Nuclear power - Knowledge

646: 2781: 745: 2482:. This is found when comparing the immediate deaths from other energy sources to both the immediate and the latent, or predicted, indirect cancer deaths from nuclear energy accidents. When the direct and indirect fatalities (including fatalities resulting from the mining and air pollution) from nuclear power and fossil fuels are compared, the use of nuclear power has been calculated to have prevented about 1.84 million deaths from air pollution between 1971 and 2009, by reducing the proportion of energy that would otherwise have been generated by fossil fuels. Following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, it has been estimated that if Japan had never adopted nuclear power, accidents and pollution from coal or gas plants would have caused more lost years of life. 4079: 800: 816: 761: 438: 1319: 1397:

reduce dependence on such resources are being explored, new nuclear technologies are considered to not be available in time for climate change mitigation purposes or competition with alternatives of renewables in addition to being more expensive and require costly research and development. A study found it to be uncertain whether identified resources will be developed quickly enough to provide uninterrupted fuel supply to expanded nuclear facilities and various forms of mining may be challenged by ecological barriers, costs, and land requirements. Researchers also report considerable import dependence of nuclear energy.

2883:, had difficulties paying for the maintenance and security of the Russian Federations highly enriched uranium and warheads. The Megatons to Megawatts Program was hailed as a major success by anti-nuclear weapon advocates as it has largely been the driving force behind the sharp reduction in the number of nuclear weapons worldwide since the cold war ended. However, without an increase in nuclear reactors and greater demand for fissile fuel, the cost of dismantling and down blending has dissuaded Russia from continuing their disarmament. As of 2013, Russia appears to not be interested in extending the program. 3484: 3753: 36: 3644: 2657:) have resulted in greater economic impacts than nuclear power accidents. The study compares latent cancer deaths attributable to nuclear power with immediate deaths from other energy sources per unit of energy generated, and does not include fossil fuel related cancer and other indirect deaths created by the use of fossil fuel consumption in its "severe accident" (an accident with more than five fatalities) classification. The Chernobyl accident in 1986 caused approximately 50 deaths from direct and indirect effects, and some temporary serious injuries from 2417: 1965: 2921:

the environment may arise from its transgenerational risks for nuclear weapons proliferation that may increase risks of their use in the future, risks for problems associated with the management of the radioactive waste such as groundwater contamination, risks for accidents and for risks for various forms of attacks on waste storage sites or reprocessing- and power-plants. However, these remain mostly only risks as historically there have only been few disasters at nuclear power plants with known relatively substantial environmental impacts.

2503: 1747: 1473: 2761: 1388:(which presently make up the most hazardous substances in nuclear waste), there is an estimated 160,000 years worth of uranium in total conventional resources and phosphate ore at the price of 60–100 US$ /kg. However, reprocessing is expensive, possibly dangerous and can be used to manufacture nuclear weapons. One analysis found that uranium prices could increase by two orders of magnitude between 2035 and 2100 and that there could be a shortage near the end of the century. A 2017 study by researchers from 333: 2317:

nuclear energy or be required to do so. Nuclear operators are liable to pay for the waste management in the European Union. In the U.S., the Congress reportedly decided 40 years ago that the nation, and not private companies, would be responsible for storing radioactive waste with taxpayers paying for the costs. The World Nuclear Waste Report 2019 found that "even in countries in which the polluter-pays-principle is a legal requirement, it is applied incompletely" and notes the case of the German

1432: 48: 2898: 2523: 1973: 3749:(LCOE), however, ignores the value premium associated with 24/7 dispatchable electricity and the cost of storage and backup systems necessary to integrate variable energy sources into a reliable electrical grid. "Nuclear thus remains the dispatchable low-carbon technology with the lowest expected costs in 2025. Only large hydro reservoirs can provide a similar contribution at comparable costs but remain highly dependent on the natural endowments of individual countries." 19620: 952:

largest generator of nuclear electricity. As of 2021, 17 reactors were reported to be under construction. China built significantly fewer reactors than originally planned. Its share of electricity from nuclear power was 5% in 2019 and observers have cautioned that, along with the risks, the changing economics of energy generation may cause new nuclear energy plants to "no longer make sense in a world that is leaning toward cheaper, more reliable renewable energy".

1892:. As opposed to light water thermal-neutron reactors, which use uranium-235 (0.7% of all natural uranium), fast-neutron breeder reactors use uranium-238 (99.3% of all natural uranium) or thorium. A number of fuel cycles and breeder reactor combinations are considered to be sustainable or renewable sources of energy. In 2006 it was estimated that with seawater extraction, there was likely five billion years' worth of uranium resources for use in breeder reactors. 3986:°C while the construction of new nuclear reactors took a median of 7.2–10.9 years in 2018–2020, substantially longer than, alongside other measures, scaling up the deployment of wind and solar – especially for novel reactor types – as well as being more risky, often delayed and more dependent on state-support. Researchers have cautioned that novel nuclear technologies – which have been in development since decades, are less tested, have higher 21298: 20199: 19421: 3415: 1485: 1200: 4183: 3439: 3427: 1031: 868: 840: 1454:, or nuclear waste. This type of waste is also produced during plant decommissioning. There are two broad categories of nuclear waste: low-level waste and high-level waste. The first has low radioactivity and includes contaminated items such as clothing, which poses limited threat. High-level waste is mainly the spent fuel from nuclear reactors, which is very radioactive and must be cooled and then safely disposed of or reprocessed. 927:, declared that 10 more nuclear power plants were to be reopened since the 2011 disaster. Kishida is also pushing for research and construction of new safer nuclear plants to safeguard Japanese consumers from the fluctuating price of the fossil fuel market and reduce Japan's greenhouse gas emissions. Kishida intends to have Japan become a significant exporter of nuclear energy and technology to developing countries around the world. 1000: 19409: 4169: 3913:(IPCC) has said that if governments were supportive, renewable energy supply could account for close to 80% of the world's energy use by 2050. While in developed nations the economically feasible geography for new hydropower is lacking, with every geographically suitable area largely already exploited, some proponents of wind and solar energy claim these resources alone could eliminate the need for nuclear power. 1860: 19433: 3925:), groundwater contamination, radiation and leakage to above ground, brine leakage or bacterial corrosion. The European Commission Joint Research Centre found that as of 2021 the necessary technologies for geological disposal of nuclear waste are now available and can be deployed. Corrosion experts noted in 2020 that putting the problem of storage off any longer "isn't good for anyone". Separated 3917:

toxic, expensive to manage and longer-lived. A nuclear plant also needs to be disassembled and removed and much of the disassembled nuclear plant needs to be stored as low-level nuclear waste for a few decades. The disposal and management of the wide variety of radioactive waste, of which there are over one quarter of a million tons as of 2018, can cause future damage and costs across the world

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Krause, Harald; Linow, Sven; Oei, Pao-Yu; Pehnt, Martin; Pfennig, Andreas; Präger, Fabian; Quaschning, Volker; Schneider, Jens; Spindler, Uli; Stelzer, Volker; Sterner, Michael; Wagener-Lohse, Georg; Weinsziehr, Theresa (22 April 2021). "Klimaverträgliche Energieversorgung für Deutschland – 16 Orientierungspunkte" [Climate-friendly energy supply for Germany—16 points of orientation].

1806:. Because thermal LWRs remain the most common reactor worldwide, this type of recycling is the most common. It is considered to increase the sustainability of the nuclear fuel cycle, reduce the attractiveness of spent fuel to theft, and lower the volume of high level nuclear waste. Spent MOX fuel cannot generally be recycled for use in thermal-neutron reactors. This issue does not affect 419: 662: 1616:, with low radioactivity, in the form of contaminated items like clothing, hand tools, water purifier resins, and (upon decommissioning) the materials of which the reactor itself is built. Low-level waste can be stored on-site until radiation levels are low enough to be disposed of as ordinary waste, or it can be sent to a low-level waste disposal site. 719:(WANO), was created as a direct outcome of the 1986 Chernobyl accident. The Chernobyl disaster played a major part in the reduction in the number of new plant constructions in the following years. Influenced by these events, Italy voted against nuclear power in a 1987 referendum, becoming the first country to completely phase out nuclear power in 1990. 3700:, saw oil as a resource that would run out and considered nuclear energy its replacement. Proponents also claim that the present quantity of nuclear waste is small and can be reduced through the latest technology of newer reactors and that the operational safety record of fission-electricity in terms of deaths is so far "unparalleled". Kharecha and 14440:

generation through storage, curtailing excess generation, interconnections to the transport or heating energy sectors, and improving VRE forecasting methodologies (Delucchi and Jacobson 2011). Previous VRE integration studies have considered different combinations of balancing options, but few have considered all flexibility options simultaneously.

2792:, fissionable material, and weapons-related nuclear technology to states that do not already possess nuclear weapons. Many technologies and materials associated with the creation of a nuclear power program have a dual-use capability, in that they can also be used to make nuclear weapons. For this reason, nuclear power presents proliferation risks. 1369:, in Canada, which by itself accounts for 13% of global production. As of 2011 the world's known resources of uranium, economically recoverable at the arbitrary price ceiling of US$ 130/kg, were enough to last for between 70 and 100 years. In 2007, the OECD estimated 670 years of economically recoverable uranium in total conventional resources and 360:. Soon after the discovery of the fission process, it was realized that a fissioning nucleus can induce further nucleus fissions, thus inducing a self-sustaining chain reaction. Once this was experimentally confirmed in 1939, scientists in many countries petitioned their governments for support of nuclear fission research, just on the cusp of 516:. This design was chosen because it was simpler, more compact, and easier to operate compared to alternative designs, thus more suitable to be used in submarines. This decision would result in the PWR being the reactor of choice also for power generation, thus having a lasting impact on the civilian electricity market in the years to come. 629:"reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies". The increased public hostility to nuclear power led to a longer license procurement process, more regulations and increased requirements for safety equipment, which made new construction much more expensive. In the United States, over 1693: 2486:

from a nuclear accident may lead to social isolation, anxiety, depression, psychosomatic medical problems, reckless behavior, and suicide. A comprehensive 2005 study on the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster concluded that the mental health impact is the largest public health problem caused by the accident.

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Renewable energy opponents love to highlight the variability of the sun and wind as a way of bolstering support for coal, gas, and nuclear plants, which can more easily operate on-demand or provide "baseload" (continuous) power. The argument is used to undermine large investments in renewable energy,

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A comparison of prices over time for energy from nuclear fission and from other sources. Over the presented time, thousands of wind turbines and similar were built on assembly lines in mass production resulting in an economy of scale. While nuclear remains bespoke, many first of their kind facilities

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framework that limits or structures accident liabilities in accordance with national and international conventions. It is often argued that this potential shortfall in liability represents an external cost not included in the cost of nuclear electricity. This cost is small, amounting to about 0.1% of

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Regional differences in the use of nuclear power are large. The United States produces the most nuclear energy in the world, with nuclear power providing 20% of the electricity it consumes, while France produces the highest percentage of its electrical energy from nuclear reactors—71% in 2019. In the

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that is generated during the reactor operation. This limits the life of nuclear fuel to a few years. In some countries, such as the United States, spent fuel is classified in its entirety as a nuclear waste. In other countries, such as France, it is largely reprocessed to produce a partially recycled

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Several flexibility options have been proposed to facilitate VRE integration, including interconnecting geographically dispersed resources, interconnecting different VRE types, building flexible and dispatchable generation assets, shifting flexible loads through demand response, shifting electricity

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However, it can be seen that the simulation in scenario A3 stops in 2075 due to a shortage: the R/P ratio cancels itself out. The detailed calculations also show that even though it does not cancel itself out in scenario C2, the R/P ratio constantly deteriorates, falling from 130 years in 2013 to 10

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under construction in France. ITER is planned to pave the way for commercial fusion power by demonstrating self-sustained nuclear fusion reactions with positive energy gain. Construction of the ITER facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many delays and budget overruns. The facility is

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and colleagues found that nuclear energy could displace or remove fossil fuels from the electric grid completely within 10 years. This finding was based on the historically modest and proven rate at which nuclear energy was added in France and Sweden during their building programs in the 1980s. In a

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is estimated to cost taxpayers ~$ 187 billion, and radioactive waste management is estimated to cost the Eureopean Union nuclear operators ~$ 250 billion by 2050. However, in countries that already use nuclear energy, when not considering reprocessing, intermediate nuclear waste disposal costs could

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Being a low-carbon energy source with relatively little land-use requirements, nuclear energy can have a positive environmental impact. It also requires a constant supply of significant amounts of water and affects the environment through mining and milling. Its largest potential negative impacts on

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Serious impacts of nuclear accidents are often not directly attributable to radiation exposure, but rather social and psychological effects. Evacuation and long-term displacement of affected populations created problems for many people, especially the elderly and hospital patients. Forced evacuation

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The economics of new nuclear power plants is a controversial subject and multi-billion-dollar investments depend on the choice of energy sources. Nuclear power plants typically have high capital costs for building the plant. For this reason, comparison with other power generation methods is strongly

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in France has operated commercially since 1976 and is responsible for half the world's reprocessing as of 2010. It produces MOX fuel from spent fuel derived from several countries. More than 32,000 tonnes of spent fuel had been reprocessed as of 2015, with the majority from France, 17% from Germany,

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Gerhards, Christoph; Weber, Urban; Klafka, Peter; Golla, Stefan; Hagedorn, Gregor; Baumann, Franz; Brendel, Heiko; Breyer, Christian; Clausen, Jens; Creutzig, Felix; Daub, Claus-Heinrich; Helgenberger, Sebastian; Hentschel, Karl-Martin; Hirschhausen, Christian von; Jordan, Ulrike; Kemfert, Claudia;

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Today's primary sources of energy are mainly non-renewable: natural gas, oil, coal, peat, and conventional nuclear power. There are also renewable sources, including wood, plants, dung, falling water, geothermal sources, solar, tidal, wind, and wave energy, as well as human and animal muscle-power.

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systems, which would require an order of magnitude more costly global investment per year, which has no historical precedent. These renewable scenarios would also need far greater land devoted to onshore wind and onshore solar projects. Brook notes that the "principal limitations on nuclear fission

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Proponents also bring to attention the opportunity cost of using other forms of electricity. For example, the Environmental Protection Agency estimates that coal kills 30,000 people a year, as a result of its environmental impact, while 60 people died in the Chernobyl disaster. A real world example

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In the United States, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission carries out "Force on Force" (FOF) exercises at all nuclear power plant sites at least once every three years. In the United States, plants are surrounded by a double row of tall fences which are electronically monitored. The plant grounds are

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In countries with nuclear power, radioactive wastes account for less than 1% of total industrial toxic wastes, much of which remains hazardous for long periods. Overall, nuclear power produces far less waste material by volume than fossil-fuel based power plants. Coal-burning plants, in particular,

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TWh in 2040. Most of the predicted increase was expected to be in Asia. As of 2018, there were over 150 nuclear reactors planned including 50 under construction. In January 2019, China had 45 reactors in operation, 13 under construction, and planned to build 43 more, which would make it the world's

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Nuclear power has lower electricity related health risks than Coal, Oil, & gas. ...the health burdens are appreciably smaller for generation from natural gas, and lower still for nuclear power. This study includes the latent or indirect fatalities, for example those caused by the inhalation of

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reactions have the potential to be safer and generate less radioactive waste than fission. These reactions appear potentially viable, though technically quite difficult and have yet to be created on a scale that could be used in a functional power plant. Fusion power has been under theoretical and

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Nuclear power is comparable to, and in some cases lower, than many renewable energy sources in terms of lives lost in the past per unit of electricity delivered. Depending on recycling of renewable energy technologies, nuclear reactors may produce a much smaller volume of waste, although much more

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MW plant is estimated to cost between US$ 6 billion to US$ 9 billion. Nuclear power cost trends show large disparity by nation, design, build rate and the establishment of familiarity in expertise. The only two nations for which data is available that saw cost decreases in the 2000s were India and

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Breeder technology has been used in several reactors, but as of 2006, the high cost of reprocessing fuel safely requires uranium prices of more than US$ 200/kg before becoming justified economically. Breeder reactors are however being developed for their potential to burn all of the actinides (the

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found that "at the current consumption rate, global conventional reserves of terrestrial uranium (approximately 7.6 million tonnes) could be depleted in a little over a century". Limited uranium-235 supply may inhibit substantial expansion with the current nuclear technology. While various ways to

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reactor, altered the development of nuclear power and led to a greater focus on meeting international safety and regulatory standards. It is considered the worst nuclear disaster in history both in total casualties, with 56 direct deaths, and financially, with the cleanup and the cost estimated at

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GW in the late 1970s. During the 1970s and 1980s rising economic costs (related to extended construction times largely due to regulatory changes and pressure-group litigation) and falling fossil fuel prices made nuclear power plants then under construction less attractive. In the 1980s in the U.S.

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during the 1970s, but largely remained unexplored until a revival of interest in 2009, due to delays in the realization of pure fusion. When a sustained nuclear fusion power plant is built, it has the potential to be capable of extracting all the fission energy that remains in spent fission fuel,

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Opponents believe that nuclear power poses many threats to people's health and environment such as the risk of nuclear weapons proliferation, long-term safe waste management and terrorism in the future. They also contend that nuclear power plants are complex systems where many things can and have

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by decreasing dependence on other energy sources that are also often dependent on imports. For example, proponents note that annually, nuclear-generated electricity reduces 470 million metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions that would otherwise come from fossil fuels. Additionally, the amount of

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Costs not considered in LCOE calculations include funds for research and development, and disasters (the Fukushima disaster is estimated to cost taxpayers ≈$ 187 billion). In some cases, Governments were found to force "consumers to pay upfront for potential cost overruns" or subsidize uneconomic

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Wealer, Ben; Breyer, Christian; Hennicke, Peter; Hirsch, Helmut; von Hirschhausen, Christian; Klafka, Peter; Kromp-Kolb, Helga; Präger, Fabian; Steigerwald, Björn; Traber, Thure; Baumann, Franz; Herold, Anke; Kemfert, Claudia; Kromp, Wolfgang; Liebert, Wolfgang; Müschen, Klaus (16 October 2021).

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Although commercial reprocessing involves large, expensive facilities, some of which are identifiable in structure, a small, makeshift operation using standard industrial supplies is feasible (Ferguson 1977, US GAO 1978). Such a plant could be constructed to have no visual signatures that would

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from radiation from coal plants is 100 times that from the operation of nuclear plants. Although coal ash is much less radioactive than spent nuclear fuel by weight, coal ash is produced in much higher quantities per unit of energy generated. It is also released directly into the environment as

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In October 2021, the Japanese cabinet approved the new Plan for Electricity Generation to 2030 prepared by the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy (ANRE) and an advisory committee, following public consultation. The nuclear target for 2030 requires the restart of another ten reactors. Prime

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Shang, Delei; Geissler, Bernhard; Mew, Michael; Satalkina, Liliya; Zenk, Lukas; Tulsidas, Harikrishnan; Barker, Lee; El-Yahyaoui, Adil; Hussein, Ahmed; Taha, Mohamed; Zheng, Yanhua; Wang, Menglai; Yao, Yuan; Liu, Xiaodong; Deng, Huidong; Zhong, Jun; Li, Ziying; Steiner, Gerald; Bertau, Martin;

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Overall, many opponents find that nuclear energy cannot meaningfully contribute to climate change mitigation. In general, they find it to be, too dangerous, too expensive, to take too long for deployment, to be an obstacle to achieving a transition towards sustainability and carbon-neutrality,

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per liter, with 4.4 billion tons of uranium considered present in seawater at any time. In 2014 it was suggested that it would be economically competitive to produce nuclear fuel from seawater if the process was implemented at large scale. Like fossil fuels, over geological timescales, uranium

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types was officially started by the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) based on eight technology goals, including to improve economics, safety, proliferation resistance, natural resource use and the ability to consume existing nuclear waste in the production of electricity. Most of these

2565:(IAEA). The scale ranks anomalous events or accidents on a scale from 0 (a deviation from normal operation that poses no safety risk) to 7 (a major accident with widespread effects). There have been three accidents of level 5 or higher in the civilian nuclear power industry, two of which, the 1945:

to the point that it no longer requires measures for radiation protection, returning the facility and its parts to a safe enough level to be entrusted for other uses. Due to the presence of radioactive materials, nuclear decommissioning presents technical and economic challenges. The costs of

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atom, it can split the nucleus into two smaller nuclei, which is a nuclear fission reaction. The reaction releases energy and neutrons. The released neutrons can hit other uranium or plutonium nuclei, causing new fission reactions, which release more energy and more neutrons. This is called a

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in many countries. Germany approved plans to close all its reactors by 2022, and many other countries reviewed their nuclear power programs. Following the disaster, Japan shut down all of its nuclear power reactors, some of them permanently, and in 2015 began a gradual process to restart the

3990:, have more new safety problems, are often far from commercialization and are more expensive – are not available in time. Critics of nuclear energy often only oppose nuclear fission energy but not nuclear fusion; however, fusion energy is unlikely to be commercially widespread before 2050. 1005: 1004: 1001: 1010: 591:, which had relied more heavily on oil for electric generation to invest in nuclear power. France would construct 25 nuclear power plants over the next 15 years, and as of 2019, 71% of French electricity was generated by nuclear power, the highest percentage by any nation in the world. 1006: 449:

Despite the military nature of the first nuclear devices, the 1940s and 1950s were characterized by strong optimism for the potential of nuclear power to provide cheap and endless energy. Electricity was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor on December 20, 1951, at the

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the revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in nuclear

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faster than the global average. Some find that financial transition costs for a 100% renewables-based European energy system that has completely phased out nuclear energy could be more costly by 2050 based on current technologies (i.e. not considering potential advances in e.g.

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would require about 60 square miles (160 km), and from a wind farm about 310 square miles (800 km). Not included in this, is land required for the associated transmission lines, water supply, rail lines, mining and processing of nuclear fuel, and for waste disposal.

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is cited as "a source of essential information today." Experts suggest that centralized underground repositories which are well-managed, guarded, and monitored, would be a vast improvement. There is an "international consensus on the advisability of storing nuclear waste in

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Insider sabotage is also a threat because insiders can observe and work around security measures. Successful insider crimes depended on the perpetrators' observation and knowledge of security vulnerabilities. A fire caused 5–10 million dollars worth of damage to New York's

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Hasegawa, Arifumi; Tanigawa, Koichi; Ohtsuru, Akira; Yabe, Hirooki; Maeda, Masaharu; Shigemura, Jun; Ohira, Tetsuya; Tominaga, Takako; Akashi, Makoto; Hirohashi, Nobuyuki; Ishikawa, Tetsuo; Kamiya, Kenji; Shibuya, Kenji; Yamashita, Shunichi; Chhem, Rethy K (August 2015).

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We conclude that our numerical exercise confirms the literature review, i.e. the economics of nuclear power plants are not favorable to future investments, even though additional costs (decommissioning, long-term storage) and the social costs of accidents are not even

1009: 1008: 1007: 2871:. This corresponds to the elimination of 10,000 nuclear weapons. For approximately two decades, this material generated nearly 10 percent of all the electricity consumed in the United States, or about half of all U.S. nuclear electricity, with a total of around 7,000 6845:

Gabriel, Sophie; Baschwitz, Anne; Mathonnière, Gilles; Eleouet, Tommy; Fizaine, Florian (1 August 2013). "A critical assessment of global uranium resources, including uranium in phosphate rocks, and the possible impact of uranium shortages on nuclear power fleets".

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Critics find that one of the largest drawbacks to building new nuclear fission power plants are the large construction and operating costs when compared to alternatives of sustainable energy sources. Further costs include ongoing research and development, expensive

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Reprocessing has the potential to recover up to 95% of the uranium and plutonium fuel in spent nuclear fuel, as well as reduce long-term radioactivity within the remaining waste. However, reprocessing has been politically controversial because of the potential for

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where these risks, and the risk of cheaper competitors emerging before capital costs are recovered, are borne by plant suppliers and operators rather than consumers, which leads to a significantly different evaluation of the economics of new nuclear power plants.

744: 2459:(ECCS) can remove the decay heat from the reactor if normal cooling systems fail. If the ECCS fails, multiple physical barriers limit the release of radioactive materials to the environment even in the case of an accident. The last physical barrier is the large 9424:

Before a nuclear power plant begins operations, the licensee must establish or obtain a financial mechanism – such as a trust fund or a guarantee from its parent company – to ensure there will be sufficient money to pay for the ultimate decommissioning of the

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and geothermal power, which together provided 2% of global final energy consumption in 2014. Nuclear power's share of global electricity production has fallen from 16.5% in 1997, in large part because the economics of nuclear power have become more difficult.

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most active and dangerous components) in the present inventory of nuclear waste, while also producing power and creating additional quantities of fuel for more reactors via the breeding process. As of 2017, there are two breeders producing commercial power,

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of electricity produced. In total it is estimated to have cost $ 17 billion, a "bargain for US ratepayers", with Russia profiting $ 12 billion from the deal. Much needed profit for the Russian nuclear oversight industry, which after the collapse of the

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and other countries without enrichment facilities buying a share of the fuel produced at the French-controlled enrichment facility, but without a transfer of technology. Iran was an early participant from 1974 and remains a shareholder of Eurodif via

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is a measure of the average net present cost of electricity generation for a generating plant over its lifetime. As a metric, it remains controversial as the lifespan of units are not independent but manufacturer projections, not a demonstrated

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caused the death of an estimated 30,000 to 200,000 people, and 11 million people lost their homes. As private insurers base dam insurance premiums on limited scenarios, major disaster insurance in this sector is likewise provided by the state.

7346: 2272:, may favor the economics of nuclear power. Extreme weather events, including events made more severe by climate change, are decreasing all energy source reliability including nuclear energy by a small degree, depending on location siting. 3975:

are not technical, economic or fuel-related, but are instead linked to complex issues of societal acceptance, fiscal and political inertia, and inadequate critical evaluation of the real-world constraints facing low-carbon alternatives."

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as a fraction of full power after the reactor shutdown, using two different correlations. To remove the decay heat, reactors need cooling after the shutdown of the fission reactions. A loss of the ability to remove decay heat caused the

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that are the primary causes of residual heat generation and radioactivity for the first few centuries outside the reactor. Thus, reprocessed waste still requires an almost identical treatment for the initial first few hundred years.

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McPherson, Madeleine; Karney, Bryan (1 November 2017). "A scenario based approach to designing electricity grids with high variable renewable energy penetrations in Ontario, Canada: Development and application of the SILVER model".

