Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization
2903:
used to write Old English before the introduction of the
1500:
Old English contained a certain number of loanwords from
7334:
The Evolution of Englishes. The Dynamic Model and Beyond
6910:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 32.
5850:(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free)
5799:
me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere
4740:
Old English manuscripts typically represented the sound
4096:, whereas Mercian and Northumbrian texts generally used
3474:. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always
3374:
part was used; it is not clear whether this represented
2949:
The Latin alphabet of the time still lacked the letters
2247:. In West Saxon and Kentish, it had already merged with
820:, but from about the 8th century this was replaced by a
7295:
Das Durhamer Pflanzenglossar: lateinisch und altenglish
6690:
Kulturelle Integration und Personnenamen in Mittelalter
6463:
Barber, Charles, Joan C. Beal and Philip A. Shaw 2009.
6454:. 4th edition. (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich).
4294:
The allophone occurred before a velar plosive ( or ).
2424:
Collapse of two consecutive vowels into a single vowel.
1325:. Mercian and Northumbrian are together referred to as
690:
of 1066, English was replaced for several centuries by
112:, and some localities in the eastern fringes of modern
8075:
Die englische Sprache: ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung
6647:
Thomas Spencer Baynes, first published 1855 & 1856
5625:
And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālīes ūs of yfele.
1088:
in the late 7th century. The oldest surviving work of
7437:
The Cambridge History of the English Language: Vol. 2
6808:"Verbal movement in Dutch present-participle clauses"
6529:. London: Forum House Publishing Company. p. 7.
5616:
And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors.
8101:
Vol.1: Concord, the parts of speech and the sentence
7957:
Maling, J (1971). "Sentence stress in Old English".
7568:
The Cambridge Introduction to Anglo-Saxon Literature
6318:
List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English
6264:
3544:
Proto-Germanic *g was palatalized when it underwent
2965:; moreover native Old English spellings did not use
1475:
in the post–Old English period, such as the regular
7321:
The Tomb of Beowulf and Other Essays on Old English
6217:all also include material relevant to Old English.
4507:'to wish'), or an unpalatalized consonant sequence
4243:Rarely used; this sound is normally represented by
3432:in an early text, but later (and more commonly) as
2918:—a rune set derived from the Germanic 24-character
1409:
Phonological history of Old English § Dialects
1177:The history of Old English can be subdivided into:
1165:, and was followed by such writers as the prolific
7516:Hogg, Richard; & Denison, David (eds.) (2006)
7319:Robinson, Fred C. 'The Afterlife of Old English'.
7075:
6908:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language
6869:. Leipzig, Germany: B. G. Teubner. pp. 58–82.
6547:A Practical Introduction to the History of English
6346:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language
6081:. The next substantial Old English dictionary was
5702:¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede'
5568:Ġeweorðe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum.
5037:. Vowels alliterate with any other vowel, as with
4355:Only occurs in some dialects. Modern editions use
3971:). The and pronunciations are sometimes written
1309:The four main dialectal forms of Old English were
1188:to 650); for this period, Old English is mostly a
8174:(4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8144:Bosworth, J; & Toller, T. Northcote. (1898).
7801:Phonological structure and the history of English
7742:A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon
7735:A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon
7528:A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles
7348:"Bosworth-Toller's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary online"
7054:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 109–112.
6827:The history of English: a linguistic introduction
6506:. 4th edition. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall).
5575:Let there be thine will, on earth as in heavens.
3027:, representing a single sound. Also used was the
2805:before the finite verb, regardless of which verb.
874:, or else because they were fishermen (anglers).
10529:
7799:Anderson, John M; & Jones, Charles. (1977).
7601:
7049:
6439:A history of English. A sociolinguistic approach
5958:that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith
5257:(induce loathing in, terrify; related to "ugly")
4064:from the earliest Old English texts, the letter
3009:or edh), which were modified Latin letters, and
2427:"Palatal umlaut", which has given forms such as
808:nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs have many
7837:Halle, Morris; & Keyser, Samuel J. (1971).
7273:Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon
6489:Hogg, Richard M. and David Denison (ed.) 2006.
6465:The English language. A historical introduction
6452:Origins and development of the English language
4006:, including its allophone , which occurs after
3263:("land") suggest the short vowel had a rounded
1414:
7781:Wełna, Jerzy (1986). "The Old English Digraph
7776:The Oxford Handbook of the History of English,
7545:Old English: A historical linguistic companion
7428:Baugh, Albert C; & Cable, Thomas. (1993).
6879:
3366:In 9th-century Kentish manuscripts, a form of
2716:, a neuter noun referring to a female person.
2340:Phonological history of Old English (dialects)
1025:, which for several centuries belonged to the
8586:
8295:
7938:Lass, Roger; & Anderson, John M. (1975).
7877:A grammar of Old English. Volume 1, Phonology
7689:. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
4960:, an inscribed early whalebone artefact; and
4565:In word-final position, the pronunciation of
3034:(a character similar to the digit 7) for the
2521:
1483:, as well as the eventual development of the
1069:and possibly also on the English side of the
1029:. Other parts of the island continued to use
789:and settlement beginning in the 9th century.
674:. It developed from the languages brought to
608:
8132:An Historical Syntax of the English Language
7947:Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache
7774:Shaw, Philip A (2012). "Coins As Evidence".
7227:"On the Consonantal Phonemes of Old English"
7035:Continuum Encyclopedia of British Literature
7027:
7025:
6867:Growth and Structure of the English Language
6688:John Insley, "Britons and Anglo-Saxons", in
5012:would be expected. This usage is similar to
3616:were occasionally used instead of the usual
27:Earliest historical form of English language
8021:(pp. 141–173). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
7977:
7725:Angelsächsische Paleographie, I: Einleitung
7536:The Shape of English: structure and history
5795:me to mind the writs and the word that the
4072:. West Saxon scribes came to prefer to use
2102:) have become independent phonemes, as has
949: Continental West Germanic languages (
8593:
8579:
8302:
8288:
8258:The Electronic Introduction to Old English
7771:. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
7720:. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
7710:. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
7602:Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C (2001).
7050:Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C (2002).
6928:. London: Faber and Faber. pp. 70–71.
5936:, into Denmark that you most harm came of
4764:. In modern editions, wynn is replaced by
3684:In the earliest texts it also represented
3458:pronunciation is sometimes written with a
615:
601:
62:
8127:. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
7825:Journal of English and Germanic Philology
7620:Quirk, Randolph; & Wrenn, CL (1957).
7382:
7336:(pp. 486–504). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
7209:
7067:
7022:
6864:
6778:
6550:. : Universitat de València. p. 21.
6177:A Thesaurus of Old English in Two Volumes
5962:ne come the while that ye me rightly hold
5689:Representation with constructed cognates
4956:, a record of early English history; the
1504:, which was the scholarly and diplomatic
1365:, were then integrated into Wessex under
686:date from the mid-7th century. After the
8397:
7659:
7578:
7565:
7520:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
7513:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
7439:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
6953:
6817:
6590:
6581:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959), §§5–22.
5578:Thy will be done on earth as in heaven.
5518:Father Ours, thou which art in heavens,
5458:
5370:(those "sitting" or dwelling roundabout)
5192:Oft did Scyld Scefing of scather threats
4899:
4181:By the time of the first written prose,
4068:is also found as a minority spelling of
3275:when it occurred in stressed syllables.
2894:
1604:directness, in clarity, and in strength.
1562:and other Danish kings in the early 11th
1535:) words into English occurred after the
1418:
1278:
1112:
1057:perhaps to the 12th century in parts of
895:
887:
655:, was the earliest recorded form of the
10553:Languages attested from the 5th century
8213:Old English – Modern English dictionary
7844:
7073:
7013:
6905:
6737:
6502:Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable 1993
6343:
6208:Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue
5431:(heed/obedience; related to "gormless")
3727:with the addition of a cross-bar. Both
3370:that was missing the upper hook of the
2516:. The evidence comes from Northumbrian
2496:: masculine, feminine, neuter; and two
2338:For more on dialectal differences, see
2090:The above system is largely similar to
1110:was introduced around the 8th century.
854:This name probably either derives from
363:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
14:
10530:
8600:
8309:
7956:
7455:A Book for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon
7345:
7082:. Cambridge University Press. p.
7078:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language
6954:Lohmeier, Charlene (28 October 2012).
6938:
6923:
6524:
5004:is used by the poet where a word like
3171:, Old English spelling was reasonably
2508:and strong adjectives retain separate
2239:, spelled ⟨œ⟩, which had emerged from
2057:when the preceding sound was stressed.
1240:The Old English period is followed by
682:in the mid-5th century, and the first
646:
93:
10558:Languages extinct in the 13th century
10264:
9878:
8622:
8574:
8396:
8283:
8155:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement
7665:Old English and Its Closest Relatives
7457:. Bristol, PA: Evolution Publishing.
7452:
7405:
7308:Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum
6919:
6917:
6860:
6858:
6856:
6854:
6823:
6719:
6397:
6393:
6391:
6389:
6387:
6385:
6193:Though focused on later periods, the
6143:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement
6079:Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum
5587:Ūrne dæġhwamlīcan hlāf sele ūs tōdæġ,
3406:
1106:) date to the early 8th century. The
1084:Old English literacy developed after
839:is derived, means 'pertaining to the
8177:Cameron, Angus, et al. (ed.) (1983)
7935:(pp. 16–49). The Hague: Mouton.
7902:
7873:
7542:
7490:
7469:(Reissue of one of 4 eds. 1877–1902)
7390:. Vol. I: c. 500–1042. London:
7224:
7195:
6805:
6383:
6381:
6379:
6377:
6375:
6373:
6371:
6369:
6367:
6365:
6006:The earliest history of Old English
5454:
4927:1935 posthumous edition of Bright's
4579:when the preceding vowel was short.
3735:could represent either allophone of
3128:by placing dots above the palatals:
2393:in certain front-vowel environments.
1543:rather than the Old English period.
1471:have had on developments in English
1383:tended to become monophthongised to
709:Old English developed from a set of
9155:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
8123:Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. (1972).
7748:; 5, 1957. Oxford: Clarendon Press
7696:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7606:(6th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
7581:A Biography of the English Language
7323:. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993. 275–303.
7270:
7108:A Biography of the English Language
6880:BBC World News (27 December 2014).
6796:, Edinburgh University Press (2016)
6450:Pyles, Thomas and John Algeo 1993.
4528:had been followed by a back vowel (
3156:are normally retained (except when
2934:missionaries. This was replaced by
2352:Phonological history of Old English
1527:was introduced and adapted for the
24:
10514:Languages between parentheses are
9879:
8077:(Vol. II). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
8049:(3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
8019:Toward a Grammar of Proto-Germanic
8008:A Historical Phonology of English.
7810:(3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
6914:
6851:
5660:
5597:Give us this day our daily bread,
4431:is not known; it may have been an
4201:, but by Late West Saxon only the
4060:is used for the palatal consonant
2232:The Anglian dialects also had the
68:A detail of the first page of the
25:
10574:
8193:
8134:(Vols. 1–3). Leiden: E. J. Brill.
7880:. Malden, MA: Oxford: Blackwell.
7518:A History of the English Language
7430:A History of the English Language
7123:, Anglo-Saxon Books 1997, p. 138.
6504:A history of the English language
6491:A history of the English language
6400:A History of the English Language
6362:
6022:texts. At first these were often
5682:
5680:represent the original division.
5665:This is a proclamation from King
5511:Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum,
5478:
5057:
3462:by modern editors: most commonly
3052:, which was used for the pronoun
2910:Old English was first written in
2862:. Instead, the indeclinable word
2833:, otherwise meaning "then" (e.g.
2721:compound tenses of Modern English
2590:("that over there"). These words
2400:(which for example led to modern
1993:
1987:
1966:
1954:
1945:
1939:
1919:
1911:
1906:
1898:
1890:
1882:
1876:
1868:
1862:
1854:
1848:
1827:
1821:
1798:
1792:
1781:
1776:
1767:
1762:
1745:
1733:
1727:
1717:
1454:Scandinavian influence in English
1438:St Mary's parish church, Breamore
988:Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
8264: (archived 7 September 2015)
8229: (archived 22 February 2012)
8207:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online
8172:A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary
7761:An Introduction to English Runes
7509:Hogg, Richard M. (ed.). (1992).
7016:An Introduction to English Runes
6986:Ringe & Taylor (2014), p. 4.
6701:
6267:
6255:Old English version of Knowledge
6245:A number of websites devoted to
6220:
6162:A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary
6001:
5992:me rightly and my life persists.
4427:The exact nature of Old English
4100:in the spelling of these words.
3604:was realized as . The spellings
3486:. Otherwise, a knowledge of the
2345:
2251:before the first written prose.
2049:respectively, occurring between
1558:century, and during the rule of
1546:Another source of loanwords was
1528:
1425:Her sƿutelað seo gecƿydrædnes ðe
796:, and its closest relatives are
447:
382:
8170:; & Merritt, H. D. (1969).
7539:. London: J. M. Dent & Sons
7495:. Tempe, Arizona: ACMRS Press.
7369:
7339:
7326:
7313:
7300:
7288:
7279:
7264:
7255:
7218:
7189:
7180:
7171:
7162:
7153:
7144:
7135:
7126:
7113:
7110:, Cengage Learning 2011, p. 96.
7100:
7058:
7043:
7007:
6998:
6989:
6966:
6947:
6932:
6899:
6873:
6824:Scott, Shay (30 January 2008).
