2368:
rooted in
African traditions, particularly in the practice of storytelling and the use of handicrafts. Gullahs have a strong connection to the land, and their traditional fishing, farming, and basket-weaving practices reflect this. In recent years, efforts have been made to preserve Gullah culture and language. The Gullah Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor Commission was established in 2006 to help protect and promote the Gullah culture. The commission has partnered with universities, museums, and other organizations to develop programs and initiatives to preserve Gullah language and traditions.
2002:. Despite more than a century of scholarship, the historical relationship between AAVE and the vernacular speech of whites in the United States is still not very well understood; in part, this is because of a lack of data from comparable groups, but also because of the tendency to compare AAVE to northern vernaculars or even standard varieties of English while conflating regional and ethnic differences, as well as disregarding the sociohistorical context of AAVE origins. AAVE shares several linguistic features with
2010:), many of which either emerged or became widespread during the last quarter of the 19th century. The farm tenancy system that replaced slavery in the American South drew in Southern Whites, leading to a context for an interracial speech relationship dynamic among socioeconomic equals throughout the South and leading to many shared features until the start of WWII; leading to the situation wherein changes that became robust after the 1930s most strongly mark ethnic distinctions in speech.
8002:
1842:
2611:(1934), the speech and behavioral patterns of Delilah (an African American character) are reminiscent of minstrel performances that set out to exaggerate stereotypes, rather than depict black speech authentically. More authentic performances, such as those in the following films and TV shows, occur when certain speech events, vocabulary, and syntactic features are used to indicate AAVE usage, often with particular emphasis on young, urban African Americans:
2615:
a part of popular culture. In the decades since, AAE has continued to be used in television and film as a way to depict
African American characters. It is often used to provide comedic relief or to illustrate the unique characteristics of African American culture. For example, the 1990s television show Martin featured a main character who speaks in AAE and is often the source of comedic moments.
2345:) were occasional or common variants in these earlier dialects, and the latter item even the preferred variant in certain grammatical contexts. Other nonstandard grammatical constructions associated with AAVE are documented in older dialects too; however, many of them are not, evidently being recent innovations of 20th-century urban AAVE.
2614:
African
American English has been used in television and film since the early days of Hollywood. For example, in the 1940s, the popular radio show Amos 'n' Andy featured African American characters who spoke in African American English. This show was popular and influential, and it established AAE as
2367:
The language is derived from a mixture of
African languages and English, with words and phrases from Caribbean and West African languages such as Akan, Wolof, and Fula. Gullah has been described as a âlinguistic bridge between Africa and the New Worldâ (âGullah Cultureâ). The Gullah culture is deeply
2280:
The grammar of ANS is largely based on standard
English, but there are several distinct features that set it apart from other varieties of English. These features include the use of the negative concordâwhich is the use of multiple negative words in a sentence to emphasize the negativeâand the double
2714:
Although the stigmatization of AAE has continued, AAE remains because it has functioned as a social identity marker for many
African-Americans. The goal with teaching SAE is not to end its use, but to help students differentiate between settings where its use is and is not considered acceptable. In
2194:
Despite its distinctiveness, AAAE shares many features with other varieties of
Appalachian English, including the use of nonstandard pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. AAAE also shares features with other varieties of African American English, particularly those spoken in the South. For
2710:
is used for teaching topics in
African-American Vernacular English. Both the phonological and syntactic features of a student's speech can be analyzed and recorded in order to identify points for contrast with Standard American English. Another way AAE can be taught is based on a strategy,
2214:
The dialect has been studied by linguists and has been documented in various works, such as the book
African American Outer Banks English: A Sociolinguistic Study by Elizabeth C. Zsiga (2000). This book provides a detailed description of the language, including its grammar, vocabulary, and
2384::x) argues that early mass media portrayals of black speech are the strongest historical evidence of a separate variety of English for black people. Early popular works are also used to determine the similarities that historical varieties of black speech have in common with modern AAVE.
2715:
addition, research has also found that AAE can be used as a bridge to mainstream academic
English. By understanding the similarities and differences between AAE and mainstream American English, teachers can provide students with effective strategies for learning and using both dialects.
2711:
communicative flexibility, that focuses on language used at home and analyzes speech during dramatic play. Using this method, children are taught to recognize when SAE is being used and in which occasions, rather than conforming to the speech around them in order to sound correct.
2132:
African-American Standard English, a term largely popularized by linguist Arthur Spears, is the prestigious and native end of the middle-class African-American English continuum that is used for more formal, careful, or public settings than AAVE. This variety exhibits
1950:. Like all widely spoken language varieties, African-American English shows variation stylistically, generationally, geographically (that is, features specific to singular cities or regions only), in rural versus urban characteristics, in vernacular versus standard
2182:
commonly associated with White Appalachians. These similarities include an accent that is rhotic, the categorical use of the grammatical construction "he works" or "she goes" (rather than the AAVE "he work" and "she go"), and Appalachian vocabulary (such as
1990:
of English were widely spoken by British settlers, which probably resulted in both first- and second-language English varieties being developed by African Americans. The 19th century's evolving cotton-plantation industry, and eventually the 20th century's
2281:
negative, which is the use of two negative words in a sentence to express a positive meaning. In addition, ANS also has its own pronunciation rules, such as the use of the letter âdâ instead of âthâ and the dropping of the âgâ in words ending in âingâ.
2304:
and, later, the United States. Of primary interest is the direct theoretical predecessor to AAVE. Mainly four types of sources have been used for the historical reconstruction of older AAVE: written interviews, ex-slave audio recordings, the modern
2277:, as well as the recordings of former slaves to demonstrate that speech patterns were inherited from nonstandard colonial English. The dialect was extensively studied in 1992 by Shana Poplack and Sali Tagliamonte from the University of Ottawa.
2706:, is a "legitimate, rule-governed, and fully developed dialect". The techniques used to improve the proficiency of African-American students learning standard written English have sometimes been similar to that of teaching a second language.
2701:
Nonstandard African-American varieties of English have been stereotypically associated with a lower level of education and low social status. Since the 1960s, however, linguists have demonstrated that each of these varieties, and namely
1777:
1664:
2592:
As there is no established spelling system for AAVE, depicting it in literature is instead often done through spelling changes to indicate its phonological features, or to contribute to the impression that AAVE is being used
2360:: a natural language grammatically independent from English that uses mostly English vocabulary. Most Gullah speakers today are probably bidialectal. A sub-dialect of Gullah is also spoken in Oklahoma and Texas, known as
2195:
instance, a study of African American communities in the Appalachian region of Virginia found that the dialects of these communities shared many features with both African American English and Southern White English.
4029:
2123:
accents. AAVE is often used by middle-class African Americans in casual, intimate, and informal settings as one end of a sociocultural language continuum, and AAVE shows some slight variations by region or city.
2137:
vocabulary and grammar but often retains certain elements of the unique AAVE accent, with intonational or rhythmic features maintained more than phonological ones. Frequently, middle-class African Americans are
4213:
Bailey, Guy (2001), "The relationship between African American Vernacular English and White Vernaculars in the American South: A sociocultural history and some phonological evidence", in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.),
2380:. A number of researchers have looked into the ways that American authors have depicted the speech of black characters, investigating how black identity is established and how it connects to other characters.
2288:. This rate of deletion is 57% among Black Nova Scotians, and 60% among African Americans in Philadelphia. Meanwhile, in the surrounding mostly white communities of Nova Scotia, (r)-deletion does not occur.
7374:
7369:
5237:
4433:
DeBose, Charles; Faraclas, Nicholas (1993), "An Africanist approach to the linguistic study of black English: getting to the roots of tense-aspect-modality and copula systems in Afro-American", in
2243:, only the dialect of African Nova Scotians retains the influence of West African pidgin. In the 19th century, African Nova Scotian English would have been indistinguishable from English spoken in
7381:
1649:
7122:
5485:
1581:
1659:
7386:
1644:
4774:
Kautzsch, Alexander (2004), "Earlier African American English: Morphology and Syntax", in Edgar W. Schneider; Kate Burridge; Bernd Kortmann; Rajend Mesthrie; Clive Upton (eds.),
297:
7057:
943:
4223:
Bailey, Guy; Thomas, Erik (1998), "Some aspects of African-American Vernacular English phonology", in Mufwene, Salikoko; Rickford, John R.; Bailey, Guy; Baugh, John (eds.),
4037:
5675:
Wolfram, Walter A. (1994), "The phonology of a sociocultural variety: The case of African American Vernacular English", in Bernthal, John E.; Bankson, Nicholas W. (eds.),
356:
308:
5749:"Understanding African-American English: A Course in Language Comprehension and Cross-Cultural Understanding for Advanced English Language Learners in the United States"
1654:
1606:
1616:
1611:
1882:
1626:
1596:
7907:
7902:
7451:
6183:
6040:
499:
4765:
Howe, Darin M.; Walker, James A. (2000), "Negation and the Creole-Origins Hypothesis: Evidence from Early African American English", in Poplack, Shana (ed.),
7714:
7586:
6171:
1531:
1521:
340:
4710:
Harry, Beth; Anderson, Mary G. (1995), "The disproportionate placement of African-American males in special education programs: a critique of the process",
9031:
3358:
1601:
278:
5748:
8971:
3207:
1591:
1586:
6281:
2142:
between this standard variety and AAVE, tending toward using the former variety in school and other public places, so that adults will frequently even
1983:
6870:
6005:
2696:
2500:
1621:
1501:
7364:
5500:
5973:
7912:
7152:
3976:
2738:. He also acknowledges that we have a long way to go as a society in recognizing Black English as anything but "full of slang and bad grammar".
817:
9172:
7981:
7956:
1856:
1757:
504:
376:
230:
7966:
7961:
6893:
6341:
5185:(1997a), "Prior Creolization of African-American Vernacular English? Sociohistorical and Textual Evidence from the 17th and 18th Centuries",
1875:
3762:
7682:
7518:
7227:
7217:
6875:
6865:
2251:. However, it has been increasingly de-creolized since this time, due to interaction and influence from the white Nova Scotian population.
1811:
1791:
1551:
1043:
1028:
515:
4948:
Morgan, Marcyliena (1999), "US Language Planning and Policies for Social Dialect Speakers", in Davis, Kathryn Anne; Huebner, Thom (eds.),
2435:
Some other notable works that have incorporated representations of black speech (with varying degrees of perceived authenticity) include:
7724:
7496:
1556:
1536:
5054:
2387:
The earliest depictions of black speech came from works written in the 18th century, primarily by white authors. A notable exception is
9182:
9066:
8039:
7944:
6888:
6883:
4268:
Blake, RenĂ©; Shousterman, Cara; Newlin-Ćukowicz, Luiza (2015), "African American Language in New York City", in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.),
2044:, particularly in urban areas, with its own unique accent, grammar, and vocabulary features. Typical features of the grammar include a
822:
283:
4859:
Lanehart, Sonja, ed. (2001), "State of the art in African American English research: Multi-disciplinary perspectives and directions",
2146:
between the two varieties within a single conversation. The phonological features maintained in this standard dialect tend to be less
7603:
7107:
6216:
1995:, certainly contributed greatly to the spread of the first of these varieties as stable dialects of English among African Americans.
1486:
1363:
397:
4185:
Artiles, Alfredo J.; Trent, Stanley C. (1994), "Overrepresentation of minority students in special education: a continuing debate",
2296:
Older or earlier African-American English refers to a set of many heterogeneous varieties studied and reconstructed by linguists as
7951:
7581:
7102:
6324:
6156:
2259:, with significant variations unique to the group's history in the area. There are noted differences in the dialects of those from
1868:
1806:
1571:
1526:
17:
7917:
7877:
7719:
7623:
7552:
7157:
5968:
5920:
1772:
1516:
1511:
1496:
7976:
7971:
7939:
7709:
7613:
7576:
7523:
7357:
1491:
1476:
1383:
2255:
of the province's school boards in 1964 further accelerated the process of de-creolization. The language is a relative of the
9116:
8901:
7934:
7892:
7704:
6252:
6118:
6113:
5998:
5738:
5387:
5308:
5290:
5269:
5227:
5134:
5116:
5020:
4957:
4850:
4683:
4461:
4424:
4375:
4259:
3543:
2903:
1443:
520:
509:
371:
325:
320:
293:
9136:
8209:
8094:
7882:
7867:
7731:
7640:
7635:
7569:
6030:
5446:
Stewart, William A. (1969), "On the use of Negro dialect in the teaching of reading", in Baratz, Joan; Shuy, Roger (eds.),
2356:, or "Gullah", is the distinct language of some African Americans along the South Carolina and Georgia coast. Gullah is an
2236:
1546:
1506:
1448:
1403:
263:
3241:
8617:
7857:
7694:
7664:
7446:
7025:
6237:
2760:
2703:
2256:
2024:
1999:
1940:
1433:
1413:
1258:
827:
673:
42:
5810:"Black English Vernacular (Ebonics) and Educability: A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Language, Cognition, and Schooling"
4868:
Lee, Margaret (1999), "Out of the Hood and into the News: Borrowed Black Verbal Expressions in a Mainstream Newspaper",
3720:
The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes, edited by Arnold Rampersad and David Roessel (New York: Vintage Classics, 1994).
2309:
dialects of isolated black communities, and letters written by 18th- and 19th-century African Americans. The use of the
8722:
7847:
7741:
7657:
7501:
7282:
7082:
6233:
6211:
4740:
A critical investigation of literary and linguistic structures in the fiction of Zora Neale Hurston (Ph.D dissertation)
4701:
3294:
2780:
1992:
1561:
1541:
1095:
960:
392:
2597:). More recently, authors have begun focusing on grammatical cues, and even the use of certain rhetorical strategies.