16794:. A total of 75 booklets published by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) in the 1960s and 1970s, Authored by scientists and taken together, the booklets comprise the history of nuclear science and its applications at the time. 9177: 8029:

MeV). This makes spent thorium fuel treatment more difficult, requires remote handling/control during reprocessing and during further fuel fabrication, but on the other hand, may be considered as an additional non-proliferation

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Wealer, B.; Bauer, S.; Hirschhausen, C. v.; Kemfert, C.; Göke, L. (1 June 2021). "Investing into third generation nuclear power plants - Review of recent trends and analysis of future investments using Monte Carlo Simulation".

2780: 15464: 3809:, transmission and flexibility capacities, ways to reduce energy needs, geothermal energy and fusion energy) when the grid only extends across Europe. Arguments of economics and safety are used by both sides of the debate. 2470:, nuclear power is the second safest energy source per unit of energy generated, after solar power, in terms of mortality when the historical track-record is considered. Energy produced by coal, petroleum, natural gas and 1295:

which provides cooling for the thermal heat and shielding for ionizing radiation. After several months or years, the spent fuel is radioactively and thermally cool enough to be moved to dry storage casks or reprocessed.

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Once irradiated in a reactor, the fuel of a thorium–uranium cycle contains an admixture of 232U (half-life 68.9 years) whose radioactive decay chain includes emitters (particularly 208Tl) of high energy gamma radiation

1798:, mainly due to the low price of fresh uranium. However, many reactors are also fueled with recycled fissionable materials that remain in spent nuclear fuel. The most common fissionable material that is recycled is the 3839:°C is technically possible if no new fossil fuel power plants are built from 2019. This has generated considerable interest and dispute in determining the best path forward to rapidly replace fossil-based fuels in the 1357:. Uranium is present in trace concentrations in most rocks, dirt, and ocean water, but is generally economically extracted only where it is present in relatively high concentrations. Uranium mining can be underground, 14296:

McPherson, Madeleine; Tahseen, Samiha (15 February 2018). "Deploying storage assets to facilitate variable renewable energy integration: The impacts of grid flexibility, renewable penetration, and market structure".

2444:(a rapid increase of the reactor power) is possible in certain reactor designs if the chain reaction cannot be controlled. These three characteristics have to be taken into account when designing nuclear reactors. 213:

in the Soviet Union resulted in increased regulation and public opposition to nuclear power plants. These factors, along with high cost of construction, resulted in the global installed capacity only increasing to

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Libert, Marie; Schütz, Marta Kerber; Esnault, Loïc; Féron, Damien; Bildstein, Olivier (June 2014). "Impact of microbial activity on the radioactive waste disposal: long term prediction of biocorrosion processes".

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Small modular reactors were first developed in the 1950s for use in nuclear-powered submarines. Since then Rolls-Royce has designed reactors for seven classes of submarine and two separate land-based prototype

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reactors, or re-enriched for another cycle through an LWR. Re-enriching of reprocessed uranium is common in France and Russia. Reprocessed uranium is also safer in terms of nuclear proliferation potential.

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Haller, Markus; Ludig, Sylvie; Bauer, Nico (1 August 2012). "Decarbonization scenarios for the EU and MENA power system: Considering spatial distribution and short term dynamics of renewable generation".

13668: 2309:(of which the CANDU design is a part) continue to hold many world record positions for longest continual electricity generation, often over 800 days. The specific record as of 2019 is held by a PHWR at 2183:

Analysis of the economics of nuclear power must also take into account who bears the risks of future uncertainties. As of 2010, all operating nuclear power plants have been developed by state-owned or

2172:

dependent on assumptions about construction timescales and capital financing for nuclear plants. Fuel costs account for about 30 percent of the operating costs, while prices are subject to the market.

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Reprocessing of civilian fuel from power reactors is currently done in France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Japan, and India. In the United States, spent nuclear fuel is currently not reprocessed. The

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eq/kWh. As of 2021, nuclear reactors worldwide have helped avoid the emission of 72 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide since 1970, compared to coal-fired electricity generation, according to a report.

2728:

could also be serious, as these pools are less protected than the reactor core. The release of radioactivity could lead to thousands of near-term deaths and greater numbers of long-term fatalities.

8686: 3463: 10556: 15585: 5952: 5977: 1722:

Disposal of nuclear waste is often considered the most politically divisive aspect in the lifecycle of a nuclear power facility. The lack of movement of nuclear waste in the 2 billion year old

1002: 11742: 10749: 9872: 6146: 4935: 1526:). The fission products are responsible for the bulk of the short-term radioactivity, whereas the plutonium and other transuranics are responsible for the bulk of the long-term radioactivity. 1291:

After some time in the reactor, the fuel will have reduced fissile material and increased fission products, until its use becomes impractical. At this point, the spent fuel will be moved to a

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Hybrid nuclear power is a proposed means of generating power by the use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The concept dates to the 1950s and was briefly advocated by

908:

suffered three core meltdowns due to failure of the emergency cooling system for lack of electricity supply. This resulted in the most serious nuclear accident since the Chernobyl disaster.

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Some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in the United States in the early 1960s. In the late 1960s, some members of the scientific community began to express pointed concerns. These

14748: 12588: 11887: 5665: 16491: 12322:

Prăvălie, Remus; Bandoc, Georgeta (1 March 2018). "Nuclear energy: Between global electricity demand, worldwide decarbonisation imperativeness, and planetary environmental implications".

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Xing, Wanli; Wang, Anjian; Yan, Qiang; Chen, Shan (1 December 2017). "A study of China's uranium resources security issues: Based on analysis of China's nuclear power development trend".

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The nuclear power debate concerns the controversy which has surrounded the deployment and use of nuclear fission reactors to generate electricity from nuclear fuel for civilian purposes.

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of electricity when in service, its complete spent fuel inventory is contained within sixteen casks. It is estimated that to produce a lifetime supply of energy for a person at a western

815: 10410: 5459: 4134:

Fusion-powered electricity generation was initially believed to be readily achievable, as fission-electric power had been. However, the extreme requirements for continuous reactions and

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comparatively low waste that nuclear energy does create is safely disposed of by the large scale nuclear energy production facilities or it is repurposed/recycled for other energy uses.

2649:

ranked first among energy sources in terms of their total economic cost, accounting for 41% of all property damage attributed to energy accidents. Another analysis found that coal, oil,

9813: 8820: 9847: 2253:

USD/MWh) is more expensive than low-carbon technologies. Electricity from long-term operation of nuclear power plants by lifetime extension was found to be the least-cost option, at 32

1884:

Breeding is the process of converting non-fissile material into fissile material that can be used as nuclear fuel. The non-fissile material that can be used for this process is called

18184: 15457: 12899:

Bennett, James E.; Tamura-Wicks, Helen; Parks, Robbie M.; Burnett, Richard T.; Pope, C. Arden; Bechle, Matthew J.; Marshall, Julian D.; Danaei, Goodarz; Ezzati, Majid (23 July 2019).

2451:

of reactivity. If the temperature or the amount of steam in the reactor increases, the fission rate inherently decreases. The chain reaction can also be manually stopped by inserting

2103:, nuclear power provides 26% of the electricity as of 2018. Nuclear power is the single largest low-carbon electricity source in the United States, and accounts for two-thirds of the 3769:

effectively being a distracting competition for resources (i.e. human, financial, time, infrastructure and expertise) for the deployment and development of alternative, sustainable,

14920: 15722: 10177: 5808: 9147: 5635: 13482: 5902: 5778: 4070:

reducing the volume of nuclear waste by orders of magnitude, and more importantly, eliminating all actinides present in the spent fuel, substances which cause security concerns.

991:, is planning on building two different advanced nuclear reactors by 2027, with further plans for nuclear implementation in its long term green energy and energy security goals. 6197: 5106: 3796:

Nevertheless, there is ongoing research and debate over costs of new nuclear, especially in regions where i.a. seasonal energy storage is difficult to provide and which aim to

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On the other hand, power reactors can also reduce nuclear weapon arsenals when military-grade nuclear materials are reprocessed to be used as fuel in nuclear power plants. The

18770: 17439: 16522: 16093: 12842: 5694: 15826: 15016: 10345: 8105: 5278: 715:

billion in 2019, adjusted for inflation). The international organization to promote safety awareness and the professional development of operators in nuclear facilities, the

17494: 14623: 11222: 11152:, November 21, 1962, Flight Propulsion Laboratory Department, General Electric Company, Idaho Falls, Idaho, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Division of Technical Information. 11021: 1719:

vessels. Presently, waste is mainly stored at individual reactor sites and there are over 430 locations around the world where radioactive material continues to accumulate.

1191:. The time delay between the fission and the release of the neutrons slows changes in reaction rates and gives time for moving the control rods to adjust the reaction rate. 10379: 8562: 20328: 16317: 15952: 15166: 9716: 9654: 9564: 6688: 10499: 10470: 6034: 5867: 17449: 14685: 5519: 1838:. Reprocessing also leads to higher fuel cost compared to the once-through fuel cycle. While reprocessing reduces the volume of high-level waste, it does not reduce the 12517:

Collectively, life cycle assessment literature shows that nuclear power is similar to other renewable and much lower than fossil fuel in total life cycle GHG emissions.

11768: 10648: 17459: 6996: 15496: 15317: 11950: 5489: 18964: 14340:

Kan, Xiaoming; Hedenus, Fredrik; Reichenberg, Lina (15 March 2020). "The cost of a future low-carbon electricity system without nuclear power – the case of Sweden".

13635: 12766: 5044: 4988: 13098: 12102: 3962:

etc., could be generated within approximately 30 years if the global nuclear fission build rate was identical to historical proven installation rates calculated in

2661:. The future predicted mortality from increases in cancer rates is estimated at 4000 in the decades to come. However, the costs have been large and are increasing. 963:

As of 2022, with world oil and gas prices on the rise, while Germany is restarting its coal plants to deal with loss of Russian gas that it needs to supplement its

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reveal its location by overhead imaging, could be built in several months, and once operational could produce weapon quantities of fissile material in several days

5842: 293:

and result in less life-cycle carbon emissions than common "renewables". The radiological hazards associated with nuclear power are the primary motivations of the

11643: 10910: 10824: 10526: 9488: 9115: 6773: 6429: 5923: 5338: 17008: 14718: 8877: 6397: 4882: 630: 14243:

Bustreo, C.; Giuliani, U.; Maggio, D.; Zollino, G. (1 September 2019). "How fusion power can contribute to a fully decarbonized European power mix after 2050".

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Several experimental nuclear fusion reactors and facilities exist. The largest and most ambitious international nuclear fusion project currently in progress is

2447:

All modern reactors are designed so that an uncontrolled increase of the reactor power is prevented by natural feedback mechanisms, a concept known as negative

2059:, nuclear power's contribution to global energy was about 2.5% in 2011. This is a little more than the combined global electricity production from wind, solar, 1545:(SLFPs) decay into stable elements in approximately 300 years, and after about 100,000 years, the spent fuel becomes less radioactive than natural uranium ore. 618:, Germany. The project was cancelled in 1975. The anti-nuclear success at Wyhl inspired opposition to nuclear power in other parts of Europe and North America. 14880: 14656: 13660: 12623: 11480: 7929: 6272: 5395: 14188:"How does the interplay between resource availability, intersectoral competition and reliability affect a low-carbon power generation mix in Brazil for 2050?" 12236: 9621: 5366: 3724:

of impact provided by proponents is the 650,000 ton increase in carbon emissions in the two months following the closure of the Vermont Yankee nuclear plant.

146:. While its radioactivity decreases exponentially, it must be isolated from the biosphere for hundreds of thousands of years, though newer technologies (like 18372: 14392:

There is little economic rationale for Sweden to reinvest in nuclear power. Abundant hydropower allows for a low-cost renewable power system without nuclear.

13050: 6065: 3503: 3253: 2930: 1541:. The radioactivity decreases exponentially with time, such that it will have decreased by 99.5% after 100 years. The more intensely radioactive short-lived 13594: 13532: 9411: 9207: 5719: 5301: 15884: 14001:

Liu, Jianing; Zhang, Weiqi; Zhou, Rui; Zhong, Jin (July 2012). "Impacts of distributed renewable energy generations on smart grid operation and dispatch".

13393: 10283: 3588:

mSv/a of public exposure as a global average. The average dose from operating nuclear power plants to the local populations around them is less than 0.0001

2548: 1639:

concluded that coal power actually results in more radioactivity being released into the environment than nuclear power operation, and that the population

16279: 12132:

Ramana, M. V.; Ahmad, Ali (1 June 2016). "Wishful thinking and real problems: Small modular reactors, planning constraints, and nuclear power in Jordan".

11569: 11252: 8682: 676:

During the 1980s one new nuclear reactor started up every 17 days on average. By the end of the decade, global installed nuclear capacity reached 300

17899: 15577: 11387: 10548: 4671: 3712:-eq) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that would have resulted from fossil fuel burning" and, if continued, it could prevent up to 7 million deaths and 240 3470: 2334: 1533:

with sufficient shielding so as to limit radiation exposure. After being removed from the reactors, used fuel bundles are stored for six to ten years in

16348: 13511: 12838: 12473: 10985: 10083: 6584: 5948: 1598:

events within a reactor. Spent thorium fuel, although more difficult to handle than spent uranium fuel, may present somewhat lower proliferation risks.

269:. This is because nuclear power generation causes one of the lowest levels of fatalities per unit of energy generated compared to other energy sources. 18194: 17039: 16033: 15520:"Potential for Worldwide Displacement of Fossil-Fuel Electricity by Nuclear Energy in Three Decades Based on Extrapolation of Regional Deployment Data" 12564: 11445: 5973: 5741: 2826:

at a discounted rate, in exchange for that nation agreeing to forgo their own indigenous development of a uranium enrichment program. The France-based

1908:

breeder reactor in France was powered down in 2009 after 36 years of operation. Both China and India are building breeder reactors. The Indian 500 MWe

939:. As of 2015, the global trend was for new nuclear power stations coming online to be balanced by the number of old plants being retired. In 2016, the 16123: 15650: 14857: 8490: 7576: 7537: 4123:

now not expected to begin operations until the year 2027 – 11 years after initially anticipated. A follow on commercial nuclear fusion power station,

2283:, are aimed at reducing the investment costs for new construction by making the reactors smaller and modular, so that they can be built in a factory. 1187:

that absorb excess neutrons. The controllability of nuclear reactors depends on the fact that a small fraction of neutrons resulting from fission are

11726: 10739: 6650: 6138: 4932: 11688: 11412: 8424:

Muller, Richard A.; Finsterle, Stefan; Grimsich, John; Baltzer, Rod; Muller, Elizabeth A.; Rector, James W.; Payer, Joe; Apps, John (May 29, 2019).

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reactors differ significantly from current operating light water reactors, and are expected to be available for commercial construction after 2030.

3737:

be relatively fixed to certain but unknown degrees "as the main part of these costs stems from the operation of the intermediate storage facility".

19075: 16744: 14486: 14092: 13365: 12297: 11512: 9756: 8533: 6359: 6300: 5540: 4468: 1687: 1268:

moderators. For light water reactors, the most common type of reactor, this concentration is too low, and it must be increased by a process called

1220: 15458:"Technical assessment of nuclear energy with respect to the 'do no significant harm' criteria of Regulation (EU) 2020/852 ('Taxonomy Regulation')" 13733: 13571: 7465:"Development of a Kelp-Type Structure Module in a Coastal Ocean Model to Assess the Hydrodynamic Impact of Seawater Uranium Extraction Technology" 1260:. The concentration of uranium-235 in natural uranium is low (about 0.7%). Some reactors can use this natural uranium as fuel, depending on their 19220: 15862: 14740: 14460: 12592: 11895: 10717: 9787: 7825: 6109: 5657: 2784:

The guided-missile cruiser USS Monterey (CG 61) receives fuel at sea (FAS) from the Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS George Washington (CVN 73).

16498: 12013: 10620: 10002: 8366:. U.S. Department of Energy Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management, Yucca Mountain Project, DOE/YMP-0010. November 2004. Archived from 971:, many other countries have announced ambitious plans to reinvigorate ageing nuclear generating capacity with new investments. French President 19471: 11337:

Burgherr, Peter; Hirschberg, Stefan (10 October 2008). "A Comparative Analysis of Accident Risks in Fossil, Hydro, and Nuclear Energy Chains".

11192: 10402: 8295: 3909:

Several studies suggest that it might be theoretically possible to cover a majority of world energy generation with new renewable sources. The

2755: 1924: 1785: 9820: 9383: 8828: 8742:"Formation of proliferation-resistant nuclear fuel supplies based on reprocessed uranium for Russian nuclear technologies recipient countries" 2720:

into the community. The United States 9/11 Commission has said that nuclear power plants were potential targets originally considered for the

17879: 10147: 10114: 9851: 8241: 7666: 7081:

Dungan, K.; Butler, G.; Livens, F. R.; Warren, L. M. (1 August 2017). "Uranium from seawater – Infinite resource or improbable aspiration?".

5606: 2554: 2544: 935:

By 2015, the IAEA's outlook for nuclear energy had become more promising, recognizing the importance of low-carbon generation for mitigating

298: 15052: 13186:

Rodriguez, C.; Baxter, A.; McEachern, D.; Fikani, M.; Venneri, F. (1 June 2003). "Deep-Burn: making nuclear waste transmutation practical".

12294:"Insurmountable Risks: The Dangers of Using Nuclear Power to Combat Global Climate Change – Institute for Energy and Environmental Research" 12042: 9599: 9139: 8127: 8008: 7612: 5246: 5240:"Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact, 2002 update; Chapter II – The release, dispersion and deposition of radionuclides" 20144: 18201: 17632: 12954: 11273: 8708: 3937:, which – even with the current centralized control (e.g. state-level) and level of prevalence – are considered to be a difficult and 1380:

can make this waste reusable, and newer reactors also achieve a more efficient use of the available resources than older ones. With a pure

13277:

Ramana, M. V.; Mian, Zia (1 June 2014). "One size doesn't fit all: Social priorities and technical conflicts for small modular reactors".

3921:– possibly over a million years, due to issues such as leakage, malign retrieval, vulnerability to attacks (including of reprocessing and 3843:, with intense academic debate. Sometimes the IEA says that countries without nuclear should develop it as well as their renewable power. 2818:

A fundamental goal for global security is to minimize the nuclear proliferation risks associated with the expansion of nuclear power. The

20235: 15745: 15714: 15432: 14912: 11615: 10169: 7060: 6208: 5800: 2630:. The accident has not caused any radiation-related deaths but resulted in radioactive contamination of surrounding areas. The difficult 625:

activism gained a wider appeal and influence, and nuclear power began to become an issue of major public protest. In some countries, the

9914: 8072: 6667:

years around 2100, which raises concerns of a shortage around that time. The exploration constraints thus affect the security of supply.

5898: 5631: 4496: 4352: 17967: 16711: 13474: 5770: 3607:

mSv over a few hours to weeks, while the remaining global legacy of the worst nuclear power plant accident in average exposure is 0.002

2424:

Nuclear power plants have three unique characteristics that affect their safety, as compared to other power plants. Firstly, intensely

1879: 1414: 15922: 14647:"Agree to Agree Fights over renewable standards and nuclear power can be vicious. Here's a list of things that climate hawks agree on" 11545: 2440:

has stopped. If the heat cannot be removed from the reactor, the fuel rods may overheat and release radioactive materials. Thirdly, a

1405:

extracted on an industrial scale from seawater would be replenished by both river erosion of rocks and the natural process of uranium

1272:. In civilian light water reactors, uranium is typically enriched to 3.5–5% uranium-235. The uranium is then generally converted into 18470: 17195: 13229:

Geissmann, Thomas; Ponta, Oriana (1 April 2017). "A probabilistic approach to the computation of the levelized cost of electricity".

12070: 8554: 5098: 4753: 3922: 3910: 3515: 2699: 960:

in July 2022 announced that the country should consider building advanced reactors and extending operating licences beyond 60 years.

412: 150:) have the potential to significantly reduce this. Because the spent fuel is still mostly fissionable material, some countries (e.g. 18709: 16441: 14941: 12435: 9788:"What is Nuclear Power Plant – How Nuclear Power Plants work | What is Nuclear Power Reactor – Types of Nuclear Power Reactors" 8981: 6233: 5686: 4635: 16954: 12651: 12529: 12501: 10337: 8097: 7853: 5272: 4856: 4632:"The Japanese Situation, English version of conclusion of Sharon Beder, "Power Play: The Fight to Control the World's Electricity"" 4552: 4493:"STR (Submarine Thermal Reactor) in "Reactors Designed by Argonne National Laboratory: Light Water Reactor Technology Development"" 4440: 2967: 1632: 754:

by source and growth from 1980. In terms of energy generated between 1980 and 2010, the contribution from fission grew the fastest.

14977: 11214: 11013: 9262:

Invernizzi, Diletta Colette; Locatelli, Giorgio; Velenturf, Anne; Love, Peter ED.; Purnell, Phil; Brookes, Naomi J. (2020-09-01).

8363: 8270: 7899:

The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 (NWPA) defined irradiated fuel as spent nuclear fuel, and the byproducts as high-level waste.

3918: 3704:

estimated that "global nuclear power has prevented an average of 1.84 million air pollution-related deaths and 64 gigatonnes of CO

3603:

Chernobyl resulted in the most affected surrounding populations and male recovery personnel receiving an average initial 50 to 100

1537:, which provide cooling and shielding against radiation. After that, the fuel is cool enough that it can be safely transferred to 18920: 18760: 18699: 15188:

Rosborg, B.; Werme, L. (30 September 2008). "The Swedish nuclear waste program and the long-term corrosion behaviour of copper".

13770:"STE can replace coal, nuclear and early gas as demonstrated in an hourly simulation over 4 years in the Spanish electricity mix" 10677: 10371: 7955: 3298: 2301:, are typically run as much as possible to keep the cost of the generated electrical energy as low as possible, supplying mostly 2162: 1151:, in which the nuclear reactions generating heat take place; a cooling system, which removes the heat from inside the reactor; a 611: 18840: 16304: 15944: 15158: 14474:

presenting a rhetorical barrier to higher rates of wind and solar adoption. But reality is much more favorable for clean energy.

13021: 9700: 9646: 9557: 6680: 5569: 5076: 3938: 20269: 18665: 17032: 11920: 11101: 10492: 10462: 6042: 4694: 3108: 1203:

The nuclear fuel cycle begins when uranium is mined, enriched, and manufactured into nuclear fuel (1), which is delivered to a

1097: 940: 716: 548: 14769: 14677: 12864: 8632: 6715:

Muellner, Nikolaus; Arnold, Nikolaus; Gufler, Klaus; Kromp, Wolfgang; Renneberg, Wolfgang; Liebert, Wolfgang (1 August 2021).

1625: 17894: 16916: 16861: 16719: 16474: 16372: 15082: 14042:

Ayodele, T. R.; Ogunjuyigbe, A. S. O. (1 April 2015). "Mitigation of wind power intermittency: Storage technology approach".

14018: 13740: 13170: 13092: 12727: 11934: 11772: 11171: 10644: 10047: 10039: 9882: 9710: 9625: 8860: 8408: 7805: 7778: 7734: 7650: 7379: 7356: 6280: 5311: 5214: 5183: 4912: 4866: 4802: 4614: 4582: 4526: 4419: 2892: 2638:

in 1979 was a smaller scale accident, rated at INES level 5. There were no direct or indirect deaths caused by the accident.

2354: 1389: 905: 99: 11979: 10947:"Health effects of radiation and other health problems in the aftermath of nuclear accidents, with an emphasis on Fukushima" 10435: 8050: 6989: 6176: 2776:

was the main driving force behind the sharp reduction in the quantity of nuclear weapons worldwide since the cold war ended.

1762:

There are no commercial scale purpose built underground high-level waste repositories in operation. However, in Finland the

901: 809:

in existing reactors was primarily responsible for the continuing increase in electrical energy produced during this period.

20202: 19619: 18716: 17558: 15488: 15309: 12497: 11954: 5481: 2822:

was an international effort to create a distribution network in which developing countries in need of energy would receive

1763: 1393: 1376:

Light water reactors make relatively inefficient use of nuclear fuel, mostly using only the very rare uranium-235 isotope.

16805: 13627: 12758: 11866: 11142: 9264:"Developing policies for the end-of-life of energy infrastructure: Coming to terms with the challenges of decommissioning" 9233: 9075: 9046: 8211: 7441: 7438:"The current state of promising research into extraction of uranium from seawater – Utilization of Japan's plentiful seas" 6330: 5451: 5013: 4957: 4388: 2432:, which make up most of the intensely radioactive substances in the reactor, continue to generate a significant amount of 1923:. Thorium is about 3.5 times more common than uranium in the Earth's crust, and has different geographic characteristics. 20041: 19437: 18633: 18179: 18144: 17165: 17145: 12095: 11079: 10579: 9329: 5135: 3103: 3050: 2808: 2707: 2075:(GW). There are also 56 nuclear power reactors under construction and 96 reactors planned, with a combined capacity of 62 1984: 1126: 27: 14790: 11639: 9874:

Non-electric Applications of Nuclear Power: Seawater Desalination, Hydrogen Production and other Industrial Applications

5834: 5330: 975:

announced his intention to build six new reactors in coming decades, placing nuclear at the heart of France's drive for

20149: 19464: 19331: 18915: 17103: 16777: 16773: 16312: 14881:"Economic Analysis of Various Options of Electricity Generation – Taking into Account Health and Environmental Effects" 12467:"IPCC Working Group III – Mitigation of Climate Change, Annex III: Technology–specific cost and performance parameters" 11508: 10930: 10820: 10523: 9111: 8977: 6422: 4547: 4146: 3733: 3456: 3128: 2945: 2627: 2562: 2507: 2494:) could have long-term psychological effects on the population of contaminated areas following the Fukushima disaster. 897: 680:

GW. Since the late 1980s, new capacity additions slowed significantly, with the installed nuclear capacity reaching 366

127: 17005: 14710: 12787: 8885: 8332: 7884: 7406:

Huh, C. A.; Bacon, M. P. (2002). "Determination of thorium concentration in seawater by neutron activation analysis".

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in the United Kingdom, both in 1957. The first major accident at a nuclear reactor in the USA occurred in 1961 at the

21342: 21151: 19769: 17995: 17874: 17285: 17025: 16980: 12901:"Particulate matter air pollution and national and county life expectancy loss in the USA: A spatiotemporal analysis" 12735: 10307: 9675: 8585:"Assessment of the environmental footprint of nuclear energy systems. Comparison between closed and open fuel cycles" 6286: 5194: 4127:, has been proposed. There are also suggestions for a power plant based upon a different fusion approach, that of an 4060: 3015: 2819: 2677:

in the United States. These beyond-regular insurance costs for worst-case scenarios are not unique to nuclear power.