6799:
6786:
6772:
6731:
6713:
6695:
6682:
6650:
6638:
6629:
6616:
6584:
6571:
6537:
6518:
6509:
6476:Mugglestone, Lynda (ed.) 2006.
6214:Historical Thesaurus of English
5996:
5521:Our Father, who art in heaven,
5224:(clans; cf. Irish cognate Mac-)
4852:("best") is occasionally spelt
4406:, which was usually written as
4264:(as in Modern English) when in
2819:type conjunction, but rather a
2633:forms: bare and bound; and two
2441:Phonological history of English
864:
858:
74:manuscript, showing the words "
10518:of the language on their left.
8153:Toller, T. Northcote. (1921).
8089:Old English Syntax: a handbook
7346:Tichy, Ondrej; Rocek, Martin.
6496:
6493:. Cambridge: University Press.
6483:
6478:The Oxford History of English.
6470:
6457:
6444:
6431:
6406:
6348:. Cambridge University Press.
6330:
5823:by the might that me God would
5594:Our daily loaf sell us today,
4520:('to ask'). The pronunciation
4435:as in most modern English, an
3218:
2878:
2839:in place of "when X, Y"). The
2082:occur after in the sequences
1587:along the continuum to a more
1252:(after 1650), and in Scotland
1146:advocated education in English
843:'. The Angles were one of the
717:dialects originally spoken by
13:
1:
10409:Germanic substrate hypothesis
10265:
8253:University of Texas at Austin
8087:MacLaughlin, John C. (1983).
7841:. New York: Harper & Row.
7769:A History of English Spelling
7727:. Berlin: Mayer & Müller.
7645:Strang, Barbara M. H. (1970)
7432:(4th ed.). London: Routledge.
6336:By the 16th century the term
6323:
6298:History of the Scots language
6141:T. Northcote Toller. (1921).
4895:
4673:Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩
4084:sequence found in verbs like
3991:elsewhere. (For details, see
3586:to distinguish it from velar
3502:elsewhere. (For details, see
3179:. There were not usually any
2731:, which use a suffix such as
2702:derives from the Old English
2457:
2364:Fronting of to except when
1284:
1261:
1226:
1200:
1182:
822:version of the Latin alphabet
10439:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
9130:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
8130:Visser, F. Th. (1963–1973).
8059:Wagner, Karl Heinz. (1969).
7685:Bremmer Jr, Rolf H. (2009).
7388:English Historical Documents
6830:. Wardja Press. p. 86.
6308:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
6240:linguistic purism in English
5433:yield. That was good king!
4931:, Dr. James Hulbert writes:
4768:, to prevent confusion with
4020:, including its allophones
2723:. Old English verbs include
1643:
1415:Influence of other languages
1373:
1283:The dialects of Old English
827:
753:, brought to Britain by the
32:Old English (disambiguation)
7:
10419:High German consonant shift
8249:Linguistics Research Center
8219: (archived 2 July 2005)
8080:Kemenade, Ans van. (1982).
8063:. Heidelberg: Julius Groos.
8035:. Heidelberg: Julius Groos.
8031:Wagner, Karl Heinz (1969).
8010:Edinburgh University Press.
7706:Bourcier, Georges. (1978).
7408:Introduction to Old English
7106:C.M. Millward, Mary Hayes,
6779:Alexiadou, Artemis (2008),
6635:Magennis (2011), pp. 56–60.
6260:
6136:http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/
6112:https://www.doe.utoronto.ca
5556:To be come thine kingdom,
5368:him each of those umsitters
4997:feel of the original poem.
4908:manuscript with its opening
4892:are always voiceless , , .
4640:, including its allophone
4625:in the earliest texts (see
4291:, including its allophone
3957:, including its allophone
3936:, including its allophone
3715:in Old English; now called
3706:, including its allophone
3230:Variants in modern editions
2801:, and negatives by placing
2653:are formed with compounds.
2613:: present, and past; three
1446:Celtic influence in English
1274:
1248:(1500 to 1650) and finally
1144:(Early West Saxon). Alfred
721:traditionally known as the
10:
10579:
8957:Westlauwers–Terschellings
8610:According to contemporary
8276: (archived 3 May 2009)
8164:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
8157:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
8056:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7945:Luick, Karl. (1914–1940).
7817:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7737:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7723:Keller, Wolfgang. (1906).
7624:(2nd ed.) London: Methuen.
7572:Cambridge University Press
7549:Cambridge University Press
7449:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7275:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
7168:Wełna (1986), pp. 754–755.
7121:First Steps in Old English
6275:Anglo-Saxon England portal
6152:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
6148:Alistair Campbell (1972).
6145:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
6064:Durham Plant-Name Glossary
4975:
4919:
4868:; the geminate fricatives
4454:, including its allophone
4205:spelling remained common.
3743:at the start of words and
3169:Modern English orthography
2891:Old English Latin alphabet
2884:
2641:in person and number. The
2450:
2446:
2349:
1647:
1450:Latin influence in English
1443:
1108:Old English Latin alphabet
881:
877:
792:Old English is one of the
684:Old English literary works
524:Development of Old English
29:
10501:
10452:
10376:
10345:
10277:
10273:
10260:
10209:
10182:
10136:Southern Schleswig Danish
10067:
9948:
9904:
9895:
9891:
9874:
9715:
9658:
9546:
9537:
9442:
9414:
9373:
9364:
9339:
9321:
9232:
9204:
9178:
9169:
9120:
9033:
9008:
8999:
8938:
8833:
8782:
8757:
8748:
8644:
8635:
8631:
8618:
8608:
8475:
8409:
8405:
8392:
8317:
8233:Dictionary of Old English
8180:Dictionary of Old English
8147:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary
8094:Mitchell, Bruce. (1985).
8091:. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
7992:10.1017/S0022226700014699
7874:Hogg, Richard M. (2011).
7830:Girvan, Ritchie. (1931).
7767:Scragg, Donald G (1974).
7669:Stanford University Press
7239:10.1515/9783110820263-004
7225:Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970).
6480:Oxford: University Press.
6202:Middle English Dictionary
6196:Oxford English Dictionary
6132:Dictionary of Old English
6127:An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary
6107:Dictionary of Old English
6092:
5761:you, that I will be hold
5688:
5685:
5494:Word-for-word translation
4833:
4793:
4781:
4739:
4734:
4731:
4679:
4649:the rune of the same name
4633:
4612:
4600:
4472:
4460:
4447:
4418:
4393:
4381:
4354:
4343:
4298:
4284:
4272:
4251:
4234:
4169:
4129:
4043:
4013:
3959:
3947:
3929:
3872:
3803:
3763:
3719:or edh. Derived from the
3675:
3543:
3528:
3506:.) See also the digraphs
3453:
3442:
3315:
3304:
3255:Spelling variations like
3243:
3140:is usually replaced with
2748:
2545:occasionally distinguish
2385:Palatalisation of velars
2121:
2116:
2114:
2094:, except that (and for
2045:are voiced allophones of
1539:of 1066, and thus in the
1521:converted to Christianity
1181:Prehistoric Old English (
1049:and in adjacent parts of
663:and southern and eastern
349:
333:
319:
303:
285:
280:
255:
226:
205:
145:
129:
119:
101:
89:
61:
46:
41:
10414:West Germanic gemination
10368:Ancient Belgian language
10363:Germanic parent language
10307:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
9429:Austrian Standard German
8623:
8434:Changes before historic
8426:Changes before historic
8116:Timofeeva, Olga. (2010)
8109:Mitchell, Bruce. (1990)
8024:Sievers, Eduard (1893).
8017:& HL Kufner (Eds.),
7701:Orthography/Palaeography
7630:and Taylor, Ann (2014).
7579:Millward, Celia (1996).
6865:Jespersen, Otto (1919).
6738:Elsness, Johann (1997).
6104:, et al. (ed.) (1983–).
6062:glossaries, such as the
5880:(financial contribution)
5852:the while that you stood
5739:(ordained to priesthood)
5537:Be thine name hallowed.
5299:found, he of this frover
5160:(fortitude/courage/zeal)
4651:. In the earliest texts
4549:('fish') and its plural
3898:palatal diphthongization
3829:palatal diphthongization
3546:West Germanic gemination
3535:(between vowels; rare),
3189:, for example, both the
2946:) replaced the insular.
2331:, which had merged with
1460:British Celtic languages
8337:Anglo-Frisian languages
8073:Brunner, Karl. (1962).
8045:Brunner, Karl. (1965).
8006:Minkova, Donka (2014).
7806:Brunner, Karl. (1965).
7566:Magennis, Hugh (2011).
7406:Baker, Peter S (2003).
7392:Eyre & Spottiswoode
7074:Crystal, David (1987).
6939:Potter, Simeon (1950).
6924:McCrum, Robert (1987).
6906:Crystal, David (1995).
6600:Oxford University Press
6437:Fennell, Barbara 1998.
6344:Crystal, David (2003).
5888:
5838:
5784:
5751:
5745:, in England friendly.
5735:(200 shilling weregild)
5696:
5643:
5624:
5605:
5586:
5567:
5548:
5529:
5510:
5412:
5380:
5347:
5311:
5278:
5238:
5226:, of mead-settees atee
5205:
5174:
5140:
5130:(learn about by asking)
5107:
5081:
5048:
5039:
5030:
5021:
4911:
4864:Doubled consonants are
4854:
4848:
4567:
4551:
4542:
4513:
4499:
4490:
4475:
3856:. Sometimes stands for
3711:
3634:⟨cyningc⟩
3630:⟨cynincg⟩
3558:
3434:
3428:
3185:
3054:
3001:
2987:
2870:
2864:
2858:forms were not used as
2843:words are used only as
2835:
2829:
2825:correlative conjunction
2733:
2712:
2666:forms of a few pronouns
2586:
2580:
2568:demonstrative adjective
2554:
2234:mid front rounded vowel
2227:open back rounded vowel
2042:occurring before and .
1466:. The number of Celtic
1424:
1304:Modern English dialects
1163:Æthelwold of Winchester
1041:– in most of Scotland,
1009:, and developed out of
812:endings and forms, and
794:West Germanic languages
638:
632:
76:
54:
48:
10475:Preterite-present verb
10358:Proto-Germanic grammar
10312:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
9424:German Standard German
9100:East Frisian Low Saxon
8028:. Halle: Max Niemeyer.
7980:Journal of Linguistics
7832:Angelsaksisch Handboek
7740:Ker, NR (1957: 1990).
7718:Runes: An introduction
7622:An Old English Grammar
7604:A Guide to Old English
7435:Blake, Norman (1992).
7177:Fulk (2014), pp. 68–69
7132:Minkova (2014), p. 79.
7052:A Guide to Old English
6995:Kuhn (1970), p. 42-44.
6972:Campbell (1959), p.21.
6624:Old English diphthongs
6532:Primitive Old English.
6398:Baugh, Albert (1951).
6251:historical reenactment
6087:Anglo-Saxon Dictionary
5994:
5540:Hallowed be thy name.
5530:Sīe þīn nama ġehālgod.
5469:
5452:
5095:What! We of Gare-Danes
4992:'s legendary ancestor
4938:
4922:Old English literature
4917:
4904:The first page of the
4056:Although the spelling
3646:⟨cyninc⟩
3638:⟨cyning⟩
3239:Description and notes
2907:
2769:Default word order is
2759:that of modern English
2356:Some of the principal
2110:Vowels – monophthongs
2092:that of Modern English
1606:
1529:writing of Old English
1441:
1359:overrun by the Vikings
1290:
1190:reconstructed language
1129:
1090:Old English literature
1027:kingdom of Northumbria
1007:West Germanic language
983:
893:
835:, from which the word
351:This article contains
133:Mostly developed into
10480:Grammatischer Wechsel
9463:Namibian Black German
9434:Swiss Standard German
9403:Early New High German
8961:Mainland West Frisian
8822:Harlingerland Frisian
8369:Anglo-Norman language
8269:Old English Made Easy
8205:Bosworth and Toller,
8160:Campbell, A. (1972).
8052:Campbell, A. (1959).
8026:Altgermanische Metrik
7940:Old English Phonology
7886:10.1002/9781444341355
7813:Campbell, A. (1959).
7141:Wełna (1986), p. 755.
6525:Stumpf, John (1970).
6175:, with Lynne Grundy,
5975:
5940:: and that have , mid
5902:me that us more harm
5900:(made known/couth to)
5872:(separated/dispelled)
5759:(make known/couth to)
5467:
5441:
4953:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
4933:
4903:
4414:in modern editions).
3884:Sometimes stands for
3815:Sometimes stands for
3656:) by modern editors.
3628:in spellings such as
3600:was realized as and
3478:; word-finally after
2940:Carolingian minuscule
2898:
2572:demonstrative pronoun
2396:The process known as
1650:Old English phonology
1601:
1444:Further information:
1422:
1282:
1116:
899:
891:
882:Further information:
498:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
10485:Indo-European ablaut
10465:Germanic strong verb
10434:Germanic spirant law
9571:Southeast Limburgish
9067:Gelders-Overijssels
8696:Irish Middle English
8686:Early Modern English
8399:Phonological history
8379:Early Modern English
8223:Old English Glossary
7692:Stenton, FM (1971).
7647:A History of English
7543:Lass, Roger (1994).
7491:Fulk, R. D. (2014).
7453:Earle, John (2005).