9167:
7994:
6384:
6035:
5809:
5616:
4939:
4566:
4526:
4128:
3802:
3336:
441:
273:
4624:
Florini, Sarah (2014), "Tweets, Tweeps, and Signifyin': Communication and Cultural Performance on "Black Twitter"",
8521:
7922:
7887:
7872:
7630:
7232:
6476:
6446:
6262:
5991:
3990:
L. Bond, Bowie (1994). "Influencing Future Teachers' Attitudes toward Black English: Are We Making a Difference?".
1851:
1787:
1398:
1048:
461:
361:
5958:
4152:
3171:
8769:
8565:
7929:
7852:
7647:
7491:
7222:
7087:
6792:
6431:
2007:
1353:
1220:
1038:
965:
3397:
9086:
8526:
8032:
7699:
7593:
7508:
7112:
4888:
Linnes, Kathleen (1998), "Middle-class AAVE versus middle-class bilingualism: Contrasting speech communities",
2824:
2791:
2488:
1762:
1438:
1388:
9126:
8819:
8781:
7736:
7669:
7652:
7598:
7547:
7486:
7391:
7352:
7292:
7092:
6481:
6461:
6268:
6247:
5949:
2722:
have tried to persuade the public that "Black English" is not a separate language from or imperfect form of "
2607:
2605:
Portrayals of black characters in film and television are also done with varying degrees of authenticity. In
2064:), and complexity of verb aspects and tenses beyond that of other English dialects (e.g., constructions like
2038:
1453:
1423:
1408:
1393:
1368:
1348:
970:
604:
471:
2726:". He argues that Black English is a separate dialect, distinct from Standard English in the same way that
9177:
9121:
8774:
8594:
8411:
8232:
7559:
7535:
7530:
7513:
7481:
7424:
6537:
6486:
6319:
5684:
Wolfram, Walter A. (1998), "Language ideology and dialect: understanding the Oakland Ebonics controversy",
4783:
Kendall, Tyler; Wolfram, Walt (2009), "Local and external language standards in African American English",
2893:
2548:
1481:
1373:
1358:
1343:
1310:
609:
288:
35:
5518:
8497:
8487:
8085:
8052:
8048:
7824:
7816:
7759:
7674:
7162:
7067:
6923:
6905:
6807:
6466:
6436:
6161:
6081:
6060:
2854:
2634:
2397:). Depictions have largely been restricted to dialogue and the first novel written entirely in AAVE was
2207:
is rapidly accommodating to urban AAVE through the recent generations, despite having aligned with local
1955:
1951:
1704:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1428:
900:
691:
661:
599:
548:
476:
366:
5894:
4536:
9081:
8796:
8654:
8065:
7842:
7779:
7769:
7319:
7077:
7037:
6394:
6088:
4978:(1999), "Beyond Language: Ebonics, Proper English, and Identity in a Black-American Speech Community",
2536:
1719:
1699:
1202:
1137:
910:
812:
779:
566:
451:
8017:
9061:
8587:
8545:
8516:
8448:
8416:
8025:
7751:
7564:
7396:
6957:
6456:
6294:
6101:
4970:, Varieties of English Around the World, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 21â52
4218:, Varieties of English Around the World, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 53â92
2834:
2306:
2179:
2003:
1674:
1418:
1378:
667:
5299:
Schilling-Estes, Natalie (2006), "Dialect Variation", in Fasold, Ralph; Connor-Linton, Jeff (eds.),
4863:, Varieties of English Around the World, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 1â20
4515:
Edwards, Walter (2004), "African American Vernacular English: Phonology", in Kortmann, Bernd (ed.),
3952:
2215:
pronunciation. It also provides a history of the dialect and examines how it has changed over time.
8786:
8740:
8639:
8577:
8472:
8343:
7005:
6918:
6562:
6351:
6166:
6106:
6096:
6022:
2666:
2089:
1033:
880:
764:
538:
419:
247:
5963:
5455:
Stewart, William (1975), "Teaching Blacks to Read Against Their Will", in Luelsdorff, P.A. (ed.),
8998:
8831:
8649:
8624:
7774:
7324:
6978:
6947:
6727:
6667:
6532:
6275:
5875:
4413:"Codeswitching: Black English and Standard English in the African-American linguistic repertoire"
3770:
2572:
2297:
1767:
1709:
1172:
1132:
855:
754:
632:
446:
111:
101:
91:
8913:
8891:
8695:
8392:
8361:
8239:
7689:
7419:
6657:
6451:
6441:
6379:
6189:
6128:
2524:
2267:(Black Refugees), the Guysborough group having been in the province three generations earlier.
1979:
466:
456:
436:
126:
8809:
5834:
3743:
2284:
A commonality between African Nova Scotian English and African-American Vernacular English is
9111:
8896:
8791:
8504:
8438:
8192:
8182:
8177:
7764:
7277:
7142:
7097:
6913:
6632:
6597:
6416:
6399:
6206:
6123:
5978:
5851:
5090:
5010:
3249:
3112:
2796:
2681:
2461:
2171:
2150:. For instance, one such characteristic is the omission of the final consonant in word-final
2030:
1090:
1080:
1012:
975:
759:
749:
649:
330:
9104:
5238:"African American Language in California:Over Four Decades of Vibrant Variationist Research"
8533:
8426:
8366:
8244:
8217:
8134:
8006:
7414:
7177:
6988:
6940:
6812:
6702:
6607:
6374:
6364:
6336:
6201:
6055:
5066:
4488:
4308:
3428:
African Nova Scotian English. In A. D. Tongue (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes
3107:
Walt Wolfram and Mary E. Kohn, "The regional development of African American Language"; in
2707:
2473:
2466:
2361:
2285:
2252:
2240:
2081:
1971:
1846:
1298:
543:
335:
268:
31:
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3159:
2191:
is diverse, with African-American women linguistically divided along sociocultural lines.
8:
9131:
8961:
8953:
8851:
8814:
8700:
8685:
8560:
8550:
8477:
8316:
7789:
7147:
7062:
6542:
6331:
6221:
6151:
5850:
Pollock, K.; Bailey, G.; Berni; Fletcher; Hinton, L.N.; Johnson; Roberts; Weaver (1998).
5464:
Sweetland, Julie (2002), "Unexpected but Authentic Use of an Ethnically-Marked Dialect",
5428:
Spears, Arthur K. (2015), "African American Standard English", in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.),
5253:
4966:
Mufwene, Salikoko (2001), "What is African American English?", in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.),
3933:
2619:
2424:
2394:
2377:
2376:
There is a long tradition of representing the distinctive speech of African Americans in
2224:
2175:
2109:
1987:
1714:
1192:
1154:
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402:
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6404:
6309:
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6287:
6178:
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5701:
5677:
Child Phonology: Characteristics, Assessment, and Intervention with Special Populations
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4011:
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2658:
2579:
2531:
2507:
2338:
2041:
1975:
890:
731:
238:
74:
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3393:
2839:
2274:
1270:
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9099:
9051:
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7329:
7297:
7270:
6995:
6612:
6582:
6572:
6567:
6134:
5906:
5782:
5766:
5693:
5656:
5577:
5538:
5473:
5409:
5357:
5278:
5194:
5155:
5086:
5074:
4987:
4918:
English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States
4897:
4792:
4719:
4633:
4605:
4554:
4496:
4434:
4397:
4326:
4316:
4194:
3999:
3517:
3373:
3066:
2829:
2723:
2555:
2519:
2414:
2410:
2134:
2120:
1947:
1944:
1265:
1122:
950:
885:
865:
774:
184:
178:
131:
121:
116:
4661:
Golden, Tim (January 14, 1997), "Oakland Scratches plan to teach black English.",
2139:
9016:
8918:
8856:
8826:
8634:
8509:
8330:
8306:
8278:
8249:
8222:
8187:
8074:
7460:
7287:
7197:
7192:
7123:
Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)
6973:
6928:
6782:
6772:
6752:
6737:
6637:
6512:
6502:
6141:
5953:
5647:
Winford, Donald (1992), "Back to the past: The BEV/creole connection revisited",
5606:
4929:
4672:
4548:
4516:
4412:
4321:
2844:
2806:
2735:
2727:
2449:
2439:
2429:
2353:
2301:
1293:
1100:
850:
769:
83:
4003:
3450:. New Ways of Analyzing Variation (NWAVE) conference, University of Pennsylvania
3359:"African American English in the diaspora: Evidence from old-line Nova Scotians"
9091:
9006:
8966:
8866:
8690:
8443:
8348:
8338:
8254:
8056:
7897:
7302:
7265:
7255:
7015:
7010:
6952:
6787:
6717:
6647:
6642:
6146:
6070:
5697:
4925:
4609:
4198:
3245:
3108:
2775:
2719:
2560:
2357:
1959:
1903:
1752:
1177:
1147:
905:
895:
726:
164:
5786:
5660:
5543:
5348:
Smitherman, Geneva (1999), "CCCC's Role in the Struggle for Language Rights",
4991:
4558:
4096:"Salikoko Mufwene: Ebonics and Standard English in the Classroom: Some Issues"
3792:
3377:
9161:
9141:
9056:
8712:
8629:
8570:
8482:
8433:
8311:
8293:
6855:
6837:
6827:
6797:
6742:
6697:
6682:
6627:
6617:
6602:
6552:
6547:
6517:
6314:
6242:
6065:
5890:
5871:
5182:
5029:
5006:
4820:
4796:
4758:
Down Home and Up Town: the Representation of Black Speech in American Fiction
4637:
4153:"What is Ebonics (African American English)? | Linguistic Society of America"
4138:
4078:
3385:
3172:"What is Ebonics (African American English)? | Linguistic Society of America"
2849:
2747:
2650:
2264:
2228:
2034:
1932:
1821:
1816:
64:
5634:
Williamson, Juanita (1970), "Selected features of speech: black and white",
5477:
5198:
4811:
van Keulen, Jean E.; Weddington, Gloria Toliver; DeBose, Charles E. (1998),
4402:
4385:
3311:
8644:
8492:
8371:
7167:
6935:
6860:
6832:
6817:
6802:
6757:
6732:
6712:
6622:
6592:
6587:
6557:
6507:
6359:
6045:
5125:
Radford, Andrew; Atkinson, Martin; Britain, David; Clahsen, Harald (1999),
4340:
2731:
2642:
2584:
2512:
2443:
2406:
1928:
1305:
1117:
845:
708:
174:
5817:
5731:
The Skin that We Speak: Thoughts on Language and Culture in the Classroom.
4095:
3327:
Mufwene, Salikoko S.; Bailey, Guy; Rickford, John R.; Baugh, John (1998).
3057:
Thomas, Erik (2007). "Phonological and phonetic characteristics of AAVE".
7187:
7172:
7020:
6983:
6822:
6777:
6762:
6527:
6522:
6369:
4030:"Using Ebonics or Black English as a Bridge to Teaching Standard English"
2816:
2811:
2770:
2594:
2477:
2398:
2310:
2232:
2204:
2116:
2112:
2045:
1920:
1471:
1127:
980:
860:
644:
3544:"Creoles in Texas â "The Afro-Seminoles" | International Magazine Kreol"
8555:
8047:
6722:
6707:
6677:
6672:
6421:
6389:
6228:
6196:
5167:
4950:
Sociopolitical perspectives on language policy and planning in the USA.
4731:
4500:
4121:
Talking back, talking Black : truths about America's lingua franca
3442:
2483:
2208:
2188:
2147:
2143:
576:
315:
30:"Black English" redirects here. For the minority group in Britain, see
7058:
Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)
5589:
5421:
5369:
4909:
4881:
3564:
3529:
2895:
Languages and Dialects in the U.S.: Focus on Diversity and Linguistics
1970:
African-American English began as early as the 17th century, when the
8112:
7336:
7182:
6687:
6471:
6409:
6304:
5852:"Phonological Features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE)"
5568:
Walser, Richard (1955), "Negro dialect in eighteenth-century drama",
5326:
Smith, Ernie; Crozier, Karen (1998), "Ebonics Is Not Black English",
5078:
4975:
2454:
1924:
1801:
1142:
875:
654:
481:
212:
200:
5983:
5450:, Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, pp. 156â219
5159:
4723:
4348:
Cosby, William (10 January 1997), "Elements of Igno-Ebonics Style",
8139:
7809:
7804:
7314:
5581:
5413:
5361:
4931:
Word on the Street: Debunking the Myth of a "Pure" Standard English
4901:
4654:
The Signifying Monkey: a Theory of Afro-American literary Criticism
4123:(1st ed.). New York, NY: Bellevue Literary Press. p. 11.
3521:
3225:
2674:
2418:(1982) is a much more widely known work written entirely in AAVE.
2248:
1187:
1112:
1105:
7073:
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
5946:
4823:(1969), "The logic of non-standard English", in Alatis, J. (ed.),
4297:"You Know What It Is: Learning Words through Listening to Hip-Hop"
4234:
Blues, Ideology, and Afro-American Literature: a Vernacular Theory
9076:
9071:
8881:
8227:
8154:
8149:
6426:
4968:
Sociocultural and Historical Contexts of African American English
4861:
Sociocultural and Historical Contexts of African American English
4583:
Farrison, W. Edward (1970), "Dialectology versus Negro dialect",
4216:
Sociocultural and Historical Contexts of African American English
3227:
Appalachian speech. Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics
2765:
2244:
2119:, and a wider range of intonation or "melody" patterns than most
1917:
1275:
581:
2273:
use data from early recordings of African Nova Scotian English,
8144:
8124:
7260:
4834:
Language in the Inner City: Studies in Black English Vernacular
4550:
A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool
4518:
A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool
4267:
2389:
1939:; most commonly, it refers to a dialect continuum ranging from
1936:
1182:
5974:
The Origins of African American Vernacular English: Beginnings
5379:
Black Talk: Words and Phrases from the Hood to the Amen Corner
5317:
Simpkins, Gary A.; Holt, Grace; Simpkins, Charlesetta (1977),
4596:
Fickett, Joan G. (1972), "Tense and aspect in Black English",
3835:
3702:
3690:
3678:
3666:
3639:
3508:
Mufwene, Salikoko (1997). "The ecology of Gullah's survival".
27:
English sociolects spoken by black people in the US and Canada
7072:
5627:
Code-switching: Teaching Standard English in Urban Classrooms
5124:
3883:
3268:
African American Outer Banks English: A Sociolinguistic Study
2801:
955:
5608:
The Workings of Language: From Prescriptions to Perspectives
5396:
Spears, Arthur K. (1982), "The black English semi-auxiliary
4778:, Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 341â355
4063:"Effective Writing Instruction for African American English"
3122:
2927:
7117:
5108:
American Tongue and Cheek: A Populist Guide to Our Language
4441:, Athens, GA: University of Georgia press, pp. 364â387
3905:
Louis, Henry. ""Amos 'n' Andy: The Original Radio Show."".