2558: 2158: 1927:

features the use of a thorium fuel cycle in the third stage, as it has abundant thorium reserves but little uranium.

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with no fatalities, played a major part in the reduction in the number of new plant constructions in many countries.

532: 442: 14887: 14646: 12980: 12816: 12616: 11469: 8951: 7921: 5387: 1400:

Unconventional uranium resources also exist. Uranium is naturally present in seawater at a concentration of about 3

20775: 19225: 19090: 17625: 17589: 17540: 17381: 16787: 16060: 12232: 10250: 9522: 6512: 5362: 4834: 3443: 535:

at Windscale, England was connected to the national power grid on 27 August 1956. In common with a number of other

15611:

Brook, Barry W. (2012). "Could nuclear fission energy, etc., solve the greenhouse problem? The affirmative case".

14827: 13827:"The transition towards a sustainable energy system in Europe: What role can North Africa's solar resources play?" 13057: 12267: 9407: 8965:

Nuclear reactors that produce their own fuel ('breeders') and eventually fusion reactors are also in this category

8650: 2217:. This represents the median cost estimate for an nth-of-a-kind nuclear power plant to be completed in 2025, at a 481:

which allowed rapid declassification of U.S. reactor technology and encouraged development by the private sector.

21332: 20228: 19932: 19857: 19728: 19168: 19002: 18604: 18482: 18139: 18000: 13605: 13543: 12373:

Ahearne, John F. (2000). "Intergenerational Issues Regarding Nuclear Power, Nuclear Waste, and Nuclear Weapons".

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Zhang, Hui (1 July 2015). "Plutonium reprocessing, breeder reactors, and decades of debate: A Chinese response".

5715: 4818: 4259: 4078: 3615:

mSv per person averaged over the entire populace of the Northern Hemisphere in the year of the accident in 1986.

3336: 2361:

to generate power. These power generators are relatively small scale (few kW), and they are mostly used to power

1915:

Another alternative to fast-neutron breeders are thermal-neutron breeder reactors that use uranium-233 bred from

1795: 1723: 1440: 1088: 920:

remaining 40 reactors, following safety checks and based on revised criteria for operations and public approval.

15282:

Shrader-Frechette, Kristin (1 November 1991). "Ethical Dilemmas and Radioactive Waste: A Survey of the Issues".

14615: 13397: 13376: 11244: 8583:

Poinssot, Ch.; Bourg, S.; Ouvrier, N.; Combernoux, N.; Rostaing, C.; Vargas-Gonzalez, M.; Bruno, J. (May 2014).

7598: 2863:

program to date. Up to 2005, the program had processed $ 8 billion of high enriched, weapons-grade uranium into

1575:, which are led by reactor-grade plutonium (half-life 24,000 years). Some proposed reactor designs, such as the 19158: 19007: 18465: 17579: 17391: 17255: 16271: 13025: 11576: 11380: 10808:

fossil fuel created particulate matter, smog induced cardiopulmonary events, black lung etc. in its comparison.

5426: 4657: 3656:, while the 2 projects that drove nuclear pricing upwards were in the US. The organization recognises that the 3381: 1909: 1130: 654: 297:, which contends that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment, citing the potential for 11302:

Sovacool, B.K. (2008). "The costs of failure: A preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, 1907–2007".

10053: 7125: 1413:

of seawater concentration at a stable level. Some commentators have argued that this strengthens the case for

20292: 20104: 20036: 20026: 19902: 19802: 19457: 18932: 18765: 18189: 18117: 16341: 14245: 13503: 12466: 10079: 8152: 7572: 6538: 6105: 5974:"Department of Energy picks two advanced nuclear reactors for demonstration projects, announces new reactors" 4139: 3366: 2856: 2795:

Nuclear power program can become a route leading to a nuclear weapon. An example of this is the concern over

2773: 2670: 2456: 2411: 2199: 2166: 2044: 1767: 1740: 1636: 1583:, can use as fuel the plutonium and other actinides in spent fuel from light water reactors, thanks to their 223: 40: 16025: 12557: 11434: 10946: 3987: 3584:), regular nuclear power plant operations, including the nuclear fuel cycle, increases this amount by 0.0002 1802:(RGPu) that is extracted from spent fuel. It is mixed with uranium oxide and fabricated into mixed-oxide or 371:

In the United States, these research efforts led to the creation of the first man-made nuclear reactor, the

20844: 20679: 19957: 19917: 19494: 19275: 19012: 18721: 18475: 17972: 17376: 17351: 17316: 17185: 17093: 16886: 15974:

Makhijani, Arjun; Ramana, M. V. (4 July 2021). "Can small modular reactors help mitigate climate change?".

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Chen, Yanxin; Martin, Guillaume; Chabert, Christine; Eschbach, Romain; He, Hui; Ye, Guo-an (1 March 2018).

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and experiments for long periods where solar power is not available in sufficient quantity, such as in the

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results in similar fission products, though creates a much smaller proportion of transuranic elements from

766: 170:

elements for fabrication in new fuel, although this process is more expensive than producing new fuel from

143: 15231:

Shrader-Frechette, Kristin (1 December 2005). "Mortgaging the future: Dumping ethics with nuclear waste".

7847:"Public Health and Environmental Radiation Protection Standards for Yucca Mountain, Nevada; Proposed Rule" 6681:"Ocean Testing of a Symbiotic Device to Harvest Uranium From Seawater Through the Use of Shell Enclosures" 6611: 1946:

decommissioning are generally spread over the lifetime of a facility and saved in a decommissioning fund.

407:

for use in the first nuclear weapons. The United States tested the first nuclear weapon in July 1945, the

21337: 21168: 20184: 20179: 19897: 19872: 19862: 19838: 19833: 19539: 19425: 19338: 19310: 19267: 19232: 19070: 18897: 18835: 18660: 18564: 18450: 17918: 17618: 17509: 17469: 17444: 13362: 13056:. Greenpeace International and European Renewable Energy Council. January 2007. p. 7. Archived from 11541: 11420: 11120: 7714: 6366: 6307: 4667: 4217: 4150: 4128: 4124: 3495: 3371: 3133: 2674: 2605: 2518:

leaked into the air, soil and sea. Radiation checks led to bans of some shipments of vegetables and fish.

2407: 2207: 1715:, the bundles of used fuel rod assemblies of a typical nuclear power station are often stored on site in 1700: 1366: 520: 341: 12293: 12010:"Against Long Odds, MIT's Thomas Neff Hatched a Plan to Turn Russian Warheads into American Electricity" 11504: 9939: 9763: 8525: 8182: 7183: 6890:

Haneklaus, Nils (1 April 2021). "Unconventional uranium in China's phosphate rock: Review and outlook".

5999: 5548: 4461: 348:

The discovery of nuclear fission occurred in 1938 following over four decades of work on the science of

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Grambow, Bernd (12 December 2008). "Mobile fission and activation products in nuclear waste disposal".

13563: 13320:

Meckling, Jonas (1 March 2019). "Governing renewables: Policy feedback in a global energy transition".

10011: 9353:"How benchmarking can support the selection, planning and delivery of nuclear decommissioning projects" 7922:"Nuclear waste-burning reactor moves a step closer to reality | Environment | guardian.co.uk" 4662: 4373: 4046:

systems, with most of the first-generation systems having been already retired. Research into advanced

3757: 3431: 3153: 3073: 2990: 2737: 2721: 2635: 2631: 2310: 2127: 1888:, and constitute the vast majority of current nuclear waste. This breeding process occurs naturally in 1810:, which are therefore preferred in order to achieve the full energy potential of the original uranium. 1736: 1571:. For spent fuel that does not undergo reprocessing, the most concerning isotopes are the medium-lived 634: 569: 559:

The total global installed nuclear capacity initially rose relatively quickly, rising from less than 1

302: 202: 15854: 14452: 13776:. SOLARPACES 2018: International Conference on Concentrating Solar Power and Chemical Energy Systems. 13084:

Social protest and policy change: ecology, antinuclear, and peace movements in comparative perspective

10701: 9791: 8457:

Mallants, Dirk; Travis, Karl; Chapman, Neil; Brady, Patrick V.; Griffiths, Hefin (February 14, 2020).

7821: 6097: 1207:. After use, the spent fuel is delivered to a reprocessing plant (2) or to a final repository (3). In 531:, producing around 5 megawatts of electric power. The world's first commercial nuclear power station, 20716: 20154: 19643: 19604: 19413: 19095: 18704: 18487: 17599: 17532: 17514: 17474: 17454: 17434: 17406: 17401: 17371: 17366: 17361: 17311: 17306: 17235: 17230: 17220: 17180: 17125: 16909:

Atomic accidents: a history of nuclear meltdowns and disasters: from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima

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are present in a nuclear reactor. Their release to the environment could be hazardous. Secondly, the

2226: 2126:

in operation, powered by about 180 reactors. These include military and some civilian ships, such as

1867: 1640: 1061: 1015: 513: 478: 477:, emphasizing the need to develop "peaceful" uses of nuclear power quickly. This was followed by the 380: 190: 13022:"Investigation: Revelations about Three Mile Island disaster raise doubts over nuclear plant safety" 12692:

MacKenzie, James J. (December 1977). "Review of The Nuclear Power Controversy by Arthur W. Murphy".

11188: 9462: 3487:

Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of electricity supply technologies, median values calculated by

2175:

The high cost of construction is one of the biggest challenges for nuclear power plants. A new 1,100

1365:

mining. An increasing number of the highest output mines are remote underground operations, such as

1043: 880: 852: 250:

GW, respectively. The United States has the largest fleet of nuclear reactors, generating almost 800

20701: 20129: 19937: 19877: 19534: 19343: 19185: 19085: 18997: 18206: 18092: 18052: 17864: 17411: 17386: 17346: 17326: 17275: 17245: 17175: 17170: 17098: 17048: 13936:

Arbabzadeh, Maryam; Sioshansi, Ramteen; Johnson, Jeremiah X.; Keoleian, Gregory A. (30 July 2019).

9076:"Synergy between Fast Reactors and Thermal Breeders for Safe, Clean, and Sustainable Nuclear Power" 7184:"The international technological nuclear cooperation landscape: A new dataset and network analysis" 4227: 4202: 3955: 3746: 3667: 3341: 3248: 3200: 3118: 2972: 2804: 2800: 2658: 2269: 2068: 2056: 1959: 1955: 727: 322: 235: 15383:

Butler, Declan (27 May 2014). "Nuclear-waste facility on high alert over risk of new explosions".

15043: 13690:

Szyszczak, Erika (1 July 2015). "State aid for energy infrastructure and nuclear power projects".

12034: 11793: 10199:

Ahmad, Ali (July 2021). "Increase in frequency of nuclear power outages due to changing climate".

10139: 10105: 9590: 9352: 8233: 7674: 5598: 2083:

GW, respectively. The United States has the largest fleet of nuclear reactors, generating over 800

1707:. The facility is seen as a potential demonstration for storing spent fuel from civilian reactors. 437: 138:

can no longer be sustained, typically three years. It is then cooled for several years in on-site

20876: 20765: 20068: 20058: 20048: 19248: 19215: 19190: 18804: 18581: 18387: 18310: 18267: 18250: 18211: 18134: 17566: 17524: 17504: 17499: 17464: 17356: 17341: 17280: 17240: 17225: 17190: 17140: 17088: 17078: 17068: 16996: 16928:, "Breaking the Techno-Promise: We do not have enough time for nuclear power to save us from the 13124: 10711: 8131: 8001: 7980: 7620: 6234:"Uranium resources sufficient to meet projected nuclear energy requirements long into the future" 5239: 4575:

An atomic empire: a technical history of the rise and fall of the British atomic energy programme

3950: 3854: 3850: 3818: 3782: 3483: 3178: 2799:. The re-purposing of civilian nuclear industries for military purposes would be a breach of the 2796: 2222: 1936: 1799: 1791: 1563: 1559: 404: 155: 151: 78:

reactions. Presently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced by nuclear

19173: 16822:

Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters

15651:"A critical review of global decarbonization scenarios: what do they tell us about feasibility?" 13825:

Benasla, Mokhtar; Hess, Denis; Allaoui, Tayeb; Brahami, Mostefa; Denaï, Mouloud (1 April 2019).

12950: 11281: 8333:"international Journal of Environmental Studies, The Solutions for Nuclear waste, December 2005" 4111:

research is underway but fusion energy is not likely to be commercially widespread before 2050.

3978:

Scientific data indicates that – assuming 2021 emissions levels – humanity only has a

21347: 21322: 21279: 21122: 20994: 19989: 19852: 19635: 19524: 19080: 18367: 17911: 17553: 17545: 17331: 17321: 17135: 17130: 17083: 17073: 16893: 16607:"Techno-economic analysis of hydrogen production from the nuclear fusion-biomass hybrid system" 16213:"Techno-economic analysis of hydrogen production from the nuclear fusion-biomass hybrid system" 13122:(2008). "The costs of failure: A preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, 1907–2007". 9437: 8781:

Lloyd, Cody; Goddard, Braden (2018). "Proliferation resistant plutonium: An updated analysis".

7022:"USGS Scientific Investigations Report 2012–5239: Critical Analysis of World Uranium Resources" 4207: 4043: 3971: 3303: 3278: 3188: 3168: 3138: 3093: 3020: 3005: 2835: 2437: 2348: 2276: 2116: 2092: 1410: 1313: 1180: 731: 506: 423: 392: 259: 135: 15774: 15425: 11604: 10852:"Prevented Mortality and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Historical and Projected Nuclear Power" 8850: 8400: 8393: 7052: 5512:"Israel Prime Minister Netanyahu: Japan situation has "caused me to reconsider" nuclear power" 4157:

Inc, in 2023. This ambitious initiative aims to introduce pilot-scale fusion within a decade.

2229:

can generate cheaper electricity: the median cost of onshore wind power was estimated to be 50

1648:, whereas nuclear plants use shielding to protect the environment from radioactive materials. 1631:

produce large amounts of toxic and mildly radioactive ash resulting from the concentration of

1318: 21076: 21071: 20866: 20807: 20124: 19892: 19887: 19867: 19374: 19110: 19065: 18527: 18455: 18382: 18377: 18342: 18129: 18097: 17884: 17811: 17584: 14117:

Khatib, Hisham; Difiglio, Carmine (1 September 2016). "Economics of nuclear and renewables".

13595:"Estimating the costs of energy transition scenarios using probabilistic forecasting methods" 13082: 9909: 8076: 7795: 6268: 6237: 4904: 4492: 4348: 4222: 4047: 4039: 4033: 3797: 3752: 3660:

cost of the most exported and produced nuclear energy facility in the 2010s the South Korean

3638: 3630: 3519: 3419: 3238: 3193: 3010: 2812: 2749: 2609: 2391: 2214: 2108: 1831: 1587:

spectrum. This offers a potentially more attractive alternative to deep geological disposal.

1576: 1549: 1406: 1136: 1070: 916: 751: 735: 669: 603: 294: 183: 35: 16723: 8710:

Proliferation-resistant nuclear fuel cycles. [Spiking of plutonium with /sup 238/Pu]

3745:

in cases where such is practiced and decommissioning. Proponents note that focussing on the

943:

projected for its "base case" that world nuclear power generation would increase from 2,344

258:

of 92%. The average global capacity factor is 89%. Most new reactors under construction are

21270: 21242: 21207: 21134: 20934: 20871: 20689: 20510: 19718: 19480: 19285: 19060: 19045: 18362: 18320: 18156: 18062: 17990: 16675: 16618: 16561: 16224: 16164: 15983: 15914: 15665: 15620: 15531: 15197: 15113: 14992: 14952: 14570: 14513: 14414: 14359: 14306: 14254: 14199: 14126: 14051: 13949: 13902: 13838: 13781: 13428: 13286: 13238: 13195: 13133: 13119: 12558:"IPCC Working Group III – Mitigation of Climate Change, Annex II Metrics & Methodology" 12382: 12331: 12141: 11916: 11534: 11346: 11311: 11055: 10863: 10208: 9973: 9367: 9275: 9012: 8916: 8790: 8753: 8596: 7267: 7198: 7137: 7090: 6899: 6855: 6788: 6728: 6626: 6550: 4314: 4212: 3742: 3643: 3634: 3624: 3565: 3283: 3183: 3123: 2864: 2654: 2650: 2642: 2616: 2460: 2441: 2425: 1807: 1779: 1675: 1548:

Commonly suggested methods to isolate LLFP waste from the biosphere include separation and

1377: 1211:, 95% of spent fuel can potentially be recycled to be returned to use in a power plant (4). 1208: 1106: 980: 626: 536: 384: 159: 16901:

Nuclear Energy Now: Why the Time has come for the World's Most Misunderstood Energy Source

12063: 10821:"Nuclear Power Prevents More Deaths Than It Causes | Chemical & Engineering News" 4765: 3592:

mSv/a. For comparison, the average dose to those living within 50 miles (80 km) of a

8: 21265: 21173: 21161: 21051: 21004: 20812: 20735: 20461: 20252: 20089: 19922: 19822: 19797: 19750: 19559: 19549: 19514: 19384: 19195: 18980: 18574: 18442: 18420: 18245: 18102: 17869: 17831: 17664: 16934: 16398: 14913:"Spent Nuclear Fuel: A Trash Heap Deadly for 250,000 Years or a Renewable Energy Source?" 13661:"Scientists Warn Experimental Nuclear Plant Backed by Bill Gates Is 'Outright Dangerous'" 10403:"Illinois approves $ 700 million in subsidies to Exelon, prevents nuclear plant closures" 9757:"The European Strategic Energy Technology Plan SET-Plan Towards a low-carbon future 2010" 9112:"Are Fast-Breeder Reactors A Nuclear Power Panacea? by Fred Pearce: Yale Environment 360" 8989: 8521: 8495: 7699:

Spent nuclear fuel - how dangerous is it? A report from the project 'Description of risk'

6241: 5014:"Political Opportunity and Political Protest: Anti-Nuclear Movements in Four Democracies" 4958:"Political Opportunity and Political Protest: Anti-Nuclear Movements in Four Democracies" 4631: 3941:

for substantial future impacts on human health, lives, civilization and the environment.

3580:

mSv/a, depending mostly on the geology of the location. According to the United Nations (

3396: 3361: 3356: 3068: 2713: 2678: 2487: 2134: 1818: 1751: 1580: 1572: 1257: 1204: 1116: 723: 91: 20: 17113: 17056: 16679: 16622: 16565: 16228: 16168: 15987: 15669: 15649:

Loftus, Peter J.; Cohen, Armond M.; Long, Jane C. S.; Jenkins, Jesse D. (January 2015).

15624: 15535: 15201: 15117: 14996: 14574: 14517: 14418: 14363: 14310: 14258: 14203: 14130: 14055: 13953: 13906: 13842: 13785: 13432: 13290: 13242: 13199: 13137: 12647: 12533: 12505: 12386: 12335: 12145: 11350: 11315: 11059: 10867: 10212: 9977: 9371: 9279: 9016: 8920: 8794: 8757: 8600: 7846: 7271: 7202: 7141: 7094: 6903: 6859: 6792: 6732: 6630: 6562: 6554: 4542: 4318: 4138:

led to projections being extended by several decades. In 2020, more than 80 years after

2416: 1964: 614:. In the early 1970s, there were large protests about a proposed nuclear power plant in 265:

Proponents contend that nuclear power is a safe, sustainable energy source that reduces

142:

before being transferred to long-term storage. The spent fuel, though low in volume, is

21275: 21260: 21190: 21146: 21036: 20622: 20527: 20282: 19963: 19574: 19364: 19100: 18937: 18864: 18675: 18325: 18295: 18279: 18262: 17906: 17796: 17744: 17694: 17641: 16850: 16644: 16587: 16433: 16250: 16190: 16007: 15827:"Nuclear power is too costly, too slow, so it's zero use to Australia's emissions plan" 15766: 15681: 15554: 15519: 15404: 15264: 14591: 14558: 14539: 14383: 14349: 14278: 14225: 14024: 13978: 13937: 13874: 13807: 13715: 13452: 13345: 12927: 12900: 12709: 12414: 12206: 12179: 11844: 11362: 11071: 10977: 10798: 10232: 9539: 9028: 8367: 8262: 7878:"CRS Report for Congress. Radioactive Waste Streams: Waste Classification for Disposal" 7740: 7726: 7222: 7161: 6923: 6812: 6754: 6679:

Haji, Maha N.; Drysdale, Jessica; Buesseler, Ken; Slocum, Alexander H. (25 June 2017).

6482: 5036: 4980: 4603: 4142:, commercialization of fusion power production was thought to be unlikely before 2050. 4135: 3828: 3729: 3680: 3522: 3391: 3331: 3288: 3163: 3040: 2983: 2570: 2566: 2532: 2490:, an American scientist, commented that a disproportionate fear of ionizing radiation ( 2191: 2123: 1920: 1660: 1591: 1503:. For Light Water Reactors (LWRs), spent fuel is typically composed of 95% uranium, 4% 1496: 1467: 1269: 1216: 1160: 1079: 688: 490: 400: 310: 210: 13207: 12180:"Emerging Environmental Justice Issues in Nuclear Power and Radioactive Contamination" 10965: 10786: 10669: 7951: 5924:"Germany's Uniper to restart coal-fired power plant as Gazprom halts supply to Europe" 3611:

mSv/a and is continuously dropping at the decaying rate, from the initial high of 0.04

896:

Prospects of a nuclear renaissance were delayed by another nuclear accident. The 2011

805:

The rate of new reactor constructions essentially halted in the late 1980s. Increased

21247: 20711: 20617: 20590: 20437: 20387: 20323: 20277: 20114: 19994: 19599: 18432: 18225: 18112: 18087: 18025: 17982: 17826: 17821: 17816: 17659: 17594: 16976: 16912: 16857: 16693: 16648: 16636: 16591: 16579: 16470: 16437: 16425: 16254: 16242: 16194: 16182: 16011: 15999: 15770: 15559: 15408: 15396: 15365: 15357: 15353: 15256: 15248: 15213: 15137: 15129: 15008: 14596: 14543: 14531: 14430: 14387: 14375: 14322: 14282: 14270: 14229: 14217: 14142: 14067: 14014: 13983: 13965: 13918: 13878: 13866: 13811: 13799: 13719: 13707: 13456: 13444: 13349: 13337: 13302: 13254: 13211: 13166: 13088: 13029: 12932: 12674: 12439: 12406: 12398: 12355: 12347: 12211: 12157: 11930: 11922:

Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power: A Critical Global Assessment of Atomic Energy

11734: 11696: 11366: 11167: 11075: 10969: 10891: 10790: 10236: 10224: 10043: 9878: 9706: 9303: 9032: 8856: 8722: 8404: 7801: 7774: 7744: 7730: 7646: 7352: 7327: 7283: 7226: 7214: 7165: 7153: 7106: 6927: 6915: 6871: 6816: 6804: 6758: 6746: 6642: 6576: 6486: 6474: 6276: 6169:"uranium Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about uranium" 5577: 5307: 5190: 5179: 5068: 5040: 4984: 4908: 4897: 4862: 4798: 4610: 4578: 4522: 4330: 3113: 3000: 2860: 2703: 2358: 2338: 2294:

and reliability when compared to generation II light water reactors up to the 1990s.

1835: 1451: 1156: 976: 607: 599: 466: 388: 178:, which is found in the spent fuel, and because Pu-239 is the preferred material for 15715:"Earth has 11 years to cut emissions to avoid dire climate scenarios, a report says" 15268: 14266: 14028: 12418: 11848: 10981: 10802: 8928: 8802: 8459:"The State of the Science and Technology in Deep Borehole Disposal of Nuclear Waste" 6638: 4698: 2502: 1746: 21197: 21156: 21139: 21026: 20924: 20456: 20360: 20244: 20063: 20004: 19708: 19703: 19680: 19589: 19529: 19280: 18335: 18300: 18057: 18047: 17935: 17923: 17764: 17759: 17749: 17739: 17734: 16875: 16830:

Nuclear America: Military and Civilian Nuclear Power in the United States 1940–1980

16683: 16626: 16569: 16415: 16406: 16232: 16172: 15991: 15808: 15756: 15685: 15673: 15628: 15549: 15539: 15388: 15349: 15291: 15240: 15205: 15121: 15000: 14651: 14586: 14578: 14526: 14521: 14505: 14422: 14367: 14314: 14262: 14207: 14166: 14134: 14059: 14006: 13973: 13957: 13910: 13856: 13846: 13789: 13699: 13436: 13329: 13294: 13246: 13203: 13141: 13002: 12922: 12912: 12875: 12701: 12390: 12339: 12201: 12191: 12149: 11926: 11834: 11354: 11319: 11063: 11044:"The radiological and psychological consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi accident" 11009: 10961: 10926: 10922: 10881: 10871: 10782: 10216: 9981: 9543: 9531: 9517: 9375: 9293: 9283: 9086: 9020: 8924: 8798: 8761: 8714: 8629: 8604: 8470: 8437: 7722: 7509: 7476: 7415: 7317: 7275: 7206: 7145: 7098: 6962: 6907: 6863: 6796: 6736: 6634: 6566: 6558: 6466: 5028: 4972: 4322: 4280: 4007: 3930: 3900: 3801: 3684: 3593: 3511: 3507: 3386: 3158: 3030: 2646: 2601: 2577: 2557:

have occurred. The severity of nuclear accidents is generally classified using the

2540: 2511: 2479: 2448: 2187: 2184: 2146: 2138: 2052: 2048: 1942: 1885: 1814: 1716: 1542: 1538: 1500: 1488: 1472: 1463: 1342: 1327: 1254: 502: 290: 286: 266: 231: 227: 167: 123: 59: 16376: 15995: 15295: 15209: 15125: 15074: 12343: 9379: 7372: 7306:"Nuclear Power in China: An Analysis of the Current and Near-Future Uranium Flows" 7279: 7102: 6867: 6800: 5206: 2133:

International research is continuing into additional uses of process heat such as

1330:

for different applications. Light water reactors use 3–5% enriched uranium, while

1039: 876: 848: 21214: 21180: 21066: 21046: 20956: 20605: 20571: 20505: 20302: 20287: 20094: 20053: 20031: 19912: 19882: 19847: 19807: 19609: 19178: 19138: 18592: 18406: 18330: 18305: 18151: 17944: 17846: 17836: 17801: 17679: 17669: 17012: 17000: 16949: 16941: 16835: 16809: 16791: 16574: 16549: 16177: 16152: 15831: 15578:"Report: World can Rid Itself of Fossil Fuel Dependence in as little as 10 years" 15544: 15489:"As nuclear waste piles up, scientists seek the best long-term storage solutions" 14426: 14371: 14318: 14212: 14187: 13380: 13369: 13250: 12917: 11987: 11146: 10530: 10082:. International Energy Agency & OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. 9 December 2020. 9918: 9513: 9489:"Steep decline in nuclear power would threaten energy security and climate goals" 9351:

Invernizzi, Diletta Colette; Locatelli, Giorgio; Brookes, Naomi J. (2017-08-01).