7412:Blackwell Publishing
7119:Stephen Pollington,
6926:The Story of English
6720:Culicover, Peter W.
6441:. Oxford: Blackwell.
6068:Laud Herbal Glossary
6048:Cleopatra Glossaries
5815:lies, and full frith
5066:Representation with
4842:A rare spelling for
4821:to distinguish long
4817:Modern editions use
4716:to distinguish long
4712:Modern editions use
4433:alveolar approximant
4359:to distinguish long
4331:to distinguish long
4327:Modern editions use
4222:to distinguish long
4218:Modern editions use
4157:to distinguish long
4153:Modern editions use
4117:to distinguish long
4113:Modern editions use
3917:to distinguish long
3913:Modern editions use
3848:to distinguish long
3844:Modern editions use
3791:to distinguish long
3787:Modern editions use
3614:⟨ncgg⟩
3331:to distinguish long
3292:to distinguish long
3288:Modern editions use
3261:⟨lond⟩
3257:⟨land⟩
3043:scribal abbreviation
2777:, and verb-final in
1246:Early Modern English
1234:Early Middle English
1015:Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
759:Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
680:Anglo-Saxon settlers
577:Early Modern English
473:Phonological history
274:Old English alphabet
10453:Synchronic features
10424:Germanic a-mutation
10377:Diachronic features
9727:in the broad sense
9660:East Central German
9614:Lorraine Franconian
9588:Transylvanian Saxon
9548:West Central German
9323:East Low Franconian
9233:West Low Franconian
8332:Proto-West-Germanic
8322:Proto-Indo-European
8113:. Oxford: Blackwell
8084:. Dordrecht: Foris.
8054:Old English grammar
7815:Old English Grammar
7746:Anglo-Saxon England
7694:Anglo-Saxon England
7533:Lass, Roger (1987)
7447:Old English Grammar
7271:Ker, N. R. (1957).
7261:Hogg (1992), p. 257
7231:Philological Essays
7159:Hogg (1992), p. 91.
7004:Hogg (1992), p. 39.
6692:, De Gruyter (2018)
6596:Old English Grammar
6579:Old English Grammar
6515:Hogg (1992), p. 83.
6122:T. Northcote Toller
5966:and my life beeth.
5860:on-hand: now I, mid
5261:(since, as of when)
5154:how those athelings
4756:was represented by
4402:A rare spelling of
3654:⟨nġċ⟩
3650:⟨nċġ⟩
3610:⟨ngc⟩
3606:⟨ncg⟩
3580:⟨gcg⟩
3576:⟨ccg⟩
3572:⟨cgg⟩
3047:thorn with a stroke
2957:, and there was no
2849:indefinite pronouns
2779:subordinate clauses
2453:Old English grammar
2256:
2111:
2080:voiceless sonorants
2067:is an allophone of
2038:is an allophone of
1667:
1589:analytic word order
1481:analytic word order
1402:dialect of Somerset
1344:Æthelwoldian Saxon,
1199:Early Old English (
1194:epigraphic evidence
1037:– and perhaps some
806:Old English grammar
213:Proto-Indo-European
141:by the 12th century
10563:North Sea Germanic
10543:Medieval languages
10470:Germanic weak verb
10279:Language subgroups
9629:Pennsylvania Dutch
9578:Moselle Franconian
9556:Central Franconian
9389:Middle High German
9140:Central Pomeranian
9095:Northern Low Saxon
8808:Wangerooge Frisian
8602:Germanic languages
8467:Trisyllabic laxing
8447:Close front vowels
8311:History of English
8245:Old English Online
8096:Old English Syntax
7959:Linguistic Inquiry
7951:Bernhard Tauchnitz
7827:, 82 (3): 313–323.
7821:Cercignani, Fausto
7783:⟨cg⟩
7764:. London: Methuen.
7661:Robinson, Orrin W.
7649:. London: Methuen.
7384:Whitelock, Dorothy
7352:bosworthtoller.com
7186:Fulk (2014), p. 69
7150:Shaw (2012), p. 51
6962:. Dutch Lichliter.
6658:"Rotary-munich.de"
6592:Campbell, Alistair
6171:Roberts, Jane and
5928:those men that mid
5912:than us well liked
5846:(withdrew/changed)
5765:lord and unswiking
5559:Thy kingdom come,
5549:Tōbecume þīn rīċe,
5470:
5338:(throve/prospered)
5330:(firmament/clouds)
5328:waxed under welkin
5097:(lit. Spear-Danes)
4929:Anglo-Saxon Reader
4918:
4890:⟨þð⟩
4886:⟨ðþ⟩
4882:⟨þþ⟩
4878:⟨ðð⟩
4874:⟨ss⟩
4870:⟨ff⟩
4762:⟨uu⟩
4657:⟨th⟩
4526:⟨sc⟩
4497:('fisherman') and
4412:⟨cw⟩
4408:⟨cƿ⟩
4357:⟨ōe⟩
4220:⟨īo⟩
4203:⟨eo⟩
4199:⟨eo⟩
4195:⟨io⟩
4193:was often written
4155:⟨īe⟩
4098:⟨rg⟩
4078:⟨rg⟩
4074:⟨ri⟩
4037:⟨hw⟩
4033:⟨hn⟩
4029:⟨hr⟩
4025:⟨hl⟩
3987:(other than ) and
3915:⟨ēo⟩
3846:⟨ēa⟩
3665:(between vowels),
3642:⟨nc⟩
3620:. The addition of
3618:⟨ng⟩
3588:⟨cg⟩
3584:⟨ċġ⟩
3568:⟨gc⟩
3564:⟨gg⟩
3512:⟨sc⟩
3508:⟨cg⟩
3498:(other than ) and
3321:⟨ae⟩
3207:⟨gh⟩
3136:. The letter wynn
2908:
2708:grammatical gender
2254:
2109:
2060:are allophones of
1665:
1622:pronominal adverbs
1585:synthetic language
1573:West Saxon dialect
1442:
1291:
1225:Late Old English (
1142:West Saxon dialect
1130:
1100:runic inscriptions
1071:Anglo-Welsh border
1019:Kingdom of England
996:synthetic language
984:
894:
884:History of English
172:North Sea Germanic
10525:
10524:
10510:extinct languages
10497:
10496:
10493:
10492:
10444:Great Vowel Shift
10256:
10255:
10252:
10251:
10205:
10204:
10051:Greenlandic Norse
9870:
9869:
9866:
9865:
9862:
9861:
9801:Southern Bavarian
9784:Northern Bavarian
9760:Highest Alemannic
9711:
9710:
9445:standard variants
9360:
9359:
9206:Standard variants
9165:
9164:
9024:Middle Low German
8995:
8994:
8991:
8990:
8795:Saterland Frisian
8568:
8567:
8564:
8563:
8560:
8559:
8457:Great Vowel Shift
8442:Close back vowels
8168:Clark Hall, J. R.
7758:Page, RI (1973).
7714:Elliott, Ralph WV
7485:978-3-9812110-7-8
6837:978-0-615-16817-3
6768:on 6 August 2020.
6702:Koch, Anthony S.
6228:Alistair Campbell
6186:Roget's Thesaurus
6158:Clark Hall, J. R.
6056:Brussels Glossary
5970:
5969:
5960:(breach of peace)
5797:Archbishop Lyfing
5674:Thorkell the Tall
5658:
5657:
5472:This text of the
5465:
5455:The Lord's Prayer
5437:
5436:
5217:eodosetla oftēah,
5124:-kings, did thrum
4862:
4861:
4819:⟨ȳ⟩
4770:⟨p⟩
4766:⟨w⟩
4758:⟨u⟩
4746:⟨ƿ⟩
4714:⟨ū⟩
4695:⟨ƿ⟩
4689:, also sometimes
4665:⟨þ⟩
4661:⟨ð⟩
4653:⟨d⟩
4647:and derived from
4627:⟨þ⟩
4591:(between vowels),
4329:⟨ō⟩
4312:⟨a⟩
4245:⟨c⟩
4115:⟨ī⟩
4066:⟨i⟩
4058:⟨g⟩
4023:The combinations
4008:⟨n⟩
3983:before and after
3977:⟨i⟩
3973:⟨ġ⟩
3965:⟨ᵹ⟩
3941:⟨b⟩
3894:⟨ġ⟩
3890:⟨ċ⟩
3866:⟨ġ⟩
3862:⟨ċ⟩
3825:⟨ġ⟩
3821:⟨ċ⟩
3789:⟨ē⟩
3757:⟨þ⟩
3753:⟨þ⟩
3749:⟨ð⟩
3745:⟨ð⟩
3741:⟨þ⟩
3733:⟨ð⟩
3729:⟨þ⟩
3725:⟨d⟩
3690:⟨þ⟩
3626:⟨g⟩
3622:⟨c⟩
3480:⟨i⟩
3472:⟨ç⟩
3468:⟨č⟩
3464:⟨ċ⟩
3419:(an allophone of
3388:⟨æ⟩
3384:⟨ę⟩
3372:⟨a⟩
3368:⟨æ⟩
3329:⟨ǣ⟩
3325:⟨æ⟩
3290:⟨ā⟩
3203:⟨k⟩
3197:were pronounced (
3195:⟨h⟩
3191:⟨c⟩
3167:In contrast with
3162:⟨þ⟩
3158:⟨ð⟩
3154:⟨þ⟩
3150:⟨ð⟩
3146:⟨æ⟩
3142:⟨w⟩
3138:⟨ƿ⟩
3134:⟨ġ⟩
3130:⟨ċ⟩
3126:⟨g⟩
3122:⟨c⟩
3107:⟨r⟩
3103:⟨f⟩
3099:⟨e⟩
3087:⟨s⟩
3079:⟨g⟩
3072:⟨n⟩
3068:⟨m⟩
3050:⟨ꝥ⟩
3032:⟨⁊⟩
3021:⟨ƿ⟩
3014:⟨þ⟩
2997:⟨ð⟩
2975:⟨z⟩
2971:⟨q⟩
2967:⟨k⟩
2963:⟨u⟩
2961:as distinct from
2959:⟨v⟩
2955:⟨w⟩
2951:⟨j⟩
2887:Anglo-Saxon runes
2860:relative pronouns
2598:is also present.
2543:personal pronouns
2527:"on the Cross").
2404:as the plural of
2368:or followed by a
2325:
2324:
2223:
2222:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2131:
2055:voiced consonants
2009:
2008:
1654:The inventory of
1554:from the late 9th
1479:construction and
1464:largely displaced
1167:Ælfric of Eynsham
1017:which became the
1005:Old English is a
787:Scandinavian rule
785:influence due to
737:the languages of
648:[ˈeŋɡliʃ]
625:
624:
377:
376:
359:rendering support
355:phonetic symbols.
95:[ˈeŋɡliʃ]
16:(Redirected from
10570:
10538:Anglic languages
10302:Elbe (Irminonic)
10275:
10274:
10262:
10261:
10190:Mainland Gutnish
10080:Swedish dialects
10042:Middle Icelandic
10016:Middle Norwegian
9905:Historical forms
9902:
9901:
9893:
9892:
9876:
9875:
9835:South Franconian
9821:Hutterite German
9789:Central Bavarian
9609:Rhine Franconian
9544:
9543:
9374:Historical forms
9371:
9370:
9286:Surinamese Dutch
9179:Historical forms
9176:
9175:
9009:Historical forms
9006:
9005:
8758:Historical forms
8755:
8754:
8642:
8641:
8633:
8632:
8620:
8619:
8595:
8588:
8581:
8572:
8571:
8462:Open back vowels
8437:
8429:
8407:
8406:
8394:
8393:
8304:
8297:
8290:
8281:
8280:
8003:
7974:
7928:
7899:
7870:
7784:
7682:
7654:External history
7617:
7598:
7575:
7562:
7506:
7468:
7425:
7395:
7363:
7362:
7360:
7358:
7343:
7337:
7330:
7324:
7317:
7311:
7306:William Somner,
7304:
7298:
7292:
7286:
7283:
7277:
7276:
7268:
7262:
7259:
7253:
7252:
7222:
7216:
7215:
7213:
7193:
7187:
7184:
7178:
7175:
7169:
7166:
7160:
7157:
7151:
7148:
7142:
7139:
7133:
7130:
7124:
7117:
7111:
7104:
7098:
7097:
7081:
7071:
7065:
7062:
7056:
7055:
7047:
7041:
7040:
7029:
7020:
7019:
7014:Boydell (1999).
7011:
7005:
7002:
6996:
6993:
6987:
6984:
6973:
6970:
6964:
6963:
6951:
6945:
6944:
6936:
6930:
6929:
6921:
6912:
6911:
6903:
6897:
6896:
6894:
6892:
6877:
6871:
6870:
6862:
6849:
6848:
6846:
6844:
6821:
6815:
6814:
6812:
6806:Hoeksema, Jack.