3474:
3462:
985:
5849:
5303:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 311â42,
4813:
Speech, Language, Learning, and the African American Child
4810:
4749:
The Character of the Word: The Texts of Zora Neale Hurston
4479:
Downing, John (1978), "Strategies of Bilingual Teaching",
3913:
3326:
4454:
Black English: Its History and Usage in the United States
3823:
3656:
3654:
3407:
2917:
2915:
2223:
African Nova Scotian English is spoken by descendants of
3950:
3859:
3223:
3188:
2875:
2873:
2871:
2393:(1853), the first novel written by an African American (
2187:
for "windy"). However, even African-American English in
5205:
Rickford, John (1997b), "Suite for Ebony and Phonics",
4694:
Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language
4370:(2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
3486:
2198:
2165:
4056:
4054:
3651:
3569:
National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior
3316:. Amsterdam; Philadelphia : J. Benjamins Pub. Co.
2963:
2912:
2746:
African American English is often used by rappers and
2018:
5835:"A bibliography of works on African American English"
5629:, Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English
5146:(1939), "The speech of Negroes in colonial America",
4252:
Beyond Ebonics: Linguistic Pride and Racial Prejudice
4225:
African-American English: Structure, History, and Use
3627:
3329:
African-American English: Structure, History, and Use
3242:
The regional development of African American Language
3004:
3002:
2868:
2300:
by the first African Americans and African slaves in
1982:
in the late 18th century). During the development of
5316:
4553:, vol. 1, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 383â392,
4521:, vol. 2, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 366â382,
3871:
3847:
3811:
3444:
The /r/-ful Truth about African Nova Scotian English
3119:(Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp. 149â151.
2892:
Paolo, Marianna Di; Spears, Arthur K. (2014-03-05).
2127:
5432:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 786â799
5341:
Talkin and Testifyin: The Language of Black America
5247:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 299â315
4843:
Principles of Linguistic Change, II: Social factors
4674:
African American English: A Linguistic Introduction
4448:
5 vols. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985â.
4368:
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.
4272:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 280â298
4051:
3214:, edited by Nancy Hayward and Amy Clark. pp. 81â93.
3212:
Talking Appalachian: Voice, Identity, and Community
2975:
2951:
2939:
2428:also has near exclusive use of AAVE. The poetry of
1778:
Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers
5523:A look at selected AAVE features in the TV series
5441:, Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics
5257:
5040:
4671:
4386:"The Co-Construction of Whiteness in an MC Battle"
3356:
3285:Odysseys home: Mapping African-Canadian literature
3282:
3134:
2999:
3503:
3501:
3151:
3149:
2697:African-American Vernacular English and education
2291:
2029:African-American Vernacular (AAVE) is the native
9159:
7108:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
5889:
5430:The Oxford Handbook of African American Language
5251:
5245:The Oxford Handbook of African American Language
4836:, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press
4825:Georgetown Monograph on Language and Linguistics
4537:"African American Vernacular English: phonology"
4359:Sociolinguistics: The Study of Speakers' Choices
4270:The Oxford Handbook of African American Language
4245:, Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics
4023:
4021:
3841:
3730:
3708:
3696:
3684:
3672:
3645:
3254:The Oxford Handbook on African American Language
3117:The Oxford Handbook on African American Language
2788:, who made a literary career writing in dialect.
7153:Black players in professional American football
7103:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
5921:"African American Vernacular English (Ebonics)"
5439:Non-standard Speech and the Teaching of English
5298:
5034:The English History of African American English
4767:The English History of African American English
4439:Africanisms in Afro-American Language Varieties
2218:
2203:African-American English in the North Carolina
1998:The most widespread modern dialect is known as
5516:
5382:(revised ed.), Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
5301:An Introduction to Language and Linguistics ed
4782:
4432:
4419:, Multilingual Matters LTD, pp. 157â167,
3919:
3498:
3208:African American speech in southern Appalachia
3146:
505:Education of freed people during the Civil War
8033:
5999:
5979:American Varieties â African American English
5964:African American Vernacular English (Ebonics)
5712:Wolfram, Walter A.; Fasold, Ralph W. (1974),
5711:
5624:
5283:Educating Eve: The "Language Instinct" Debate
4709:
4090:
4088:
4067:Urban Education Research & Policy Annuals
4018:
3240:Wolfram, Walt; Kohn, Mary E. (forthcoming). "
1876:
8391:
6866:Historically black colleges and universities
5729:Delpit, Lisa; Dowdy, Joanne Kilgour (2002),
5325:
4290:, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
4281:, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press
4222:
4184:
3352:
3350:
3348:
2174:have been reported as increasingly adopting
2080:). Common features of the phonology include
1954:, etc. There has been a significant body of
516:Historically black colleges and universities
5959:What is Ebonics (African American English)?
5923:. University of New England. Archived from
5728:
4915:
4241:Baratz, Joan C.; Shuy, Roger, eds. (1969),
3975:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
3934:"Language Log on the Accents in "The Wire""
3565:"Gullah Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor"
2891:
500:Education during the slave period in the US
9067:Comparison of American and British English
8040:
8026:
6006:
5992:
5633:
5375:
5347:
5338:
5041:Poplack, Shana; Tagliamonte, Sali (2001),
4764:
4240:
4085:
3413:
3357:Tagliamonte, Sali; Poplack, Shana (1991).
3256:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 154.
2734:are distinct from the standard dialect of
2270:
2239:in Canada ended up in Ontario through the
2056:), omission of the genitive clitic (e.g.,
1883:
1869:
823:National Black Caucus of State Legislators
34:. For the variety of British English, see
7083:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)
5910:
5625:Wheeler, Rebecca; Swords, Rachel (2006),
5595:
5542:
5463:
5457:Linguistic Perspectives on Black English.
5204:
5181:
5129:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
4924:
4678:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
4401:
4330:
4320:
4118:
3345:
3230:. Center for Applied Linguistics, 1611 N.
3083:
2933:
2600:
279:Slavery in the colonial history of the US
8760:
5870:
5746:
5558:
5493:Atlas of North American English (online)
5319:Bridge: A Cross-Cultural Reading Program
5260:Spoken Soul: The Story of Black English.
5235:
5217:
5043:African American English in the Diaspora
4858:
4773:
4746:
4737:
4691:
4582:
4446:Dictionary of American Regional English.
3790:
3660:
3586:
3582:
3492:
3480:
3468:
3425:
3128:
2921:
5832:
5765:
5683:
5674:
5646:
5604:
5454:
5445:
5436:
5277:
5055:"Language that dare not speak its name"
5028:
4965:
4623:
4595:
4534:
4514:
4478:
4469:
4451:
4365:
4356:
4294:
4285:
3989:
3951:catalyst_class_admin_428 (2015-06-01).
3760:
3622:
3507:
3281:Clarke, George Elliott (January 2002).
3020:
2879:
14:
9160:
7982:Topics related to the African diaspora
7088:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)
5775:Natural Language and Linguistic Theory
5567:
5483:
5427:
5395:
5049:
5005:
4947:
4887:
4755:
4660:
4410:
4383:
4276:
4212:
4060:
3633:
3440:
3309:
3280:
3140:
3095:
3056:
2981:
2969:
2957:
2945:
2381:
2162:may lose their final consonant sound.
2100:, simplification of diphthongs (e.g.,
9173:Culture of the Southern United States
8021:
7962:Landmark African-American legislation
6013:
5987:
5807:
5716:, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
5563:, New York: New York University Press
5350:College Composition and Communication
5104:
4980:American Educational Research Journal
4840:
4831:
4819:
4760:, London: Associated University Press
4669:
4651:
4347:
4254:, New York: Oxford University Press,
4249:
4231:
3931:
3900:
3898:
3889:
3877:
3865:
3853:
3829:
3817:
3618:
3606:
3594:
3590:
3265:
3194:
3155:
3044:
3032:
3008:
2993:
1021:Athletic associations and conferences
510:History of African-American education
9137:Non-native pronunciations of English
7093:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)
5517:Trotta, Joe; Blyahher, Oleg (2011),
5328:The Western Journal of Black Studies
5142:
4974:
4227:, London: Routledge, pp. 85â109
2199:African-American Outer Banks English
2166:African-American Appalachian English
2088:sound at the end of syllables), the
944:Association for the Study of African
7447:African-American Vernacular English
5918:
5714:Social Dialects in American English
5598:An Introduction to Sociolinguistics
5264:, New York: John Wiley & Sons,
5220:African American Vernacular English
4867:
4656:, New York: Oxford University Press
3224:Fasold, R. W.; Wolfram, W. (1977).
2761:African-American Vernacular English
2704:African-American Vernacular English
2432:(1901â1967) uses AAVE extensively.
2257:African-American Vernacular English
2025:African-American Vernacular English
2019:African-American Vernacular English
2000:African-American Vernacular English
1941:African-American Vernacular English
1758:Race and ethnicity in the US census
1259:African-American Vernacular English
828:National Conference of Black Mayors
43:African-American Vernacular English
24:
7365:U.S. cities with large populations
7068:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
5722:
4776:A Handbook of Varieties of English
3895:
3252:, and Jennifer Bloomquist (eds.),
2781:Dialects of North American English
2263:(Black Loyalists), and those from
961:National Black Chamber of Commerce
25:
9194:
9183:Languages of the African diaspora
6238:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013
6234:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009
6041:African American founding fathers
5940:
5605:Wheeler, Rebecca S., ed. (1999),
4481:International Review of Education
3904:
3115:, and Jennifer Bloomquist, eds.,
2128:African-American Standard English
2004:Southern White Vernacular English
1974:brought West African slaves into
1665:Places by plurality of population
331:Civil rights movement (1954â1968)
321:Civil rights movement (1865â1896)
274:Abolitionism in the United States
8000:
7118:United Negro College Fund (UNCF)
6263:Nadir of American race relations
5459:, Regensburg, Germany: Hans Carl
4920:, London: Blackwell, p. 200
4751:, West Port, CT: Greenwood Press
4692:Guralnik, David Bernard (1984),
4295:Chesley, Paula (December 2011).
4187:The Journal of Special Education
4027:
3071:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2007.00029.x
3059:Language and Linguistics Compass
2371:
2237:African-American freedom seekers
1840:
362:Black Belt in the American South
6124:Civil rights movement 1954â1968
6114:Civil rights movement 1865â1896
5814:African American Web Connection
5448:Teaching Black Children to Read
4756:Holton, Sylvia Wallace (1984),
4652:Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (1988),
4279:Black English in the Mass Media
4243:Teaching Black Children to Read
4145:
4112:
3983:
3953:"ALS: A Community on the Brink"
3944:
3932:Smith, Ben T. (9 August 2011).
3925:
3784:
3761:Heilman, Heather (2010-06-14).
3754:
3736:
3723:
3714:
3612:
3599:
3575:
3557:
3536:
3434:
3419:
3320:
3303:
3289:. University of Toronto Press.
3274:
3259:
3234:
3217:
3200:
3164:
3101:
3089:
3077:
3050:
3038:
3026:
3014:
2690:
966:National Council of Negro Women
9087:English-based creole languages
7113:Thurgood Marshall College Fund
6119:Civil right movement 1896â1954
5893:; Rickford, Angela E. (1995),
5876:"Ebonics Notes and Discussion"
5686:Journal of English Linguistics
5611:, Greenwood Publishing Group,
5486:"Rural White Southern Accents"
4785:Journal of English Linguistics
4598:Journal of English Linguistics
4415:, in Eastman, Carol M. (ed.),
4232:Baker, Houston A. Jr. (1984),
4061:Glover, Crystal (2013-03-01).
3842:Rickford & Rickford (2000)
3709:Rickford & Rickford (2000)
3697:Rickford & Rickford (2000)
3685:Rickford & Rickford (2000)
3673:Rickford & Rickford (2000)
3646:Rickford & Rickford (2000)
3441:Walker, James (October 1995).
2987:
2885:
2825:Languages of the United States
2792:English-based creole languages
2489:Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
2343:no one didn't leave me nothing
2292:Older African-American English
1763:Racism against Black Americans
13:
1:
9127:List of English-based pidgins
7293:Cherokee freedmen controversy
6269:The Negro Motorist Green Book
5747:McDorman, Richard E. (2012).
5649:Language Variation and Change
4827:, vol. 22, pp. 1â44
4472:A History of American English
4236:, University of Chicago Press
4173:
3731:Rickford & Rickford (2000
3366:Language Variation and Change
2325:), nonstandard plural forms (
1978:(which eventually became the
971:National Pan-Hellenic Council
9122:Linguistic purism in English
5912:10.1016/0898-5898(95)90003-9
5437:Stewart, William A. (1964),
5243:, in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.),
5148:The Journal of Negro History
5127:Linguistics: An Introduction
4916:Lippi-Green, Rosina (1997),
4322:10.1371/journal.pone.0028248
3992:Journal of Teacher Education
3920:Trotta & Blyahher (2011)
2861:
2549:Their Eyes Were Watching God
2227:, black immigrants from the
2219:African Nova Scotian English
1773:School segregation in the US
1311:Black American Sign Language
1285:Languages and other dialects
36:Multicultural London English
7:
8223:London & Thames Estuary
7163:Black players in ice hockey
7098:National Urban League (NUL)
6924:American Society of Muslims
6162:Selma to Montgomery marches
6082:Brown v. Board of Education
5895:"Dialect readers revisited"
5466:Journal of Sociolinguistics
5376:Smitherman, Geneva (2000),
5339:Smitherman, Geneva (1977),
5187:Journal of Sociolinguistics
4742:, Michigan State University
4004:10.1177/0022487194045002005
3266:Zsiga, Elizabeth C (2000).
2855:List of dialects of English
2753:
2741:
2635:The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air
2013:
1956:African-American literature
600:African-American businesses
10:
9199:
9082:English as a lingua franca
7320:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
7078:Nashville Student Movement
6089:Children of the plantation
5856:Child Phonology Laboratory
5833:Patrick, Peter L. (2007).