9170:"Prototype fast breeder reactor to be commissioned in two months: IGCAR director" 9003:

Cohen, Bernard L. (January 1983). "Breeder reactors: A renewable energy source".

8636: 8609: 8584: 8042: 6168: 4939: 4792: 4754:"Review of Critical Masses: Opposition to Nuclear Power in California, 1958–1978" 4415: 4011: 3959: 3693: 3688: 3233: 3228: 3218: 3088: 2868: 2769: 2760: 2725: 2620: 2597: 2429: 2387: 2372: 2291: 2088: 1889: 1875: 1839: 1712: 1699:

generated by the United States during the Cold War are stored underground at the

1613: 1607: 1595: 1562:, which presently constitute the majority of the world fleet, cannot burn up the 1534: 1504: 1436: 1358: 1292: 1261: 1234: 1188: 1148: 1144: 1120: 972: 806: 580: 470: 353: 255: 179: 139: 119: 67: 18670: 15632: 15004: 14976:

Ewing, Rodney C.; Whittleston, Robert A.; Yardley, Bruce W. D. (1 August 2016).

14138: 13914: 13145: 12622:. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. 2008. 12153: 11323: 9986: 9961: 9288: 9263: 8948:

Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development

8766: 8741: 7210: 7149: 7124:

Fang, Jianchun; Lau, Chi Keung Marco; Lu, Zhou; Wu, Wanshan (1 September 2018).

6741: 6716: 6066:"Atomic age began 75 years ago with the first controlled nuclear chain reaction" 4281:"Reactors: Modern-Day Alchemy - Argonne's Nuclear Science and Technology Legacy" 821:

Electricity generation trends in the top producing countries (Our World in Data)

332: 281:

and hydroelectricity each have caused more fatalities per unit of energy due to

21255: 21202: 21112: 21031: 21016: 21011: 20963: 20851: 20647: 20595: 20578: 20412: 20119: 20109: 19907: 19519: 19133: 19128: 19123: 18873: 18780: 18749: 18731: 18255: 18161: 18107: 18072: 18005: 17952: 17806: 17699: 17684: 17674: 16929: 16876:

Nuclear or Not? Does Nuclear Power Have a Place in a Sustainable Energy Future?

16802: 15885:"UK poised to confirm funding for mini nuclear reactors for carbon-free energy" 14582: 14186:

Lap, Tjerk; Benders, René; van der Hilst, Floor; Faaij, André (15 March 2020).

14063: 14010: 13961: 13440: 13298: 12791: 11862: 11138: 10220: 9241: 9054: 8203: 7721:. Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 527–553. 7437: 7394:

world average concentration in seawater is 0.05 μg/L (Harmsen and De Haan 1980)

6911: 6338: 4394: 4197: 4154: 4108: 4094: 3934: 3824: 3806: 3774: 3376: 3326: 3173: 3143: 3098: 2995: 2962: 2914: 2910: 2880: 2789: 2581: 2298: 2104: 2100: 1901: 1897: 1656: 1651:

Nuclear waste volume is small compared to the energy produced. For example, at

1309: 1305: 1226: 1140: 936: 912: 650: 474: 372: 365: 171: 131: 75: 19153: 15945:"Small Modular Reactors – Was ist von den neuen Reaktorkonzepten zu erwarten?" 15392: 15244: 13938:"The role of energy storage in deep decarbonization of electricity production" 13851: 13826: 13703: 11839: 11822: 11358: 11043: 9321: 7976: 7599:"A fast reactor system to shorten the lifetime of long-lived fission products" 5032: 4976: 21316: 21219: 21056: 20946: 20903: 20684: 20561: 20447: 20261: 20139: 19927: 19812: 19792: 19723: 19713: 19554: 19509: 19318: 18609: 18015: 16969: 16925: 16640: 16583: 16548:

Entler, Slavomir; Horacek, Jan; Dlouhy, Tomas; Dostal, Vaclav (1 June 2018).

16246: 16186: 16151:

Entler, Slavomir; Horacek, Jan; Dlouhy, Tomas; Dostal, Vaclav (1 June 2018).

16003: 15400: 15361: 15252: 15217: 15133: 15012: 14711:"Renewables or Nuclear? A New Front in the Academic War Over Decarbonization" 14559:"Current fossil fuel infrastructure does not yet commit us to 1.5 °C warming" 14535: 14504:

Zappa, William; Junginger, Martin; van den Broek, Machteld (1 January 2019).

14434: 14379: 14326: 14274: 14221: 14146: 14071: 13969: 13922: 13870: 13803: 13711: 13448: 13341: 13333: 13306: 13258: 13215: 12402: 12394: 12351: 12161: 11769:"The Bulletin of atomic scientists support the megatons to megawatts program" 11738: 11700: 11189:"Deadliest radiation accidents and other events causing radiation casualties" 11067: 10228: 9647:"What's the Lifespan for a Nuclear Reactor? Much Longer Than You Might Think" 9307: 7697: 7514: 7497: 7331: 7287: 7218: 7157: 7110: 6919: 6875: 6808: 6750: 6646: 6580: 6478: 6470: 4883:

Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement

4334: 4188: 3979: 3770: 3537: 3346: 3308: 2867:

suitable as nuclear fuel for commercial fission reactors by diluting it with

2475: 2395: 2362: 2280: 2040: 1988: 1847: 1696: 1426: 1362: 1273: 1152: 957: 944: 924: 708: 544: 349: 282: 219: 206: 175: 71: 16964:

Containing the Atom: Nuclear Regulation in a Changing Environment, 1993–1971

16797:

Armstrong, Robert C., Catherine Wolfram, Robert Gross, Nathan S. Lewis, and

15310:"Radioactive waste leaking at German storage site: report | DW | 16.04.2018" 11215:"Two years on, America hasn't learned lessons of Fukushima nuclear disaster" 10886: 10254: 8740:

Fedorov, M. I.; Dyachenko, A. I.; Balagurov, N. A.; Artisyuk, V. V. (2015).

8002:"Role of Thorium to Supplement Fuel Cycles of Future Nuclear Energy Systems" 6990:"Hidden military implications of 'building back' with new nuclear in the UK" 6685:

Proceedings of the 27th International Ocean and Polar Engineering Conference

4010:). To generate the same amount of electricity annually (taking into account 2681:

plants are similarly not fully insured against a catastrophic event such as

1750:

Most waste packaging, small-scale experimental fuel recycling chemistry and

336:

The first light bulbs ever lit by electricity generated by nuclear power at

21021: 20979: 20755: 20706: 20642: 20498: 20402: 20159: 20134: 19999: 19968: 19782: 19584: 18884: 18020: 17962: 17889: 17841: 17711: 17017: 16697: 16429: 16067:. Information Services, Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory. Archived from 15812: 15563: 15369: 15260: 15141: 14786: 14600: 14453:"Barriers to Renewable Energy Technologies | Union of Concerned Scientists" 14171: 13987: 13628:"Scientists pour cold water on Bill Gates' nuclear plans | DW | 08.11.2021" 12936: 12496: 12410: 12359: 12215: 12196: 11665: 11102:"Fukushima Retiree Leads Anti-Nuclear Shareholders at Tepco Annual Meeting" 10973: 10895: 10794: 8339: 7877: 7322: 7305: 6967: 5128: 4416:"Reactors Designed by Argonne National Laboratory: Fast Reactor Technology" 4103: 4098: 3701: 3569: 3266: 3083: 2897: 2823: 2634:

is expected to cost tens of billions of dollars over 40 or more years. The

2522: 2420:

Death rates per unit of electricity production for different energy sources

2318: 2142: 1863: 1584: 1431: 1381: 966: 622: 595: 527:

became the world's first nuclear power plant to generate electricity for a

408: 396: 361: 147: 109: 47: 15761: 15744:

Friedlingstein, Pierre; Jones, Matthew W.; et al. (4 November 2021).

10773:

Markandya, A.; Wilkinson, P. (2007). "Electricity generation and health".

7977:"Energy From Thorium: A Nuclear Waste Burning Liquid Salt Thorium Reactor" 5949:"Macron bets on nuclear in carbon-neutrality push, announces new reactors" 2623:

into the surrounding air, resulting in 9 crew fatalities and 83 injuries.

891:

Nuclear power generation (TWh) and operational nuclear reactors since 1997

445:

in the United Kingdom, the world's first commercial nuclear power station.

309:

in 2011, and is too expensive/slow to deploy when compared to alternative

21117: 21061: 20883: 20861: 20856: 20723: 20600: 20566: 20554: 20442: 20365: 19984: 19952: 19745: 19733: 19653: 19579: 19569: 19499: 19295: 18942: 18532: 18039: 18010: 16798: 12976: 12812: 11669: 10372:"Possible nuclear fuel find raises hopes of Fukushima plant breakthrough" 9298: 8943: 6610:

Monnet, Antoine; Gabriel, Sophie; Percebois, Jacques (1 September 2017).

6571: 5447: 4003: 3832: 3549: 3499: 3273: 3035: 2686: 2682: 2491: 2452: 2218: 1508: 1477: 1323: 1265: 1250: 1230: 1184: 1171: 923:

In 2022, the Japanese government, under the leadership of Prime Minister

726:, an increase in the construction of new reactors, due to concerns about 665: 540: 494: 455: 376: 278: 242:

GW, 57 under construction and 102 planned, with a combined capacity of 59

193:

was built in the 1950s. The global installed nuclear capacity grew to 100

63: 16784: 16068: 15799:

Tromans, Stephen (1 March 2019). "State support for nuclear new build".

12865:"Nuclear Energy and the Fossil Fuels 'Drilling and Production Practice'" 11951:"Megatons to Megawatts Eliminates Equivalent of 10,000 Nuclear Warheads" 11674:"A Worst Practices Guide to Insider Threats: Lessons from Past Mistakes" 10338:"Indian-Designed Nuclear Reactor Breaks Record for Continuous Operation" 7481: 7464: 7419: 6504: 5868:"Building new nuclear plants in France uneconomical -environment agency" 5632:"Japan Is Reopening Nuclear Power Plants and Planning To Build New Ones" 1972: 26:

For countries with the power or ability to project nuclear weapons, see

21224: 21041: 20999: 20941: 20910: 20549: 20481: 20419: 20392: 20355: 19947: 19942: 19755: 19738: 19594: 19449: 18648: 14819: 12713: 12263: 11505:"Publications: Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage" 9535: 8658: 8475: 8458: 8442: 8425: 7126:"Estimating Peak uranium production in China – Based on a Stella model" 7021: 4822: 4251: 4066: 3790: 3786: 3148: 3078: 3045: 2527: 2471: 2433: 2286:

Certain designs had considerable early positive economics, such as the

2265: 1704: 1238: 984: 528: 430: 16745:"US announces $ 46 million in funds to eight nuclear fusion companies" 13861: 13794: 13769: 11477:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

11442:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

10876: 10851: 10170:"Nuclear power's reliability is dropping as extreme weather increases" 8726: 7673:. Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission. February 3, 2014. Archived from 7378:. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 1990. p. 76. 4794:

Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy

4326: 3504:

total life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy generated

1821:(RepU), which can be used in a fast reactor, used directly as fuel in 1484: 1054:

Number of electricity-generating civilian reactors by type as of 2014

1038:

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on

875:

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on

847:

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on

197:

GW in the late 1970s, and then expanded during the 1980s, reaching 300

21107: 20989: 20797: 20792: 20770: 20659: 20652: 20471: 20466: 20373: 20350: 19663: 19658: 19544: 19504: 19290: 18653: 18643: 17771: 17724: 17689: 17610: 13533:"Empirically grounded technology forecasts and the energy transition" 10845: 10843: 10841: 8821:"Managing nuclear spent fuel: Policy lessons from a 10-country study" 7182:

Jewell, Jessica; Vetier, Marta; Garcia-Cabrera, Daniel (1 May 2019).

3926: 2913:

with a large body of water, an alternative cooling approach to large

2665: 2589: 2515: 2367: 2302: 1530: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1409:

from the surface area of the ocean floor, both of which maintain the

1401: 1370: 1350: 1199: 1175: 498: 399:

during World War II. It led to the building of larger single-purpose

274: 104: 87: 20213: 19148: 16688: 16663: 16631: 16606: 16492:"Fusion as a Future Power Source: Recent Achievements and Prospects" 16420: 16237: 16212: 15677: 12530:"Life Cycle Assessment Harmonization Results and Findings. Figure 1" 9024: 8718: 8426:"Disposal of High-Level Nuclear Waste in Deep Horizontal Drillholes" 7773:. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers. p. 315. 7304:

Yue, Qiang; He, Jingke; Stamford, Laurence; Azapagic, Adisa (2017).

3982:

equivalent to 11 years of emissions left for limiting warming to 1.5

3648:

added in the timeframe indicated and none are in serial production.

1905: 1476:

Activity of spent UOx fuel in comparison to the activity of natural

1450:

The normal operation of nuclear power plants and facilities produce

429:

January 1954. In 1958 it would become the first vessel to reach the

21234: 20802: 20728: 20669: 20664: 20612: 20522: 20493: 20486: 20476: 20407: 20381: 20377: 20369: 19777: 19379: 19022: 19017: 18957: 18626: 18554: 18537: 18522: 18497: 18240: 17729: 16820: 14741:"Turkey may benefit from nuclear power in its bid for clean energy" 14354: 12705: 10463:"Americans are paying more than ever to store deadly nuclear waste" 10033: 5835:"China's gambling on a nuclear future, but is it destined to lose?" 4015: 3963: 3761: 3697: 3541: 2380: 2111:

differs among European Union countries, and some, such as Austria,

2072: 1803: 1755: 1671: 1385: 1288:

of the proper composition and geometry for the particular reactor.

1285: 1281: 988: 573: 560: 13935: 13475:"New nuclear, LTO among cheapest low carbon options, report shows" 11121:"Japan anti-nuclear protesters rally after PM call to close plant" 10838: 9931: 8164: 7463:

Wang, Taiping; Khangaonkar, Tarang; Long, Wen; Gill, Gary (2014).

6844: 5771:"Can China become a scientific superpower? – The great experiment" 4943:(Berkeley, California: University of California Press), pp. 10–11. 489:

The first organization to develop practical nuclear power was the

21102: 20898: 20893: 20839: 20745: 20674: 20517: 20318: 19698: 19688: 19348: 19300: 19163: 19143: 18542: 18517: 17957: 17788: 17776: 17754: 17719: 16785:

Both series, "Understanding the Atom" and "The World of the Atom"

16124:"The race to give nuclear fusion a role in the climate emergency" 15159:"Kernkraft: 6 Fakten über unseren Atommüll und dessen Entsorgung" 12184:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

11164:

Idaho Falls: The Untold Story of America's First Nuclear Accident

10744: 9737:

Apt, Jay; Keith, David W.; Morgan, M. Granger (January 1, 1970).

8907:

David, S. (2005). "Future Scenarios for Fission Based Reactors".

8739: 5099:"nuclear energy may soon be free from its tangled regulatory web" 4182: 4119: 4086: 3773:

technologies (such as for wind, ocean and solar – including e.g.

3661: 3581: 2840: 2827: 2604:. Another serious accident happened in 1968, when one of the two 2221:

of 7%. Nuclear power was found to be the least-cost option among

2112: 2060: 1916: 1645: 1626:

Radioactive waste § Naturally occurring radioactive material

1338: 1183:. In most commercial reactors, the reaction rate is contained by 1167: 1163:, which transforms the mechanical energy into electrical energy. 163: 83: 15915:""Advanced" Isn't Always Better | Union of Concerned Scientists" 14791:"Renewable energy can power the world, says landmark IPCC study" 13564:"Nuclear energy too slow, too expensive to save climate: report" 12728:"U.S. Energy Legislation May Be 'Renaissance' for Nuclear Power" 9962:"Historical construction costs of global nuclear power reactors" 9261: 8263:"Energy Consumption of the United States - The Physics Factbook" 7253: 7251: 6539:"Environmental Detection of Clandestine Nuclear Weapon Programs" 4495:. U.S. Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratory. 2012. 4418:. U.S. Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratory. 2012. 4145:

To enhance and accelerate the development of fusion energy, the

3970:(GW/year/$ ). This is in contrast to the conceptual studies for 2815:

have produced weapons before commercial nuclear power stations.

1739:". With the advent of new technologies, other methods including 633:

and the construction of new reactors ground to a halt. The 1979

20951: 20916: 20740: 20696: 20544: 20342: 19693: 18952: 18947: 18927: 18907: 18892: 18775: 18512: 18492: 18460: 16342:"Quadrennial technology review concepts in integrated analysis" 14487:"Does Hitachi decision mean the end of UK's nuclear ambitions?" 14112: 14110: 12898: 12127: 12125: 12123: 7643:

An introduction to nuclear waste immobilisation, second edition

5419:"IAEA Head Sees Wide Support for Stricter Nuclear Plant Safety" 4543:"From Obninsk Beyond: Nuclear Power Conference Looks to Future" 3954:

similar analysis, Brook had earlier determined that 50% of all

3657: 2641:

The impact of nuclear accidents is controversial. According to

2376: 1859: 1553: 1495:

The most important waste stream from nuclear power reactors is

1354: 584: 418: 387:

on December 2, 1942. The reactor's development was part of the

15967: 15463:. European Commission Joint Research Centre. 2021. p. 8. 13417: 13272: 13270: 13268: 13185: 10580:"Nuclear-Powered Rockets Get a Second Look for Travel to Mars" 9591:"The challenge for nuclear is to recover its competitive edge" 8582: 8423: 7177: 7175: 5331:"Analysis: Nuclear renaissance could fizzle after Japan quake" 4858:

Public acceptance of new technologies: an international review

4298: 2834:

is a program that successfully implemented this concept, with

2122:

In addition, there were approximately 140 naval vessels using

20984: 20824: 20750: 20537: 19369: 19326: 18989: 18845: 18638: 18502: 14506:"Is a 100% renewable European power system feasible by 2050?" 13593:

Farmer, J. Doyne; Way, Rupert; Mealy, Penny (December 2020).

12552: 12550: 12502:"Nuclear Power Results – Life Cycle Assessment Harmonization" 8178: 7852:. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2005-08-22. 7248: 5801:"A global nuclear phaseout or renaissance? | DW | 04.02.2021" 5658:"January: Taking a fresh look at the future of nuclear power" 4933:

Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective

4305:

Wellerstein, Alex (2008). "Inside the atomic patent office".

2803:, to which 190 countries adhere. As of April 2012, there are 2394:

applications, generating higher mission velocities with less

2287: 1822: 1731: 1331: 1326:(blue) and uranium-235 (red) found in natural uranium and in 588: 451: 337: 306: 16975:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2012. 16272:"Land Needs for Wind, Solar Dwarf Nuclear Plant's Footprint" 14242: 14185: 14107: 13734:"The Future of Nuclear Energy in a Carbon-Constrained World" 12120: 11381:"Chernobyl at 25th anniversary – Frequently Asked Questions" 9742: 8944:"Chapter 7: Energy: Choices for Environment and Development" 5303:

Contemporary Italy: Politics, Economy and Society Since 1945

3998:

The median land area used by US nuclear power stations per 1

3944: 2353:

The most common use of nuclear power in space is the use of

2329: 1249:), to facilitate transport. Fission reactors generally need 1147:. A fission nuclear power plant is generally composed of: a 20929: 20785: 20780: 20760: 20634: 20585: 20429: 19648: 18850: 18739: 18549: 18507: 14823: 14503: 13504:"Projected Costs of Generating Electricity 2020 – Analysis" 13411: 13265: 12258: 12256: 12254: 10943: 10647:. United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2018-07-06. 8729:– via Office of Scientific and Technical Information. 7172: 6678: 5599:"Japan turns back to nuclear power in post-Fukushima shift" 4115: 4083: 4038:

Current fission reactors in operation around the world are

3732:

amount to ≈$ 68 billion as of 2019 and are increasing, the

3545: 3488: 2765: 2585: 2474:

has caused more deaths per unit of energy generated due to

2371:

space probe. A few space vehicles have been launched using

2306: 2211: 2202:(LCOE) from a new nuclear power plant is estimated to be 69 1727: 1692: 696: 692: 631:

120 Light Water Reactor proposals were ultimately cancelled

615: 524: 357: 270: 14613: 13818: 12547: 12173: 12171: 12096:"Nuclear energy and water use in the columbia river basin" 11035: 10768: 10766: 9350: 8456: 7181: 6955: 6509:

Faculty of Law, Humanities and the Arts – Papers (Archive)

6029: 6027: 4903:. Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press. pp. 2305:

electricity. Due to the on-line refueling reactor design,

1834:

and varied perceptions of increasing the vulnerability to

20888: 20532: 18823: 18687: 16547: 16299: 16297: 16150: 14762: 13824: 13313: 12064:"Life Cycle Assessment of Electricity Generation Options" 12001: 11191:. Database of Radiological Incidents and Related Events. 9960:

Lovering, Jessica R.; Yip, Arthur; Nordhaus, Ted (2016).

9622:"World Nuclear Power Reactors & Uranium Requirements" 9140:"Fast Neutron Reactors | FBR – World Nuclear Association" 7793: 7713:

Bruno, Jordi; Duro, Laura; Diaz-Maurin, François (2020).

7299: 7297: 6951: 6949: 6947: 6945: 6943: 6941: 6939: 6937: 6888: 6771: 6714: 5503: 4797:. Detroit, Michigan: Longman Current Affairs. p. 1. 3967: 2875: 2626:

The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident was caused by the

2467: 2043:(TWh) of electricity in 2019, equivalent to about 10% of 1912:

is in the commissioning phase, with plans to build more.

1813:

The main constituent of spent fuel from LWRs is slightly

1678:, resulting in a similar volume of spent fuel generated. 1667: 1568: 1444: 1346: 222:(TWh) of electricity in 2019, equivalent to about 10% of 16841:

In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age

15644: 15642: 15338: 14159: 13162:

In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age

12251: 10549:"Nuclear Reactors for Space – World Nuclear Association" 10251:"The Canadian Nuclear FAQ – Section A: CANDU Technology" 7080: 5388:"Analysis: The legacy of the Fukushima nuclear disaster" 4596: 4594: 2936: 2832:

European Gaseous Diffusion Uranium Enrichment Consortium

1941:

Nuclear decommissioning is the process of dismantling a

1529:

High-level waste (HLW) must be stored isolated from the

512:, was put to sea in January 1954. The S1W reactor was a 16993: 16966:, Berkeley, California: University of California Press. 16852:

Power to Save the World: the Truth about Nuclear Energy

14975: 14089:"The controversial future of nuclear power in the U.S." 13373: 13051:"Energy Revolution: A Sustainable World Energy Outlook" 12461: 12459: 12457: 12168: 11797: 10763: 10696: 10694: 7462: 6774:"Prospects in China for nuclear development up to 2050" 6394:"Nuclear Reprocessing: Dangerous, Dirty, and Expensive" 6024: 1976:

The status of nuclear power globally (click for legend)

1439:

fuel before and after approximately three years in the

1345:

in the Earth's crust: it is approximately as common as

653:

abandoned since 1986, with the Chernobyl plant and the

568:

and 1990s in Europe, the flat electric grid growth and

462: 254:

TWh of low-carbon electricity per year with an average

16605:

Nam, Hoseok; Nam, Hyungseok; Konishi, Satoshi (2021).

16294: 16211:

Nam, Hoseok; Nam, Hyungseok; Konishi, Satoshi (2021).

15648: 14678:"What's missing from the 100% renewable energy debate" 12790:. World Nuclear Association. June 2010. Archived from 11435:"UNSCEAR 2008 Report to the General Assembly, Annex D" 9408:"Backgrounder on Decommissioning Nuclear Power Plants" 8526:"Nuclear Fuel Recycling: More Trouble Than It's Worth" 7800:. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. p. 91. 7294: 6934: 6609: 6273:

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

2740:

in 1971. The arsonist was a plant maintenance worker.

2190:

monopolies. Many countries have since liberalized the

661: 15639: 14616:"What It Would Really Take to Reverse Climate Change" 14339: 11821:

Miller, Steven E. & Sagan, Scott D. (Fall 2009).

11100:

Yamazaki, Tomoko & Ozasa, Shunichi (2011-06-27).

10670:"What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy?" 10365: 10363: 9314: 7303: 5896: 4605:

The Nuclear Energy Option: An Alternative for the 90s

4591: 4149:(DOE) granted $ 46 million to eight firms, including 2931:

Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources

1743:

into geologically inactive areas have been proposed.

1612:

The nuclear industry also produces a large volume of

16957:: World Nuclear Industry Status as of 1 January 2016 16828:

Clarfield, Gerald H. and Wiecek, William M. (1984).

15606: 15604: 15602: 13396:. World-nuclear-news.org. 2007-04-26. Archived from 12454: 12041:. United States: National Public Radio. 2009-12-05. 12035:"Future Unclear For 'Megatons To Megawatts' Program" 11689:"Damage Is Put at Millions In Blaze at Con Ed Plant" 11603:

Ferguson, Charles D. & Settle, Frank A. (2012).

11139:

IDO-19313: Additional Analysis of the SL-1 Excursion

11014:"Nuclear Risk and Fear, from Hiroshima to Fukushima" 10691: 9835:

As of 2001, about 235 naval reactors had been built.