6803:
6797:
6790:
6784:
6783:
6776:
6770:
6769:
6767:
6761:. Archived from
6744:
6735:
6729:
6728:
6726:
6717:
6711:
6710:
6708:
6699:
6693:
6686:
6680:
6679:
6677:
6675:
6670:on 27 March 2009
6669:
6663:. Archived from
6662:
6654:
6648:
6642:
6636:
6633:
6627:
6620:
6614:
6613:
6588:
6582:
6575:
6569:
6568:
6566:
6564:
6541:
6535:
6534:
6522:
6516:
6513:
6507:
6500:
6494:
6487:
6481:
6474:
6468:
6461:
6455:
6448:
6442:
6435:
6429:
6428:
6426:
6424:
6410:
6404:
6403:
6395:
6360:
6359:
6334:
6277:
6272:
6271:
6270:
6232:J. R. R. Tolkien
6118:Bosworth, Joseph
5964:(behold as king)
5891:
5870:, that totwemed
5841:
5788:
5754:
5699:
5683:
5646:
5627:
5608:
5589:
5570:
5551:
5532:
5513:
5479:
5466:
5426:
5391:
5361:
5334:(honour/worship)
5325:
5292:
5252:
5219:
5189:
5151:
5117:
5092:
5058:
5054:
5045:
5036:
5027:
4914:
4891:
4887:
4883:
4879:
4875:
4871:
4857:
4851:
4845:
4839:
4828:
4824:
4820:
4814:
4802:
4787:
4771:
4767:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4747:
4744:with the letter
4743:
4737:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4709:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4639:
4628:
4624:
4618:
4606:
4595:
4590:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4557:
4554:
4548:
4545:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4516:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4496:
4493:
4487:
4481:
4478:
4469:
4453:
4430:
4424:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4399:
4387:
4377:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4352:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4324:
4313:
4307:
4290:
4278:
4257:
4246:
4240:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4215:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4185:had merged with
4184:
4178:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4150:
4138:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4110:
4099:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4052:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4019:
4009:
4005:
3990:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3966:
3956:
3942:
3935:
3924:
3920:
3916:
3910:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3881:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3841:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3812:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3784:
3772:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3714:
3705:
3691:
3687:
3681:
3670:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3555:
3551:
3540:
3524:
3513:
3509:
3501:
3493:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3457:
3451:
3437:
3431:
3422:
3412:
3401:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3363:
3359:
3349:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3313:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3285:
3274:
3270:
3262:
3258:
3252:
3224:
3223:
3216:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3088:
3080:
3073:
3069:
3057:
3051:
3033:
3022:
3015:
3004:
2998:
2990:
2984:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2873:
2867:
2838:
2832:
2810:negative concord
2736:
2715:
2589:
2583:
2564:definite article
2557:
2551:definite article
2523:
2431:(compare German
2420:
2392:
2388:
2334:
2330:
2321:
2316:
2306:
2301:
2291:
2286:
2257:
2253:
2250:
2246:
2238:
2218:
2212:
2205:
2193:
2184:
2172:
2165:
2160:
2146:
2141:
2134:
2129:
2112:
2108:
2105:
2101:
2085:
2074:
2071:occurring after
2070:
2063:
2048:
2041:
2030:
2027:occurring after
2026:
1997:
1991:
1970:
1958:
1949:
1943:
1923:
1915:
1910:
1902:
1894:
1886:
1880:
1872:
1866:
1858:
1852:
1831:
1825:
1802:
1796:
1785:
1780:
1771:
1766:
1749:
1737:
1731:
1721:
1668:
1664:
1656:Early West Saxon
1565:
1557:
1435:
1427:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1367:Alfred the Great
1300:written standard
1289:
1286:
1266:
1263:
1244:(1150 to 1500),
1231:
1228:
1205:
1202:
1187:
1184:
1138:Alfred the Great
1118:Alfred the Great
1086:Christianisation
1043:Medieval Cornish
1031:Celtic languages
970:
948:
937:
926:
915:
904:
743:Common Brittonic
657:English language
650:
645:
641:
635:
617:
610:
603:
386:
379:
378:
345:
329:
324:
315:
308:
299:
298:
290:
261:
151:
97:
79:
66:
57:
51:
39:
38:
21:
18:Anglian dialects
10578:
10577:
10573:
10572:
10571:
10569:
10568:
10567:
10528:
10527:
10526:
10521:
10489:
10448:
10429:Germanic umlaut
10394:Holtzmann's law
10372:
10341:
10269:
10248:
10201:
10178:
10112:South Jutlandic
10097:Danish dialects
10063:
9944:
9887:
9858:
9840:East Franconian
9794:Viennese German
9707:
9688:Silesian German
9654:
9643:Central Hessian
9533:
9458:Namibian German
9447:
9438:
9416:Standard German
9410:
9396:New High German
9382:Old High German
9356:
9335:
9317:
9228:
9200:
9161:
9145:East Pomeranian
9135:Brandenburgisch
9122:East Low German
9116:
9043:Dutch Low Saxon
9035:West Low German
9029:
8987:
8953:Schiermonnikoog
8934:
8829:
8815:Wursten Frisian
8778:
8744:
8627:
8614:
8604:
8599:
8569:
8556:
8526:-glottalization
8471:
8401:
8388:
8313:
8308:
8274:Wayback Machine
8262:Wayback Machine
8227:Wayback Machine
8217:Wayback Machine
8196:
8191:
8190:
7896:
7782:
7679:
7628:Ringe, Donald R
7614:
7595:
7559:
7524:Jespersen, Otto
7503:
7465:
7422:
7372:
7367:
7366:
7356:
7354:
7344:
7340:
7331:
7327:
7318:
7314:
7305:
7301:
7293:
7289:
7284:
7280:
7269:
7265:
7260:
7256:
7249:
7223:
7219:
7194:
7190:
7185:
7181:
7176:
7172:
7167:
7163:
7158:
7154:
7149:
7145:
7140:
7136:
7131:
7127:
7118:
7114:
7105:
7101:
7094:
7072:
7068:
7063:
7059:
7048:
7044:
7031:
7030:
7023:
7012:
7008:
7003:
6999:
6994:
6990:
6985:
6976:
6971:
6967:
6952:
6948:
6937:
6933:
6922:
6915:
6904:
6900:
6890:
6888:
6878:
6874:
6863:
6852:
6842:
6840:
6838:
6822:
6818:
6810:
6804:
6800:
6791:
6787:
6777:
6773:
6765:
6742:
6736:
6732:
6724:
6718:
6714:
6706:
6700:
6696:
6687:
6683:
6673:
6671:
6667:
6660:
6656:
6655:
6651:
6643:
6639:
6634:
6630:
6621:
6617:
6610:
6589:
6585:
6576:
6572:
6562:
6560:
6558:
6542:
6538:
6523:
6519:
6514:
6510:
6501:
6497:
6488:
6484:
6475:
6471:
6462:
6458:
6449:
6445:
6436:
6432:
6422:
6420:
6412:
6411:
6407:
6396:
6363:
6356:
6342:
6335:
6331:
6326:
6273:
6268:
6266:
6263:
6247:Modern Paganism
6223:
6095:
6083:Joseph Bosworth
6052:Harley Glossary
6004:
5999:
5769:to God's rights
5719:(having a 1200
5663:
5661:Charter of Cnut
5459:
5457:
5420:yldan. Þæt ƿæs
5394:over whale-road
5323:eorðmyndum þāh,
5222:of many maegths
5187:eaþena þrēatum,
5122:(nation/people)
4980:
4924:
4915:
4909:
4898:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4873:
4869:
4818:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4745:
4713:
4694:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4626:
4592:
4525:
4411:
4407:
4356:
4328:
4311:
4244:
4219:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4154:
4114:
4097:
4077:
4073:
4065:
4057:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4007:
3976:
3972:
3964:
3940:
3914:
3893:
3889:
3865:
3861:
3845:
3824:
3820:
3788:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3689:
3666:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3536:
3511:
3507:
3479:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3395:
3387:
3383:
3371:
3367:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3289:
3260:
3256:
3221:section above.
3206:
3202:
3194:
3190:
3161:
3160:is replaced by
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3086:
3078:
3071:
3067:
3049:
3031:
3020:
3013:
2996:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2942:(also known as
2932:Irish Christian
2893:
2885:Main articles:
2881:
2751:
2460:
2455:
2449:
2377:height-harmonic
2370:nasal consonant
2354:
2348:
2335:in West Saxon.
2275:
2266:
2261:
1690:
1662:is as follows.
1652:
1646:
1563:
1555:
1537:Norman Conquest
1487:auxiliary verb
1456:
1433:
1417:
1387:in EWS, but to
1340:Alfredian Saxon
1287:
1277:
1264:
1256:(before 1450),
1229:
1203:
1185:
1077:was spoken and
992:Norman invasion
982:
968:
966:
963:Old High German
946:
944:
935:
933:
924:
922:
913:
911:
902:
886:
880:
845:Germanic tribes
830:
747:Celtic language
719:Germanic tribes
702:in England and
688:Norman Conquest
643:
621:
592:
591:
567:
559:
558:
557:
518:
508:
507:
488:
478:
477:
450:
443:
435:
434:
410:
357:Without proper
341:
327:
320:
311:
304:
294:
293:
286:
262:
257:
222:
208:
201:
152:
149:Language family
147:
85:
52:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10576:
10566:
10565:
10560:
10555:
10550:
10545:
10540:
10523:
10522:
10520:
10519:
10512:
10502:
10499:
10498:
10495:
10494:
10491:
10490:
10488:
10487:
10482:
10477:
10472:
10467:
10462:
10456:
10454:
10450:
10449:
10447:
10446:
10441:
10436:
10431:
10426:
10421:
10416:
10411:
10406:
10401:
10396:
10391:
10386:
10380:
10378:
10374:
10373:
10371:
10370:
10365:
10360:
10355:
10353:Proto-Germanic
10349:
10347:
10343:
10342:
10340:
10339:
10332:
10325:
10317:
10316:
10315:
10314:
10309:
10304:
10294:
10289:
10283:
10281:
10271:
10270:
10258:
10257:
10254:
10253:
10250:
10249:
10247:
10246:
10239:
10232:
10228:Crimean Gothic
10217:
10215:
10207:
10206:
10203:
10202:
10200:
10199:
10198:
10197:
10192:
10183:
10180:
10179:
10177:
10176:
10175:
10174:
10164:
10163:
10162:
10155:
10148:
10143:
10138:
10133:
10132:
10131:
10126:
10116:
10115:
10114:
10104:
10102:Insular Danish
10099:
10089:
10088:
10087:
10085:Rinkebysvenska
10082:
10071:
10069:
10065:
10064:
10062:
10061:
10054:
10047:
10046:
10045:
10038:
10026:
10021:
10020:
10019:
10012:
10005:
9999:
9993:
9988:
9983:
9978:
9973:
9968:
9963:
9952:
9950:
9946:
9945:
9943:
9942:
9941:
9940:
9933:
9931:Old East Norse
9928:
9926:Old West Norse
9916:
9908:
9906:
9899:
9889:
9888:
9872:
9871:
9868:
9867:
9864:
9863:
9860:
9859:
9857:
9856:
9849:
9848:
9847:
9837:
9832:
9831:
9830:
9829:
9828:
9823:
9818:
9813:
9808:
9806:South Tyrolean
9798:
9797:
9796:
9786:
9776:
9775:
9774:
9769:
9768:
9767:
9757:
9756:
9755:
9748:High Alemannic
9745:
9744:
9743:
9738:
9721:
9719:
9713:
9712:
9709:
9708:
9706:
9705:
9700:
9695:
9690:
9685:
9680:
9675:
9670:
9664:
9662:
9656:
9655:
9653:
9652:
9647:
9646:
9645:
9635:
9634:
9633:
9632:
9631:
9626:
9616:
9606:
9605:
9604:
9603:
9602:
9601:
9600:
9590:
9585:
9575:
9574:
9573:
9568:
9552:
9550:
9541:
9539:Central German
9535:
9534:
9532:
9531:
9530:
9529:
9524:
9517:
9512:
9507:
9497:
9492:
9491:
9490:
9480:
9478:Barossa German
9475:
9470:
9465:
9460:
9454:
9452:
9440:
9439:
9437:
9436:
9431:
9426:
9420:
9418:
9412:
9411:
9409:
9408:
9407:
9406:
9392:
9385:
9377:
9375:
9368:
9362:
9361:
9358:
9357:
9355:
9354:
9349:
9343:
9341:
9337:
9336:
9334:
9333:
9327:
9325:
9319:
9318:
9316:
9315:
9298:
9293:
9288:
9282:
9281:
9276:
9271:
9266:
9261:
9260:
9259:
9257:French Flemish
9249:
9248:
9247:
9236:
9234:
9230:
9229:
9227:
9226:
9216:
9210:
9208:
9202:
9201:
9199:
9198:
9193:
9188:
9182:
9180:
9173:
9171:Low Franconian
9167:
9166:
9163:
9162:
9160:
9159:
9158:
9157:
9147:
9142:
9137:
9132:
9126:
9124:
9118:
9117:
9115:
9114:
9109:
9104:
9103:
9102:
9092:
9091:
9090:
9085:
9080:
9079:
9078:
9073:
9065:
9060:
9055:
9050:
9039:
9037:
9031:
9030:
9028:
9027:
9020:
9012:
9010:
9003:
8997:
8996:
8993:
8992:
8989:
8988:
8986:
8985:
8984:
8983:
8978:
8977:
8976:
8975:
8974:
8972:Westereendersk
8966:
8955:
8950:
8944:
8942:
8936:
8935:
8933:
8932:
8931:
8930:
8925:
8918:
8913:
8912:
8911:
8906:
8903:
8895:
8890:
8889:
8888:
8877:
8876:
8875:
8870:
8865:
8864:
8863:
8858:
8850:
8839:
8837:
8831:
8830:
8828:
8827:
8826:
8825:
8818:
8811:
8799:
8798:
8797:
8788:
8786:
8780:
8779:
8777:
8776:
8773:Middle Frisian
8769:
8761:
8759:
8752:
8746:
8745:
8743:
8742:
8741:
8740:
8733:
8721:
8720:
8719:
8712:
8705:
8693:
8692:
8691:
8690:
8689:
8679:Modern English
8675:
8672:Middle English
8668:
8661:
8650:
8648:
8639:
8629:
8628:
8616:
8615:
8609:
8606:
8605:
8598:
8597:
8590:
8583:
8575:
8566:
8565:
8562:
8561:
8558:
8557:
8555:
8554:
8547:
8546:
8545:
8540:
8528:
8520:
8515:
8508:
8500:
8492:
8487:
8481:
8479:
8473:
8472:
8470:
8469:
8464:
8459:
8454:
8449:
8444:
8439:
8431:
8423:
8415:
8413:
8403:
8402:
8390:
8389:
8387:
8386:
8384:Modern English
8381:
8376:
8374:Middle English
8371:
8366:
8365:
8364:
8359:
8354:
8349:
8339:
8334:
8329:
8327:Proto-Germanic
8324:
8318:
8315:
8314:
8307:
8306:
8299:
8292:
8284:
8278:
8277:
8265:
8255:
8241:
8240:
8236:
8235:
8230:
8220:
8210:
8201:
8200:
8195:
8194:External links
8192:
8189:
8188:
8185:World Wide Web
8175:
8165:
8158:
8151:
8141:
8140:
8136:
8135:
8128:
8121:
8114:
8107:
8106:
8105:
8102:
8092:
8085:
8078:
8070:
8069:
8065:
8064:
8057:
8050:
8042:
8041:
8037:
8036:
8029:
8022:
8011:
8004:
7986:(2): 315–339.