5698:10.1177/007542429802600203
5596:Wardhaugh, Ronald (2002),
5343:, Boston: Houghton Mifflin
4712:Journal of Negro Education
4626:Television & New Media
4610:10.1177/007542427200600102
4288:English in Black and White
4199:10.1177/002246699402700404
3767:Tulane University Magazine
2694:
2022:
1965:
1138:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
813:Congressional Black Caucus
780:African Diaspora Religions
567:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
40:
29:
9062:Broad and general accents
9044:
8997:
8972:regional and occupational
8952:
8939:
8932:
8844:
8805:
8753:
8731:
8671:
8603:
8468:
8457:
8402:
8384:
8357:
8329:
8292:
8269:
8208:
8170:
8093:
8084:
8073:
8064:
7990:
7957:Index of related articles
7835:
7750:
7474:
7407:
7345:
7245:
7206:
7138:
7131:
7046:
6966:
6958:Doctrine of Father Divine
6904:
6846:
6495:
6350:
6342:Women's suffrage movement
6295:Reconstruction Amendments
6102:Voting Rights Act of 1965
6021:
5899:Linguistics and Education
5661:10.1017/S0954394500000831
5544:10.58221/mosp.v105i1.8284
4992:10.3102/00028312036002147
4815:, Boston: Allyn and Bacon
4559:10.1515/9783110197181-027
4452:Dillard, John L. (1972),
4357:Coulmas, Florian (2005),
4286:Burling, Robbins (1973),
4157:www.linguisticsociety.org
3378:10.1017/S0954394500000594
3176:www.linguisticsociety.org
2835:Southern American English
2718:Recently, linguists like
2354:Sea Island Creole English
2348:
1645:US states and territories
946:American Life and History
668:Lift Every Voice and Sing
377:Treatment of the enslaved
210:
198:
193:
161:
80:
70:
60:
55:
50:
9168:African-American English
8007:United States portal
7442:African-American English
6871:Inventors and scientists
6563:George Washington Carver
6167:Chicago Freedom Movement
5969:African American English
5559:Trudgill, Peter (1983),
5484:Thomas, Erik R. (2006),
4797:10.1177/0075424209339281
4747:Holloway, Karla (1987),
4738:Holloway, Karla (1978),
4638:10.1177/1527476413480247
4535:Edwards, Walter (2020),
4411:DeBose, Charles (1992),
4384:Cutler, Cecelia (2007).
4119:McWhorter, John (2017).
3892:, pp. 206â209, 211.
3414:Howe & Walker (2000)
3206:Wolfram, Walt. (2013). "
2271:Howe & Walker (2000)
1923:) is the set of English
1896:African-American English
1847:United States portal
1254:African-American English
765:African-American Muslims
326:Jim Crow era (1896â1954)
137:African-American English
51:African-American English
41:Not to be confused with
18:African American English
7930:African-American firsts
6979:Back-to-Africa movement
6948:Black Hebrew Israelites
6728:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
6276:Partus sequitur ventrem
5858:. University of Alberta
5808:Oubré, Alondra (1997).
5787:10.1023/A:1005815614064
5733:, New York: New Press,
5478:10.1111/1467-9481.00199
5236:Rickford, John (2015),
5218:Rickford, John (1999),
5199:10.1111/1467-9481.00019
4841:Labov, William (2001),
4832:Labov, William (1972),
4670:Green, Lisa J. (2002),
4403:10.1075/prag.17.1.01cut
4366:Crystal, David (2003),
4277:Brasch, Walter (1981),
3763:"Ignatius Comes of Age"
3310:Clarke, Sandra (1993).
2573:A Confederacy of Dunces
2008:older Southern dialects
1768:Reparations for slavery
856:Back-to-Africa movement
755:Black Hebrew Israelites
633:African-American beauty
8240:Received Pronunciation
7898:Spingarn Medal winners
7387:States and territories
7158:Black NFL quarterbacks
6658:Martin Luther King Jr.
6190:Dred Scott v. Sandford
6129:Montgomery bus boycott
4696:, Simon and Schuster,
2601:In television and film
2525:The Sound and the Fury
2235:, Canada. Though most
2104:typically sounds like
1980:Southern United States
1910:Black American English
1238:Dialects and languages
398:Second Great Migration
127:North American English
8434:Multicultural Toronto
7208:Athletic associations
7143:Negro league baseball
6914:African-American Jews
6633:Ketanji Brown Jackson
6598:Henry Highland Garnet
6457:Negro National Anthem
6207:George Floyd protests
6172:Postâcivil rights era
5837:. University of Essex
5111:, New York: Penguin,
5012:The Language Instinct
4845:, Oxford: Blackwell,
4470:Dillard, J.L (1992),
3426:Cappelli, P. (2016).
2797:Glossary of jive talk
2462:Harriet Beecher Stowe
2172:Appalachian Americans
1650:US metropolitan areas
1477:List of neighborhoods
1091:Alabama Creole people
1081:African-American Jews
1013:Negro league baseball
976:National Urban League
928:Civic/economic groups
760:African-American Jews
650:African-American hair
512:, after the Civil War
341:Postâcivil rights era
8595:Western Pennsylvania
7415:Afro-Seminole Creole
6941:Azusa Street Revival
6813:Booker T. Washington
6337:Underground Railroad
6202:Free people of color
6056:Atlantic slave trade
5015:, New York: Morrow,
4435:Mufwene, Salikoko S.
4250:Baugh, John (2000),
4100:mufwene.uchicago.edu
3832:, pp. 168, 196.
3331:. Psychology Press.
3131:, pp. 302, 310.
2936:, pp. 162, 182.
2708:Contrastive analysis
2474:Joel Chandler Harris
2362:Afro-Seminole Creole
2298:theoretically spoken
2241:Underground Railroad
2006:(and even more with
1988:nonstandard dialects
1972:Atlantic slave trade
1807:Criminal stereotypes
1582:District of Columbia
1299:Afro-Seminole Creole
741:Non-Christian groups
336:Black power movement
300:during the Civil War
269:Atlantic slave trade
32:Black British people
9178:Dialects of English
9132:Mid-Atlantic accent
8723:Trinidad and Tobago
7810:Trinidad and Tobago
7425:Black American Sign
7252:By African descent
7246:Ethnic subdivisions
7233:Southwestern (SWAC)
7148:Baseball color line
7063:Black Panther Party
6967:Political movements
6884:in computer science
6543:Carol Moseley Braun
6332:Tulsa race massacre
6325:Treatment of slaves
6157:March on Washington
6152:Birmingham movement
5927:on 10 February 2010
5285:, London: Cassell,
5105:Quinn, Jim (1992),
5071:1997Natur.386..321P
5051:Pullum, Geoffrey K.
4545:Schneider, Edgar W.
4493:1978IREdu..24..329D
4474:, New York: Longman
4350:Wall Street Journal
4313:2011PLoSO...628248C
3868:, pp. 200â214.
3797:. Alfred A. Knopf.
3729:Examples listed in
3483:, pp. 347â349.
3471:, pp. 342â344.
3430:. pp. 547â563.
3197:, pp. 107â116.
2425:A Raisin in the Sun
2395:William Wells Brown
2378:American literature
2225:Black Nova Scotians
2209:Outer Banks English
2154:, so words such as
2033:of the majority of
1203:Sierra Leone Creole
1164:Specific ancestries
1049:Southwestern (SWAC)
572:Black History Month
403:New Great Migration
357:Agriculture history
8655:Pennsylvania Dutch
7908:US representatives
7903:US cabinet members
7795:Dominican Republic
7382:Metropolitan areas
7223:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
7048:Civic and economic
7026:Self-determination
6847:Education, science
6768:Fred Shuttlesworth
6748:A. Philip Randolph
6653:Coretta Scott King
6578:Frederick Douglass
6405:Harlem Renaissance
6310:Separate but equal
6300:Reconstruction era
6288:Plessy v. Ferguson
6179:Cornerstone Speech
6093:Civil Rights Acts
6076:Black Lives Matter
6051:American Civil War
5952:2022-10-14 at the
5771:"Double Standards"
5679:, New York: Thieme
5321:, Houghton-Mifflin
5144:Read, Allen Walker
5053:(March 27, 1997),
4952:, John Benjamins,
4926:McWhorter, John H.
4769:, pp. 109â139
4501:10.1007/BF00598048
2786:Eldred Kurtz Means
2627:Do the Right Thing
2568:John Kennedy Toole
2544:Zora Neale Hurston
2537:Gone with the Wind
2496:Thomas Nelson Page
2420:Lorraine Hansberry
2339:multiple negatives
2261:Guysborough County
2152:consonant clusters
1984:plantation culture
1212:Sexual orientation
1086:Afro-Puerto Ricans
1039:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
674:Self-determination
638:Black is beautiful
304:Reconstruction era
107:North Sea Germanic
9155:
9154:
9040:
9039:
8840:
8839:
8749:
8748:
8667:
8666:
8663:
8662:
8588:Pacific Northwest
8449:Standard Canadian
8380:
8379:
8325:
8324:
8265:
8264:
8015:
8014:
7843:African Americans
7715:DallasâFort Worth
7310:Black Southerners
7241:
7240:
6693:Thurgood Marshall
6663:Bernard Lafayette
6258:Million Man March
6015:African Americans
5891:Rickford, John R.
5874:(December 1996).
5872:Rickford, John R.
5767:Nunberg, Geoffrey
5740:978-1-56584-544-2
5521:Game done changed
5497:Walter de Gruyter
5389:978-0-395-96919-9
5310:978-0-521-84768-1
5292:978-0-304-33908-2
5279:Sampson, Geoffrey
5271:978-0-471-39957-5
5254:Rickford, Russell
5229:978-0-631-21245-4
5207:Discover Magazine
5136:978-0-521-47854-0
5118:978-0-14-006084-3
5065:(6623): 321â322,
5022:978-0-688-12141-9
4959:978-1-55619-735-2
4852:978-0-631-17915-3
4685:978-0-521-89138-7
4463:978-0-394-71872-9
4426:978-1-85359-167-9
4377:978-0-521-82348-7
4261:978-0-19-515289-0
3791:Sapphire (1996).
3744:"Hurston Reviews"
2905:978-1-317-91619-2
2608:Imitation of Life
2532:Margaret Mitchell
2467:Uncle Tom's Cabin
2042:African Americans
1976:Southern colonies
1893:
1892:
1830:
1829:
1728:
1727:
1502:Dallas-Fort Worth
1319:
1318:
1229:
1228:
1173:Americo-Liberians
1056:
1055:
994:
993:
919:
918:
788:
787:
732:Womanist theology
682:
681:
624:Symbols and ideas
410:
409:
289:Antebellum period
284:Revolutionary War
239:African Americans
224:
223:
75:African Americans
16:(Redirected from
9190:
9052:English language
8937:
8936:
8758:
8757:
8741:Falkland Islands
8640:General American
8613:African-American
8466:
8465:
8400:
8399:
8389:
8388:
8091:
8090:
8082:
8081:
8071:
8070:
8042:
8035:
8028:
8019:
8018:
8005:
8004:
8003:
7967:Lynching victims
7466:Louisiana Creole
7437:American English
7325:Louisiana Creole
7298:Choctaw freedmen
7136:
7135:
6673:Huddie Ledbetter
6613:Fannie Lou Hamer
6583:W. E. B. Du Bois
6573:Claudette Colvin
6568:Shirley Chisholm
6385:Family structure
6253:Military history
6135:Browder v. Gayle
6008:
6001:
5994:
5985:
5984:
5936:
5934:
5932:
5915:
5914:
5886:
5884:
5882:
5867:
5865:
5863:
5846:
5844:
5842:
5829:
5827:
5825:
5816:. Archived from
5804:
5803:
5801:
5762:
5760:
5758:
5753:
5743:
5717:
5708:
5680:
5671:
5643:
5630:
5621:
5601:
5592:
5564:
5555:
5546:
5513:
5512:
5511:
5505:
5499:, archived from
5490:
5480:
5460:
5451:
5442:
5433:
5424:
5392:
5372:
5344:
5335:
5322:
5313:
5295:
5274:
5263:
5252:Rickford, John;
5248:
5242:
5232:
5214:
5201:
5178:
5139:
5121:
5101:
5100:
5098:
5089:, archived from
5079:10.1038/386321a0
5046:
5037:
5025:
5002:
4971:
4962:
4944:
4921:
4912:
4884:
4864:
4855:
4837:
4828:
4816:
4807:
4779:
4770:
4761:
4752:
4743:
4734:
4706:
4688:
4677:
4666:
4657:
4648:
4620:
4592:
4579:
4531:
4511:
4475:
4466:
4456:, Random House,
4442:
4429:
4407:
4405:
4380:
4362:
4353:
4352:, pp. P.A11
4344:
4334:
4324:
4291:
4282:
4273:
4264:
4246:
4237:
4228:
4219:
4209:
4167:
4166:
4164:
4163:
4149:
4143:
4142:
4116:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4106:
4092:
4083:
4082:
4058:
4049:
4048:
4046:
4045:
4036:. Archived from
4025:
4016:
4015:
3987:
3981:
3980:
3974:
3966:
3964:
3963:
3948:
3942:
3941:
3929:
3923:
3917:
3911:
3910:
3902:
3893:
3887:
3881:
3875:
3869:
3863:
3857:
3851:
3845:
3839:
3833:
3827:
3821:
3815:
3809:
3808:
3788:
3782:
3781:
3779:
3778:
3769:. Archived from
3758:
3752:
3751:
3740:
3734:
3727:
3721:
3718:
3712:
3706:
3700:
3694:
3688:
3682:
3676:
3670:
3664:
3658:
3649:
3643:
3637:
3631:
3625:
3616:
3610:
3603:
3597:
3579:
3573:
3572:
3561:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3551:
3540:
3534:
3533:
3505:
3496:
3490:
3484:
3478:
3472:
3466:
3460:
3459:
3457:
3455:
3449:
3438:
3432:
3431:
3423:
3417:
3411:
3405:
3404:
3402:
3396:. Archived from
3363:
3354:
3343:
3342:
3324:
3318:
3317:
3307:
3301:
3300:
3288:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3263:
3257:
3238:
3232:
3231:
3221:
3215:
3204:
3198:
3192:
3186:
3185:
3183:
3182:
3168:
3162:
3153:
3144:
3138:
3132:
3126:
3120:
3105:
3099:
3093:
3087:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3054:
3048:
3042:
3036:
3030:
3024:
3018:
3012:
3006:
2997:
2991:
2985:
2979:
2973:
2972:, p. 65,66.