9200:"India's breeder reactor to be commissioned in 2013" 7712: 7702:(Technical report). Energy Technology Data Exchange. 7645:(2nd ed.). Kidlington, Oxford, U.K.: Elsevier. 6612:"Long-term availability of global uranium resources" 6000:"Nuclear Power Reactors in the World – 2015 Edition" 4955: 4164: 2549:

Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents

2337:(MMRTG), used in several space missions such as the 2313:, generating electricity continuously for 962 days. 904:, one of the largest earthquakes ever recorded. The 16490:Hamacher, T. & Bradshaw, A. M. (October 2001). 16483: 15847: 15743: 11763: 11761: 11759: 9959: 8713:(Technical report). Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 6423:"Toward an Assessment of Future Proliferation Risk" 5992: 4027: 3812: 2514:since 1986, 50,000 households were displaced after 2335:

multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator

722:In the early 2000s, nuclear energy was expecting a 18373:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 16849: 15518:Qvist, Staffan A.; Brook, Barry W. (13 May 2015). 15511: 15042: 14942:"Closing and Decommissioning Nuclear Power Plants" 14041: 14003:2012 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting 12759:"Climate change warriors: It's time to go nuclear" 11605:"The Future of Nuclear Power in the United States" 11336: 11245:"Report Finds Japan Underestimated Tsunami Danger" 11206: 11150:Final Report of Progress July through October 1962 10772: 10740:"Nuclear power 'cheaper, safer' than coal and gas" 10360: 10010: 9589: 8878:"Crisis for Areva's plant as clients shun nuclear" 8555:"Licence granted for Finnish used fuel repository" 8392: 8196: 6717:"Nuclear energy - The solution to climate change?" 5533: 5417:Westall, Sylvia & Dahl, Fredrik (2011-06-24). 5069:"Costs of Nuclear Power Plants – What Went Wrong?" 4896: 4695:"Nuclear Power in France – Why does it Work?" 4602: 4376:. US Naval History and Heritage Command (US Navy). 3506:, has emission values comparable to or lower than 2653:and hydroelectric accidents (primarily due to the 2297:Nuclear power plants, though capable of some grid- 1968:Share of electricity production from nuclear, 2022 672:, a modernized PWR design, to start construction. 16305:"THE ULTIMATE FAST FACTS GUIDE TO NUCLEAR ENERGY" 16266: 16264: 15599: 15281: 15230: 14614:Ross Koningstein; David Fork (18 November 2014). 14000: 13558: 13556: 10074: 10072: 10070: 10003:"Nuclear: New dawn now seems limited to the east" 9240:. World Nuclear Association. 2006. Archived from 9053:. World Nuclear Association. 2006. Archived from 8098:"Coal Ash Is More Radioactive than Nuclear Waste" 7344: 6337:. World Nuclear Association. 2006. Archived from 4724:"Nuclear Share of Electricity Generation in 2019" 3919:for over or during hundreds of thousands of years 2600:which killed the three crew members and caused a 1415:nuclear power to be considered a renewable energy 1384:fuel cycle with a burn up of all the uranium and 554: 98:processes are used in niche applications such as 19:"Atomic power" redirects here. For the film, see 21314: 16704: 16489: 15420: 15418: 14978:"Geological Disposal of Nuclear Waste: a Primer" 14704: 14702: 14295: 13891: 13087:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 44. 12233:"Is nuclear power the answer to climate change?" 11756: 11535:"Nuclear Power's Role in Generating Electricity" 11186: 10430: 10428: 10080:"Projected Costs of Generating Electricity 2020" 9520:(2011). "Towards an electricity-powered world". 7495: 6064:Spyrou, Artemis; Mittig, Wolfgang (2017-12-03). 5541:"Israeli PM cancels plan to build nuclear plant" 5380: 5357: 5355: 4600: 1688:List of radioactive waste treatment technologies 1670:) would require on the order of the volume of a 1619: 1221:Integrated Nuclear Fuel Cycle Information System 16892:Garwin, Richard L. and Charpak, Georges (2001) 16550:"Approximation of the economy of fusion energy" 16373:"4th Generation Nuclear Power – OSS Foundation" 16153:"Approximation of the economy of fusion energy" 15973: 14403: 11427: 11236: 11042:von Hippel, Frank N. (September–October 2011). 10850:Kharecha, Pushker A.; Hansen, James E. (2013). 10813: 10113:. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 2009. 9512: 9410:. United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 9228: 9226: 9224: 8970: 8130:. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Archived from 7824:. The American Physical Society. 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The American Academy of Arts & Sciences. 11602: 10849: 10607: 10605: 10107:Update of the MIT 2003 Future of Nuclear Power 10067: 9736: 9558:"REN 21. Renewables 2014 Global Status Report" 9438:"Share of electricity production from nuclear" 8642: 8395:Our Choice: A Plan to Solve the Climate Crisis 7715:"Chapter 13 – Spent nuclear fuel and disposal" 7053:"Thorium and unconventional uranium resources" 6325: 6323: 6321: 6035:"How does a nuclear reactor make electricity?" 5129:"Nuclear Power: Outlook for New U.S. Reactors" 5097:Ginn, Vance; Raia, Elliott (August 18, 2017). 4951: 4949: 3572:per year (mSv/a) globally. It varies between 1 2756:Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement 2055:. Since electricity accounts for about 25% of 1786:Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement 1754:refinement is conducted within remote-handled 979:by 2050. 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Nuclear power plants also emit no 234:. As of August 2023, there are 19013:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 14860:from the original on March 27, 2019 13019: 12324:Journal of Environmental Management 10370:McCurry, Justin (30 January 2017). 10150:from the original on 21 August 2018 9639: 9109: 8848: 8685:. World Nuclear Association. 2018. 8381: 8053:from the original on 17 August 2018 7950:Monbiot, George (5 December 2011). 7565:"Backgrounder on Radioactive Waste" 7373:"Toxicological profile for thorium" 7348:Isotopes of the Earth's Hydrosphere 6563:10.1146/annurev-earth-060115-012526 6505:"Nuclear power and civil liberties" 6255: 5722:from the original on 15 August 2016 5716:"International Energy outlook 2016" 5605:. 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During this period, newer 182:, reprocessing is seen as a 144:high-level radioactive waste 7: 20185:List of electricity sectors 20180:Electric energy consumption 19898:High-voltage direct current 19873:Electric power transmission 19863:Electric power distribution 19540:Energy return on investment 19233:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 18418: 18180:States with nuclear weapons 15746:"Global Carbon Budget 2021" 15633:10.1016/j.enpol.2011.11.041 15005:10.2113/gselements.12.4.233 14645:Johnson, Nathanael (2018). 14139:10.1016/j.enpol.2016.04.013 13915:10.1016/j.enpol.2012.04.069 13632:Deutsche Welle (www.dw.com) 13146:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.01.040 13009:. Harvard University Press. 12154:10.1016/j.enpol.2016.03.012 11978:Stover, Dawn (2014-02-21). 11542:Congressional Budget Office 11324:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.01.040 10461:Wade, Will (14 June 2019). 10035:The Future of Nuclear Power 9987:10.1016/j.enpol.2016.01.011 9762:. p. 6. 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An attack on a reactor's 2675:Congressional Budget Office 2408:Nuclear safety and security 2208:International Energy Agency 2128:nuclear-powered icebreakers 1854: 1701:Waste Isolation Pilot Plant 1367:McArthur River uranium mine 521:Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant 364:, for the development of a 352:and the elaboration of new 342:Argonne National Laboratory 10: 21364: 20100:Carbon offsets and credits 19818:Three-phase electric power 19246: 19071:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 18195:Tests in the United States 16962:Walker, J. Samuel (1992). 16825:, Oxford University Press. 16771: 14583:10.1038/s41467-018-07999-w 14091:4 May 2021. Archived from 14064:10.1016/j.rser.2014.12.034 14011:10.1109/PESGM.2012.6344997 13962:10.1038/s41467-019-11161-5 13774:AIP Conference Proceedings 13441:10.1016/j.rser.2021.110836 13299:10.1016/j.erss.2014.04.015 12504:. nrel.gov. Archived from 11925:. 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At the assumed CO 2156: 2145:sea water, and for use in 2107:'s low-carbon electricity. 1953: 1934: 1873: 1783: 1777: 1685: 1623: 1605: 1461: 1424: 1303: 1214: 1124: 1114: 612:radioactive waste disposal 570:electricity liberalization 454:experimental station near 327: 320: 316: 303:Fukushima nuclear disaster 203:Three Mile Island accident 174:. All reactors breed some 25: 18: 21292: 21233: 21098: 21091: 20972: 20833:Types / location 20832: 20823: 20633: 20428: 20341: 20311: 20260: 20251: 20193: 20168: 20155:Renewable Energy Payments 20078: 20015: 19977: 19831: 19768: 19679: 19644:Fossil fuel power station 19634: 19627: 19616: 19487: 19401: 19357: 19309: 19266: 19256: 19208: 19196:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 19109: 19091:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 19056: 19039: 18979: 18906: 18898:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 18872: 18863: 18815: 18795: 18748: 18730: 18686: 18591: 18573: 18441: 18428: 18413: 18400: 18355: 18288: 18233: 18224: 18172: 18080: 18071: 18038: 17981: 17943: 17934: 17855: 17787: 17710: 17652: 17648: 17600:Nuclear technology portal 17575: 17523: 17420: 17299: 17264: 17204: 17154: 17112: 17055: 16848:Cravens, Gwyneth (2007). 16816:, Vol 1, 11 January 2016. 15393:10.1038/nature.2014.15290 15245:10.1007/s11948-005-0023-2 13852:10.1016/j.esr.2019.01.007 13704:10.1007/s12027-015-0371-6 13159:Cooke, Stephanie (2009). 12648:"National Safety Council" 11840:10.1162/daed.2009.138.4.7 11359:10.1080/10807030802387556 11162:McKeown, William (2003). 10710:Data from studies by the 10001:Crooks, Ed (2010-09-12). 9463:"Yearly electricity data" 8884:. 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A 2014 analysis of the 3352:Effects of climate change 3294:Climate-smart agriculture 3244:Sustainability accounting 3224:Climate change litigation 2968:Co-benefits of mitigation 2954:Climate change mitigation 2907:pressurized water reactor 2903:Ikata Nuclear Power Plant 2809:nine have nuclear weapons 2718:radioactive contamination 2716:in an attempt to release 2594:Idaho National Laboratory 2573:, are ranked at level 7. 2561:(INES) introduced by the 2401: 2223:dispatchable technologies 1868:pressurized water reactor 1641:effective dose equivalent 1135:Nuclear power plants are 1016:pressurized water reactor 641:Chernobyl and renaissance 514:pressurized water reactor 479:Atomic Energy Act of 1954 381:The University of Chicago 344:-West, December 20, 1951. 191:first nuclear power plant 21343:Power station technology 19938:Single-wire earth return 19878:Electrical busbar system 19535:Energy demand management 19101:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 18717:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 18053:Electron-beam processing 17049:Nuclear power by country 16973:The Rise of Nuclear Fear 16907:Mahaffey, James (2015). 13334:10.1177/2399654418777765 13007:The Rise of Nuclear Fear 12395:10.1111/0272-4332.206070 11068:10.1177/0096340211421588 8849:Kok, Kenneth D. 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The 1871: 1759: 1708: 1499:, which is considered 1492: 1481: 1447: 1335: 1212: 1170:hits the nucleus of a 1137:thermal power stations 1019: 965: 947:(TWh) in 2012 to 4,500 792: Other renewables 673: 658: 627:nuclear power conflict 519:On June 27, 1954, the 485:First power generation 446: 434: 403:for the production of 345: 52: 44: 20125:Fossil fuel phase-out 19893:Electricity retailing 19888:Electrical substation 19868:Electric power system 18378:Anti-nuclear movement 17585:Nuclear energy policy 16397:Gerstner, E. (2009). 16278:. NEI. July 9, 2015. 15762:10.5194/essd-2021-386 13942:Nature Communications 13570:. 24 September 2019. 13383:, Retrieved 2007-6-12 13120:Sovacool, Benjamin K. 12500:(NREL) (2013-01-24). 12039:All Things Considered 11917:Sovacool, Benjamin K. 11892:www.world-nuclear.org 11865:. 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The 1979 50: 38: 21208:remnant natural area 20845:storage and recovery 20511:habitat conservation 20329:Deforestation (REDD) 19481:Electricity delivery 19286:Reversed field pinch 19081:Traveling-wave (TWR) 18565:Supercritical (SCWR) 18063:Gemstone irradiation 16819:Brown, Kate (2013). 15813:10.1093/jwelb/jwy035 15658:WIREs Climate Change 15284:Environmental Ethics 13602:University of Oxford 13540:University of Oxford 12008:Corley, Anne-Marie. 11888:"Uranium Enrichment" 10146:. 12 November 2009. 10140:"Splitting the cost" 9702:EU energy in figures 9083:World Energy Council 8522:von Hippel, Frank N. 8204:"Why nuclear energy" 7408:Analytical Chemistry 5874:. 10 December 2018. 4752:Garb, Paula (1999). 4573:Hill, C. N. (2013). 4390:The Atomic Age Opens 4374:"Nautilus (SSN-571)" 4213:Pro-nuclear movement 3887: Nuclear (4.9%) 3683:source that reduces 3635:Pro-nuclear movement 3625:Nuclear power debate 3566:background radiation 3284:Carbon sequestration 3124:Environmental design 3016:Fossil fuel vehicles 2887:Environmental impact 2865:low enriched uranium 2805:thirty one countries 2714:nuclear power plants 2694:Attacks and sabotage 2655:Banqiao Dam disaster 2651:liquid petroleum gas 2643:Benjamin K. Sovacool 2617:fuel element failure 2510:, the world's worst 2461:containment building 2442:criticality accident 2249:USD/MWh) and gas (71 1870:in the United States 1780:Nuclear reprocessing 1697:Nuclear waste flasks 1676:low enriched uranium 1581:molten salt reactors 1573:transuranic elements 1378:Nuclear reprocessing 1209:nuclear reprocessing 981:Department of Energy 738:began construction. 657:arch in the distance 598:concerns related to 184:weapon proliferation 92:nuclear power plants 21162:Earth Overshoot Day 20736:Marine conservation 20717:non-timber products 20090:Availability factor 20042:Sulfur hexafluoride 19923:Overhead power line 19823:Virtual power plant 19798:Induction generator 19751:Sustainable biofuel 19560:Home energy storage 19550:Grid energy storage 19515:Droop speed control 18451:Aqueous homogeneous 18246:Reprocessed uranium 17919:Safety and security 16935:Scientific American 16856:. New York: Knopf. 16832:, Harper & Row. 16680:2014Natur.505....9G 16623:2021IJER...4511992N 16566:2018Ene...152..489E 16229:2021IJER...4511992N 16169:2018Ene...152..489E 16030:Scientific American 15988:2021BuAtS..77d.207M 15861:. 12 October 2021. 15780:on 24 November 2021 15670:2015WIRCC...6...93L 15625:2012EnPol..42....4B 15536:2015PLoSO..1024074Q 15342:Bioelectrochemistry 15202:2008JNuM..379..142R 15118:2008JCHyd.102..180G 14997:2016Eleme..12..233E 14917:Scientific American 14797:. London, England. 14717:. Greentech Media. 14575:2019NatCo..10..101S 14518:2019ApEn..233.1027Z 14419:2017Ene...138..185M 14364:2020Ene...19517015K 14311:2018Ene...145..856M 14259:2019FusED.146.2189B 14204:2020Ene...19516948L 14131:2016EnPol..96..740K 14056:2015RSERv..44..447A 13954:2019NatCo..10.3413A 13907:2012EnPol..47..282H 13843:2019EneSR..24....1B 13786:2019AIPC.2126m0003C 13510:. 9 December 2020. 13433:2021RSERv.14310836W 13291:2014ERSS....2..115R 13243:2017Ene...124..372G 13200:2003NuEnD.222..299R 13138:2008EnPol..36.1802S 12953:. 22 October 2008. 12442:on 25 November 2021 12387:2000RiskA..20..763A 12336:2018JEnvM.209...81P 12146:2016EnPol..93..236R 11351:2008HERA...14..947B 11316:2008EnPol..36.1802S 11221:. London, England. 11060:2011BuAtS..67e..27V 10868:2013EnST...47.4889K 10344:. 1 February 2019. 10314:. 25 October 2018. 10213:2021NatEn...6..755A 9978:2016EnPol..91..371L 9854:on October 15, 2007 9372:2017PNuE...99..155I 9328:. 17 October 2016. 9280:2020EnPol.14411677I 9017:1983AmJPh..51...75C 8921:2005NuPhA.751..429D 8795:2018NuEnD.330..297L 8758:2015NEneT...1..111F 8651:"Nuclear Wasteland" 8601:2014Ene....69..199P 8530:Scientific American 8496:Scientific American 8210:. 26 January 2021. 8134:on February 5, 2007 8102:Scientific American 7928:. London, England. 7671:nuclearsafety.gc.ca 7482:10.3390/jmse2010081 7420:10.1021/ac00288a030 7272:2017AnNuE.110.1156X 7203:2019EnPol.128..838J 7142:2018EnPol.120..250F 7095:2017PNuE...99...81D 6904:2021RSERv.14010740S 6860:2013AnNuE..58..213G 6793:2018PNuE..103...81C 6733:2021EnPol.15512363M 6631:2017RePol..53..394M 6555:2016AREPS..44...17K 6214:on January 16, 2013 6070:Scientific American 5777:. 12 January 2019. 5634:. August 25, 2022. 5423:Scientific American 5103:Washington Examiner 5073:www.phyast.pitt.edu 4827:Social Alternatives 4634:. Soshisha, Japan. 4519:The Rickover Effect 4319:2008BuAtS..64b..26W 3988:proliferation risks 3779:their intermittency 3764:in northern Germany 3362:Ethical consumerism 3357:Energy conservation 3069:Building insulation 2679:Hydroelectric power 2506:Following the 2011 2488:Frank N. von Hippel 2241:emission cost of 30 2227:Variable renewables 2135:hydrogen production 2015: Nuclear (10%) 1851:and 9% from Japan. 1819:reprocessed uranium 1752:radiopharmaceutical 1341:is a fairly common 1205:nuclear power plant 1117:Nuclear power plant 780: hydroelectric 724:nuclear renaissance 563:(GW) in 1960 to 100 401:production reactors 21:Atomic Power (film) 21338:Nuclear technology 21147:Ecosystem services 20270:Ambient standards 19964:Transmission tower 19575:Nameplate capacity 19365:Dense plasma focus 18280:Actinide chemistry 17745:Isotope separation 17642:Nuclear technology 17011:2022-07-11 at the 16999:2011-07-08 at the 16808:2016-05-23 at the 16790:2019-01-07 at the 16617:(8): 11992–12012. 16223:(8): 11992–12012. 15075:"High-Level Waste" 14493:. 17 January 2019. 13379:2020-04-06 at the 13368:2007-07-14 at the 11731:The New York Times 11693:The New York Times 11511:. 27 August 2014. 11423:on 30 August 2013. 11249:The New York Times 11145:2011-09-27 at the 11018:The New York Times 10529:2021-12-04 at the 10312:World Nuclear News 9932:"Synapse Energy |" 9917:2021-11-29 at the 9536:10.1039/c1ee01249e 9174:The Times of India 9110:Kessler, Rebecca. 8635:2017-05-25 at the 8559:World Nuclear News 8476:10.3390/en13040833 8443:10.3390/en12112052 8320:The Powers That Be 8181:. Yankeerowe.com. 7952:"A Waste of Waste" 7696:Hedin, A. (1997). 5833:Griffiths, James. 5486:The New York Times 5245:. OECD-NEA. 2002. 4938:2023-03-23 at the 4895:Falk, Jim (1982). 4693:de Preneuf, Rene. 4140:the first attempts 4136:plasma containment 4091: 3933:could be used for 3893: Hydro (2.5%) 3829:low-carbon economy 3766: 3734:Fukushima disaster 3730:Chernobyl disaster 3681:sustainable energy 3674: 3523:emission intensity 3514:literature by the 3502:, and in terms of 3492: 3382:Consumer behaviour 3332:Conscious business 3289:Direct air capture 3164:Low-carbon economy 3041:Sustainable energy 2918: 2786: 2778: 2764:United States and 2571:Fukushima accident 2567:Chernobyl accident 2537: 2533:Fukushima accident 2520: 2422: 2345: 2192:electricity market 2124:nuclear propulsion 1978: 1970: 1921:thorium fuel cycle 1872: 1760: 1709: 1661:standard of living 1592:thorium fuel cycle 1497:spent nuclear fuel 1493: 1482: 1468:Spent nuclear fuel 1448: 1336: 1270:uranium enrichment 1258:isotope of uranium 1217:Nuclear fuel cycle 1213: 1161:electric generator 1020: 1014:An animation of a 900:was caused by the 827:Fukushima accident 774: thermofossil 689:Chernobyl disaster 674: 659: 447: 435: 346: 311:sustainable energy 211:Chernobyl disaster 53: 45: 21328:Energy conversion 21310: 21309: 21288: 21287: 21087: 21086: 20766:genetic resources 20702:genetic resources 20337: 20336: 20245:Natural resources 20211: 20210: 20115:Environmental tax 19995:Cascading failure 19764: 19763: 19600:Utility frequency 19447: 19446: 19397: 19396: 19393: 19392: 19344:Magnetized-target 19241: 19240: 19204: 19203: 19035: 19034: 19031: 19030: 18975: 18974: 18859: 18858: 18791: 18790: 18396: 18395: 18351: 18350: 18220: 18219: 18207:Weapon-free zones 18034: 18033: 18026:Radiopharmacology 17608: 17607: 17595:Nuclear accidents 17563: 17550: 17537: 16970:Weart, Spencer R. 16918:978-1-60598-680-7 16911:. Pegasus Books. 16863:978-0-307-26656-9 16529:. 27 October 2019 16476:978-0-935005-07-3 16100:. 27 October 2019 15891:. 15 October 2021 15835:. 18 October 2021 14020:978-1-4673-2729-9 13795:10.1063/1.5117645 13172:978-1-59691-617-3 13094:978-0-7425-1826-1 13003:Weart, Spencer R. 12841:. February 2022. 