7975:
7965:(3): 379–400.
7954:
7943:
7936:
7929:
7917:10.2307/411354
7911:(4): 522–538.
7900:
7894:
7871:
7859:10.2307/410597
7853:(4): 575–597.
7842:
7835:
7828:
7818:
7811:
7804:
7796:
7795:
7791:
7790:
7779:
7772:
7765:
7756:
7738:
7728:
7721:
7711:
7703:
7702:
7698:
7697:
7690:
7683:
7677:
7656:
7655:
7651:
7650:
7643:
7640:978-0199207848
7625:
7618:
7612:
7599:
7593:
7585:Harcourt Brace
7576:
7563:
7557:
7540:
7531:
7521:
7514:
7507:
7502:978-0866985147
7501:
7488:
7473:Euler, Wolfram
7470:
7463:
7450:
7440:
7433:
7426:
7420:
7402:
7401:
7397:
7396:
7386:, ed. (1955).
7379:
7378:
7374:
7373:
7371:
7368:
7365:
7364:
7338:
7325:
7312:
7299:
7287:
7278:
7263:
7254:
7247:
7233:. p. 45.
7217:
7188:
7179:
7170:
7161:
7152:
7143:
7134:
7125:
7112:
7099:
7092:
7066:
7057:
7042:
7021:
7018:. p. 230.
7006:
6997:
6988:
6974:
6965:
6946:
6931:
6913:
6898:
6872:
6850:
6836:
6816:
6798:
6785:
6771:
6730:
6712:
6694:
6681:
6649:
6637:
6628:
6615:
6608:
6583:
6570:
6556:
6536:
6517:
6508:
6495:
6482:
6469:
6456:
6443:
6430:
6405:
6361:
6354:
6328:
6327:
6325:
6322:
6321:
6320:
6315:
6310:
6305:
6300:
6295:
6290:
6285:
6279:
6278:
6262:
6259:
6222:
6219:
6191:
6190:
6169:
6155:
6154:
6153:
6146:
6115:
6102:Cameron, Angus
6094:
6091:
6075:William Somner
6060:Middle English
6046:, such as the
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5968:
5967:
5924:I, meself, mid
5892:
5884:
5883:
5844:¶ Now, ne went
5842:
5833:
5832:
5789:
5779:
5778:
5773:and to rights
5755:
5747:
5746:
5700:
5691:
5690:
5687:
5667:Cnut the Great
5662:
5659:
5656:
5655:
5652:
5649:
5647:
5640:
5637:
5636:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5621:
5618:
5617:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5602:
5599:
5598:
5595:
5592:
5590:
5583:
5580:
5579:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5564:
5561:
5560:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5545:
5542:
5541:
5538:
5535:
5533:
5526:
5523:
5522:
5519:
5516:
5514:
5507:
5504:
5503:
5500:
5498:Modern English
5491:
5486:
5483:
5456:
5453:
5435:
5434:
5427:
5409:
5406:
5405:
5392:
5377:
5373:
5372:
5362:
5344:
5341:
5340:
5326:
5308:
5305:
5304:
5293:
5286:unden, hē þæs
5275:
5272:
5271:
5253:
5235:
5232:
5231:
5220:
5202:
5198:
5197:
5190:
5171:
5168:
5167:
5152:
5149:llen fremedon.
5137:
5134:
5133:
5118:
5104:
5101:
5100:
5099:in yore-days,
5093:
5078:
5074:
5073:
5064:
5061:
4979:
4974:
4920:Main article:
4897:
4894:
4860:
4859:
4840:
4835:
4831:
4830:
4815:
4810:
4806:
4805:
4803:
4798:
4795:
4791:
4790:
4788:
4783:
4779:
4778:
4774:
4773:
4738:
4733:
4730:
4726:
4725:
4710:
4705:
4701:
4700:
4698:
4684:
4681:
4677:
4676:
4641:
4635:
4631:
4630:
4619:
4614:
4610:
4609:
4607:
4602:
4598:
4597:
4586:
4582:
4581:
4560:palatalization
4471:
4465:
4462:
4458:
4457:
4455:
4449:
4445:
4444:
4441:alveolar trill
4425:
4420:
4416:
4415:
4400:
4395:
4391:
4390:
4388:
4383:
4379:
4378:
4373:
4369:
4368:
4353:
4348:
4345:
4341:
4340:
4325:
4320:
4316:
4315:
4308:
4303:
4300:
4296:
4295:
4292:
4286:
4282:
4281:
4279:
4274:
4270:
4269:
4258:
4253:
4249:
4248:
4241:
4236:
4232:
4231:
4216:
4211:
4207:
4206:
4179:
4174:
4171:
4167:
4166:
4151:
4146:
4142:
4141:
4139:
4134:
4131:
4127:
4126:
4111:
4106:
4102:
4101:
4054:
4048:
4045:
4041:
4040:
4021:
4015:
4011:
4010:
4001:
3997:
3996:
3958:
3952:
3949:
3945:
3944:
3937:
3931:
3927:
3926:
3911:
3906:
3902:
3901:
3882:
3877:
3874:
3870:
3869:
3842:
3837:
3833:
3832:
3813:
3808:
3805:
3801:
3800:
3785:
3780:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3768:
3765:
3761:
3760:
3707:
3701:
3698:
3694:
3693:
3682:
3677:
3673:
3672:
3663:
3659:
3658:
3542:
3533:
3530:
3526:
3525:
3520:
3516:
3515:
3452:
3447:
3444:
3440:
3439:
3424:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3408:
3404:
3403:
3364:
3355:
3351:
3350:
3345:
3341:
3340:
3314:
3309:
3306:
3302:
3301:
3286:
3281:
3277:
3276:
3253:
3248:
3245:
3241:
3240:
3237:
3231:
3228:
3209:in the modern
3181:silent letters
2936:Insular script
2930:introduced by
2928:Latin alphabet
2926:script of the
2905:Latin alphabet
2901:runic alphabet
2880:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2852:
2845:interrogatives
2813:
2806:
2781:
2757:is similar to
2750:
2747:
2696:English plural
2679:who/whom/whose
2584:("this"), and
2576:demonstratives
2570:("that"), and
2534:and sometimes
2459:
2456:
2451:Main article:
2448:
2445:
2437:
2436:
2425:
2422:
2415:
2412:
2409:
2394:
2383:
2380:
2373:
2350:Main article:
2347:
2344:
2323:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2308:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2278:
2277:
2272:
2263:
2221:
2220:
2213:
2208:
2206:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2187:
2185:
2180:
2174:
2173:
2168:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2088:
2087:
2076:
2065:
2058:
2043:
2036:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1974:
1973:
1971:
1959:
1952:
1950:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1916:
1904:
1895:
1888:
1874:
1860:
1846:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1833:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1790:
1788:
1786:
1774:
1772:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1751:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1724:
1722:
1715:
1709:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1648:Main article:
1645:
1642:
1577:Middle English
1566:century. Many
1541:Middle English
1525:Latin alphabet
1416:
1413:
1353:, and most of
1295:Modern English
1276:
1273:
1271:(after 1700).
1250:Modern English
1242:Middle English
1238:
1237:
1223:
1197:
1150:Pope Gregory I
1000:Modern English
974:Crimean Gothic
967:
945:
934:
923:
919:Old East Norse
912:
908:Old West Norse
901:
879:
876:
856:Proto-Germanic
829:
826:
779:Modern English
755:Roman conquest
700:Middle English
696:type of French
623:
622:
620:
619:
612:
605:
597:
594:
593:
590:
589:
584:
582:Modern English
579:
574:
572:Middle English
568:
565:
564:
561:
560:
556:
555:
550:
545:
540:
538:Proto-Germanic
534:
533:
527:
526:
520:
519:
514:
513:
510:
509:
506:
505:
500:
495:
489:
484:
483:
480:
479:
476:
475:
470:
465:
460:
457:Latin alphabet
453:Runic alphabet
444:
441:
440:
437:
436:
433:
432:
427:
422:
417:
411:
408:
407:
404:
403:
397:
396:
388:
387:
375:
374:
361:, you may see
347:
346:
339:
331:
330:
325:
317:
316:
309:
301:
300:
291:
283:
282:
281:Language codes
278:
277:
263:
259:Writing system
256:
253:
252:
251:
250:
245:
240:
235:
228:
224:
223:
221:
220:
218:Proto-Germanic
211:
209:
206:
203:
202:
200:
199:
198:
197:
196:
195:
194:
193:
192:
191:
190:
189:
155:
153:
146:
143:
142:
135:Middle English
131:
127:
126:
121:
117:
116:
103:
99:
98:
91:
87:
86:
77:ofer hron rade
67:
59:
58:
44:
43:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10575:
10564:
10561:
10559:
10556:
10554:
10551:
10549:
10546:
10544:
10541:
10539:
10536:
10535:
10533:
10517:
10513:
10511:
10507:
10504:
10503:
10500:
10486:
10483:
10481:
10478:
10476:
10473:
10471:
10468:
10466:
10463:
10461:
10460:Germanic verb
10458:
10457:
10455:
10451:
10445:
10442:
10440:
10437:
10435:
10432:
10430:
10427:
10425:
10422:
10420:
10417:
10415:
10412:
10410:
10407:
10405:
10402:
10400:
10399:Sievers's law
10397:
10395:
10392:
10390:
10387:
10385:
10382:
10381:
10379:
10375:
10369:
10366:
10364:
10361:
10359:
10356:
10354:
10351:
10350:
10348:
10346:Reconstructed
10344:
10338:
10337:
10333:
10331:
10330:
10326:
10324:
10323:
10319:
10318:
10313:
10310:
10308:
10305:
10303:
10300:
10299:
10298:
10295:
10293:
10290:
10288:
10285:
10284:
10282:
10280:
10276:
10272:
10268:
10263:
10259:
10245:
10244:
10240:
10238:
10237:
10233:
10230:
10229:
10224:
10223:
10219:
10218:
10216:
10214:
10213:
10208:
10196:
10193:
10191:
10188:
10187:
10185:
10184:
10181:
10173:
10170:
10169:
10168:
10165:
10161:
10160:
10159:Middle Danish
10156:
10154:
10153:
10149:
10147:
10144:
10142:
10139:
10137:
10134:
10130:
10127:
10125:
10122:
10121:
10120:
10117:
10113:
10110:
10109:
10108:
10105:
10103:
10100:
10098:
10095:
10094:
10093:
10090:
10086:
10083:
10081:
10078:
10077:
10076:
10073:
10072:
10070:
10066:
10060:
10059:
10055:
10053:
10052:
10048:
10044:
10043:
10039:
10037:
10036:
10035:Old Icelandic
10032:
10031:
10030:
10027:
10025:
10022:
10018:
10017:
10013:
10011:
10010:
10009:Old Norwegian
10006:
10003:
10000:
9997:
9994:
9992:
9989:
9987:
9984:
9982:
9979:
9977:
9974:
9972:
9969:
9967:
9964:
9962:
9959:
9958:
9957:
9954:
9953:
9951:
9947:
9939:
9938:
9934:
9932:
9929:
9927:
9924:
9923:
9922:
9921:
9917:
9915:
9914:
9910:
9909:
9907:
9903:
9900:
9898:
9894:
9890:
9886:
9882:
9877:
9873:
9855:
9854:
9850:
9846:
9843:
9842:
9841:
9838:
9836:
9833:
9827:
9826:Gottscheerish
9824:
9822:
9819:
9817:
9814:
9812:
9809:
9807:
9804:
9803:
9802:
9799:
9795:
9792:
9791:
9790:
9787:
9785:
9782:
9781:
9780:
9777:
9773:
9770:
9766:
9765:Walser German
9763:
9762:
9761:
9758:
9754:
9751:
9750:
9749:
9746:
9742:
9739:
9737:
9734:
9733:
9732:
9731:Low Alemannic
9729:
9728:
9726:
9723:
9722:
9720:
9718:
9714:
9704:
9701:
9699:
9696:
9694:
9693:High Prussian
9691:
9689:
9686:
9684:
9681:
9679:
9678:Erzgebirgisch
9676:
9674:
9671:
9669:
9666:
9665:
9663:
9661:
9657:
9651:
9648:
9644:
9641:
9640:
9639:
9636:
9630:
9627:
9625:
9622:
9621:
9620:
9617:
9615:
9612:
9611:
9610:
9607:
9599:
9596:
9595:
9594:
9591:
9589:
9586:
9584:
9583:Luxembourgish
9581:
9580:
9579:
9576:
9572:
9569:
9567:
9564:
9563:
9562:
9559:
9558:
9557:
9554:
9553:
9551:
9549:
9545:
9542:
9540:
9536:
9528:
9525:
9523:
9522:
9521:Klezmer-loshn
9518:
9516:
9515:Scots Yiddish
9513:
9511:
9508:
9506:
9503:
9502:
9501:
9498:
9496:
9493:
9489:
9486:
9485:
9484:
9481:
9479:
9476:
9474:
9471:
9469:
9466:
9464:
9461:
9459:
9456:
9455:
9453:
9451:
9446:
9441:
9435:
9432:
9430:
9427:
9425:
9422:
9421:
9419:
9417:
9413:
9405:
9404:
9400:
9399:
9398:
9397:
9393:
9391:
9390:
9386:
9384:
9383:
9379:
9378:
9376:
9372:
9369:
9367:
9363:
9353:
9352:Meuse-Rhenish
9350:
9348:
9345:
9344:
9342:
9338:
9332:
9329:
9328:
9326:
9324:
9320:
9314:
9310:
9306:
9302:
9299:
9297:
9294:
9292:
9289:
9287:
9284:
9283:
9280:
9279:Kleverlandish
9277:
9275:
9272:
9270:
9267:
9265:
9262:
9258:
9255:
9254:
9253:
9250:
9246:
9243:
9242:
9241:
9240:Central Dutch
9238:
9237:
9235:
9231:
9224:
9220:
9217:
9215:
9212:
9211:
9209:
9207:
9203:
9197:
9194:
9192:
9189:
9187:
9184:
9183:
9181:
9177:
9174:
9172:
9168:
9156:
9153:
9152:
9151:
9148:
9146:
9143:
9141:
9138:
9136:
9133:
9131:
9128:
9127:
9125:
9123:
9119:
9113:
9110:
9108:
9105:
9101:
9098:
9097:
9096:
9093:
9089:
9086:
9084:
9081:
9077:
9074:
9072:
9069:
9068:
9066:
9064:
9061:
9059:
9056:
9054:
9051:
9049:
9048:Stellingwarfs
9046:
9045:
9044:
9041:
9040:
9038:
9036:
9032:
9026:
9025:
9021:
9019:
9018:
9014:
9013:
9011:
9007:
9004:
9002:
8998:
8982:
8979:
8973:
8970:
8969:
8968:Wood Frisian
8967:
8964:
8963:
8962:
8959:
8958:
8956:
8954:
8951:
8949:
8946:
8945:
8943:
8941:
8937:
8929:
8926:
8924:
8923:
8919:
8917:
8914:
8910:
8907:
8904:
8901:
8900:
8899:
8896:
8894:
8891:
8886:
8885:
8884:
8881:
8880:
8878:
8874:
8871:
8869:
8866:
8862:
8859:
8857:
8854:
8853:
8851:
8849:
8848:
8844:
8843:
8841:
8840:
8838:
8836:
8835:North Frisian
8832:
8824:
8823:
8819:
8817:
8816:
8812:
8810:
8809:
8805:
8804:
8803:
8800:
8796:
8793:
8792:
8790:
8789:
8787:
8785:
8781:
8775:
8774:
8770:
8768:
8767:
8763:
8762:
8760:
8756:
8753:
8751:
8747:
8739:
8738:
8734:
8732:
8731:
8727:
8726:
8725:
8722:
8718:
8717:
8713:
8711:
8710:
8706:
8704:
8703:
8699:
8698:
8697:
8694:
8688:
8687:
8683:
8682:
8681:
8680:
8676:
8674:
8673:
8669:
8667:
8666:
8662:
8660:
8657:
8656:
8655:
8652:
8651:
8649:
8647:
8643:
8640:
8638:
8637:Anglo-Frisian
8634:
8630:
8626:
8621:
8617:
8613:
8607:
8603:
8596:
8591:
8589:
8584:
8582:
8577:
8576:
8573:
8553:
8552:
8548:
8544:
8541:
8539:
8536:
8535:
8534:
8533:
8529:
8527:
8525:
8521:
8519:
8516:
8514:
8513:
8509:
8507:
8506:-vocalization
8505:
8501:
8499:
8497:
8493:
8491:
8488:
8486:
8483:
8482:
8480:
8478:
8474:
8468:
8465:
8463:
8460:
8458:
8455:
8453:
8450:
8448:
8445:
8443:
8440:
8438:
8432:
8430:
8424:
8422:
8421:
8417:
8416:
8414:
8412:
8408:
8404:
8400:
8395:
8391:
8385:
8382:
8380:
8377:
8375:
8372:
8370:
8367:
8363:
8360:
8358:
8355:
8353:
8350:
8348:
8345:
8344:
8343:
8340:
8338:
8335:
8333:
8330:
8328:
8325:
8323:
8320:
8319:
8316:
8312:
8305:
8300:
8298:
8293:
8291:
8286:
8285:
8282:
8275:
8271:
8270:
8266:
8263:
8259:
8256:
8254:
8250:
8246:
8243:
8242:
8238:
8237:
8234:
8231:
8228:
8224:
8221:
8218:
8214:
8211:
8209:
8208:
8203:
8202:
8198:
8197:
8186:
8182:
8181:
8176:
8173:
8169:
8166:
8163:
8159:
8156:
8152:
8149:
8148:
8143:
8142:
8138:
8137:
8133:
8129:
8126:
8122:
8119:
8115:
8112:
8108:
8103:
8100:
8099:
8097:
8093:
8090:
8086:
8083:
8079:
8076:
8072:
8071:
8067:
8066:
8062:
8058:
8055:
8051:
8048:
8044:
8043:
8039:
8038:
8034:
8030:
8027:
8023:
8020:
8016:
8015:F van Coetsem
8012:
8009:
8005:
8001:
7997:
7993:
7989:
7985:
7981:
7976:
7972:
7968:
7964:
7960:
7955:
7952:
7949:. Stuttgart:
7948:
7944:
7941:
7937:
7934:
7930:
7926:
7922:
7918:
7914:
7910:
7906:
7901:
7897:
7895:9781444339338
7891:
7887:
7883:
7879:
7878:
7872:
7868:
7864:
7860:
7856:
7852:
7848:
7843:
7840:
7836:
7833:
7829:
7826:
7822:
7819:
7816:
7812:
7809:
7805:
7802:
7798:
7797:
7793:
7792:
7788:
7780:
7777:
7773:
7770:
7766:
7763:
7762:
7757:
7755:
7754:0-19-811251-3
7751:
7747:
7743:
7739:
7736:
7732:
7729:
7726:
7722:
7719:
7715:
7712:
7709:
7705:
7704:
7700:
7699:
7695:
7691:
7688:
7684:
7680:
7678:0-8047-2221-8
7674:
7670:
7666:
7662:
7658:
7657:
7653:
7652:
7648:
7644:
7641:
7637:
7633:
7629:
7626:
7623:
7619:
7615:
7613:0-631-22636-2
7609:
7605:
7600:
7596:
7594:0-15-501645-8
7590:
7586:
7582:
7577:
7573:
7569:
7564:
7560:
7558:0-521-43087-9
7554:
7550:
7547:. Cambridge:
7546:
7541:
7538:
7537:
7532:
7529:
7525:
7522:
7519:
7515:
7512:
7508:
7504:
7498:
7494:
7489:
7486:
7482:
7478:
7474:
7471:
7466:
7464:1-889758-69-8
7460:
7456:
7451:
7448:
7444:
7441:
7438:
7434:
7431:
7427:
7423:
7421:0-631-23454-3
7417:
7413:
7409:
7404:
7403:
7399:
7398:
7393:
7389:
7385:
7381:
7380:
7376:
7375:
7353:
7349:
7342:
7335:
7329:
7322:
7316:
7309:
7303:
7296:
7291:
7282:
7274:
7267:
7258:
7250:
7248:9783110820263
7244:
7240:
7236:
7232:
7228:
7221:
7212:
7207:
7203:
7199:
7192:
7183:
7174:
7165:
7156:
7147:
7138:
7129:
7122:
7116:
7109:
7103:
7095:
7093:0-521-26438-3
7089:
7085:
7080:
7079:
7070:
7061:
7053:
7046:
7038:
7036:
7028:
7026:
7017:
7010:
7001:
6992:
6983:
6981:
6979:
6969:
6961:
6957:
6950:
6942:
6935:
6927:
6920:
6918:
6909:
6902:
6887:
6883:
6876:
6868:
6861:
6859:
6857:
6855:
6839:
6833:
6829:
6828:
6820:
6809:
6802:
6795:
6789:
6782:
6775:
6764:
6760:
6756:
6752:
6748:
6747:ICAME Journal
6741:
6734:
6723:
6716:
6705:
6698:
6691:
6685:
6666:
6659:
6653:
6646:
6641:
6632:
6625:
6619:
6611:
6609:0-19-811943-7
6605:
6602:. p. 4.