2967:
2961:
2955:
2949:
2943:
2937:
2934:McWhorter (2001)
2931:
2925:
2919:
2910:
2909:
2889:
2883:
2877:
2830:Sociolinguistics
2724:Standard English
2556:William Faulkner
2520:William Faulkner
2415:The Color Purple
2411:epistolary novel
2313:(the absence of
2180:Southern dialect
2135:standard English
2121:General American
1986:in this region,
1948:American English
1908:, also known as
1885:
1878:
1871:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1792:media depictions
1741:
1740:
1636:Population count
1332:
1331:
1266:Liberian English
1245:English dialects
1242:
1241:
1198:SamanĂĄ Americans
1123:Creoles of color
1069:
1068:
1007:
1006:
951:Black conductors
932:
931:
801:
800:
775:Louisiana Voodoo
697:
696:
442:Family structure
425:
424:
372:Military history
367:Business history
298:military history
253:
252:
226:
225:
203:
185:American Braille
179:English alphabet
167:
132:American English
86:
48:
47:
21:
9198:
9197:
9193:
9192:
9191:
9189:
9188:
9187:
9158:
9157:
9156:
9151:
9036:
8993:
8948:
8928:
8836:
8832:Solomon Islands
8801:
8745:
8727:
8659:
8650:New York Latino
8625:American Indian
8605:
8599:
8460:
8453:
8394:
8376:
8362:Channel Islands
8353:
8321:
8288:
8261:
8204:
8166:
8076:
8060:
8046:
8016:
8011:
8001:
7999:
7986:
7952:Historic places
7945:US state firsts
7831:
7746:
7470:
7403:
7375:2010 majorities
7370:2000 majorities
7341:
7288:Black Seminoles
7237:
7228:Southern (SIAC)
7211:
7210:and conferences
7209:
7202:
7198:Serena Williams
7193:Jackie Robinson
7127:
7051:
7049:
7042:
6962:
6929:Nation of Islam
6900:
6848:
6842:
6783:Sojourner Truth
6773:Clarence Thomas
6738:Gabriel Prosser
6638:Michael Jackson
6513:Crispus Attucks
6503:Ralph Abernathy
6491:
6447:Musical theater
6346:
6212:Great Migration
6184:COVID-19 impact
6142:Sit-in movement
6017:
6012:
5954:Wayback Machine
5943:
5930:
5928:
5919:Sidnell, Jack.
5880:
5878:
5861:
5859:
5840:
5838:
5823:
5821:
5820:on 14 June 2007
5799:
5797:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5741:
5725:
5723:Further reading
5720:
5619:
5570:American Speech
5509:
5507:
5503:
5488:
5390:
5311:
5293:
5272:
5240:
5230:
5160:10.2307/2714378
5137:
5119:
5096:
5094:
5093:on May 27, 2010
5023:
4960:
4942:
4934:, Basic Books,
4890:American Speech
4870:American Speech
4853:
4724:10.2307/2967298
4704:
4686:
4569:
4541:Kortmann, Bernd
4529:
4464:
4427:
4378:
4262:
4176:
4171:
4170:
4161:
4159:
4151:
4150:
4146:
4131:
4117:
4113:
4104:
4102:
4094:
4093:
4086:
4059:
4052:
4043:
4041:
4026:
4019:
3988:
3984:
3968:
3967:
3961:
3959:
3949:
3945:
3930:
3926:
3918:
3914:
3903:
3896:
3888:
3884:
3876:
3872:
3864:
3860:
3852:
3848:
3840:
3836:
3828:
3824:
3816:
3812:
3805:
3789:
3785:
3776:
3774:
3759:
3755:
3742:
3741:
3737:
3728:
3724:
3719:
3715:
3707:
3703:
3695:
3691:
3683:
3679:
3671:
3667:
3661:Rickford (1999)
3659:
3652:
3644:
3640:
3632:
3628:
3617:
3613:
3604:
3600:
3587:Holloway (1987)
3583:Holloway (1978)
3580:
3576:
3563:
3562:
3558:
3549:
3547:
3542:
3541:
3537:
3510:American Speech
3506:
3499:
3495:, pp. 347.
3493:Kautzsch (2004)
3491:
3487:
3481:Kautzsch (2004)
3479:
3475:
3469:Kautzsch (2004)
3467:
3463:
3453:
3451:
3447:
3439:
3435:
3424:
3420:
3412:
3408:
3400:
3361:
3355:
3346:
3339:
3325:
3321:
3313:Focus on Canada
3308:
3304:
3297:
3279:
3275:
3264:
3260:
3239:
3235:
3222:
3218:
3205:
3201:
3193:
3189:
3180:
3178:
3170:
3169:
3165:
3154:
3147:
3139:
3135:
3129:Rickford (2015)
3127:
3123:
3106:
3102:
3094:
3090:
3084:McWhorter (2001
3082:
3078:
3055:
3051:
3043:
3039:
3031:
3027:
3019:
3015:
3007:
3000:
2992:
2988:
2980:
2976:
2968:
2964:
2956:
2952:
2944:
2940:
2932:
2928:
2922:Kautzsch (2004)
2920:
2913:
2906:
2890:
2886:
2878:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2845:Jamaican Patois
2807:Gullah language
2756:
2744:
2736:Parisian French
2728:Canadian French
2699:
2693:
2603:
2501:In Ole Virginia
2450:Herman Melville
2440:Edgar Allan Poe
2430:Langston Hughes
2405:(1971), though
2374:
2351:
2302:British America
2294:
2221:
2211:for centuries.
2201:
2168:
2130:
2062:my mom's friend
2058:my momma friend
2054:she's my sister
2027:
2021:
2016:
1993:Great Migration
1968:
1962:for centuries.
1927:spoken by most
1889:
1841:
1839:
1832:
1831:
1826:
1782:
1738:
1730:
1729:
1724:
1669:
1631:
1607:Omaha, Nebraska
1572:Historic places
1566:
1458:
1329:
1321:
1320:
1315:
1280:
1239:
1231:
1230:
1225:
1207:
1159:
1101:Black Seminoles
1066:
1065:Sub-communities
1058:
1057:
1044:Southern (SIAC)
1004:
996:
995:
990:
945:
929:
921:
920:
915:
832:
798:
790:
789:
784:
770:Nation of Islam
736:
713:
694:
684:
683:
678:
619:
586:
553:
525:
486:
462:Musical theater
422:
412:
411:
393:Great Migration
250:
199:
189:
168:
163:
157:
87:
84:Language family
82:
46:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9196:
9186:
9185:
9180:
9175:
9170:
9153:
9152:
9150:
9149:
9144:
9139:
9134:
9129:
9124:
9119:
9114:
9109:
9108:
9107:
9102:
9094:
9092:Englishisation
9089:
9084:
9079:
9074:
9069:
9064:
9059:
9054:
9048:
9046:
9042:
9041:
9038:
9037:
9035:
9034:
9029:
9024:
9019:
9014:
9009:
9003:
9001:
8999:Southeast Asia
8995:
8994:
8992:
8991:
8986:
8981:
8976:
8975:
8974:
8964:
8958:
8956:
8950:
8949:
8947:
8946:
8940:
8934:
8930:
8929:
8927:
8926:
8921:
8916:
8914:South Atlantic
8911:
8910:
8909:
8904:
8894:
8889:
8884:
8879:
8874:
8869:
8864:
8859:
8854:
8848:
8846:
8842:
8841:
8838:
8837:
8835:
8834:
8829:
8824:
8823:
8822:
8812:
8806:
8803:
8802:
8800:
8799:
8794:
8789:
8784:
8779:
8778:
8777:
8766:
8764:
8755:
8751:
8750:
8747:
8746:
8744:
8743:
8738:
8732:
8729:
8728:
8726:
8725:
8720:
8715:
8710:
8705:
8704:
8703:
8696:Cayman Islands
8693:
8688:
8683:
8677:
8675:
8669:
8668:
8665:
8664:
8661:
8660:
8658:
8657:
8652:
8647:
8642:
8637:
8632:
8627:
8622:
8621:
8620:
8609:
8607:
8606:ethno-cultural
8601:
8600:
8598:
8597:
8592:
8591:
8590:
8585:
8575:
8574:
8573:
8568:
8563:
8558:
8553:
8543:
8542:
8541:
8531:
8530:
8529:
8524:
8514:
8513:
8512:
8502:
8501:
8500:
8495:
8490:
8485:
8475:
8469:
8463:
8455:
8454:
8452:
8451:
8446:
8441:
8436:
8431:
8430:
8429:
8424:
8414:
8408:
8406:
8397:
8386:
8382:
8381:
8378:
8377:
8375:
8374:
8369:
8364:
8358:
8355:
8354:
8352:
8351:
8346:
8341:
8335:
8333:
8327:
8326:
8323:
8322:
8320:
8319:
8314:
8309:
8304:
8298:
8296:
8290:
8289:
8287:
8286:
8281:
8275:
8273:
8267:
8266:
8263:
8262:
8260:
8259:
8258:
8257:
8252:
8242:
8237:
8236:
8235:
8230:
8220:
8214:
8212:
8206:
8205:
8203:
8202:
8201:
8200:
8198:Stoke-on-Trent
8195:
8190:
8180:
8174:
8172:
8168:
8167:
8165:
8164:
8159:
8158:
8157:
8152:
8147:
8142:
8132:
8127:
8122:
8117:
8116:
8115:
8105:
8099:
8097:
8088:
8079:
8068:
8062:
8061:
8057:Modern English
8045:
8044:
8037:
8030:
8022:
8013:
8012:
8010:
8009:
7997:
7991:
7988:
7987:
7985:
7984:
7979:
7974:
7969:
7964:
7959:
7954:
7949:
7948:
7947:
7942:
7937:
7927:
7926:
7925:
7920:
7918:Visual artists
7915:
7910:
7905:
7900:
7895:
7890:
7885:
7880:
7878:Mathematicians
7875:
7870:
7865:
7860:
7855:
7850:
7839:
7837:
7833:
7832:
7830:
7829:
7828:
7827:
7819:
7814:
7813:
7812:
7807:
7802:
7797:
7792:
7784:
7783:
7782:
7777:
7772:
7767:
7756:
7754:
7748:
7747:
7745:
7744:
7739:
7734:
7729:
7728:
7727:
7722:
7717:
7712:
7702:
7697:
7695:South Carolina
7692:
7687:
7686:
7685:
7677:
7672:
7667:
7665:North Carolina
7662:
7661:
7660:
7650:
7645:
7644:
7643:
7633:
7628:
7627:
7626:
7618:
7617:
7616:
7610:Massachusetts
7608:
7607:
7606:
7596:
7591:
7590:
7589:
7579:
7574:
7573:
7572:
7562:
7557:
7556:
7555:
7545:
7540:
7539:
7538:
7528:
7527:
7526:
7521:
7511:
7506:
7505:
7504:
7499:
7489:
7484:
7478:
7476:
7472:
7471:
7469:
7468:
7463:
7458:
7457:
7456:
7455:
7454:
7452:social context
7449:
7439:
7429:
7428:
7427:
7417:
7411:
7409:
7405:
7404:
7402:
7401:
7400:
7399:
7394:
7384:
7379:
7378:
7377:
7372:
7362:
7361:
7360:
7349:
7347:
7343:
7342:
7340:
7339:
7334:
7333:
7332:
7322:
7317:
7312:
7307:
7306:
7305:
7303:Creek Freedmen
7300:
7295:
7290:
7280:
7278:Alabama Creole
7275:
7274:
7273:
7268:
7263:
7258:
7249:
7247:
7243:
7242:
7239:
7238:
7236:
7235:
7230:
7225:
7220:
7218:Central (CIAA)
7214:
7212:
7207:
7204:
7203:
7201:
7200:
7195:
7190:
7185:
7180:
7175:
7170:
7165:
7160:
7155:
7150:
7145:
7139:
7133:
7129:
7128:
7126:
7125:
7120:
7115:
7110:
7105:
7100:
7095:
7090:
7085:
7080:
7075:
7070:
7065:
7060:
7054:
7052:
7047:
7044:
7043:
7041:
7040:
7035:
7034:
7033:
7023:
7018:
7013:
7011:Pan-Africanism
7008:
7003:
6998:
6993:
6992:
6991:
6981:
6976:
6970:
6968:
6964:
6963:
6961:
6960:
6955:
6953:Black theology
6950:
6945:
6944:
6943:
6933:
6932:
6931:
6926:
6916:
6910:
6908:
6902:
6901:
6899:
6898:
6897:
6896:
6894:in STEM fields
6891:
6886:
6878:
6873:
6868:
6863:
6858:
6852:
6850:
6849:and technology
6844:
6843:
6841:
6840:
6835:
6830:
6825:
6820:
6815:
6810:
6805:
6800:
6795:
6790:
6788:Harriet Tubman
6785:
6780:
6775:
6770:
6765:
6760:
6755:
6750:
6745:
6740:
6735:
6730:
6725:
6720:
6718:Michelle Obama
6715:
6710:
6705:
6700:
6695:
6690:
6685:
6680:
6675:
6670:
6665:
6660:
6655:
6650:
6648:Barbara Jordan
6645:
6643:Harriet Jacobs
6640:
6635:
6630:
6625:
6620:
6615:
6610:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6590:
6585:
6580:
6575:
6570:
6565:
6560:
6555:
6550:
6545:
6540:
6535:
6533:Amelia Boynton
6530:
6525:
6520:
6515:
6510:
6505:
6499:
6497:
6496:Notable people
6493:
6492:
6490:
6489:
6484:
6479:
6474:
6469:
6464:
6459:
6454:
6449:
6444:
6439:
6434:
6432:LGBT community
6429:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6413:
6412:
6402:
6397:
6392:
6387:
6382:
6377:
6372:
6367:
6362:
6356:
6354:
6348:
6347:
6345:
6344:
6339:
6334:
6329:
6328:
6327:
6317:
6312:
6307:
6302:
6297:
6292:
6284:
6279:
6272:
6265:
6260:
6255:
6250:
6245:
6240:
6231:
6226:
6225:
6224:
6219:
6209:
6204:
6199:
6194:
6186:
6181:
6176:
6175:
6174:
6169:
6164:
6159:
6154:
6149:
6147:Freedom Riders
6144:
6139:
6131:
6121:
6116:
6111:
6110:
6109:
6104:
6099:
6091:
6086:
6078:
6073:
6071:Black genocide
6068:
6063:
6058:
6053:
6048:
6043:
6038:
6033:
6027:
6025:
6019:
6018:
6011:
6010:
6003:
5996:
5988:
5982:
5981:
5976:
5971:
5966:
5961:
5956:
5942:
5941:External links
5939:
5938:
5937:
5916:
5905:(2): 107â128,
5887:
5868:
5847:
5830:
5805:
5781:(3): 667â675,
5763:
5744:
5739:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5718:
5709:
5692:(2): 108â121,
5681:
5672:
5655:(3): 311â357,
5644:
5631:
5622:
5617:
5602:
5593:
5582:10.2307/453562
5576:(4): 269â276,
5565:
5556:
5514:
5481:
5472:(4): 514â536,
5461:
5452:
5443:
5434:
5425:
5414:10.2307/413960
5408:(4): 850â872,
5393:
5388:
5373:
5362:10.2307/358856
5356:(3): 349â376,
5345:
5336:
5323:
5314:
5309:
5296:
5291:
5275:
5270:
5249:
5233:
5228:
5215:
5202:
5193:(3): 315â336,
5183:Rickford, John
5179:
5154:(3): 247â258,
5140:
5135:
5122:
5117:
5102:
5047:
5038:
5030:Poplack, Shana
5026:
5021:
5007:Pinker, Steven
5003:
4986:(2): 147â184,
4972:
4963:
4958:
4945:
4940:
4922:
4913:
4902:10.2307/455582
4896:(4): 339â367,
4885:
4876:(4): 369â388,
4865:
4856:
4851:
4838:
4829:
4821:Labov, William
4817:
4808:
4791:(4): 305â330,
4780:
4771:
4762:
4753:
4744:
4735:
4718:(4): 602â619,
4707:
4703:978-0671418144
4702:
4689:
4684:
4667:
4665:, pp. A10
4663:New York Times
4658:
4649:
4632:(3): 223â237,
4621:
4593:
4580:
4567:
4532:
4527:
4512:
4487:(3): 329â346,
4476:
4467:
4462:
4449:
4443:
4430:
4425:
4408:
4381:
4376:
4363:
4354:
4345:
4307:(12): e28248.