12679:Our World in Data 11936:978-981-4322-75-1 11284:on March 28, 2009 11173:978-1-55022-562-4 11010:Revkin, Andrew C. 10960:(9992): 479–488. 10877:10.1021/es3051197 10781:(9591): 979–990. 10674:Our World in Data 10553:world-nuclear.org 10467:Los Angeles Times 10049:978-0-615-12420-9 9884:978-92-0-108808-6 9712:978-92-76-19443-9 9530:(9): 3193–3222 . 9518:Balzani, Vincenzo 9467:ember-climate.org 9442:Our World in Data 9114:. E360.yale.edu. 8909:Nuclear Physics A 8862:978-1-4200-5391-3 8410:978-1-59486-734-7 8391:Gore, Al (2009). 8267:hypertextbook.com 8208:Generation Atomic 7807:978-0-309-05289-4 7780:978-0-08-044462-8 7736:978-0-08-102571-0 7677:on April 14, 2022 7652:978-0-08-099392-8 7508:(15): 4101–4362. 7414:(11): 2138–2142. 7358:978-94-007-2856-1 7310:Energy Technology 6282:978-92-64-04766-2 6045:on 24 August 2018 5551:on March 18, 2011 5394:. 10 March 2016. 5313:978-1-317-89377-6 5185:978-1-4380-6728-5 4914:978-0-19-554315-5 4868:978-0-7099-4319-8 4804:978-0-8103-9000-3 4701:on 13 August 2007 4616:978-0-306-43567-6 4584:978-1-908977-43-4 4528:978-1-55750-702-0 4445:Popular Mechanics 4327:10.2968/064002008 4082:Schematic of the 3841:global energy mix 3708:-equivalent (GtCO 3672: 3650:Our World in Data 3481: 3480: 3114:Emissions trading 3001:Energy transition 2861:non-proliferation 2704:Nuclear terrorism 2632:cleanup operation 2359:radioactive decay 2137:(in support of a 2009: Hydro (15%) 1836:nuclear terrorism 1452:radioactive waste 1300:Uranium resources 1157:mechanical energy 1051: 1050: 1011: 977:carbon neutrality 931:Current prospects 888: 887: 860: 859: 621:By the mid-1970s 608:nuclear terrorism 600:nuclear accidents 503:aircraft carriers 467:Dwight Eisenhower 395:effort to create 389:Manhattan Project 383:, which achieved 60:nuclear reactions 21355: 21300: 21299: 21251: 21198:Natural heritage 21157:overexploitation 21096: 21095: 20830: 20829: 20776:herbal medicines 20756:FAO Plant Treaty 20296: 20273: 20258: 20257: 20238: 20231: 20224: 20215: 20214: 20201: 20200: 20110:Energy subsidies 20064:Protective relay 20005:Rolling blackout 19632: 19631: 19622: 19590:Power-flow study 19530:Electrical fault 19474: 19467: 19460: 19451: 19450: 19435: 19434: 19423: 19422: 19412: 19411: 19410: 19322: 19281:Levitated dipole 19251: 19243: 19242: 19191:Helium gas (GFR) 19054: 19053: 19049: 18986: 18985: 18870: 18869: 18820: 18819: 18813: 18812: 18808: 18807: 18589: 18588: 18585: 18584: 18423: 18415: 18414: 18407:Nuclear reactors 18402: 18401: 18301:High-level (HLW) 18231: 18230: 18078: 18077: 18058:Food irradiation 18048:Atomic gardening 17941: 17940: 17924:Nuclear meltdown 17750:Nuclear material 17740:Fissile material 17735:Fertile material 17650: 17649: 17635: 17628: 17621: 17612: 17611: 17561: 17548: 17535: 17042: 17035: 17028: 17019: 17018: 16942:Schneider, Mycle 16922: 16867: 16855: 16836:Cooke, Stephanie 16761: 16760: 16758: 16756: 16741: 16735: 16734: 16732: 16731: 16722:. Archived from 16708: 16702: 16701: 16691: 16659: 16653: 16652: 16634: 16602: 16596: 16595: 16577: 16545: 16539: 16538: 16536: 16534: 16519: 16513: 16512: 16510: 16509: 16503: 16496: 16487: 16481: 16480: 16462: 16456: 16455: 16453: 16452: 16446: 16423: 16403: 16394: 16388: 16387: 16385: 16384: 16369: 16363: 16362: 16360: 16359: 16353: 16346: 16338: 16332: 16331: 16329: 16328: 16322: 16309: 16301: 16292: 16291: 16289: 16287: 16268: 16259: 16258: 16240: 16208: 16199: 16198: 16180: 16148: 16139: 16138: 16136: 16134: 16119: 16110: 16109: 16107: 16105: 16090: 16081: 16079: 16077: 16076: 16065:The ITER Project 16057: 16046: 16045: 16043: 16041: 16022: 16016: 16015: 15971: 15965: 15964: 15962: 15960: 15941: 15935: 15934: 15932: 15930: 15911: 15905: 15904: 15898: 15896: 15881: 15875: 15874: 15872: 15870: 15851: 15845: 15844: 15842: 15840: 15823: 15817: 15816: 15796: 15790: 15789: 15787: 15785: 15779: 15773:. Archived from 15764: 15750: 15741: 15735: 15734: 15732: 15730: 15710: 15704: 15703: 15701: 15700: 15694: 15688:. Archived from 15655: 15646: 15637: 15636: 15608: 15597: 15596: 15594: 15593: 15574: 15568: 15567: 15557: 15547: 15515: 15509: 15508: 15506: 15504: 15485: 15479: 15478: 15476: 15475: 15469: 15462: 15454: 15448: 15447: 15445: 15443: 15437: 15430: 15422: 15413: 15412: 15380: 15374: 15373: 15336: 15330: 15329: 15327: 15325: 15306: 15300: 15299: 15279: 15273: 15272: 15228: 15222: 15221: 15185: 15179: 15178: 15176: 15174: 15155: 15146: 15145: 15101: 15095: 15094: 15092: 15090: 15071: 15065: 15064: 15062: 15060: 15046: 15038: 15032: 15031: 15029: 15027: 15021: 14982: 14973: 14967: 14966: 14964: 14963: 14957: 14946: 14938: 14932: 14931: 14929: 14928: 14908: 14902: 14901: 14899: 14898: 14892: 14886:. Archived from 14885: 14876: 14870: 14869: 14867: 14865: 14845: 14839: 14838: 14836: 14835: 14816: 14810: 14809: 14807: 14806: 14783: 14777: 14776: 14774: 14766: 14760: 14759: 14757: 14756: 14737: 14731: 14730: 14728: 14726: 14706: 14697: 14696: 14694: 14693: 14674: 14668: 14667: 14665: 14664: 14642: 14636: 14635: 14633: 14631: 14611: 14605: 14604: 14594: 14554: 14548: 14547: 14529: 14501: 14495: 14494: 14483: 14477: 14476: 14470: 14468: 14449: 14443: 14442: 14401: 14395: 14394: 14357: 14337: 14331: 14330: 14293: 14287: 14286: 14240: 14234: 14233: 14215: 14183: 14177: 14176: 14174: 14157: 14151: 14150: 14114: 14105: 14104: 14102: 14100: 14085: 14076: 14075: 14039: 14033: 14032: 14005:. pp. 1–5. 13998: 13992: 13991: 13981: 13933: 13927: 13926: 13889: 13883: 13882: 13864: 13854: 13822: 13816: 13815: 13797: 13765: 13759: 13758: 13756: 13755: 13749: 13738: 13730: 13724: 13723: 13687: 13681: 13680: 13678: 13676: 13657: 13648: 13647: 13645: 13643: 13624: 13613: 13612: 13610: 13604:. Archived from 13599: 13590: 13584: 13583: 13581: 13579: 13560: 13551: 13550: 13548: 13542:. Archived from 13537: 13529: 13523: 13522: 13520: 13519: 13500: 13494: 13493: 13491: 13490: 13471: 13465: 13464: 13415: 13409: 13408: 13406: 13405: 13390: 13384: 13360: 13354: 13353: 13317: 13311: 13310: 13274: 13263: 13262: 13226: 13220: 13219: 13183: 13177: 13176: 13156: 13150: 13149: 13132:(5): 1802–1820. 13116: 13110: 13109: 13107: 13106: 13078: 13072: 13071: 13069: 13068: 13062: 13055: 13047: 13041: 13040: 13038: 13037: 13028:. Archived from 13017: 13011: 13010: 12999: 12993: 12992: 12990: 12988: 12973: 12967: 12966: 12964: 12962: 12947: 12941: 12940: 12930: 12920: 12896: 12890: 12889: 12887: 12886: 12880: 12869: 12860: 12854: 12853: 12851: 12850: 12835: 12829: 12828: 12826: 12824: 12809: 12803: 12802: 12800: 12799: 12784: 12778: 12777: 12775: 12774: 12754: 12748: 12746: 12744: 12743: 12734:. Archived from 12724: 12718: 12717: 12689: 12683: 12682: 12670: 12664: 12663: 12661: 12659: 12644: 12638: 12637: 12635: 12634: 12628: 12621: 12613: 12604: 12603: 12601: 12600: 12585: 12579: 12578: 12576: 12575: 12569: 12562: 12554: 12545: 12544: 12542: 12541: 12526: 12520: 12519: 12514: 12513: 12494: 12488: 12487: 12485: 12484: 12478: 12471: 12463: 12452: 12451: 12449: 12447: 12438:. Archived from 12432: 12423: 12422: 12370: 12364: 12363: 12319: 12310: 12309: 12307: 12305: 12289: 12280: 12279: 12277: 12275: 12260: 12249: 12248: 12246: 12244: 12229: 12220: 12219: 12209: 12199: 12175: 12166: 12165: 12129: 12118: 12117: 12115: 12113: 12107: 12100: 12092: 12086: 12085: 12083: 12081: 12075: 12068: 12060: 12054: 12053: 12051: 12050: 12031: 12025: 12024: 12022: 12021: 12005: 11999: 11998: 11996: 11995: 11986:. Archived from 11975: 11966: 11965: 11963: 11962: 11947: 11941: 11940: 11927:World Scientific 11913: 11907: 11906: 11904: 11903: 11884: 11878: 11877: 11875: 11874: 11859: 11853: 11852: 11842: 11818: 11809: 11808: 11806: 11805: 11790: 11784: 11783: 11781: 11780: 11765: 11754: 11753: 11751: 11750: 11722: 11716: 11715: 11713: 11712: 11684: 11678: 11677: 11662: 11656: 11655: 11653: 11651: 11636: 11630: 11629: 11627: 11626: 11620: 11609: 11600: 11591: 11590: 11588: 11587: 11581: 11574: 11566: 11560: 11559: 11557: 11556: 11550: 11539: 11531: 11525: 11524: 11522: 11520: 11501: 11495: 11494: 11492: 11491: 11485: 11474: 11466: 11460: 11459: 11457: 11456: 11450: 11439: 11431: 11425: 11424: 11419:. Archived from 11409: 11403: 11402: 11400: 11398: 11392: 11385: 11377: 11371: 11370: 11334: 11328: 11327: 11310:(5): 1802–1820. 11299: 11293: 11292: 11290: 11289: 11270: 11264: 11263: 11261: 11260: 11240: 11234: 11233: 11231: 11230: 11210: 11204: 11203: 11201: 11200: 11184: 11178: 11177: 11159: 11153: 11135: 11129: 11128: 11116: 11110: 11109: 11097: 11091: 11090: 11088: 11087: 11039: 11033: 11032: 11030: 11029: 11006: 11000: 10999: 10997: 10996: 10990: 10951: 10941: 10935: 10934: 10929:. Archived from 10906: 10900: 10899: 10889: 10887:2060/20140017100 10879: 10862:(9): 4889–4895. 10847: 10836: 10835: 10833: 10832: 10817: 10811: 10810: 10770: 10761: 10760: 10758: 10757: 10735: 10729: 10728: 10726: 10725: 10698: 10689: 10688: 10686: 10685: 10666: 10660: 10659: 10657: 10656: 10641: 10635: 10634: 10632: 10631: 10625: 10618: 10612:Deitrich, L. W. 10609: 10600: 10599: 10597: 10595: 10575: 10569: 10568: 10566: 10564: 10545: 10534: 10524:Energy Subsidies 10521: 10515: 10514: 10512: 10510: 10504: 10497: 10489: 10483: 10482: 10480: 10478: 10458: 10452: 10451: 10449: 10447: 10432: 10423: 10422: 10420: 10418: 10398: 10392: 10391: 10389: 10387: 10367: 10358: 10357: 10355: 10353: 10334: 10328: 10327: 10325: 10323: 10304: 10298: 10297: 10295: 10294: 10288: 10281: 10272: 10266: 10265: 10263: 10262: 10253:. Archived from 10247: 10241: 10240: 10196: 10190: 10189: 10187: 10185: 10176:. 24 July 2021. 10166: 10160: 10159: 10157: 10155: 10136: 10130: 10129: 10127: 10125: 10119: 10112: 10102: 10096: 10095: 10093: 10091: 10076: 10065: 10064: 10062: 10061: 10030: 10024: 10023: 10021: 10020: 10014: 9998: 9992: 9991: 9989: 9957: 9951: 9950: 9948: 9947: 9928: 9922: 9907: 9901: 9900: 9898: 9896: 9869: 9863: 9862: 9860: 9859: 9844: 9838: 9837: 9832: 9831: 9825: 9819:. Archived from 9818: 9809: 9803: 9802: 9800: 9799: 9784: 9778: 9777: 9775: 9774: 9768: 9761: 9753: 9747: 9746: 9741:. Archived from 9734: 9728: 9727: 9725: 9724: 9697: 9691: 9690: 9688: 9687: 9672: 9666: 9665: 9663: 9662: 9643: 9637: 9636: 9634: 9633: 9618: 9612: 9611: 9609: 9607: 9593: 9585: 9579: 9578: 9576: 9575: 9569: 9562: 9554: 9548: 9547: 9514:Armaroli, Nicola 9510: 9504: 9503: 9501: 9500: 9485: 9479: 9478: 9476: 9474: 9459: 9453: 9452: 9450: 9448: 9434: 9428: 9427: 9421: 9419: 9404: 9398: 9397: 9395: 9394: 9388: 9357: 9348: 9342: 9341: 9339: 9337: 9318: 9312: 9311: 9301: 9291: 9259: 9253: 9252: 9250: 9249: 9230: 9219: 9218: 9216: 9215: 9206:. Archived from 9196: 9190: 9189: 9187: 9185: 9166: 9160: 9159: 9157: 9155: 9136: 9127: 9126: 9124: 9123: 9107: 9101: 9100: 9098: 9097: 9091: 9085:. Archived from 9080: 9072: 9066: 9065: 9063: 9062: 9043: 9037: 9036: 9000: 8998: 8997: 8974: 8968: 8967: 8961: 8959: 8939: 8933: 8932: 8904: 8898: 8897: 8895: 8893: 8873: 8867: 8866: 8846: 8840: 8839: 8837: 8836: 8827:. Archived from 8816: 8807: 8806: 8778: 8772: 8771: 8769: 8737: 8731: 8730: 8704: 8698: 8697: 8695: 8694: 8679: 8670: 8669: 8667: 8666: 8657:. Archived from 8646: 8640: 8626: 8615: 8614: 8612: 8580: 8574: 8573: 8571: 8570: 8551: 8545: 8544: 8542: 8541: 8518: 8512: 8511: 8509: 8508: 8487: 8481: 8480: 8478: 8454: 8448: 8447: 8445: 8421: 8415: 8414: 8398: 8388: 8379: 8378: 8376: 8375: 8360: 8354: 8353: 8351: 8350: 8344: 8338:. Archived from 8337: 8329: 8323: 8316: 8307: 8306: 8304: 8303: 8288: 8282: 8281: 8279: 8278: 8259: 8253: 8252: 8250: 8249: 8230: 8224: 8223: 8221: 8219: 8200: 8194: 8193: 8191: 8190: 8175: 8169: 8168: 8149: 8143: 8142: 8140: 8139: 8123: 8117: 8116: 8114: 8113: 8094: 8088: 8087: 8085: 8084: 8075:. Archived from 8069: 8063: 8062: 8060: 8058: 8039: 8033: 8032: 8028: 8021: 8019: 8013: 8006: 7998: 7992: 7991: 7989: 7988: 7973: 7967: 7966: 7964: 7963: 7947: 7941: 7940: 7938: 7937: 7917: 7911: 7908: 7902: 7901: 7896: 7895: 7889: 7882: 7874: 7868: 7867: 7865: 7864: 7858: 7851: 7843: 7837: 7836: 7834: 7833: 7818: 7812: 7811: 7791: 7785: 7784: 7766: 7760: 7759: 7757: 7756: 7710: 7704: 7703: 7693: 7687: 7686: 7684: 7682: 7663: 7657: 7656: 7638: 7632: 7631: 7629: 7628: 7619:. Archived from 7609: 7603: 7602: 7595: 7589: 7588: 7586: 7584: 7561: 7552: 7551: 7549: 7542: 7533: 7520: 7519: 7517: 7493: 7487: 7486: 7484: 7460: 7454: 7453: 7451: 7449: 7433: 7424: 7423: 7403: 7397: 7396: 7391: 7390: 7384: 7377: 7369: 7363: 7362: 7342: 7336: 7335: 7325: 7301: 7292: 7291: 7255: 7246: 7245: 7243: 7241: 7235: 7188: 7179: 7170: 7169: 7121: 7115: 7114: 7078: 7072: 7071: 7069: 7068: 7048: 7042: 7041: 7039: 7037: 7018: 7012: 7011: 7009: 7007: 7001: 6994: 6986: 6973: 6972: 6970: 6953: 6932: 6931: 6886: 6880: 6879: 6842: 6836: 6835: 6833: 6831: 6825: 6778: 6769: 6763: 6762: 6744: 6712: 6701: 6700: 6698: 6696: 6676: 6670: 6669: 6663: 6661: 6655: 6619:Resources Policy 6616: 6607: 6601: 6600: 6594: 6592: 6574: 6534: 6525: 6524: 6522: 6520: 6500: 6491: 6490: 6454: 6445: 6444: 6442: 6440: 6434: 6427: 6419: 6410: 6409: 6407: 6405: 6390: 6375: 6374:and figure 4.10. 6373: 6371: 6364: 6356: 6350: 6349: 6347: 6346: 6327: 6316: 6314: 6312: 6305: 6297: 6291: 6290: 6285:. Archived from 6259: 6253: 6252: 6250: 6249: 6230: 6224: 6223: 6221: 6219: 6213: 6202: 6194: 6188: 6187: 6185: 6184: 6173:Encyclopedia.com 6165: 6159: 6158: 6156: 6154: 6135: 6122: 6121: 6119: 6117: 6094: 6085: 6084: 6082: 6081: 6061: 6055: 6054: 6052: 6050: 6031: 6022: 6021: 6019: 6017: 6011: 6004: 5996: 5990: 5989: 5987: 5985: 5970: 5964: 5963: 5961: 5960: 5945: 5939: 5938: 5936: 5935: 5920: 5914: 5913: 5911: 5910: 5894: 5888: 5887: 5885: 5883: 5864: 5855: 5854: 5852: 5850: 5830: 5821: 5820: 5818: 5816: 5797: 5791: 5790: 5788: 5786: 5767: 5761: 5760: 5758: 5757: 5738: 5732: 5731: 5729: 5727: 5712: 5706: 5705: 5703: 5702: 5693:. October 2015. 5683: 5677: 5676: 5674: 5673: 5654: 5648: 5647: 5645: 5643: 5628: 5619: 5618: 5616: 5614: 5595: 5589: 5588: 5586: 5585: 5566: 5560: 5559: 5557: 5556: 5537: 5531: 5530: 5528: 5527: 5518:. Archived from 5507: 5501: 5500: 5498: 5497: 5477: 5471: 5470: 5468: 5467: 5444: 5438: 5437: 5435: 5434: 5425:. Archived from 5414: 5408: 5407: 5405: 5403: 5384: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5374: 5359: 5350: 5349: 5347: 5346: 5327: 5318: 5317: 5297: 5291: 5289: 5287: 5286: 5268: 5262: 5261: 5259: 5257: 5251: 5244: 5236: 5227: 5226: 5224: 5222: 5203: 5197: 5189: 5171: 5165: 5164: 5156: 5150: 5149: 5147: 5146: 5140: 5133: 5125: 5119: 5118: 5116: 5114: 5094: 5088: 5087: 5085: 5084: 5065: 5059: 5058: 5056: 5055: 5049: 5018: 5009: 5003: 5002: 5000: 4999: 4993: 4962: 4953: 4944: 4928: 4919: 4918: 4902: 4892: 4886: 4879: 4873: 4872: 4852: 4846: 4845: 4843: 4842: 4815: 4809: 4808: 4788: 4777: 4776: 4774: 4773: 4764:. Archived from 4749: 4743: 4742: 4740: 4739: 4720: 4711: 4710: 4708: 4706: 4697:. Archived from 4690: 4684: 4683: 4681: 4679: 4653: 4647: 4646: 4644: 4643: 4627: 4621: 4620: 4608: 4598: 4589: 4588: 4570: 4564: 4563: 4561: 4560: 4539: 4533: 4532: 4514: 4508: 4507: 4505: 4504: 4489: 4483: 4482: 4480: 4479: 4473: 4466: 4458: 4449: 4448: 4437: 4431: 4430: 4428: 4427: 4412: 4406: 4405: 4403: 4402: 4384: 4378: 4377: 4370: 4364: 4363: 4361: 4360: 4345: 4339: 4338: 4302: 4296: 4295: 4293: 4291: 4277: 4271: 4270: 4268: 4267: 4248: 4191: 4186: 4185: 4177: 4172: 4171: 4170: 4044:third generation 4012:capacity factors 4001: 3985: 3931:enriched uranium 3898: 3892: 3886: 3880: 3874: 3868: 3862: 3838: 3802:low carbon power 3715: 3685:carbon emissions 3666: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3599: 3594:coal power plant 3591: 3587: 3579: 3575: 3528: 3520:total life-cycle 3512:carbon footprint 3508:renewable energy 3473: 3466: 3459: 3441: 3440: 3429: 3428: 3422: 3418: 3417: 3416: 3159:Impact investing 3031:Renewable energy 2941: 2940: 2925:Carbon emissions 2874: 2647:energy accidents 2621:fission products 2578:Kyshtym disaster 2541:Energy accidents 2512:nuclear accident 2480:energy accidents 2449:void coefficient 2430:fission products 2392:space propulsion 2373:nuclear reactors 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2236: 2232: 2205: 2188:electric utility 2178: 2147:district heating 2139:hydrogen economy 2086: 2082: 2078: 2053:hydroelectricity 2049:low-carbon power 2033: Other (5%) 2032: 2027: Solar (4%) 2026: 2020: 2014: 2008: 2002: 1997: Coal (36%) 1996: 1943:nuclear facility 1890:breeder reactors 1886:fertile material 1840:fission products 1815:enriched uranium 1717:dry cask storage 1666: 1663:(approximately 3 1543:fission products 1539:dry cask storage 1535:spent fuel pools 1505:fission products 1501:high-level waste 1489:Dry cask storage 1464:High-level waste 1458:High-level waste 1328:enriched uranium 1109: 1104: 1100: 1095: 1091: 1086: 1082: 1077: 1073: 1068: 1064: 1059: 1033: 1032: 1025: 1012: 970: 950: 870: 869: 862: 842: 841: 834: 818: 802: 791: 785: 779: 773: 763: 747: 714: 707: 703: 683: 679: 566: 473:" speech at the 461: 291:greenhouse gases 267:carbon emissions 253: 249: 245: 241: 232:hydroelectricity 228:low-carbon power 217: 200: 196: 140:spent fuel pools 124:enriched uranium 120:thermal reactors 21363: 21362: 21358: 21357: 21356: 21354: 21353: 21352: 21313: 21312: 21311: 21306: 21284: 21249: 21229: 21215:Systems ecology 21181:Natural capital 21083: 20968: 20957:reclaimed water 20819: 20781:UPOV Convention 20629: 20424: 20333: 20307: 20303:Ozone depletion 20294: 20271: 20247: 20242: 20212: 20207: 20189: 20173: 20171: 20164: 20095:Capacity factor 20083: 20081: 20074: 20054:Numerical relay 20032:Circuit breaker 20020: 20018: 20011: 19973: 19913:Load management 19883:Electrical grid 19848:Demand response 19841: 19836: 19827: 19808:Microgeneration 19760: 19675: 19623: 19614: 19610:Vehicle-to-grid 19483: 19478: 19448: 19443: 19408: 19406: 19389: 19353: 19320: 19305: 19262: 19252: 19247: 19237: 19200: 19105: 19050: 19043: 19042: 19027: 18971: 18902: 18877: 18855: 18827: 18809: 18802: 18801: 18800: 18787: 18753: 18744: 18726: 18691: 18682: 18596: 18579: 18578: 18577: 18569: 18483:Natural fission 18437: 18436: 18424: 18419: 18409: 18392: 18368:Nuclear weapons 18347: 18306:Low-level (LLW) 18284: 18216: 18168: 18067: 18030: 17977: 17930: 17851: 17783: 17706: 17644: 17639: 17609: 17604: 17571: 17519: 17422: 17421:Abandoned plans 17416: 17295: 17268: 17260: 17208: 17200: 17158: 17150: 17117: 17108: 17060: 17051: 17046: 17013:Wayback Machine 17001:Wayback Machine 16990: 16950:Antony Froggatt 16919: 16864: 16810:Wayback Machine 16792:Wayback Machine 16780: 16770: 16768:Further reading 16765: 16764: 16754: 16752: 16743: 16742: 16738: 16729: 16727: 16710: 16709: 16705: 16689:10.1038/505009a 16660: 16656: 16632:10.1002/er.5994 16603: 16599: 16546: 16542: 16532: 16530: 16521: 16520: 16516: 16507: 16505: 16501: 16494: 16488: 16484: 16477: 16463: 16459: 16450: 16448: 16444: 16421:10.1038/460025a 16414:(7251): 25–28. 16401: 16395: 16391: 16382: 16380: 16371: 16370: 16366: 16357: 16355: 16351: 16344: 16340: 16339: 16335: 16326: 16324: 16320: 16307: 16303: 16302: 16295: 16285: 16283: 16270: 16269: 16262: 16238:10.1002/er.5994 16209: 16202: 16149: 16142: 16132: 16130: 16120: 16113: 16103: 16101: 16092: 16091: 16084: 16074: 16072: 16059: 16058: 16049: 16039: 16037: 16024: 16023: 16019: 15972: 15968: 15958: 15956: 15943: 15942: 15938: 15928: 15926: 15913: 15912: 15908: 15894: 15892: 15883: 15882: 15878: 15868: 15866: 15853: 15852: 15848: 15838: 15836: 15832:TheGuardian.com 15825: 15824: 15820: 15797: 15793: 15783: 15781: 15777: 15748: 15742: 15738: 15728: 15726: 15711: 15707: 15698: 15696: 15692: 15678:10.1002/wcc.324 15653: 15647: 15640: 15609: 15600: 15591: 15589: 15576: 15575: 15571: 15530:(5): e0124074. 15516: 15512: 15502: 15500: 15487: 15486: 15482: 15473: 15471: 15467: 15460: 15456: 15455: 15451: 15441: 15439: 15435: 15428: 15424: 15423: 15416: 15381: 15377: 15337: 15333: 15323: 15321: 15308: 15307: 15303: 15280: 15276: 15229: 15225: 15186: 15182: 15172: 15170: 15163:www.spektrum.de 15157: 15156: 15149: 15102: 15098: 15088: 15086: 15073: 15072: 15068: 15058: 15056: 15049:Financial Times 15039: 15035: 15025: 15023: 15019: 14980: 14974: 14970: 14961: 14959: 14955: 14944: 14940: 14939: 14935: 14926: 14924: 14909: 14905: 14896: 14894: 14890: 14883: 14877: 14873: 14863: 14861: 14846: 14842: 14833: 14831: 14818: 14817: 14813: 14804: 14802: 14784: 14780: 14772: 14768: 14767: 14763: 14754: 14752: 14747:. 6 July 2019. 