6601:
6597:
6593:
6587:
6580:
6577:A. Campbell,
6574:
6559:
6557:9788437083216
6553:
6549:
6548:
6540:
6533:
6528:
6521:
6512:
6505:
6499:
6492:
6486:
6479:
6473:
6466:
6460:
6453:
6447:
6440:
6434:
6419:
6415:
6409:
6401:
6394:
6392:
6390:
6388:
6386:
6384:
6382:
6380:
6378:
6376:
6374:
6372:
6370:
6368:
6366:
6357:
6355:0-521-53033-4
6351:
6347:
6339:
6333:
6329:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6284:
6281:
6280:
6276:
6265:
6258:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6243:
6241:
6237:
6233:
6229:
6221:Modern legacy
6218:
6216:
6215:
6210:
6209:
6204:
6203:
6198:
6197:
6188:
6187:
6182:
6178:
6174:
6173:Christian Kay
6170:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6156:
6151:
6147:
6144:
6140:
6139:
6137:
6133:
6129:
6128:
6123:
6119:
6116:
6113:
6109:
6108:
6103:
6100:
6099:
6098:
6090:
6088:
6084:
6080:
6076:
6071:
6069:
6065:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6049:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6033:
6032:Épinal-Erfurt
6029:
6025:
6021:
6017:
6013:
6009:
6002:Early history
5993:
5989:
5986:
5982:
5979:
5974:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5956:(forestalled)
5953:
5949:
5948:
5943:
5939:
5935:
5931:
5927:
5923:
5919:
5915:
5911:
5907:
5906:
5901:
5897:
5893:
5890:
5886:
5885:
5881:
5877:
5873:
5869:
5868:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5851:
5848:I not my shot
5847:
5843:
5840:
5835:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5822:
5821:(bring about)
5818:
5814:
5811:, and unright
5810:
5806:
5802:
5798:
5794:
5790:
5787:
5781:
5780:
5776:
5772:
5768:
5764:
5760:
5756:
5753:
5749:
5748:
5744:
5740:
5736:
5733:
5732:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5717:
5716:
5711:
5710:
5705:
5701:
5698:
5693:
5692:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5675:
5672:
5668:
5653:
5650:
5648:
5645:
5641:
5639:
5638:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5626:
5622:
5620:
5619:
5615:
5612:
5610:
5607:
5603:
5601:
5600:
5596:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5584:
5582:
5581:
5577:
5574:
5572:
5569:
5565:
5563:
5562:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5546:
5544:
5543:
5539:
5536:
5534:
5531:
5527:
5525:
5524:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5508:
5506:
5505:
5501:
5499:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5484:
5481:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5474:Lord's Prayer
5451:
5447:
5444:
5440:
5432:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5419:
5415:
5410:
5408:
5407:
5404:hear should,
5403:
5401:
5400:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5384:
5378:
5375:
5374:
5371:
5367:
5363:
5360:
5358:
5354:
5350:
5345:
5343:
5342:
5339:
5335:
5331:
5327:
5324:
5322:
5318:
5314:
5309:
5307:
5306:
5302:
5298:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5285:
5281:
5276:
5274:
5273:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:rlas. Syððan
5245:
5241:
5236:
5234:
5233:
5229:
5225:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5212:
5208:
5203:
5200:
5199:
5195:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5172:
5170:
5169:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5144:
5138:
5136:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5119:
5116:
5115:rym ġefrūnon,
5114:
5111:ēod-cyninga,
5110:
5105:
5103:
5102:
5098:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5085:
5079:
5076:
5075:
5072:
5069:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5059:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5044:
5042:
5035:
5033:
5026:
5024:
5017:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4998:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4986:
4978:
4973:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4962:Cædmon's Hymn
4959:
4958:Franks Casket
4955:
4954:
4949:
4945:
4944:
4937:
4932:
4930:
4923:
4913:
4907:
4902:
4893:
4867:
4856:
4850:
4841:
4836:
4832:
4816:
4811:
4808:
4807:
4804:
4799:
4796:
4792:
4789:
4784:
4780:
4776:
4775:
4751:
4728:
4727:
4711:
4706:
4703:
4702:
4699:
4685:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4636:
4632:
4620:
4615:
4611:
4608:
4603:
4599:
4587:
4584:
4583:
4580:
4569:
4563:
4561:
4553:
4544:
4515:
4501:
4492:
4477:
4466:
4463:
4459:
4456:
4450:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4437:alveolar flap
4434:
4426:
4421:
4417:
4401:
4396:
4392:
4389:
4384:
4380:
4374:
4371:
4370:
4349:
4346:
4342:
4326:
4321:
4318:
4317:
4309:
4304:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4287:
4283:
4280:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4254:
4250:
4242:
4237:
4233:
4217:
4212:
4209:
4208:
4180:
4175:
4172:
4168:
4152:
4147:
4144:
4143:
4140:
4135:
4132:
4128:
4112:
4107:
4104:
4103:
4095:
4094:
4089:
4088:
4080:to spell the
4055:
4049:
4046:
4042:
4022:
4016:
4012:
4002:
3999:
3998:
3994:
3986:
3970:
3963:
3953:
3950:
3946:
3938:
3932:
3928:
3912:
3907:
3904:
3903:
3899:
3883:
3878:
3875:
3871:
3843:
3838:
3835:
3834:
3830:
3814:
3809:
3806:
3802:
3786:
3781:
3778:
3777:
3774:
3769:
3766:
3762:
3722:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3702:
3699:
3696:
3695:
3683:
3678:
3674:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3657:
3560:
3547:
3534:
3531:
3527:
3521:
3518:
3517:
3505:
3497:
3489:
3482:it is always
3461:
3448:
3445:
3441:
3436:
3430:
3425:
3418:
3417:
3414:
3409:
3405:
3399:
3393:
3382:. The symbol
3365:
3356:
3353:
3352:
3346:
3343:
3342:
3319:
3316:Formerly the
3310:
3307:
3303:
3287:
3282:
3279:
3278:
3266:
3254:
3249:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3236:transcription
3235:
3232:
3229:
3226:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3212:
3201:) unlike the
3199:/knixt~kniçt/
3187:
3183:—in the word
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3165:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3096:
3092:
3084:
3075:
3065:
3061:
3056:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3037:
3030:
3029:Tironian note
3026:
3019:
3012:
3008:
3005:, now called
3003:
2994:
2989:
2982:
2947:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2920:elder futhark
2917:
2913:
2906:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2888:
2883:
2872:
2866:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2837:
2831:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2811:
2807:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2789:
2787:
2782:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2714:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2694:. The modern
2693:
2689:
2685:
2682:) and in the
2681:
2680:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2662:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2647:passive voice
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2588:
2582:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2528:
2526:
2520:texts (e.g.,
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2464:
2454:
2444:
2442:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2423:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2384:
2381:
2378:
2374:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2358:sound changes
2353:
2346:Sound changes
2343:
2341:
2336:
2318:
2313:
2310:
2309:
2303:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2288:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2273:
2270:
2264:
2259:
2258:
2252:
2242:
2235:
2230:
2228:
2214:
2209:
2207:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2175:
2169:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2145:
2140:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2127:
2124:
2119:
2113:
2107:
2097:
2096:most speakers
2093:
2084:/xw,xl,xn,xr/
2081:
2077:
2066:
2059:
2056:
2052:
2044:
2037:
2034:
2022:
2018:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1990:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1975:
1972:
1969:
1964:
1960:
1957:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1942:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1914:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1851:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1830:
1824:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1808:
1805:
1801:
1795:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1779:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1748:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1730:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1663:
1661:
1657:
1651:
1641:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1605:
1600:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1561:
1553:
1549:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1508:
1507:lingua franca
1503:
1498:
1496:
1495:Brittonicisms
1492:
1491:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1439:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1412:
1410:
1405:
1403:
1398:
1392:
1379:
1375:
1370:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1307:
1305:
1301:
1296:
1288: 800 CE
1281:
1272:
1270:
1267:to 1700) and
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1235:
1224:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1198:
1195:
1191:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1159:
1157:
1156:
1155:Pastoral Care
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1104:Franks Casket
1101:
1097:
1096:
1095:Cædmon's Hymn
1091:
1087:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1003:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
980:
979:East Germanic
976:
975:
964:
960:
956:
952:
943:
942:
932:
931:
921:
920:
910:
909:
898:
890:
885:
875:
873:
868:
867:
862:
861:
857:
852:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
825:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
790:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
739:Roman Britain
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
711:Anglo-Frisian
707:
706:in Scotland.
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
676:Great Britain
673:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
649:
640:
634:
629:
618:
613:
611:
606:
604:
599:
598:
596:
595:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
569:
563:
562:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
535:
532:
529:
528:
525:
522:
521:
517:
512:
511:
504:
503:Cædmon's Hymn
501:
499:
496:
494:
491:
490:
487:
482:
481:
474:
471:
469:
466:
464:
461:
458:
454:
449:
446:
445:
439:
438:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
412:
406:
405:
402:
399:
398:
394:
390:
389:
385:
381:
380:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
354:
348:
344:
340:
338:
337:
332:
326:
323:
318:
314:
310:
307:
302:
297:
292:
289:
284:
279:
275:
271:
267:
264:
260:
254:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
236:
234:
231:
230:
229:
225:
219:
216:
215:
214:
210:
204:
188:
185:
184:
183:
180:
179:
178:
177:Anglo-Frisian
175:
174:
173:
170:
169:
168:
167:West Germanic
165:
164:
163:
160:
159:
158:
157:Indo-European
154:
150:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
125:
122:
118:
115:
111:
107:
104:
100:
96:
92:
90:Pronunciation
88:
83:
78:
73:
72:
65:
60:
56:
50:
45:
40:
37:
33:
19:
10505:
10389:Verner's law
10334:
10329:Gotho-Nordic
10327:
10320:
10241:
10234:
10226:
10220:
10210:
10195:Fårö Gutnish
10157:
10150:
10056:
10049:
10040:
10033:
10014:
10007:
9935:
9930:
9925:
9918:
9911:
9851:
9753:Swiss German
9717:Upper German
9650:Amana German
9624:Volga German
9593:Hunsrückisch
9519:
9473:Unserdeutsch
9468:Berlinerisch
9401:
9394:
9387:
9380:
9340:Cover groups
9296:Mohawk Dutch
9291:Jersey Dutch
9269:East Flemish
9252:West Flemish
9196:Middle Dutch
9150:Low Prussian
9022:
9015:
8981:Terschelling
8965:Clay Frisian
8940:West Frisian
8928:Wiedingharde
8920:
8908:
8868:Heligolandic
8845:
8820:
8813:
8806:
8801:
8784:East Frisian
8771:
8764:
8737:Middle Scots
8735:
8728:
8714:
8707:
8700:
8695:
8684:
8677:
8670:
8664:
8663:
8550:
8531:
8523:
8511:
8503:
8495:
8419:
8357:Northumbrian
8341:
8268:
8206:
8199:Dictionaries
8178:
8171:
8161:
8154:
8145:
8131:
8124:
8117:
8110:
8095:
8088:
8081:
8074:
8060:
8053:
8046:
8032:
8025:
8018:
8007:
7983:
7979:
7962:
7958:
7946:
7939:
7932:
7908:
7904:
7876:
7850:
7846:
7838:
7831:
7824:
7814:
7807:
7800:
7786:
7775:
7768:
7759:
7745:
7741:
7734:
7724:
7717:
7707:
7693:
7686:
7664:
7646:
7631:
7621:
7603:
7580:
7567:
7544:
7534:
7527:
7526:(1909–1949)
7517:
7510:
7492:
7476:
7454:
7446:
7443:Campbell, A.
7436:
7429:
7407:
7387:
7370:Bibliography
7355:. Retrieved
7351:
7341:
7333:
7328:
7320:
7315:
7307:
7302:
7294:
7290:
7281:
7272:
7266:
7257:
7230:
7220:
7201:
7197:
7191:
7182:
7173:
7164:
7155:
7146:
7137:
7128:
7120:
7115:
7107:
7102:
7077:
7069:
7060:
7051:
7045:
7039:. Continuum.
7034:
7015:
7009:
7000:
6991:
6968:
6959:
6949:
6941:Our Language
6940:
6934:
6925:
6907:
6901:
6889:. Retrieved
6885:
6875:
6866:
6841:. Retrieved
6826:
6819:
6801:
6793:
6788:
6780:
6774:
6763:the original
6750:
6746:
6733:
6715:
6697:
6689:
6684:
6672:. Retrieved
6665:the original
6652:
6640:
6631:
6618:
6595:
6586:
6578:
6573:
6561:. Retrieved
6546:
6539:
6530:
6526:
6520:
6511:
6503:
6498:
6490:
6485:
6477:
6472:
6464:
6459:
6451:
6446:
6438:
6433:
6421:. Retrieved
6417:
6408:
6399:
6345:
6337:
6332:
6244:
6236:Ransom Riggs
6224:
6212:
6206:
6200:
6194:
6192:
6184:
6176:
6161:
6149:
6142:
6131:
6125:
6105:
6096:
6086:
6078:
6072:
6044:dictionaries
6010:lies in the
6008:lexicography
6005:
5997:Dictionaries
5990:
5987:
5983:
5980:
5976:
5971:
5963:
5959:
5955:
5952:(previously)
5951:
5946:
5945:
5941:
5937:
5933:
5929:
5925:
5921:
5917:
5913:
5909:
5904:
5903:
5899:
5895:
5879:
5875:
5871:
5866:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5828:
5824:
5820:
5816:
5812:
5808:
5804:
5801:(everywhere)
5800:
5792:
5774:
5770:
5767:(uncheating)
5766:
5762:
5758:
5742:
5738:
5734:
5730:
5729:
5718:
5714:
5713:
5708:
5707:
5703:
5664:
5502:Translation
5471:
5448:
5445:
5442:
5438:
5430:
5421:
5417:
5413:
5397:
5395:
5389:ȳran scolde,
5386:
5382:
5369:
5366:(until that)
5365:
5356:
5355:ġhƿylc þāra
5352:
5348:
5337:
5333:
5332:, worthmint
5329:
5320:
5316:
5312:
5300:
5296:
5290:rōfre ġebād,
5287:
5283:
5279:
5268:
5264:
5260:
5259:earls. Sith
5256:
5247:
5243:
5239:
5227:
5223:
5214:
5210:
5206:
5193:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5163:
5159:
5155:
5146:
5142:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5112:
5108:
5096:
5087:
5083:
5049:
5040:
5031:
5022:
5018:
5013:
5009:
5005:
5001:
4999:
4983:
4981:
4976:
4951:
4941:
4939:
4934:
4928:
4925:
4863:
4621:Represented
4596:(elsewhere)
4575:or possibly
4564:
4524:occurs when
4518:/ˈɑːs.ki.ɑn/
4495:/ˈfiʃ.ʃe.re/
4483:
4092:
4086:
4076:rather than
3985:front vowels
3962:insular form
3591:
3496:front vowels
3466:, sometimes
3210:
3166:
3111:acute accent
3076:
3038:
2992:
2948:
2943:
2914:, using the
2909:
2882:
2855:
2840:
2820:
2816:
2802:
2785:
2775:main clauses
2753:Old English
2752:
2742:
2738:
2725:strong verbs
2718:
2703:
2699:
2691:
2687:
2678:
2673:
2669:
2663:
2649:, and other
2643:future tense
2600:
2529:
2524:
2510:instrumental
2490:instrumental
2461:
2438:
2432:
2428:
2405:
2401:
2355:
2337:
2326:
2231:
2224:
2089:
2010:
1653:
1638:prepositions
1634:conjunctions
1629:
1625:
1618:comparatives
1607:
1602:
1582:
1545:
1505:
1499:
1489:
1485:periphrastic
1457:
1406:
1393:
1371:
1348:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1326:
1315:Northumbrian
1308:
1292:
1269:Modern Scots
1258:Middle Scots
1239:
1176:
1160:
1153:
1152:'s treatise
1131:
1093:
1083:
1004:
1002:vocabulary.
985:
972:
940:
939:
928:
917:
906:
853:
848:
836:
832:
831:
818:runic system
810:inflectional
791:
771:Northumbrian
708:
692:Anglo-Norman
659:, spoken in
652:
627:
626:
530:
425:Northumbrian
400:
350:
334:
243:Northumbrian
186:
124:Anglo-Saxons
69:
36:
10548:Old English
10404:Kluge's law
10384:Grimm's law
10167:Dalecarlian
10146:Perkerdansk
10119:East Danish
9937:Old Gutnish
9913:Proto-Norse
9853:Langobardic
9845:Vogtlandian
9673:Upper Saxon
9527:Lachoudisch
9488:Lotegorisch
9366:High German
9112:Westphalian
9107:Eastphalian
9071:Achterhooks
8948:Hindeloopen
8883:Bökingharde
8852:Föhr–Amrum
8766:Old Frisian
8730:Early Scots
8665:Old English
8342:Old English
7357:23 February
6563:19 December
6338:Anglo-Saxon
6288:Exeter Book
6028:interlinear
6012:Anglo-Saxon
5934:(travelled)
5922:(travelled)
5910:(come upon)
5763:(civilised)
5757:And I kithe
5704:(people's)'
5359:mbsittendra
5297:(destitute)
5086:ār-Dena in
5068:constructed
4825:from short
4720:from short
4571:was either
4363:from short
4335:from short
4226:from short
4197:instead of
4161:from short
4121:from short
3967:(see also:
3921:from short
3852:from short
3795:from short
3335:from short
3296:from short
3089:instead of
3081:instead of
3041:. A common
3036:conjunction
2924:half-uncial
2879:Orthography
2854:Similarly,
2799:finite verb
2771:verb-second
2655:Adpositions
2635:participles
2623:subjunctive
2566:("the"), a
2562:serve as a
2560:inflections
2549:forms. The
2547:dual-number
2536:participles
2276:(bimoraic)
2255:Diphthongs
1930:Approximant
1666:Consonants
1580:influence.