4292:
4283:
4274:
4265:
4260:
4247:
4238:
4229:
4220:
4210:
4181:
4180:
4179:
4175:
4172:
4169:
4168:
4144:
4129:
4111:
4084:
4050:
4017:
3998:(2): 112â118.
3982:
3943:
3924:
3912:
3894:
3882:
3880:, p. 202.
3870:
3858:
3856:, p. 196.
3846:
3834:
3822:
3820:, p. 238.
3810:
3803:
3783:
3753:
3735:
3722:
3713:
3701:
3689:
3677:
3665:
3650:
3638:
3636:, p. 269.
3626:
3623:Dillard (1992)
3621::166), citing
3611:
3598:
3574:
3556:
3535:
3522:10.2307/455608
3497:
3485:
3473:
3461:
3433:
3418:
3416:, p. 110.
3406:
3403:on 2019-02-23.
3372:(3): 301â339.
3344:
3337:
3319:
3302:
3296:978-0802081919
3295:
3273:
3258:
3246:Sonja Lanehart
3233:
3216:
3199:
3187:
3163:
3145:
3133:
3121:
3109:Sonja Lanehart
3100:
3088:
3076:
3049:
3037:
3025:
3013:
2998:
2986:
2974:
2962:
2950:
2938:
2926:
2924:, p. 341.
2911:
2904:
2884:
2882:, p. 383.
2880:Edwards (2004)
2866:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2840:SamanĂĄ English
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2783:
2778:
2776:Code-switching
2773:
2768:
2763:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2743:
2740:
2720:John McWhorter
2695:Main article:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2679:
2671:
2663:
2655:
2647:
2639:
2631:
2623:
2602:
2599:
2590:
2589:
2577:
2565:
2561:Go Down, Moses
2553:
2541:
2529:
2517:
2505:
2493:
2481:
2480:stories (1880)
2471:
2459:
2447:
2373:
2370:
2358:English creole
2350:
2347:
2323:she gon' leave
2293:
2290:
2275:SamanĂĄ English
2220:
2217:
2200:
2197:
2167:
2164:
2129:
2126:
2090:metathetic use
2084:(dropping the
2023:Main article:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
1967:
1964:
1960:oral tradition
1891:
1890:
1888:
1887:
1880:
1873:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1834:
1833:
1828:
1827:
1825:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1753:Black genocide
1749:
1746:
1745:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1726:
1725:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1681:
1678:
1677:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1667:
1662:
1660:US communities
1657:
1652:
1647:
1641:
1638:
1637:
1633:
1632:
1630:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1617:South Carolina
1614:
1612:North Carolina
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1565:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
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1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
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1484:
1479:
1474:
1468:
1465:
1464:
1460:
1459:
1457:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1434:South Carolina
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1414:North Carolina
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1340:
1337:
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1330:
1327:
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1308:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1290:
1287:
1286:
1282:
1281:
1279:
1278:
1273:
1271:SamanĂĄ English
1268:
1263:
1262:
1261:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1233:
1232:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1221:LGBT community
1217:
1214:
1213:
1209:
1208:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1178:Creek Freedmen
1175:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1157:
1152:
1151:
1150:
1148:Carmel Indians
1140:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1103:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1077:
1074:
1073:
1067:
1064:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1029:Central (CIAA)
1023:
1022:
1018:
1017:
1016:
1015:
1005:
1002:
1001:
998:
997:
992:
991:
989:
988:
983:
978:
973:
968:
963:
958:
953:
948:
940:
937:
936:
930:
927:
926:
923:
922:
917:
916:
914:
913:
908:
903:
898:
896:Pan-Africanism
893:
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
863:
858:
853:
848:
842:
839:
838:
834:
833:
831:
830:
825:
820:
815:
809:
806:
805:
799:
796:
795:
792:
791:
786:
785:
783:
782:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
752:
746:
743:
742:
738:
737:
735:
734:
729:
727:Black theology
723:
720:
719:
715:
714:
712:
711:
705:
702:
701:
695:
690:
689:
686:
685:
680:
679:
677:
676:
671:
664:
659:
658:
657:
647:
642:
641:
640:
629:
626:
625:
621:
620:
618:
617:
612:
607:
602:
596:
593:
592:
591:Economic class
588:
587:
585:
584:
579:
574:
569:
563:
560:
559:
555:
554:
552:
551:
546:
541:
535:
532:
531:
530:Academic study
527:
526:
524:
523:
518:
513:
507:
502:
496:
493:
492:
488:
487:
485:
484:
479:
474:
469:
464:
459:
454:
449:
444:
439:
433:
430:
429:
423:
418:
417:
414:
413:
408:
407:
406:
405:
400:
395:
387:
386:
382:
381:
380:
379:
374:
369:
364:
359:
351:
350:
346:
345:
344:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
312:
311:
301:
291:
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
258:
257:
251:
246:
245:
242:
241:
235:
234:
222:
221:
216:
208:
207:
204:
196:
195:
194:Language codes
191:
190:
188:
187:
182:
171:
169:
165:Writing system
162:
159:
158:
156:
155:
154:
153:
152:
151:
150:
149:
148:
147:
146:
145:
144:
143:
142:
141:
140:
139:
90:
88:
81:
78:
77:
72:
68:
67:
62:
58:
57:
53:
52:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9195:
9184:
9181:
9179:
9176:
9174:
9171:
9169:
9166:
9165:
9163:
9148:
9145:
9143:
9140:
9138:
9135:
9133:
9130:
9128:
9125:
9123:
9120:
9118:
9115:
9113:
9112:International
9110:
9106:
9103:
9101:
9098:
9097:
9095:
9093:
9090:
9088:
9085:
9083:
9080:
9078:
9075:
9073:
9070:
9068:
9065:
9063:
9060:
9058:
9055:
9053:
9050:
9049:
9047:
9043:
9033:
9030:
9028:
9025:
9023:
9020:
9018:
9015:
9013:
9010:
9008:
9005:
9004:
9002:
9000:
8996:
8990:
8987:
8985:
8982:
8980:
8977:
8973:
8970:
8969:
8968:
8965:
8963:
8960:
8959:
8957:
8955:
8951:
8945:
8942:
8941:
8938:
8935:
8931:
8925:
8922:
8920:
8917:
8915:
8912:
8908:
8905:
8903:
8900:
8899:
8898:
8895:
8893:
8890:
8888:
8885:
8883:
8880:
8878:
8875:
8873:
8870:
8868:
8865:
8863:
8860:
8858:
8855:
8853:
8850:
8849:
8847:
8843:
8833:
8830:
8828:
8825:
8821:
8818:
8817:
8816:
8813:
8811:
8808:
8807:
8804:
8798:
8795:
8793:
8792:Torres Strait
8790:
8788:
8785:
8783:
8780:
8776:
8773:
8772:
8771:
8768:
8767:
8765:
8763:
8759:
8756:
8752:
8742:
8739:
8737:
8734:
8733:
8730:
8724:
8721:
8719:
8716:
8714:
8711:
8709:
8706:
8702:
8699:
8698:
8697:
8694:
8692:
8689:
8687:
8684:
8682:
8679:
8678:
8676:
8674:
8670:
8656:
8653:
8651:
8648:
8646:
8643:
8641:
8638:
8636:
8633:
8631:
8628:
8626:
8623:
8619:
8616:
8615:
8614:
8611:
8610:
8608:
8602:
8596:
8593:
8589:
8586:
8584:
8581:
8580:
8579:
8576:
8572:
8569:
8567:
8564:
8562:
8559:
8557:
8554:
8552:
8549:
8548:
8547:
8544:
8540:
8537:
8536:
8535:
8532:
8528:
8527:North-Central
8525:
8523:
8520:
8519:
8518:
8515:
8511:
8508:
8507:
8506:
8505:New York City
8503:
8499:
8496:
8494:
8491:
8489:
8486:
8484:
8481:
8480:
8479:
8476:
8474:
8471:
8470:
8467:
8464:
8462:
8456:
8450:
8447:
8445:
8442:
8440:
8439:Ottawa Valley
8437:
8435:
8432:
8428:
8425:
8423:
8420:
8419:
8418:
8415:
8413:
8410:
8409:
8407:
8405:
8401:
8398:
8396:
8390:
8387:
8383:
8373:
8370:
8368:
8365:
8363:
8360:
8359:
8356:
8350:
8347:
8345:
8342:
8340:
8337:
8336:
8334:
8332:
8328:
8318:
8315:
8313:
8310:
8308:
8305:
8303:
8300:
8299:
8297:
8295:
8291:
8285:
8282:
8280:
8277:
8276:
8274:
8272:
8268:
8256:
8253:
8251:
8248:
8247:
8246:
8243:
8241:
8238:
8234:
8233:Multicultural
8231:
8229:
8226:
8225:
8224:
8221:
8219:
8216:
8215:
8213:
8211:
8207:
8199:
8196:
8194:
8193:Black Country
8191:
8189:
8186:
8185:
8184:
8183:West Midlands
8181:
8179:
8178:East Midlands
8176:
8175:
8173:
8169:
8163:
8160:
8156:
8153:
8151:
8148:
8146:
8143:
8141:
8138:
8137:
8136:
8133:
8131:
8128:
8126:
8123:
8121:
8118:
8114:
8111:
8110:
8109:
8106:
8104:
8101:
8100:
8098:
8096:
8092:
8089:
8087:
8083:
8080:
8078:
8072:
8069:
8067:
8063:
8058:
8054:
8050:
8043:
8038:
8036:
8031:
8029:
8024:
8023:
8020:
8008:
7998:
7996:
7993:
7992:
7989:
7983:
7980:
7978:
7977:Neighborhoods
7975:
7973:
7970:
7968:
7965:
7963:
7960:
7958:
7955:
7953:
7950:
7946:
7943:
7941:
7940:Sports firsts
7938:
7936:
7933:
7932:
7931:
7928:
7924:
7921:
7919:
7916:
7914:
7911:
7909:
7906:
7904:
7901:
7899:
7896:
7894:
7891:
7889:
7886:
7884:
7881:
7879:
7876:
7874:
7871:
7869:
7866:
7864:
7861:
7859:
7856:
7854:
7851:
7849:
7846:
7845:
7844:
7841:
7840:
7838:
7834:
7826:
7823:
7822:
7820:
7818:
7815:
7811:
7808:
7806:
7803:
7801:
7798:
7796:
7793:
7791:
7788:
7787:
7785:
7781:
7778:
7776:
7773:
7771:
7768:
7766:
7763:
7762:
7761:
7758:
7757:
7755:
7753:
7749:
7743:
7742:West Virginia
7740:
7738:
7735:
7733:
7730:
7726:
7723:
7721:
7718:
7716:
7713:
7711:
7708:
7707:
7706:
7703:
7701:
7698:
7696:
7693:
7691:
7688:
7684:
7681:
7680:
7679:Pennsylvania
7678:
7676:
7673:
7671:
7668:
7666:
7663:
7659:
7658:New York City
7656:
7655:
7654:
7651:
7649:
7646:
7642:
7639:
7638:
7637:
7634:
7632:
7629:
7625:
7622:
7621:
7619:
7615:
7612:
7611:
7609:
7605:
7602:
7601:
7600:
7597:
7595:
7592:
7588:
7585:
7584:
7583:
7580:
7578:
7575:
7571:
7568:
7567:
7566:
7563:
7561:
7558:
7554:
7551:
7550:
7549:
7546:
7544:
7541:
7537:
7534:
7533:
7532:
7529:
7525:
7522:
7520:
7517:
7516:
7515:
7512:
7510:
7507:
7503:
7502:San Francisco
7500:
7498:
7495:
7494:
7493:
7490:
7488:
7485:
7483:
7480:
7479:
7477:
7475:By state/city
7473:
7467:
7464:
7462:
7459:
7453:
7450:
7448:
7445:
7444:
7443:
7440:
7438:
7435:
7434:
7433:
7430:
7426:
7423:
7422:
7421:
7420:American Sign
7418:
7416:
7413:
7412:
7410:
7406:
7398:
7395:
7393:
7390:
7389:
7388:
7385:
7383:
7380:
7376:
7373:
7371:
7368:
7367:
7366:
7363:
7359:
7356:
7355:
7354:
7353:Neighborhoods
7351:
7350:
7348:
7344:
7338:
7335:
7331:
7328:
7327:
7326:
7323:
7321:
7318:
7316:
7313:
7311:
7308:
7304:
7301:
7299:
7296:
7294:
7291:
7289:
7286:
7285:
7284:
7283:Black Indians
7281:
7279:
7276:
7272:
7269:
7267:
7264:
7262:
7259:
7257:
7254:
7253:
7251:
7250:
7248:
7244:
7234:
7231:
7229:
7226:
7224:
7221:
7219:
7216:
7215:
7213:
7205:
7199:
7196:
7194:
7191:
7189:
7186:
7184:
7181:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7169:
7166:
7164:
7161:
7159:
7156:
7154:
7151:
7149:
7146:
7144:
7141:
7140:
7137:
7134:
7130:
7124:
7121:
7119:
7116:
7114:
7111:
7109:
7106:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7074:
7071:
7069:
7066:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7055:
7053:
7045:
7039:
7036:
7032:
7029:
7028:
7027:
7024:
7022:
7019:
7017:
7014:
7012:
7009:
7007:
7004:
7002:
6999:
6997:
6994:
6990:
6987:
6986:
6985:
6982:
6980:
6977:
6975:
6972:
6971:
6969:
6965:
6959:
6956:
6954:
6951:
6949:
6946:
6942:
6939:
6938:
6937:
6934:
6930:
6927:
6925:
6922:
6921:
6920:
6917:
6915:
6912:
6911:
6909:
6907:
6903:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6881:
6879:
6877:
6874:
6872:
6869:
6867:
6864:
6862:
6861:Black schools
6859:
6857:
6856:Black studies
6854:
6853:
6851:
6845:
6839:
6838:Whitney Young
6836:
6834:
6831:
6829:
6828:Oprah Winfrey
6826:
6824:
6821:
6819:
6816:
6814:
6811:
6809:
6806:
6804:
6801:
6799:
6798:Denmark Vesey
6796:
6794:
6791:
6789:
6786:
6784:
6781:
6779:
6776:
6774:
6771:
6769:
6766:
6764:
6761:
6759:
6756:
6754:
6751:
6749:
6746:
6744:
6743:Joseph Rainey
6741:
6739:
6736:
6734:
6731:
6729:
6726:
6724:
6721:
6719:
6716:
6714:
6711:
6709:
6706:
6704:
6701:
6699:
6698:Toni Morrison
6696:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6686:
6684:
6683:Joseph Lowery
6681:
6679:
6676:
6674:
6671:
6669:
6666:
6664:
6661:
6659:
6656:
6654:
6651:
6649:
6646:
6644:
6641:
6639:
6636:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6628:Jesse Jackson
6626:
6624:
6621:
6619:
6618:Kamala Harris
6616:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6606:
6604:
6603:Marcus Garvey
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6584:
6581:
6579:
6576:
6574:
6571:
6569:
6566:
6564:
6561:
6559:
6556:
6554:
6553:Blanche Bruce
6551:
6549:
6548:Edward Brooke
6546:
6544:
6541:
6539:
6538:James Bradley
6536:
6534:
6531:
6529:
6526:
6524:
6521:
6519:
6518:James Baldwin
6516:
6514:
6511:
6509:
6506:
6504:
6501:
6500:
6498:
6494:
6488:
6485:
6483:
6480:
6478:
6475:
6473:
6470:
6468:
6465:
6463:
6462:Neighborhoods
6460:
6458:
6455:
6453:
6450:
6448:
6445:
6443:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6411:
6408:
6407:
6406:
6403:
6401:
6398:
6396:
6393:
6391:
6388:
6386:
6383:
6381:
6378:
6376:
6373:
6371:
6368:
6366:
6363:
6361:
6358:
6357:
6355:
6353:
6349:
6343:
6340:
6338:
6335:
6333:
6330:
6326:
6323:
6322:
6321:
6318:
6316:
6315:Silent Parade
6313:
6311:
6308:
6306:
6303:
6301:
6298:
6296:
6293:
6290:
6289:
6285:
6283:
6280:
6278:
6277:
6273:
6271:
6270:
6266:
6264:
6261:
6259:
6256:
6254:
6251:
6249:
6246:
6244:
6243:Jim Crow laws
6241:
6239:
6235:
6232:
6230:
6227:
6223:
6220:
6218:
6215:
6214:
6213:
6210:
6208:
6205:
6203:
6200:
6198:
6195:
6192:
6191:
6187:
6185:
6182:
6180:
6177:
6173:
6170:
6168:
6165:
6163:
6160:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6148:
6145:
6143:
6140:
6137:
6136:
6132:
6130:
6127:
6126:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6115:
6112:
6108:
6105:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6095:
6094:
6092:
6090:
6087:
6084:
6083:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6072:
6069:
6067:
6066:Black cowboys
6064:
6062:
6059:
6057:
6054:
6052:
6049:
6047:
6044:
6042:
6039:
6037:
6034:
6032:
6029:
6028:
6026:
6024:
6020:
6016:
6009:
6004:
6002:
5997:
5995:
5990:
5989:
5986:
5980:
5977:
5975:
5972:
5970:
5967:
5965:
5962:
5960:
5957:
5955:
5951:
5948:
5945:
5944:
5926:
5922:
5917:
5913:
5908:
5904:
5900:
5896:
5892:
5888:
5877:
5873:
5869:
5857:
5853:
5848:
5836:
5831:
5819:
5815:
5811:
5806:
5796:
5792:
5788:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5772:
5768:
5764:
5750:
5745:
5742:
5736:
5732:
5727:
5726:
5715:
5710:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5691:
5687:
5682:
5678:
5673:
5670:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5645:
5641:
5637:
5632:
5628:
5623:
5620:
5618:9780275962456
5614:
5610:
5609:
5603:
5599:
5594:
5591:
5587:
5583:
5579:
5575:
5571:
5566:
5562:
5557:
5554:
5550:
5545:
5540:
5536:
5532:
5531:Moderna SprÄk
5528:
5526:
5522:
5515:
5506:on 2014-12-22
5502:
5498:
5494:
5487:
5482:
5479:
5475:
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5225:
5222:, Blackwell,
5221:
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5018:
5014:
5013:
5008:
5004:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4976:Ogbu, John U.
4973:
4969:
4964:
4961:
4955:
4951:
4946:
4943:
4941:9780738204468
4937:
4933:
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4578:
4574:
4570:
4568:9783110175325
4564:
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4528:9783110175325
4524:
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4465:
4459:
4455:
4450:
4447:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4431:
4428:
4422:
4418:
4417:Codeswitching
4414:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4395:
4391:
4387:
4382:
4379:
4373:
4369:
4364:
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4280:
4275:
4271:
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4257:
4253:
4248:
4244:
4239:
4235:
4230:
4226:
4221:
4217:
4211:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4183:
4182:
4178:
4177:
4158:
4154:
4148:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4130:9781942658207
4126:
4122:
4115:
4101:
4097:
4091:
4089:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4057:
4055:
4040:on 2018-03-15
4039:
4035:
4031:
4024:
4022:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3986:
3978:
3972:
3958:
3954:
3947:
3939:
3935:
3928:
3921:
3916:
3908:
3901:
3899:
3891:
3886:
3879:
3874:
3867:
3862:
3855:
3850:
3844:, p. 23.
3843:
3838:
3831:
3826:
3819:
3814:
3806:
3804:9780679446262
3800:
3796:
3795:
3787:
3773:on 2010-06-14
3772:
3768:
3764:
3757:
3749:
3745:
3739:
3732:
3726:
3717:
3711:, p. 28.
3710:
3705:
3699:, p. 22.
3698:
3693:
3687:, p. 21.
3686:
3681:
3675:, p. 19.
3674:
3669:
3663:, p. ??.
3662:
3657:
3655:
3648:, p. 13.
3647:
3642:
3635:
3634:Walser (1955)
3630:
3624:
3620:
3615:
3608:
3602:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3581:For example,
3578:
3570:
3566:
3560:
3545:
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3527:
3523:
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3515:
3511:
3504:
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3465:
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3429:
3422:
3415:
3410:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3360:
3353:
3351:
3349:
3340:
3338:9780415117333
3334:
3330:
3323:
3315:
3314:
3306:
3298:
3292:
3287:
3286:
3277:
3269:
3262:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3237:
3229:
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3213:
3209:
3203:
3196:
3191:
3177:
3173:
3167:
3161:
3157:
3152:
3150:
3142:
3141:Spears (2015)
3137:
3130:
3125:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3104:
3097:
3092:
3085:
3080:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3053:
3046:
3041:
3034:
3029:
3022:
3021:Fickett (1972
3017:
3010:
3005:
3003:
2995:
2990:
2984:, p. 82.
2983:
2982:Bailey (2001)
2978:
2971:
2970:Bailey (2001)
2966:
2960:, p. 80.
2959:
2958:Bailey (2001)
2954:
2948:, p. 55.
2947:
2946:Bailey (2001)
2942:
2935:
2930:
2923:
2918:
2916:
2907:
2901:
2898:. Routledge.
2897:
2896:
2888:
2881:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2867:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2850:Texan English
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2758:
2751:
2749:
2748:Hip hop music
2739:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2716:
2712:
2709:
2705:
2698:
2685:
2684:
2680:
2677:
2676:
2672:
2669:
2668:
2664:
2661:
2660:
2656:
2653:
2652:
2651:Laurel Avenue
2648:
2645:
2644:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2624:
2621:
2620:Amos 'n' Andy
2618:
2617:
2616:
2612:
2610:
2609:
2598:
2596:
2587:
2586:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2574:
2569:
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2557:
2554:
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2468:
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2457:
2456:
2451:
2448:
2445:
2441:
2438:
2437:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2422:'s 1959 play
2421:
2417:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2403:His Own Where
2400:
2396:
2392:
2391:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2372:In literature
2369:
2365:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2346:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2327:the three man
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2303:
2299:
2289:
2287:
2282:
2278:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2266:
2265:North Preston
2262:
2258:
2254:
2253:Desegregation
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2229:United States
2226:
2216:
2212:
2210:
2206:
2196:
2192:
2190:
2186:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2136:
2125:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2082:non-rhoticity
2079:
2075:
2074:I been runnin
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2050:she my sister
2047:
2046:"zero" copula
2043:
2040:
2036:
2035:working-class
2032:
2026:
2011:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1933:United States
1930:
1926:
1922:
1919:
1915:
1914:Black English
1911:
1907:
1906:
1901:
1897:
1886:
1881:
1879:
1874:
1872:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1838:
1837:
1836:
1835:
1823:
1822:Minstrel show
1820:
1818:
1817:Magical Negro
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
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1640:
1639:
1635:
1634:
1628:
1627:West Virginia
1625:
1623:
1620:
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1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
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1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1579:
1577:
1576:
1573:
1570:
1569:
1563:
1562:San Francisco
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1542:New York City
1540:
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1234:
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1219:
1218:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1210:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1193:Nova Scotians
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1170:
1168:
1167:
1163:
1162:
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1153:
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1145:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1096:Black Indians
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1070:
1062:
1061:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1034:HBCU (HBCUAC)
1032:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1009:
1008:
1000:
999:
987:
984:
982:
979:
977:
974:
972:
969:
967:
964:
962:
959:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
942:
941:
939:
938:
935:Organizations
934:
933:
925:
924:
912:
909:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
887:
884:
882:
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
857:
854:
852:
849:
847:
844:
843:
841:
840:
836:
835:
829:
826:
824:
821:
819:
816:
814:
811:
810:
808:
807:
804:Organizations
803:
802:
794:
793:
781:
778:
776:
773:
771:
768:
766:
763:
761:
758:
756:
753:
751:
748:
747:
745:
744:
740:
739:
733:
730:
728:
725:
724:
722:
721:
717:
716:
710:
707:
706:
704:
703:
699:
698:
693:
688:
687:
675:
672:
669:
665:
663:
660:
656:
653:
652:
651:
648:
646:
643:
639:
636:
635:
634:
631:
630:
628:
627:
623:
622:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
598:
597:
595:
594:
590:
589:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
564:
562:
561:
557:
556:
550:
547:
545:
542:
540:
537:
536:
534:
533:
529:
528:
522:
519:
517:
514:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
497:
495:
494:
490:
489:
483:
480:
478:
475:
473:
472:Neighborhoods
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
434:
432:
431:
427:
426:
421:
416:
415:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
390:
389:
388:
384:
383:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
360:
358:
355:
354:
353:
352:
348:
347:
342:
339:
337:
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
310:
307:
306:
305:
302:
299:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
261:
260:
259:
255:
254:
249:
244:
243:
240:
237:
236:
232:
228:
227:
220:
217:
215:
214:
209:
205:
202:
197:
192:
186:
183:
180:
176:
173:
172:
170:
166:
160:
138:
135:
134:
133:
130:
129:
128:
125:
124:
123:
120:
119:
118:
115:
114:
113:
112:AngloâFrisian
110:
109:
108:
105:
104:
103:
102:West Germanic
100:
99:
98:
95:
94:
93:
92:Indo-European
89:
85:
79:
76:
73:
69:
66:
65:United States
63:
59:
56:Black English
54:
49:
44:
37:
33:
19:
8897:South Africa
8892:Sierra Leone
8645:Miami Latino
8612:
8534:Philadelphia
8522:Inland North
8427:Newfoundland
8245:West Country
8059:by continent
7893:Sportspeople
7863:Billionaires
7780:Sierra Leone
7683:Philadelphia
7519:Jacksonville
7441:
7346:Demographics
7178:Jack Johnson
7168:Muhammad Ali
7001:Conservatism
6936:Black church
6833:Andrew Young
6818:Ida B. Wells
6808:David Walker
6803:C. T. Vivian
6758:Paul Robeson
6753:Hiram Revels
6733:Colin Powell
6713:Barack Obama
6668:James Lawson
6623:Jimi Hendrix
6593:James Farmer
6588:Medgar Evers
6558:Ralph Bunche
6508:Maya Angelou
6482:Middle class
6360:Afrofuturism
6286:
6274:
6267:
6188:
6133:
6080:
6046:Afrocentrism
6036:Abolitionism
5929:. Retrieved
5925:the original
5902:
5898:
5879:. Retrieved
5860:. Retrieved
5855:
5839:. Retrieved
5822:. Retrieved
5818:the original
5813:
5798:, retrieved
5778:
5774:
5755:. Retrieved
5730:
5713:
5689:
5685:
5676:
5652:
5648:
5639:
5635:
5626:
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4042:. Retrieved
4038:the original
4034:www.ascd.org
4033:
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3991:
3985:
3960:. Retrieved
3956:
3946:
3938:dialect blog
3937:
3927:
3915:
3906:
3890:Green (2002)
3885:
3878:Green (2002)
3873:
3866:Green (2002)
3861:
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3825:
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3771:the original
3766:
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3748:virginia.edu
3747:
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3591:Baker (1984)
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3559:
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3546:. 2014-03-28
3538:
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3513:
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3369:
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3267:
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3190:
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3175:
3166:
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3124:
3116:
3103:
3096:Linnes (1998
3091:
3079:
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3040:
3028:
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2977:
2965:
2953:
2941:
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2894:
2887:
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2732:Swiss French
2717:
2713:
2700:
2691:In education
2682:
2673:
2667:The Best Man
2665:
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2643:Jungle Fever
2641:
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2606:
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2508:Thomas Dixon
2499:
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2465:
2453:
2444:The Gold-Bug
2434:
2423:
2413:
2407:Alice Walker
2402:
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2382:Brasch (1981
2375:
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2342:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2295:
2286:(r)-deletion
2283:
2279:
2269:
2231:who live in
2222:
2213:
2202:
2193:
2184:
2169:
2159:
2155:
2140:bi-dialectal
2131:
2117:front vowels
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2085:
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2070:I be running
2069:
2065:
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2039:middle-class
2028:
1997:
1969:
1935:and many in
1929:Black people
1913:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1894:
1720:Sierra Leone
1552:Philadelphia
1522:Jacksonville
1253:
1118:Brass Ankles
871:Conservatism
846:Afrocentrism
818:Joint Center
709:Black church
700:Institutions
615:Billionaires
605:Middle class
558:Celebrations
521:Fraternities
218:
211:
136:
9022:Philippines
8815:New Zealand
8701:Bay Islands
8681:The Bahamas
8604:Social and
8561:New Orleans
8478:New England
8372:Isle of Man
8317:Port Talbot
8218:East Anglia
8135:Northumbria
7913:US senators
7883:Republicans
7868:Journalists
7725:San Antonio
7690:Puerto Rico
7631:Mississippi
7524:Tallahassee
7497:Los Angeles
7188:Jesse Owens
7173:Arthur Ashe
7031:Nationalism
7021:Raised fist
6984:Black power
6889:in medicine
6823:Roy Wilkins
6778:Emmett Till
6763:Al Sharpton
6528:Julian Bond
6523:James Bevel
6487:Upper class
6477:Stereotypes
6370:Black mecca
6282:Plantations
6061:Black Codes
5636:CLA Journal
5600:, Blackwell
5045:, Blackwell
5036:, Blackwell
4585:CLA Journal
4396:(1): 9â22.