14739: 14738: 14734: 14724: 14722: 14707: 14700: 14691: 14689: 14676: 14675: 14671: 14662: 14660: 14643: 14639: 14629: 14627: 14612: 14608: 14555: 14551: 14502: 14498: 14485: 14484: 14480: 14466: 14464: 14451: 14450: 14446: 14402: 14398: 14338: 14334: 14294: 14290: 14241: 14237: 14184: 14180: 14158: 14154: 14115: 14108: 14098: 14096: 14087: 14086: 14079: 14040: 14036: 14021: 13999: 13995: 13934: 13930: 13890: 13886: 13823: 13819: 13766: 13762: 13753: 13751: 13747: 13736: 13732: 13731: 13727: 13688: 13684: 13674: 13672: 13659: 13658: 13651: 13641: 13639: 13626: 13625: 13616: 13608: 13597: 13591: 13587: 13577: 13575: 13562: 13561: 13554: 13546: 13535: 13531: 13530: 13526: 13517: 13515: 13502: 13501: 13497: 13488: 13486: 13473: 13472: 13468: 13416: 13412: 13403: 13401: 13392: 13391: 13387: 13381:Wayback Machine 13370:Wayback Machine 13361: 13357: 13318: 13314: 13275: 13266: 13227: 13223: 13184: 13180: 13173: 13157: 13153: 13117: 13113: 13104: 13102: 13095: 13079: 13075: 13066: 13064: 13060: 13053: 13049: 13048: 13044: 13035: 13033: 13018: 13014: 13000: 12996: 12986: 12984: 12975: 12974: 12970: 12960: 12958: 12949: 12948: 12944: 12911:(7): e1002856. 12897: 12893: 12884: 12882: 12878: 12867: 12861: 12857: 12848: 12846: 12837: 12836: 12832: 12822: 12820: 12811: 12810: 12806: 12797: 12795: 12786: 12785: 12781: 12772: 12770: 12755: 12751: 12741: 12739: 12726: 12725: 12721: 12690: 12686: 12671: 12667: 12657: 12655: 12646: 12645: 12641: 12632: 12630: 12626: 12619: 12615: 12614: 12607: 12598: 12596: 12587: 12586: 12582: 12573: 12571: 12567: 12560: 12556: 12555: 12548: 12539: 12537: 12528: 12527: 12523: 12511: 12509: 12495: 12491: 12482: 12480: 12476: 12469: 12465: 12464: 12455: 12445: 12443: 12434: 12433: 12426: 12371: 12367: 12320: 12313: 12303: 12301: 12290: 12283: 12273: 12271: 12262: 12261: 12252: 12242: 12240: 12231: 12230: 12223: 12176: 12169: 12130: 12121: 12111: 12109: 12105: 12098: 12094: 12093: 12089: 12079: 12077: 12073: 12066: 12062: 12061: 12057: 12048: 12046: 12033: 12032: 12028: 12019: 12017: 12006: 12002: 11993: 11991: 11976: 11969: 11960: 11958: 11949: 11948: 11944: 11937: 11929:. p. 190. 11914: 11910: 11901: 11899: 11886: 11885: 11881: 11872: 11870: 11861: 11860: 11856: 11819: 11812: 11803: 11801: 11792: 11791: 11787: 11778: 11776: 11767: 11766: 11757: 11748: 11746: 11723: 11719: 11710: 11708: 11685: 11681: 11663: 11659: 11649: 11647: 11638: 11637: 11633: 11624: 11622: 11618: 11607: 11601: 11594: 11585: 11583: 11579: 11572: 11568: 11567: 11563: 11554: 11552: 11548: 11537: 11533: 11532: 11528: 11518: 11516: 11503: 11502: 11498: 11489: 11487: 11483: 11472: 11468: 11467: 11463: 11454: 11452: 11448: 11437: 11433: 11432: 11428: 11411: 11410: 11406: 11396: 11394: 11390: 11383: 11379: 11378: 11374: 11335: 11331: 11300: 11296: 11287: 11285: 11272: 11271: 11267: 11258: 11256: 11241: 11237: 11228: 11226: 11211: 11207: 11198: 11196: 11185: 11181: 11174: 11160: 11156: 11147:Wayback Machine 11136: 11132: 11117: 11113: 11098: 11094: 11085: 11083: 11040: 11036: 11027: 11025: 11007: 11003: 10994: 10992: 10988: 10949: 10942: 10938: 10907: 10903: 10848: 10839: 10830: 10828: 10823:. Cen.acs.org. 10819: 10818: 10814: 10771: 10764: 10755: 10753: 10736: 10732: 10723: 10721: 10716:. p. 168. 10700: 10699: 10692: 10683: 10681: 10668: 10667: 10663: 10654: 10652: 10643: 10642: 10638: 10629: 10627: 10623: 10616: 10610: 10603: 10593: 10591: 10578:Patel, Prachi. 10576: 10572: 10562: 10560: 10547: 10546: 10537: 10531:Wayback Machine 10522: 10518: 10508: 10506: 10502: 10495: 10491: 10490: 10486: 10476: 10474: 10459: 10455: 10445: 10443: 10434: 10433: 10426: 10416: 10414: 10399: 10395: 10385: 10383: 10368: 10361: 10351: 10349: 10336: 10335: 10331: 10321: 10319: 10306: 10305: 10301: 10292: 10290: 10286: 10279: 10273: 10269: 10260: 10258: 10249: 10248: 10244: 10197: 10193: 10183: 10181: 10168: 10167: 10163: 10153: 10151: 10138: 10137: 10133: 10123: 10121: 10117: 10110: 10104: 10103: 10099: 10089: 10087: 10078: 10077: 10068: 10059: 10057: 10050: 10032: 10031: 10027: 10018: 10016: 10007:Financial Times 9999: 9995: 9958: 9954: 9945: 9943: 9930: 9929: 9925: 9919:Wayback Machine 9908: 9904: 9894: 9892: 9885: 9871: 9870: 9866: 9857: 9855: 9846: 9845: 9841: 9829: 9827: 9823: 9816: 9812:Ragheb, Magdi. 9810: 9806: 9797: 9795: 9786: 9785: 9781: 9772: 9770: 9766: 9759: 9755: 9754: 9750: 9735: 9731: 9722: 9720: 9713: 9699: 9698: 9694: 9685: 9683: 9674: 9673: 9669: 9660: 9658: 9645: 9644: 9640: 9631: 9629: 9620: 9619: 9615: 9605: 9603: 9596:Financial Times 9586: 9582: 9573: 9571: 9567: 9560: 9556: 9555: 9551: 9511: 9507: 9498: 9496: 9487: 9486: 9482: 9472: 9470: 9461: 9460: 9456: 9446: 9444: 9436: 9435: 9431: 9417: 9415: 9406: 9405: 9401: 9392: 9390: 9386: 9355: 9349: 9345: 9335: 9333: 9320: 9319: 9315: 9260: 9256: 9247: 9245: 9232: 9231: 9222: 9213: 9211: 9204:Hindustan Times 9198: 9197: 9193: 9183: 9181: 9168: 9167: 9163: 9153: 9151: 9138: 9137: 9130: 9121: 9119: 9108: 9104: 9095: 9093: 9089: 9078: 9074: 9073: 9069: 9060: 9058: 9045: 9044: 9040: 9025:10.1119/1.13440 8995: 8993: 8975: 8971: 8957: 8955: 8940: 8936: 8905: 8901: 8891: 8889: 8888:on 23 July 2015 8874: 8870: 8863: 8847: 8843: 8834: 8832: 8817: 8810: 8779: 8775: 8738: 8734: 8719:10.2172/6743129 8705: 8701: 8692: 8690: 8681: 8680: 8673: 8664: 8662: 8647: 8643: 8637:Wayback Machine 8627: 8618: 8581: 8577: 8568: 8566: 8553: 8552: 8548: 8539: 8537: 8519: 8515: 8506: 8504: 8489: 8488: 8484: 8455: 8451: 8422: 8418: 8411: 8389: 8382: 8373: 8371: 8362: 8361: 8357: 8348: 8346: 8342: 8335: 8331: 8330: 8326: 8317: 8310: 8301: 8299: 8290: 8289: 8285: 8276: 8274: 8261: 8260: 8256: 8247: 8245: 8232: 8231: 8227: 8217: 8215: 8202: 8201: 8197: 8188: 8186: 8177: 8176: 8172: 8151: 8150: 8146: 8137: 8135: 8124: 8120: 8111: 8109: 8096: 8095: 8091: 8082: 8080: 8071: 8070: 8066: 8056: 8054: 8041: 8040: 8036: 8026: 8017: 8015: 8011: 8004: 8000: 7999: 7995: 7986: 7984: 7975: 7974: 7970: 7961: 7959: 7954:. Monbiot.com. 7948: 7944: 7935: 7933: 7918: 7914: 7909: 7905: 7893: 7891: 7887: 7880: 7876: 7875: 7871: 7862: 7860: 7856: 7849: 7845: 7844: 7840: 7831: 7829: 7820: 7819: 7815: 7808: 7792: 7788: 7781: 7767: 7763: 7754: 7752: 7737: 7711: 7707: 7694: 7690: 7680: 7678: 7665: 7664: 7660: 7653: 7639: 7635: 7626: 7624: 7611: 7610: 7606: 7597: 7596: 7592: 7582: 7580: 7563: 7562: 7555: 7547: 7540: 7536:Finck, Philip. 7534: 7523: 7494: 7490: 7461: 7457: 7447: 7445: 7434: 7427: 7404: 7400: 7388: 7386: 7382: 7375: 7371: 7370: 7366: 7359: 7343: 7339: 7302: 7295: 7256: 7249: 7239: 7237: 7233: 7186: 7180: 7173: 7122: 7118: 7079: 7075: 7066: 7064: 7049: 7045: 7035: 7033: 7020: 7019: 7015: 7005: 7003: 6999: 6992: 6988: 6987: 6976: 6954: 6935: 6887: 6883: 6843: 6839: 6829: 6827: 6823: 6776: 6770: 6766: 6713: 6704: 6694: 6692: 6677: 6673: 6659: 6657: 6653: 6614: 6608: 6604: 6590: 6588: 6535: 6528: 6518: 6516: 6501: 6494: 6455: 6448: 6438: 6436: 6432: 6425: 6421: 6420: 6413: 6403: 6401: 6392: 6391: 6378: 6369: 6362: 6360:"Energy Supply" 6358: 6357: 6353: 6344: 6342: 6329: 6328: 6319: 6315:and table 4.10. 6310: 6303: 6301:"Energy Supply" 6299: 6298: 6294: 6283: 6261: 6260: 6256: 6247: 6245: 6232: 6231: 6227: 6217: 6215: 6211: 6200: 6196: 6195: 6191: 6182: 6180: 6167: 6166: 6162: 6152: 6150: 6137: 6136: 6125: 6115: 6113: 6096: 6095: 6088: 6079: 6077: 6062: 6058: 6048: 6046: 6033: 6032: 6025: 6015: 6013: 6009: 6002: 5998: 5997: 5993: 5983: 5981: 5972: 5971: 5967: 5958: 5956: 5947: 5946: 5942: 5933: 5931: 5922: 5921: 5917: 5908: 5906: 5895: 5891: 5881: 5879: 5866: 5865: 5858: 5848: 5846: 5831: 5824: 5814: 5812: 5799: 5798: 5794: 5784: 5782: 5769: 5768: 5764: 5755: 5753: 5740: 5739: 5735: 5725: 5723: 5714: 5713: 5709: 5700: 5698: 5685: 5684: 5680: 5671: 5669: 5656: 5655: 5651: 5641: 5639: 5630: 5629: 5622: 5612: 5610: 5603:Financial Times 5597: 5596: 5592: 5583: 5581: 5568: 5567: 5563: 5554: 5552: 5539: 5538: 5534: 5525: 5523: 5508: 5504: 5495: 5493: 5478: 5474: 5465: 5463: 5445: 5441: 5432: 5430: 5415: 5411: 5401: 5399: 5386: 5385: 5381: 5372: 5370: 5361: 5360: 5353: 5344: 5342: 5329: 5328: 5321: 5314: 5298: 5294: 5284: 5282: 5270: 5269: 5265: 5255: 5253: 5249: 5242: 5238: 5237: 5230: 5220: 5218: 5205: 5204: 5200: 5186: 5172: 5168: 5161:Forbes Magazine 5157: 5153: 5144: 5142: 5138: 5131: 5127: 5126: 5122: 5112: 5110: 5095: 5091: 5082: 5080: 5067: 5066: 5062: 5053: 5051: 5047: 5016: 5010: 5006: 4997: 4995: 4991: 4960: 4954: 4947: 4940:Wayback Machine 4929: 4922: 4915: 4893: 4889: 4880: 4876: 4869: 4853: 4849: 4840: 4838: 4816: 4812: 4805: 4789: 4780: 4771: 4769: 4750: 4746: 4737: 4735: 4722: 4721: 4714: 4704: 4702: 4691: 4687: 4677: 4675: 4654: 4650: 4641: 4639: 4628: 4624: 4617: 4599: 4592: 4585: 4571: 4567: 4558: 4556: 4541: 4540: 4536: 4529: 4515: 4511: 4502: 4500: 4491: 4490: 4486: 4477: 4475: 4471: 4464: 4460: 4459: 4452: 4439: 4438: 4434: 4425: 4423: 4414: 4413: 4409: 4400: 4398: 4385: 4381: 4372: 4371: 4367: 4358: 4356: 4347: 4346: 4342: 4303: 4299: 4289: 4287: 4279: 4278: 4274: 4265: 4263: 4250: 4249: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4187: 4180: 4173: 4168: 4166: 4163: 4101: 4093:Main articles: 4076: 4063: 4057: 4036: 4030: 4025: 3999: 3996: 3983: 3960:synthetic fuels 3947: 3935:nuclear weapons 3907: 3906: 3905: 3904: 3896: 3894: 3890: 3888: 3884: 3882: 3878: 3876: 3872: 3870: 3866: 3864: 3863: Oil (32%) 3860: 3836: 3821: 3815: 3719: 3713: 3711: 3707: 3694:M. King Hubbert 3689:energy security 3665: 3641: 3627: 3621: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3597: 3589: 3585: 3577: 3573: 3562: 3555: 3532: 3526: 3477: 3414: 3412: 3411: 3404: 3403: 3322: 3321:Related content 3314: 3313: 3269: 3259: 3258: 3234:Paris Agreement 3229:Ethical banking 3219:Business ethics 3214: 3206: 3205: 3089:Climate finance 3064: 3056: 3055: 2986: 2939: 2933: 2927: 2895: 2889: 2872: 2869:natural uranium 2790:nuclear weapons 2770:nuclear weapons 2758: 2752: 2746: 2726:spent fuel pool 2710: 2698:Main articles: 2696: 2598:steam explosion 2551: 2500: 2414: 2404: 2351: 2327: 2292:capacity factor 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2240: 2234: 2230: 2203: 2176: 2169: 2157:Main articles: 2155: 2089:capacity factor 2084: 2080: 2076: 2037: 2036: 2035: 2034: 2030: 2028: 2024: 2022: 2021: Wind (7%) 2018: 2016: 2012: 2010: 2006: 2004: 2000: 1998: 1994: 1962: 1952: 1939: 1933: 1931:Decommissioning 1882: 1876:Breeder reactor 1874:Main articles: 1857: 1788: 1782: 1776: 1713:spent fuel pool 1690: 1684: 1664: 1628: 1622: 1614:low-level waste 1610: 1608:Low-level waste 1604: 1602:Low-level waste 1596:neutron capture 1507:, and about 1% 1470: 1462:Main articles: 1460: 1437:uranium dioxide 1429: 1423: 1316: 1304:Main articles: 1302: 1293:spent fuel pool 1279: 1262:neutron economy 1248: 1244: 1237:form, known as 1235:ore concentrate 1223: 1215:Main articles: 1197: 1149:nuclear reactor 1145:nuclear fission 1133: 1123: 1121:Nuclear reactor 1115:Main articles: 1113: 1112: 1111: 1110: 1102: 1101: 1093: 1092: 1084: 1083: 1075: 1074: 1066: 1065: 1057: 1056: 1052: 1047: 1034: 1030: 999: 997: 973:Emmanuel Macron 948: 933: 894: 893: 892: 889: 884: 871: 867: 856: 843: 839: 829: 822: 819: 810: 807:capacity factor 803: 794: 793: 789: 787: 783: 781: 777: 775: 771: 764: 755: 748: 712: 705: 701: 695:, involving an 681: 677: 643: 581:1973 oil crisis 564: 557: 487: 471:Atoms for Peace 459: 354:nuclear physics 330: 325: 319: 256:capacity factor 251: 247: 243: 239: 215: 198: 194: 180:nuclear weapons 68:nuclear fission 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 21361: 21351: 21350: 21345: 21340: 21335: 21330: 21325: 21308: 21307: 21305: 21304: 21293: 21290: 21289: 21286: 21285: 21283: 21282: 21273: 21268: 21263: 21258: 21253: 21250:(perpetuation) 21245: 21239: 21237: 21231: 21230: 21228: 21227: 21222: 21217: 21212: 21211: 21210: 21203:Nature reserve 21200: 21195: 21194: 21193: 21188: 21178: 21177: 21176: 21166: 21165: 21164: 21159: 21149: 21144: 21143: 21142: 21137: 21127: 21126: 21125: 21120: 21115: 21110: 21099: 21093: 21089: 21088: 21085: 21084: 21082: 21081: 21080: 21079: 21074: 21064: 21059: 21054: 21049: 21044: 21039: 21034: 21029: 21024: 21019: 21014: 21009: 21008: 21007: 20997: 20992: 20987: 20982: 20976: 20974: 20970: 20969: 20967: 20966: 20961: 20960: 20959: 20949: 20944: 20939: 20938: 20937: 20927: 20922: 20921: 20920: 20908: 20907: 20906: 20901: 20896: 20886: 20881: 20880: 20879: 20874: 20869: 20859: 20854: 20849: 20848: 20847: 20836: 20834: 20827: 20821: 20820: 20818: 20817: 20816: 20815: 20810: 20800: 20795: 20790: 20789: 20788: 20783: 20778: 20773: 20768: 20763: 20758: 20748: 20743: 20738: 20733: 20732: 20731: 20721: 20720: 20719: 20714: 20709: 20704: 20694: 20693: 20692: 20687: 20682: 20680:climate change 20672: 20667: 20662: 20657: 20656: 20655: 20648:Bioprospecting 20645: 20639: 20637: 20631: 20630: 20628: 20627: 20626: 20625: 20620: 20610: 20609: 20608: 20603: 20598: 20593: 20583: 20582: 20581: 20576: 20575: 20574: 20569: 20559: 20558: 20557: 20552: 20542: 20541: 20540: 20530: 20525: 20515: 20514: 20513: 20503: 20502: 20501: 20491: 20490: 20489: 20484: 20479: 20474: 20464: 20459: 20454: 20453: 20452: 20451: 20450: 20434: 20432: 20426: 20425: 20423: 20422: 20417: 20416: 20415: 20410: 20400: 20395: 20390: 20385: 20363: 20358: 20353: 20347: 20345: 20339: 20338: 20335: 20334: 20332: 20331: 20326: 20321: 20315: 20313: 20309: 20308: 20306: 20305: 20300: 20299: 20298: 20293:Clean Air Act 20285: 20280: 20275: 20266: 20264: 20255: 20249: 20248: 20241: 20240: 20233: 20226: 20218: 20209: 20208: 20206: 20205: 20194: 20191: 20190: 20188: 20187: 20182: 20176: 20174: 20170:Statistics and 20169: 20166: 20165: 20163: 20162: 20157: 20152: 20147: 20142: 20137: 20132: 20127: 20122: 20120:Feed-in tariff 20117: 20112: 20107: 20102: 20097: 20092: 20086: 20084: 20079: 20076: 20075: 20073: 20072: 20066: 20061: 20056: 20051: 20046: 20045: 20044: 20039: 20029: 20023: 20021: 20016: 20013: 20012: 20010: 20009: 20008: 20007: 19997: 19992: 19987: 19981: 19979: 19975: 19974: 19972: 19971: 19966: 19961: 19955: 19950: 19945: 19940: 19935: 19930: 19925: 19920: 19915: 19910: 19908:Interconnector 19905: 19900: 19895: 19890: 19885: 19880: 19875: 19870: 19865: 19860: 19858:Dynamic demand 19855: 19850: 19844: 19842: 19832: 19829: 19828: 19826: 19825: 19820: 19815: 19810: 19805: 19800: 19795: 19790: 19788:Combined cycle 19785: 19780: 19774: 19772: 19766: 19765: 19762: 19761: 19759: 19758: 19753: 19748: 19743: 19742: 19741: 19736: 19731: 19726: 19721: 19711: 19706: 19701: 19696: 19691: 19685: 19683: 19677: 19676: 19674: 19673: 19668: 19667: 19666: 19661: 19656: 19651: 19640: 19638: 19629: 19625: 19624: 19617: 19615: 19613: 19612: 19607: 19602: 19597: 19592: 19587: 19582: 19577: 19572: 19567: 19565:Load-following 19562: 19557: 19552: 19547: 19542: 19537: 19532: 19527: 19522: 19520:Electric power 19517: 19512: 19507: 19502: 19497: 19491: 19489: 19485: 19484: 19477: 19476: 19469: 19462: 19454: 19445: 19444: 19442: 19441: 19429: 19417: 19402: 19399: 19398: 19395: 19394: 19391: 19390: 19388: 19387: 19382: 19377: 19375:Muon-catalyzed 19372: 19367: 19361: 19359: 19355: 19354: 19352: 19351: 19346: 19341: 19336: 19335: 19334: 19324: 19315: 19313: 19307: 19306: 19304: 19303: 19298: 19293: 19288: 19283: 19278: 19272: 19270: 19264: 19263: 19257: 19254: 19253: 19239: 19238: 19236: 19235: 19230: 19229: 19228: 19223: 19212: 19210: 19206: 19205: 19202: 19201: 19199: 19198: 19193: 19188: 19183: 19182: 19181: 19176: 19171: 19166: 19161: 19156: 19151: 19146: 19141: 19136: 19131: 19126: 19115: 19113: 19107: 19106: 19104: 19103: 19098: 19093: 19088: 19083: 19078: 19073: 19068: 19066:Integral (IFR) 19063: 19057: 19051: 19040: 19037: 19036: 19033: 19032: 19029: 19028: 19026: 19025: 19020: 19015: 19010: 19005: 19000: 18994: 18992: 18983: 18977: 18976: 18973: 18972: 18970: 18969: 18968: 18967: 18962: 18961: 18960: 18955: 18950: 18945: 18930: 18925: 18924: 18923: 18912: 18910: 18904: 18903: 18901: 18900: 18895: 18890: 18881: 18879: 18875: 18867: 18861: 18860: 18857: 18856: 18854: 18853: 18848: 18843: 18838: 18832: 18830: 18825: 18817: 18810: 18796: 18793: 18792: 18789: 18788: 18786: 18785: 18784: 18783: 18778: 18773: 18768: 18757: 18755: 18751: 18746: 18745: 18743: 18742: 18736: 18734: 18728: 18727: 18725: 18724: 18719: 18714: 18713: 18712: 18707: 18696: 18694: 18689: 18684: 18683: 18681: 18680: 18679: 18678: 18673: 18668: 18663: 18658: 18657: 18656: 18651: 18646: 18636: 18631: 18630: 18629: 18624: 18621: 18618: 18615: 18601: 18599: 18594: 18586: 18571: 18570: 18568: 18567: 18562: 18561: 18560: 18557: 18552: 18547: 18546: 18545: 18540: 18530: 18525: 18520: 18515: 18510: 18505: 18500: 18495: 18485: 18480: 18479: 18478: 18473: 18468: 18463: 18453: 18447: 18445: 18439: 18438: 18430: 18429: 18426: 18425: 18411: 18410: 18398: 18397: 18394: 18393: 18391: 18390: 18385: 18383:Uranium mining 18380: 18375: 18370: 18365: 18359: 18357: 18353: 18352: 18349: 18348: 18346: 18345: 18340: 18339: 18338: 18333: 18323: 18318: 18313: 18308: 18303: 18298: 18292: 18290: 18286: 18285: 18283: 18282: 18277: 18276: 18275: 18265: 18260: 18259: 18258: 18256:Minor actinide 18253: 18248: 18237: 18235: 18228: 18222: 18221: 18218: 18217: 18215: 18214: 18209: 18204: 18199: 18198: 18197: 18192: 18182: 18176: 18174: 18170: 18169: 18167: 18166: 18165: 18164: 18154: 18149: 18148: 18147: 18142: 18132: 18127: 18122: 18121: 18120: 18110: 18105: 18100: 18095: 18090: 18084: 18082: 18075: 18069: 18068: 18066: 18065: 18060: 18055: 18050: 18044: 18042: 18036: 18035: 18032: 18031: 18029: 18028: 18023: 18018: 18013: 18008: 18003: 17998: 17993: 17987: 17985: 17979: 17978: 17976: 17975: 17970: 17965: 17960: 17955: 17953:Autoradiograph 17949: 17947: 17938: 17932: 17931: 17929: 17928: 17927: 17926: 17916: 17915: 17914: 17904: 17903: 17902: 17892: 17887: 17882: 17877: 17872: 17867: 17861: 17859: 17853: 17852: 17850: 17849: 17844: 17839: 17834: 17829: 17824: 17819: 17814: 17809: 17804: 17799: 17793: 17791: 17785: 17784: 17782: 17781: 17780: 17779: 17774: 17769: 17768: 17767: 17762: 17747: 17742: 17737: 17732: 17727: 17722: 17716: 17714: 17708: 17707: 17705: 17704: 17703: 17702: 17697: 17687: 17682: 17677: 17675:Atomic nucleus 17672: 17667: 17662: 17656: 17654: 17646: 17645: 17638: 17637: 17630: 17623: 17615: 17606: 17605: 17603: 17602: 17597: 17592: 17587: 17582: 17576: 17573: 17572: 17570: 17569: 17564: 17556: 17551: 17543: 17538: 17529: 17527: 17521: 17520: 17518: 17517: 17512: 17507: 17502: 17497: 17492: 17487: 17482: 17477: 17472: 17467: 17462: 17457: 17452: 17447: 17442: 17437: 17432: 17426: 17424: 17423:for new plants 17418: 17417: 17415: 17414: 17409: 17404: 17399: 17394: 17389: 17384: 17379: 17374: 17369: 17364: 17359: 17354: 17349: 17344: 17339: 17334: 17329: 17324: 17319: 17314: 17309: 17303: 17301: 17297: 17296: 17294: 17293: 17288: 17283: 17278: 17272: 17270: 17266: 17262: 17261: 17259: 17258: 17253: 17248: 17243: 17238: 17233: 17228: 17223: 17218: 17212: 17210: 17206: 17202: 17201: 17199: 17198: 17193: 17188: 17183: 17178: 17173: 17168: 17166:Czech Republic 17162: 17160: 17156: 17152: 17151: 17149: 17148: 17146:United Kingdom 17143: 17138: 17133: 17128: 17122: 17120: 17115: 17110: 17109: 17107: 17106: 17101: 17096: 17091: 17086: 17081: 17076: 17071: 17065: 17063: 17058: 17053: 17052: 17045: 17044: 17037: 17030: 17022: 17016: 17015: 17003: 16989: 16988:External links 16986: 16985: 16984: 16967: 16960: 16939: 16930:climate crisis 16926:Oreskes, Naomi 16923: 16917: 16904: 16897: 16890: 16880: 16871:Elliott, David 16868: 16862: 16845: 16833: 16826: 16817: 16795: 16769: 16766: 16763: 16762: 16736: 16703: 16674:(7481): 9–10. 16654: 16597: 16540: 16514: 16482: 16475: 16457: 16389: 16364: 16333: 16316:. 2019-01-01. 16293: 16260: 16200: 16140: 16111: 16082: 16047: 16017: 15982:(4): 207–214. 15966: 15936: 15906: 15876: 15846: 15818: 15791: 15736: 15705: 15638: 15598: 15569: 15510: 15480: 15449: 15414: 15375: 15331: 15301: 15290:(4): 327–343. 15274: 15239:(4): 518–520. 15223: 15196:(1): 142–153. 15180: 15147: 15112:(3): 180–186. 15096: 15066: 15033: 14991:(4): 233–237. 14968: 14933: 14903: 14871: 14840: 14811: 14789:(2011-05-09). 14778: 14761: 14732: 14698: 14669: 14637: 14606: 14549: 14510:Applied Energy 14496: 14478: 14444: 14396: 14332: 14288: 14235: 14178: 14152: 14106: 14095:on May 4, 2021 14077: 14034: 14019: 13993: 13928: 13884: 13817: 13760: 13725: 13682: 13649: 13614: 13611:on 2021-10-18. 13585: 13552: 13549:on 2021-10-18. 13524: 13495: 13479:Reuters Events 13466: 13410: 13385: 13355: 13328:(2): 317–338. 13312: 13264: 13221: 13194:(2): 299–317. 