1568:place names
1477:progressive
1440:, Hampshire
1432:in the 10th
1265: 1450
1254:Early Scots
951:Old Frisian
941:Old English
930:Old Gutnish
798:Old Frisian
704:Early Scots
672:Middle Ages
653:Anglo-Saxon
628:Old English
448:Orthography
401:Old English
365:instead of
207:Early forms
187:Old English
139:Early Scots
42:Old English
10532:Categories
10236:Burgundian
10152:Old Danish
10141:Gøtudanskt
10124:Bornholmsk
9986:Vestlandsk
9966:Kebabnorsk
9703:Halcnovian
9668:Thuringian
9331:Limburgish
9301:Stadsfries
9274:Brabantian
9001:Low German
8847:Eiderstedt
8702:Fingallian
8477:Consonants
8452:Diphthongs
8362:West Saxon
8040:Morphology
6843:29 January
6598:. Oxford:
6324:References
6303:I-mutation
6124:. (1898).
5954:forefangen
5914:(equalled)
5898:man kithed
5803:God's love
5424:ōd cyning!
5402:for "sea")
5315:ēox under
5250:rest ƿearð
5158:did ellen
5156:(noblemen)
5090:eār-dagum,
4896:Literature
4663:and thorn
4556:/ˈfis.kɑs/
4505:/ˈwyːʃ.ʃɑn
4268:position.
3390:. Compare
3323:was used;
2836:þā X, þā Y
2763:word order
2729:weak verbs
2684:possessive
2631:infinitive
2627:imperative
2619:indicative
2605:for three
2596:determiner
2478:accusative
2474:nominative
2458:Morphology
2398:i-mutation
2269:monomoraic
2035:(doubled).
1533:Old French
1336:West Saxon
1323:West Saxon
1230: 900
1204: 650
1186: 450
1171:Winchester
1122:Winchester
1120:statue in
1079:Danish law
1011:Ingvaeonic
814:word order
775:West Saxon
715:Ingvaeonic
644:pronounced
531:Influences
486:Literature
430:West Saxon
248:West Saxon
10516:varieties
10508:indicate
10322:Northwest
10267:Philology
10172:Elfdalian
10107:Jutlandic
10029:Icelandic
10004:(written)
9998:(written)
9976:Trøndersk
9956:Norwegian
9920:Old Norse
9741:Coloniero
9725:Alemannic
9698:Wymysorys
9566:Colognian
9561:Ripuarian
9483:Rotwelsch
9313:Midslands
9264:Zeelandic
9245:Hollandic
9219:Afrikaans
9191:Old Dutch
9017:Old Saxon
8916:Karrharde
8898:Goesharde
8879:Mainland
8612:philology
8518:Rhoticity
8498:-dropping
8000:144915239
7794:Phonology
7642:. Oxford.
7204:(2): 94.
6891:4 January
6423:11 August
6293:Go (verb)
6089:of 1838.
5916:: and tho
5858:(turmoil)
5854:(endured)
5809:(promote)
5777:worldly.
5686:Original
5351:ðþæt him
5301:(comfort)
5282:ēasceaft
5228:(deprive)
5164:(promote)
5145:þelingas
5082:Hƿæt! ƿē
5063:Original
5034:eār-dagum
4948:epic poem
4866:geminated
4748:, called
4310:See also
4262:velarised
4260:Probably
4053:, rarely
3939:See also
3612:and even
3460:diacritic
3392:e caudata
3265:allophone
3219:Phonology
3091:insular S
3083:insular G
2991:, modern
2792:inverting
2670:I/me/mine
2668:(such as
2603:conjugate
2468:for five
2366:nasalised
2142:unrounded
2130:unrounded
2033:geminated
2031:and when
2021:allophone
1844:Fricative
1811:Affricate
1644:Phonology
1593:Old Norse
1548:Old Norse
1468:loanwords
1462:which it
1378:diphthong
1126:Hampshire
1081:applied.
1075:Old Norse
1045:all over
959:Old Dutch
955:Old Saxon
828:Etymology
802:Old Saxon
783:Old Norse
553:Brittonic
468:Phonology
336:Glottolog
322:ISO 639-6
306:ISO 639-3
288:ISO 639-2
120:Ethnicity
10243:Vandalic
10186:Gutnish
9991:Vikværsk
9971:Sognamål
9961:Bergensk
9811:Cimbrian
9779:Bavarian
9736:Alsatian
9683:Lusatian
9619:Palatine
9309:Amelands
9186:Frankish
9076:Sallaans
9058:Gronings
8909:Southern
8902:Northern
8893:Halligen
8842:Insular
8659:dialects
8543:stopping
8538:fronting
8490:Flapping
8485:Clusters
8139:Lexicons
7905:Language
7847:Language
7785:Again".
7733:(1957).
7716:(1959).
7663:(1992).
7475:(2013).
7445:(1959).
7211:40914943
6759:13441465
6594:(1959).
6261:See also
6160:(1969).
6066:and the
6054:and the
6024:marginal
5825:(wished)
5813:(outlaw)
5805:(praise)
5741:and lewd
5737:, hooded
5724:weregild
5721:shilling
5678:pilcrows
5644:Sōðlīċe.
5485:Original
5385:ronrāde
5364:oth that
5319:olcnum,
5269:(became)
5194:(troops)
5120:of thede
5071:cognates
5043:þelingas
5014:what-ho!
4990:Hrothgar
4511:, as in
4488:, as in
4439:, or an
4191:/e(ː)o̯/
4187:/e(ː)o̯/
4183:/i(ː)o̯/
3723:form of
3644:such as
3400:⟩
3396:⟨
3177:phonemes
3025:digraphs
2983:⟩
2979:⟨
2944:Caroline
2827:such as
2788:-support
2639:subjects
2574:. Other
2558:and its
2532:Pronouns
2514:locative
2506:pronouns
2492:; three
2482:genitive
2417:Loss of
2333:/e(ː)o̯/
2329:/i(ː)o̯/
2262:element
2241:i-umlaut
2013:phonemes
1691:alveolar
1684:Alveolar
1658:surface
1630:together
1610:pronouns
1436:century
1430:porticus
1391:in LWS.
1293:Just as
1275:Dialects
1216:Cynewulf
1047:Cornwall
1023:Scotland
872:fishhook
735:replaced
665:Scotland
409:Dialects
393:a series
391:Part of
371:Help:IPA
343:olde1238
268:, later
227:Dialects
162:Germanic
110:Scotland
10506:Italics
10129:Scanian
10075:Swedish
10024:Faroese
10002:Nynorsk
9981:Valdris
9816:Mòcheno
9772:Swabian
9638:Hessian
9598:Hunsrik
9510:Western
9505:Eastern
9500:Yiddish
9450:creoles
9347:Bergish
9063:Drèents
9053:Tweants
8905:Central
8887:Mooring
8750:Frisian
8709:Kildare
8654:English
8352:Mercian
8347:Kentish
8272:at the
8260:at the
8251:at the
8239:Lessons
8225:at the
8215:at the
7971:4177642
7731:Ker, NR
7400:General
7377:Sources
6674:20 June
6283:Anglish
6016:glosses
5950:, afore
5947:support
5932:me fore
5878:my shot
5867:support
5856:unfrith
5817:(peace)
5791:¶ I nam
5715:greater
5669:to his
5399:kenning
5303:abode,
5295:fewship
5267:worthed
5265:(first)
5213:ǣġþum,
5209:onegum
5126:(glory)
5025:ār-Dena
4985:Beowulf
4977:Beowulf
4943:Beowulf
4906:Beowulf
4846:; e.g.
4643:Called
4491:fisċere
4470:(rare)
4093:swerian
3721:insular
3709:Called
3667:(after
3537:(after
3494:before
3488:history
3435:scēafas
3429:scēabas
3318:digraph
3267:before
3173:regular
3119:palatal
3064:Macrons
2916:futhorc
2847:and as
2795:subject
2698:ending
2686:ending
2674:she/her
2651:aspects
2607:persons
2592:inflect
2525:on rodi
2522:ᚩᚾ ᚱᚩᛞᛁ
2504:. Only
2498:numbers
2494:genders
2466:decline
2447:Grammar
2147:rounded
2136:rounded
2047:/f,θ,s/
1706:Glottal
1696:Palatal
1597:Vikings
1552:Danelaw
1374:History
1357:, were
1327:Anglian
1319:Kentish
1311:Mercian
1220:Aldhelm
1134:Danelaw
1059:Cumbria
1055:Cumbric
1039:Pictish
878:History
849:Englisċ
837:English
833:Englisċ
767:Mercian
763:Kentish
667:in the
661:England
639:Ænglisc
633:Englisċ
516:History
493:Beowulf
463:Grammar
420:Mercian
415:Kentish
367:Unicode
238:Mercian
233:Kentish
106:England
82:kenning
71:Beowulf
55:Ænglisċ
49:Englisċ
10222:Gothic
10092:Danish
9996:Bokmål
9495:Yenish
9305:Bildts
9088:Veluws
9083:Urkers
8922:Strand
8646:Anglic
8411:Vowels
8068:Syntax
7998:
7969:
7925:411354
7923:
7892:
7867:410597
7865:
7752:
7675:
7638:
7610:
7591:
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7245:
7208:
7090:
6834:
6757:
6606:
6554:
6352:
6211:, and
6181:online
6093:Modern
6050:, the
6040:Corpus
6036:Leiden
5944:God's
5942:(with)
5938:(from)
5930:(with)
5926:(with)
5918:(then)
5896:(then)
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5864:God's
5862:(with)
5829:(give)
5807:uprear
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5786:ƿolde.
5775:(laws)
5771:(laws)
5731:lesser
5712:ship,
5709:people
5654:Amen.
5651:Amen.
5416:omban
5242:gsode
5183:ēfing
5141:hū ðā
5010:behold
4970:Cædmon
4950:; the
4669:Alfred
4552:fiscas
4514:āscian
4500:wȳsċan
4224:/iːo̯/
4214:/iːo̯/
4159:/iːy̯/
4149:/iːy̯/
4087:herian
3919:/eːo̯/
3909:/eːo̯/
3888:after
3860:after
3850:/æːɑ̯/
3840:/æːɑ̯/
3819:after
3592:After
3559:frocga
3215:/naɪt/
3211:knight
3144:, but
3095:long S
3045:was a
2995:) and
2755:syntax
2749:Syntax
2743:worked
2659:object
2625:, and
2611:tenses
2601:Verbs
2540:person
2502:dative
2486:dative
2281:Close
2249:/e(ː)/
2245:/o(ː)/
2237:/ø(ː)/
2051:vowels
2019:is an
1679:Dental
1674:Labial
1660:phones
1624:(like
1614:modals
1591:, and
1564:
1556:
1517:Saxons
1513:Angles
1473:syntax
1452:, and
1434:
1355:Mercia
1331:Thames
1321:, and
1208:Cædmon
1061:, and
1035:Gaelic
971:
969:
947:
938:
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925:
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860:*anguz
841:Angles
773:, and
749:; and
727:Saxons
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651:), or
566:Legacy
182:Anglic
102:Region
10336:South
10287:North
9897:North
9881:North
9223:Kaaps
9214:Dutch
8861:Amrum
8802:Weser
8724:Scots
7996:S2CID
7967:JSTOR
7921:JSTOR
7863:JSTOR
7206:JSTOR
6811:(PDF)
6766:(PDF)
6755:S2CID
6743:(PDF)
6725:(PDF)
6707:(PDF)
6668:(PDF)
6661:(PDF)
6020:Latin
5908:found
5827:sell'
5743:(lay)
5496:into
5450:king!
5429:yeme
5381:ofer
5336:theed
5162:freme
5128:frain
4994:Scyld
4946:, an
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4693:(see
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4228:/io̯/
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4137:/iy̯/
3923:/eo̯/
3896:(see
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3854:/æɑ̯/
3827:(see
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3688:(see
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2912:runes
2823:type
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2433:sechs
2406:mouse
2379:type.
2311:Open
2265:Short
2260:First
2154:Close
2118:Front
1978:Trill
1713:Nasal
1701:Velar
1689:Post-
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1502:Latin
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1063:Welsh
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8873:Sylt
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7673:ISBN
7636:ISBN
7608:ISBN
7589:ISBN
7553:ISBN
7497:ISBN
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7416:ISBN
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7088:ISBN
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6832:ISBN
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4509:/sk/
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4333:/oː/
4323:/oː/
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4119:/iː/
4109:/iː/
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3362:/æː/
3348:/æː/
3333:/æː/
3294:/ɑː/
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3193:and
3152:and
3124:and
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1560:Cnut
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