4361:, Cambridge
4193:: 410â437,
3619:Green (2002
3607:Green (2002
3065:: 450â475.
3045:Labov (1972
3033:Baugh (2000
3009:Green (2002
2994:Labov (1972
2812:Habitual be
2771:Africanisms
2678:(2002â2008)
2638:(1990â1996)
2595:eye dialect
2478:Uncle Remus
2470:(1851â1852)
2399:June Jordan
2311:zero copula
2233:Nova Scotia
2205:Outer Banks
2176:Appalachian
2113:chain shift
2096:instead of
2060:instead of
2052:instead of
1921:linguistics
1788:Stereotypes
1715:Nova Scotia
1597:Mississippi
1557:San Antonio
1537:Los Angeles
1472:Black mecca
1399:Mississippi
1306:Negro Dutch
1128:Dominickers
1072:Multiethnic
981:TransAfrica
891:Nationalism
861:Black power
645:Black pride
610:Upper class
309:Politicians
9162:Categories
8962:Bangladesh
8954:South Asia
8907:Cape Flats
8857:The Gambia
8782:Aboriginal
8618:vernacular
8583:California
8556:High Tider
8551:Appalachia
8412:Aboriginal
8344:South-West
8188:Birmingham
8145:Sunderland
8130:Manchester
8120:Lancashire
7858:Astronauts
7648:New Jersey
7492:California
6996:Capitalism
6793:Nat Turner
6723:Rosa Parks
6708:Diane Nash
6678:John Lewis
6467:Newspapers
6437:Literature
6422:Juneteenth
6375:Businesses
6229:Exodusters
6197:Free Negro
5561:On Dialect
5510:2017-03-11
5097:August 27,
4390:Pragmatics
4174:References
4162:2023-12-07
4105:2018-04-29
4044:2018-04-01
3962:2024-02-05
3777:2023-12-07
3550:2023-12-07
3250:Lisa Green
3181:2018-04-01
3158:, p.
3156:Green 2002
3113:Lisa Green
2484:Mark Twain
2333:, or even
2189:Appalachia
2144:codeswitch
2078:I done ran
1943:to a more
1925:sociolects
1912:or simply
1354:California
1328:Population
901:Patriotism
886:Liberalism
866:Capitalism
837:Ideologies
718:Theologies
577:Juneteenth
549:Literature
477:Newspapers
385:Migrations
316:Juneteenth
9027:Singapore
8989:Sri Lanka
8944:Hong Kong
8770:variation
8762:Australia
8673:Caribbean
8539:Baltimore
8422:Lunenburg
8367:Gibraltar
8284:Highlands
8162:Yorkshire
8125:Liverpool
7972:Monuments
7848:Activists
7700:Tennessee
7620:Michigan
7604:Baltimore
7594:Louisiana
7587:Lexington
7570:Davenport
7509:Cleveland
7408:Languages
7337:Melungeon
7315:Blaxicans
7183:Joe Louis
7038:Socialism
6974:Anarchism
6703:Bob Moses
6688:Malcolm X
6608:Fred Gray
6472:Soul food
6410:New Negro
6395:Folktales
6305:Redlining
5947:AAL Facts
5795:169316918
5757:8 October
5706:144554543
5669:143664421
5642:: 420â433
5553:143111483
5537:: 15â42,
5334:: 109â116
5176:150204787
5000:220339794
4805:145527700
4646:145278111
4618:145716303
4577:240729342
4509:145456540
4207:146535428
4139:945949085
4079:2164-6406
4012:145682254
3605:cited in
3386:1469-8021
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3086::146â147)
3011::119â121)
2862:Citations
2820:-leveling
2683:Moonlight
2455:Moby-Dick
2066:I'm a-run
2037:and many
1952:registers
1812:Hollywood
1802:Blackface
1737:Prejudice
1655:US cities
1532:Lexington
1507:Davenport
1487:Baltimore
1463:US cities
1439:Tennessee
1389:Louisiana
1335:US states
1143:Melungeon
1113:Blaxicans
911:Socialism
876:Garveyism
851:Anarchism
655:Good hair
482:Soul food
452:Folktales
213:Glottolog
201:ISO 639-3
71:Ethnicity
9147:Standard
9117:Learning
9105:NerriĂšre
9096:Globish
9012:Malaysia
8984:Pakistan
8924:Zimbabwe
8852:Cameroon
8686:Barbados
8417:Atlantic
8385:Americas
8302:Abercraf
8271:Scotland
8250:Cornwall
8171:Midlands
8155:Teesside
8150:Tyneside
8140:Pitmatic
8103:Cheshire
8049:Dialects
7995:Category
7786:America
7752:Diaspora
7737:Virginia
7670:Oklahoma
7653:New York
7636:Nebraska
7599:Maryland
7582:Kentucky
7548:Illinois
7487:Arkansas
7392:Illinois
7330:of color
7016:Populism
6989:Movement
6906:Religion
6248:Lynching
6031:Timeline
5950:Archived
5769:(1997),
5525:the Wire
5402:Language
5281:(1997),
5256:(2000),
5032:(2000),
5009:(1994),
4928:(2001),
4547:(eds.),
4341:22205942
4301:PLOS ONE
3971:cite web
3957:Catalyst
3454:18 March
3394:59147893
2754:See also
2742:In music
2675:The Wire
2580:Sapphire
2446:" (1843)
2321:, as in
2307:diaspora
2249:Suriname
2014:Dialects
1945:standard
1918:American
1852:Category
1675:Diaspora
1602:Missouri
1527:Kentucky
1454:Virginia
1424:Oklahoma
1409:New York
1404:Nebraska
1394:Maryland
1369:Illinois
1349:Arkansas
1188:Merikins
1133:Freedmen
1106:Mascogos
906:Populism
797:Politics
692:Religion
662:Stepping
428:Lifeways
264:Timeline
231:a series
229:Part of
97:Germanic
9077:Engrish
9072:E-Prime
9045:Related
9032:Vietnam
9017:Myanmar
8887:Nigeria
8882:Namibia
8872:Liberia
8754:Oceania
8736:Bermuda
8708:Jamaica
8635:Chicano
8473:Midland
8459:United
8395:America
8331:Ireland
8307:Cardiff
8279:Glasgow
8228:Cockney
8108:Cumbria
8086:England
8077:Britain
8053:accents
7923:Writers
7888:Singers
7873:Jurists
7821:Europe
7775:Liberia
7720:Houston
7624:Detroit
7560:Indiana
7553:Chicago
7536:Atlanta
7531:Georgia
7514:Florida
7482:Alabama
7432:English
7006:Leftism
6876:Museums
6427:Kwanzaa
6352:Culture
6320:Slavery
6023:History
5931:4 March
5881:4 March
5862:4 March
5841:4 March
5824:4 March
5800:4 March
5168:2714378
5087:4255646
5067:Bibcode
4732:2967298
4591:: 21â27
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4437:(ed.),
4332:3244393
4309:Bibcode
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2766:Tutnese
2341:(as in
2245:Jamaica
2115:of the
2110:raising
2048:(e.g.,
2031:variety
1966:History
1931:in the
1905:Ebonics
1710:Liberia
1592:Georgia
1587:Florida
1517:Houston
1512:Detroit
1497:Chicago
1482:Atlanta
1374:Indiana
1364:Georgia
1359:Florida
1344:Alabama
1276:Tutnese
1155:Redbone
881:Leftism
582:Kwanzaa
539:Studies
491:Schools
420:Culture
349:Aspects
294:Slavery
256:Periods
248:History
122:English
9100:Gogate
9007:Brunei
8919:Uganda
8902:accent
8877:Malawi
8845:Africa
8820:accent
8775:accent
8718:SamanĂĄ
8691:Bequia
8510:accent
8483:Boston
8461:States
8444:Quebec
8404:Canada
8393:North
8349:Ulster
8339:Dublin
8255:Dorset
8113:Barrow
8075:Great
8066:Europe
7935:Mayors
7853:Actors
7825:France
7817:Israel
7805:Mexico
7790:Canada
7765:Gambia
7760:Africa
7710:Austin
7675:Oregon
7614:Boston
7577:Kansas
7543:Hawaii
7461:Gullah
7271:Yoruba
7261:Gullah
7132:Sports
7050:groups
6880:Women
6417:Hoodoo
6291:(1896)
6217:Second
6193:(1857)
6138:(1956)
6085:(1954)
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3210:". In
2902:
2686:(2016)
2670:(1999)
2662:(1994)
2654:(1993)
2646:(1991)
2630:(1989)
2622:(1940)
2588:(1996)
2576:(1980)
2564:(1942)
2552:(1937)
2540:(1936)
2528:(1929)
2516:(1905)
2504:(1887)
2492:(1885)
2458:(1851)
2390:Clotel
2349:Gullah
2337:) and
2185:airish
2170:Black
2148:marked
1937:Canada
1744:Racism
1705:Israel
1695:France
1690:Canada
1685:Africa
1492:Boston
1429:Oregon
1384:Kansas
1294:Gullah
1183:Gullah
1003:Sports
750:Hoodoo
117:Anglic
61:Region
9142:Plain
9057:Basic
8979:Nepal
8967:India
8867:Kenya
8862:Ghana
8827:Palau
8787:South
8630:Cajun
8571:Texas
8566:Older
8546:South
8517:North
8493:Maine
8312:Gower
8294:Wales
8210:South
8095:North
7836:Lists
7800:Haiti
7770:Ghana
7705:Texas
7641:Omaha
6919:Islam
6452:Names
6442:Music
6380:Dance
5791:S2CID
5752:(PDF)
5702:S2CID
5665:S2CID
5586:JSTOR
5549:S2CID
5504:(PDF)
5489:(PDF)
5418:JSTOR
5366:JSTOR
5241:(PDF)
5172:S2CID
5164:JSTOR
5083:S2CID
4996:S2CID
4906:JSTOR
4878:JSTOR
4801:S2CID
4728:JSTOR
4642:S2CID
4614:S2CID
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4505:S2CID
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3526:JSTOR
3448:(PDF)
3401:(PDF)
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2659:Fresh
2108:), a
1902:; or
1857:Index
1700:Ghana
1622:Texas
1547:Omaha
1444:Texas
956:NAACP
467:Names
457:Music
437:Dance
175:Latin
8933:Asia
8810:Fiji
8797:West
8713:Saba
8578:West
8498:West
8488:East
8051:and
7732:Utah
7565:Iowa
7397:Ohio
7358:list
7266:Igbo
7256:Fula
6400:Hair
6390:Film
6107:1968
6097:1964
5933:2010
5883:2010
5864:2010
5843:2010
5826:2010
5802:2010
5759:2012
5735:ISBN
5613:ISBN
5398:come
5384:ISBN
5305:ISBN
5287:ISBN
5266:ISBN
5224:ISBN
5131:ISBN
5113:ISBN
5099:2010
5017:ISBN
4954:ISBN
4936:ISBN
4847:ISBN
4698:ISBN
4680:ISBN
4563:ISBN
4523:ISBN
4458:ISBN
4421:ISBN
4372:ISBN
4337:PMID
4256:ISBN
4135:OCLC
4125:ISBN
4075:ISSN
3977:link
3799:ISBN
3794:Push
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3456:2019
3382:ISSN
3333:ISBN
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2900:ISBN
2730:and
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2331:mans
2160:hand
2156:past
1958:and
1898:(or
1790:and
1449:Utah
1419:Ohio
1379:Iowa
986:UNCF
447:Film
296:and
219:None
8055:of
6365:Art
6222:New
5907:doi
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