13178: 13171: 13151: 13111: 13093: 13073: 13042: 13020:Sturgis, Sue. 13012: 12994: 12968: 12942: 12891: 12855: 12830: 12804: 12779: 12749: 12719: 12706:10.1086/410301 12700:(4): 467–468. 12684: 12665: 12639: 12605: 12580: 12546: 12521: 12489: 12453: 12424: 12381:(6): 763–770. 12365: 12311: 12292:Smith, Brice. 12281: 12250: 12221: 12167: 12119: 12087: 12055: 12026: 12000: 11967: 11942: 11935: 11908: 11879: 11854: 11810: 11785: 11755: 11717: 11679: 11657: 11631: 11592: 11561: 11526: 11496: 11461: 11426: 11404: 11372: 11345:(5): 947–973. 11329: 11294: 11265: 11235: 11205: 11179: 11172: 11154: 11130: 11111: 11092: 11034: 11012:(2012-03-10). 11001: 10936: 10933:on 2013-03-01. 10901: 10837: 10812: 10762: 10730: 10690: 10661: 10636: 10601: 10570: 10535: 10516: 10484: 10453: 10442:. 4 April 2016 10424: 10393: 10359: 10342:POWER Magazine 10329: 10299: 10267: 10242: 10207:(7): 755–762. 10191: 10161: 10131: 10097: 10066: 10048: 10025: 9993: 9952: 9923: 9902: 9883: 9864: 9839: 9804: 9779: 9748: 9729: 9711: 9692: 9667: 9638: 9613: 9580: 9549: 9505: 9480: 9454: 9429: 9399: 9343: 9313: 9254: 9220: 9191: 9161: 9128: 9102: 9067: 9038: 8969: 8934: 8899: 8868: 8861: 8841: 8808: 8773: 8752:(2): 111–116. 8732: 8699: 8671: 8641: 8616: 8575: 8561:. 2015-11-12. 8546: 8524:(April 2008). 8513: 8482: 8449: 8416: 8409: 8380: 8355: 8324: 8308: 8283: 8254: 8225: 8195: 8170: 8167:on 2009-08-27. 8144: 8118: 8104:. 2007-12-13. 8089: 8064: 8034: 8007:. IAEA. 2012. 7993: 7968: 7942: 7912: 7903: 7869: 7838: 7813: 7806: 7786: 7779: 7761: 7735: 7705: 7688: 7658: 7651: 7633: 7604: 7590: 7553: 7550:on 2012-04-12. 7521: 7488: 7455: 7425: 7398: 7364: 7357: 7337: 7316:(5): 681–691. 7293: 7247: 7171: 7116: 7073: 7043: 7013: 6974: 6933: 6881: 6837: 6764: 6702: 6671: 6602: 6526: 6492: 6446: 6411: 6376: 6372:on 2007-12-15. 6351: 6317: 6313:on 2007-12-15. 6292: 6289:on 2009-01-30. 6281: 6254: 6225: 6189: 6175:. 2001-09-11. 6160: 6123: 6086: 6056: 6023: 5991: 5965: 5940: 5915: 5889: 5856: 5822: 5792: 5762: 5733: 5707: 5678: 5649: 5620: 5590: 5561: 5532: 5502: 5472: 5450:(2011-03-19). 5439: 5409: 5379: 5351: 5337:. 2011-03-14. 5319: 5312: 5292: 5263: 5228: 5198: 5184: 5166: 5151: 5120: 5089: 5060: 5004: 4945: 4920: 4913: 4887: 4874: 4867: 4847: 4810: 4803: 4778: 4744: 4712: 4685: 4648: 4622: 4615: 4590: 4583: 4565: 4551:. 2004-06-23. 4534: 4527: 4509: 4484: 4450: 4432: 4407: 4379: 4365: 4340: 4297: 4285:www.ne.anl.gov 4272: 4239: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4230: 4225: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4205: 4200: 4198:Atomic battery 4194: 4193: 4192: 4178: 4162: 4159: 4155:Tokamak Energy 4109:Nuclear fusion 4104:Nuclear fusion 4095:Nuclear fusion 4075: 4072: 4059:Main article: 4056: 4053: 4032:Main article: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 3995: 3992: 3951:Barry W. Brook 3946: 3943: 3899: Others ( 3895: 3889: 3883: 3877: 3871: 3865: 3859: 3847: 3846: 3845: 3825:global warming 3814: 3811: 3807:green hydrogen 3775:floating solar 3717: 3709: 3705: 3687:and increases 3623:Main article: 3620: 3617: 3561: 3558: 3553: 3530: 3479: 3478: 3476: 3475: 3468: 3461: 3453: 3450: 3449: 3448: 3447: 3435: 3423: 3406: 3405: 3402: 3401: 3400: 3399: 3394: 3389: 3384: 3374: 3369: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3327:Climate action 3323: 3320: 3319: 3316: 3315: 3312: 3311: 3306: 3301: 3296: 3291: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3270: 3265: 3264: 3261: 3260: 3257: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3241: 3236: 3231: 3226: 3221: 3215: 3212: 3211: 3208: 3207: 3204: 3203: 3198: 3197: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3181: 3174:Sustainability 3171: 3166: 3161: 3156: 3151: 3146: 3144:Green building 3141: 3136: 3131: 3126: 3121: 3116: 3111: 3106: 3101: 3099:Eco-capitalism 3096: 3091: 3086: 3081: 3076: 3071: 3065: 3062: 3061: 3058: 3057: 3054: 3053: 3048: 3043: 3038: 3033: 3028: 3023: 3018: 3013: 3008: 3003: 2998: 2996:Coal phase-out 2993: 2987: 2982: 2981: 2978: 2977: 2976: 2975: 2970: 2965: 2963:Climate change 2957: 2956: 2950: 2949: 2926: 2923: 2915:cooling towers 2911:heat exchanger 2891:Main article: 2888: 2885: 2881:Soviet economy 2745: 2742: 2695: 2692: 2582:Windscale fire 2499: 2496: 2438:chain reaction 2403: 2400: 2363:space missions 2347:Main article: 2326: 2323: 2299:load following 2238: 2154: 2151: 2115:, Ireland and 2105:European Union 2101:European Union 2041:terawatt hours 2029: 2023: 2017: 2011: 2005: 1999: 1993: 1989:petawatt-hours 1981: 1980: 1979: 1951: 1948: 1935:Main article: 1932: 1929: 1902:BN-800 reactor 1898:BN-600 reactor 1856: 1853: 1778:Main article: 1775: 1772: 1683: 1682:Waste disposal 1680: 1657:kilowatt hours 1621: 1618: 1606:Main article: 1603: 1600: 1459: 1456: 1425:Main article: 1422: 1419: 1310:Uranium mining 1306:Uranium market 1301: 1298: 1277: 1246: 1242: 1227:uranium mining 1196: 1193: 1181:chain reaction 1143:released from 1141:thermal energy 1055: 1053: 1049: 1048: 1037: 1035: 1028: 1023: 1022: 1021: 996: 993: 945:terawatt hours 937:climate change 932: 929: 913:nuclear safety 890: 886: 885: 874: 872: 865: 858: 857: 846: 844: 837: 832: 831: 830: 828: 825: 824: 823: 820: 813: 811: 804: 797: 795: 788: 782: 776: 770: 765: 758: 756: 749: 742: 734:, such as the 642: 639: 556: 553: 486: 483: 475:United Nations 373:Chicago Pile-1 366:nuclear weapon 329: 326: 321:Main article: 318: 315: 220:terawatt hours 136:chain reaction 76:nuclear fusion 58:is the use of 43:in Switzerland 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 21360: 21349: 21348:Global issues 21346: 21344: 21341: 21339: 21336: 21334: 21331: 21329: 21326: 21324: 21323:Nuclear power 21321: 21320: 21318: 21303: 21295: 21294: 21291: 21281: 21280:Non-renewable 21277: 21274: 21272: 21269: 21267: 21264: 21262: 21259: 21257: 21254: 21252: 21246: 21244: 21241: 21240: 21238: 21236: 21232: 21226: 21223: 21221: 21220:Urban ecology 21218: 21216: 21213: 21209: 21206: 21205: 21204: 21201: 21199: 21196: 21192: 21189: 21187: 21184: 21183: 21182: 21179: 21175: 21172: 21171: 21170: 21167: 21163: 21160: 21158: 21155: 21154: 21153: 21150: 21148: 21145: 21141: 21138: 21136: 21133: 21132: 21131: 21128: 21124: 21121: 21119: 21116: 21114: 21111: 21109: 21106: 21105: 21104: 21101: 21100: 21097: 21094: 21090: 21078: 21075: 21073: 21070: 21069: 21068: 21065: 21063: 21060: 21058: 21055: 21053: 21052:Privatization 21050: 21048: 21045: 21043: 21040: 21038: 21035: 21033: 21030: 21028: 21025: 21023: 21020: 21018: 21015: 21013: 21010: 21006: 21003: 21002: 21001: 20998: 20996: 20993: 20991: 20988: 20986: 20983: 20981: 20978: 20977: 20975: 20971: 20965: 20962: 20958: 20955: 20954: 20953: 20950: 20948: 20947:Surface water 20945: 20943: 20940: 20936: 20933: 20932: 20931: 20928: 20926: 20923: 20919: 20918: 20914: 20913: 20912: 20909: 20905: 20902: 20900: 20897: 20895: 20892: 20891: 20890: 20887: 20885: 20882: 20878: 20875: 20873: 20870: 20868: 20865: 20864: 20863: 20860: 20858: 20855: 20853: 20850: 20846: 20843: 20842: 20841: 20838: 20837: 20835: 20831: 20828: 20826: 20822: 20814: 20811: 20809: 20806: 20805: 20804: 20801: 20799: 20796: 20794: 20791: 20787: 20784: 20782: 20779: 20777: 20774: 20772: 20769: 20767: 20764: 20762: 20759: 20757: 20754: 20753: 20752: 20749: 20747: 20744: 20742: 20739: 20737: 20734: 20730: 20727: 20726: 20725: 20722: 20718: 20715: 20713: 20710: 20708: 20705: 20703: 20700: 20699: 20698: 20695: 20691: 20688: 20686: 20683: 20681: 20678: 20677: 20676: 20673: 20671: 20668: 20666: 20663: 20661: 20658: 20654: 20651: 20650: 20649: 20646: 20644: 20641: 20640: 20638: 20636: 20632: 20624: 20621: 20619: 20616: 20615: 20614: 20611: 20607: 20604: 20602: 20599: 20597: 20594: 20592: 20589: 20588: 20587: 20584: 20580: 20577: 20573: 20570: 20568: 20565: 20564: 20563: 20560: 20556: 20553: 20551: 20548: 20547: 20546: 20543: 20539: 20536: 20535: 20534: 20531: 20529: 20526: 20524: 20521: 20520: 20519: 20516: 20512: 20509: 20508: 20507: 20504: 20500: 20497: 20496: 20495: 20492: 20488: 20485: 20483: 20480: 20478: 20475: 20473: 20470: 20469: 20468: 20465: 20463: 20460: 20458: 20455: 20449: 20448:peak farmland 20446: 20445: 20444: 20441: 20440: 20439: 20436: 20435: 20433: 20431: 20427: 20421: 20418: 20414: 20411: 20409: 20406: 20405: 20404: 20401: 20399: 20396: 20394: 20391: 20389: 20386: 20383: 20379: 20375: 20371: 20367: 20364: 20362: 20359: 20357: 20354: 20352: 20349: 20348: 20346: 20344: 20340: 20330: 20327: 20325: 20322: 20320: 20317: 20316: 20314: 20310: 20304: 20301: 20297: 20291: 20290: 20289: 20286: 20284: 20281: 20279: 20276: 20274: 20268: 20267: 20265: 20263: 20259: 20256: 20254: 20250: 20246: 20239: 20234: 20232: 20227: 20225: 20220: 20219: 20216: 20204: 20196: 20195: 20192: 20186: 20183: 20181: 20178: 20177: 20175: 20167: 20161: 20158: 20156: 20153: 20151: 20148: 20146: 20143: 20141: 20140:Pigouvian tax 20138: 20136: 20133: 20131: 20128: 20126: 20123: 20121: 20118: 20116: 20113: 20111: 20108: 20106: 20103: 20101: 20098: 20096: 20093: 20091: 20088: 20087: 20085: 20077: 20070: 20067: 20065: 20062: 20060: 20057: 20055: 20052: 20050: 20047: 20043: 20040: 20038: 20037:Earth-leakage 20035: 20034: 20033: 20030: 20028: 20025: 20024: 20022: 20014: 20006: 20003: 20002: 20001: 19998: 19996: 19993: 19991: 19988: 19986: 19983: 19982: 19980: 19978:Failure modes 19976: 19970: 19967: 19965: 19962: 19959: 19956: 19954: 19951: 19949: 19946: 19944: 19941: 19939: 19936: 19934: 19931: 19929: 19928:Power station 19926: 19924: 19921: 19919: 19916: 19914: 19911: 19909: 19906: 19904: 19901: 19899: 19896: 19894: 19891: 19889: 19886: 19884: 19881: 19879: 19876: 19874: 19871: 19869: 19866: 19864: 19861: 19859: 19856: 19854: 19851: 19849: 19846: 19845: 19843: 19840: 19835: 19830: 19824: 19821: 19819: 19816: 19814: 19813:Rankine cycle 19811: 19809: 19806: 19804: 19801: 19799: 19796: 19794: 19793:Cooling tower 19791: 19789: 19786: 19784: 19781: 19779: 19776: 19775: 19773: 19771: 19767: 19757: 19754: 19752: 19749: 19747: 19744: 19740: 19737: 19735: 19732: 19730: 19727: 19725: 19722: 19720: 19717: 19716: 19715: 19712: 19710: 19707: 19705: 19702: 19700: 19697: 19695: 19692: 19690: 19687: 19686: 19684: 19682: 19678: 19672: 19669: 19665: 19662: 19660: 19657: 19655: 19652: 19650: 19647: 19646: 19645: 19642: 19641: 19639: 19637: 19636:Non-renewable 19633: 19630: 19626: 19621: 19611: 19608: 19606: 19603: 19601: 19598: 19596: 19593: 19591: 19588: 19586: 19583: 19581: 19578: 19576: 19573: 19571: 19568: 19566: 19563: 19561: 19558: 19556: 19555:Grid strength 19553: 19551: 19548: 19546: 19543: 19541: 19538: 19536: 19533: 19531: 19528: 19526: 19523: 19521: 19518: 19516: 19513: 19511: 19510:Demand factor 19508: 19506: 19503: 19501: 19498: 19496: 19493: 19492: 19490: 19486: 19482: 19475: 19470: 19468: 19463: 19461: 19456: 19455: 19452: 19440: 19439: 19430: 19428: 19427: 19418: 19416: 19415: 19404: 19403: 19400: 19386: 19383: 19381: 19378: 19376: 19373: 19371: 19368: 19366: 19363: 19362: 19360: 19356: 19350: 19347: 19345: 19342: 19340: 19337: 19333: 19332:electrostatic 19330: 19329: 19328: 19325: 19323: 19317: 19316: 19314: 19312: 19308: 19302: 19299: 19297: 19294: 19292: 19289: 19287: 19284: 19282: 19279: 19277: 19274: 19273: 19271: 19269: 19265: 19261: 19255: 19250: 19244: 19234: 19231: 19227: 19224: 19222: 19219: 19218: 19217: 19214: 19213: 19211: 19207: 19197: 19194: 19192: 19189: 19187: 19184: 19180: 19177: 19175: 19172: 19170: 19167: 19165: 19162: 19160: 19157: 19155: 19152: 19150: 19147: 19145: 19142: 19140: 19137: 19135: 19132: 19130: 19127: 19125: 19122: 19121: 19120: 19117: 19116: 19114: 19112: 19111:Generation IV 19108: 19102: 19099: 19097: 19094: 19092: 19089: 19087: 19084: 19082: 19079: 19077: 19074: 19072: 19069: 19067: 19064: 19062: 19061:Breeder (FBR) 19059: 19058: 19055: 19052: 19047: 19038: 19024: 19021: 19019: 19016: 19014: 19011: 19009: 19006: 19004: 19001: 18999: 18996: 18995: 18993: 18991: 18987: 18984: 18982: 18978: 18966: 18963: 18959: 18956: 18954: 18951: 18949: 18946: 18944: 18941: 18940: 18939: 18936: 18935: 18934: 18931: 18929: 18926: 18922: 18919: 18918: 18917: 18914: 18913: 18911: 18909: 18905: 18899: 18896: 18894: 18891: 18889: 18887: 18883: 18882: 18880: 18878: 18871: 18868: 18866: 18862: 18852: 18849: 18847: 18844: 18842: 18839: 18837: 18834: 18833: 18831: 18829: 18821: 18818: 18814: 18811: 18806: 18799: 18794: 18782: 18779: 18777: 18774: 18772: 18769: 18767: 18764: 18763: 18762: 18759: 18758: 18756: 18754: 18747: 18741: 18738: 18737: 18735: 18733: 18729: 18723: 18720: 18718: 18715: 18711: 18708: 18706: 18703: 18702: 18701: 18698: 18697: 18695: 18693: 18685: 18677: 18674: 18672: 18669: 18667: 18664: 18662: 18659: 18655: 18652: 18650: 18647: 18645: 18642: 18641: 18640: 18637: 18635: 18632: 18628: 18625: 18622: 18619: 18616: 18613: 18612: 18611: 18608: 18607: 18606: 18603: 18602: 18600: 18598: 18590: 18587: 18583: 18576: 18572: 18566: 18563: 18558: 18556: 18553: 18551: 18548: 18544: 18541: 18539: 18536: 18535: 18534: 18531: 18529: 18526: 18524: 18521: 18519: 18516: 18514: 18511: 18509: 18506: 18504: 18501: 18499: 18496: 18494: 18491: 18490: 18489: 18486: 18484: 18481: 18477: 18474: 18472: 18469: 18467: 18464: 18462: 18459: 18458: 18457: 18454: 18452: 18449: 18448: 18446: 18444: 18440: 18435: 18434: 18427: 18422: 18416: 18412: 18408: 18403: 18399: 18389: 18386: 18384: 18381: 18379: 18376: 18374: 18371: 18369: 18366: 18364: 18363:Nuclear power 18361: 18360: 18358: 18354: 18344: 18343:Transmutation 18341: 18337: 18334: 18332: 18329: 18328: 18327: 18324: 18322: 18319: 18317: 18314: 18312: 18309: 18307: 18304: 18302: 18299: 18297: 18294: 18293: 18291: 18287: 18281: 18278: 18274: 18271: 18270: 18269: 18266: 18264: 18261: 18257: 18254: 18252: 18249: 18247: 18244: 18243: 18242: 18239: 18238: 18236: 18232: 18229: 18227: 18223: 18213: 18210: 18208: 18205: 18203: 18200: 18196: 18193: 18191: 18188: 18187: 18186: 18183: 18181: 18178: 18177: 18175: 18171: 18163: 18160: 18159: 18158: 18155: 18153: 18150: 18146: 18143: 18141: 18140:high-altitude 18138: 18137: 18136: 18133: 18131: 18130:Proliferation 18128: 18126: 18123: 18119: 18116: 18115: 18114: 18111: 18109: 18106: 18104: 18101: 18099: 18096: 18094: 18091: 18089: 18086: 18085: 18083: 18079: 18076: 18074: 18070: 18064: 18061: 18059: 18056: 18054: 18051: 18049: 18046: 18045: 18043: 18041: 18037: 18027: 18024: 18022: 18019: 18017: 18016:Brachytherapy 18014: 18012: 18009: 18007: 18004: 18002: 17999: 17997: 17994: 17992: 17989: 17988: 17986: 17984: 17980: 17974: 17971: 17969: 17966: 17964: 17961: 17959: 17956: 17954: 17951: 17950: 17948: 17946: 17942: 17939: 17937: 17933: 17925: 17922: 17921: 17920: 17917: 17913: 17910: 17909: 17908: 17905: 17901: 17898: 17897: 17896: 17893: 17891: 17888: 17886: 17883: 17881: 17878: 17876: 17873: 17871: 17868: 17866: 17863: 17862: 17860: 17858: 17854: 17848: 17845: 17843: 17840: 17838: 17835: 17833: 17830: 17828: 17825: 17823: 17820: 17818: 17815: 17813: 17812:Cross section 17810: 17808: 17805: 17803: 17800: 17798: 17795: 17794: 17792: 17790: 17786: 17778: 17775: 17773: 17770: 17766: 17763: 17761: 17758: 17757: 17756: 17753: 17752: 17751: 17748: 17746: 17743: 17741: 17738: 17736: 17733: 17731: 17728: 17726: 17723: 17721: 17718: 17717: 17715: 17713: 17709: 17701: 17698: 17696: 17693: 17692: 17691: 17688: 17686: 17683: 17681: 17678: 17676: 17673: 17671: 17668: 17666: 17663: 17661: 17658: 17657: 17655: 17651: 17647: 17643: 17636: 17631: 17629: 17624: 17622: 17617: 17616: 17613: 17601: 17598: 17596: 17593: 17591: 17588: 17586: 17583: 17581: 17578: 17577: 17574: 17568: 17565: 17560: 17557: 17555: 17552: 17547: 17544: 17542: 17539: 17534: 17531: 17530: 17528: 17526: 17522: 17516: 17513: 17511: 17508: 17506: 17503: 17501: 17498: 17496: 17493: 17491: 17488: 17486: 17483: 17481: 17478: 17476: 17473: 17471: 17468: 17466: 17463: 17461: 17458: 17456: 17453: 17451: 17448: 17446: 17443: 17441: 17438: 17436: 17433: 17431: 17428: 17427: 17425: 17419: 17413: 17410: 17408: 17405: 17403: 17400: 17398: 17395: 17393: 17390: 17388: 17385: 17383: 17380: 17378: 17375: 17373: 17370: 17368: 17365: 17363: 17360: 17358: 17355: 17353: 17350: 17348: 17345: 17343: 17340: 17338: 17335: 17333: 17330: 17328: 17325: 17323: 17320: 17318: 17315: 17313: 17310: 17308: 17305: 17304: 17302: 17298: 17292: 17289: 17287: 17284: 17282: 17279: 17277: 17274: 17273: 17271: 17263: 17257: 17254: 17252: 17249: 17247: 17244: 17242: 17239: 17237: 17234: 17232: 17229: 17227: 17224: 17222: 17219: 17217: 17214: 17213: 17211: 17203: 17197: 17194: 17192: 17189: 17187: 17184: 17182: 17179: 17177: 17174: 17172: 17169: 17167: 17164: 17163: 17161: 17153: 17147: 17144: 17142: 17139: 17137: 17134: 17132: 17129: 17127: 17124: 17123: 17121: 17118: 17111: 17105: 17104:United States 17102: 17100: 17097: 17095: 17092: 17090: 17087: 17085: 17082: 17080: 17077: 17075: 17072: 17070: 17067: 17066: 17064: 17061: 17054: 17050: 17043: 17038: 17036: 17031: 17029: 17024: 17023: 17020: 17014: 17010: 17007: 17004: 17002: 16998: 16995: 16992: 16991: 16982: 16981:0-674-05233-1 16978: 16974: 16971: 16968: 16965: 16961: 16958: 16956: 16951: 16947: 16943: 16940: 16937: 16936: 16931: 16927: 16924: 16920: 16914: 16910: 16905: 16902: 16898: 16895: 16891: 16888: 16885: 16881: 16878: 16877: 16872: 16869: 16865: 16859: 16854: 16853: 16846: 16843: 16842: 16837: 16834: 16831: 16827: 16824: 16823: 16818: 16815: 16814:Nature Energy 16811: 16807: 16804: 16800: 16796: 16793: 16789: 16786: 16782: 16781: 16779: 16775: 16750: 16746: 16740: 16726:on 2006-10-01 16725: 16721: 16717: 16713: 16707: 16699: 16695: 16690: 16685: 16681: 16677: 16673: 16669: 16665: 16658: 16650: 16646: 16642: 16638: 16633: 16628: 16624: 16620: 16616: 16612: 16608: 16601: 16593: 16589: 16585: 16581: 16576: 16571: 16567: 16563: 16559: 16555: 16551: 16544: 16528: 16524: 16518: 16504:on 2004-05-06 16500: 16493: 16486: 16478: 16472: 16468: 16461: 16443: 16439: 16435: 16431: 16427: 16422: 16417: 16413: 16409: 16408: 16400: 16393: 16379:on 2014-02-01 16378: 16374: 16368: 16350: 16343: 16337: 16319: 16315: 16314: 16306: 16300: 16298: 16281: 16277: 16273: 16267: 16265: 16256: 16252: 16248: 16244: 16239: 16234: 16230: 16226: 16222: 16218: 16214: 16207: 16205: 16196: 16192: 16188: 16184: 16179: 16174: 16170: 16166: 16162: 16158: 16154: 16147: 16145: 16129: 16125: 16118: 16116: 16099: 16095: 16089: 16087: 16071:on 2006-11-07 16070: 16066: 16062: 16061:"Beyond ITER" 16056: 16054: 16052: 16035: 16031: 16027: 16021: 16013: 16009: 16005: 16001: 15997: 15993: 15989: 15985: 15981: 15977: 15970: 15954: 15951:(in German). 15950: 15946: 15940: 15924: 15920: 15916: 15910: 15903: 15890: 15886: 15880: 15864: 15860: 15856: 15850: 15834: 15833: 15828: 15822: 15814: 15810: 15806: 15802: 15795: 15776: 15772: 15768: 15763: 15758: 15754: 15747: 15740: 15724: 15720: 15716: 15709: 15695:on 2019-08-06 15691: 15687: 15683: 15679: 15675: 15671: 15667: 15664:(1): 93–112. 15663: 15659: 15652: 15645: 15643: 15634: 15630: 15626: 15622: 15618: 15614: 15613:Energy Policy 15607: 15605: 15603: 15587: 15583: 15579: 15573: 15565: 15561: 15556: 15551: 15546: 15541: 15537: 15533: 15529: 15525: 15521: 15514: 15498: 15494: 15490: 15484: 15466: 15459: 15453: 15434: 15427: 15421: 15419: 15410: 15406: 15402: 15398: 15394: 15390: 15386: 15379: 15371: 15367: 15363: 15359: 15355: 15351: 15347: 15343: 15335: 15319: 15315: 15311: 15305: 15297: 15293: 15289: 15285: 15278: 15270: 15266: 15262: 15258: 15254: 15250: 15246: 15242: 15238: 15234: 15227: 15219: 15215: 15211: 15207: 15203: 15199: 15195: 15191: 15184: 15168: 15165:(in German). 15164: 15160: 15154: 15152: 15143: 15139: 15135: 15131: 15127: 15123: 15119: 15115: 15111: 15107: 15100: 15084: 15080: 15076: 15070: 15054: 15050: 15045: 15037: 15018: 15014: 15010: 15006: 15002: 14998: 14994: 14990: 14986: 14979: 14972: 14958:on 2016-05-18 14954: 14950: 14943: 14937: 14922: 14918: 14914: 14907: 14893:on 2007-09-27 14889: 14882: 14875: 14859: 14855: 14851: 14844: 14829: 14825: 14821: 14815: 14800: 14796: 14792: 14788: 14787:Harvey, Fiona 14782: 14771: 14765: 14750: 14746: 14742: 14736: 14720: 14716: 14712: 14705: 14703: 14687: 14683: 14679: 14673: 14658: 14654: 14653: 14648: 14641: 14625: 14621: 14620:IEEE Spectrum 14617: 14610: 14602: 14598: 14593: 14588: 14584: 14580: 14576: 14572: 14568: 14564: 14560: 14553: 14545: 14541: 14537: 14533: 14528: 14523: 14519: 14515: 14511: 14507: 14500: 14492: 14488: 14482: 14475: 14462: 14458: 14454: 14448: 14441: 14436: 14432: 14428: 14424: 14420: 14416: 14412: 14408: 14400: 14393: 14389: 14385: 14381: 14377: 14373: 14369: 14365: 14361: 14356: 14351: 14347: 14343: 14336: 14328: 14324: 14320: 14316: 14312: 14308: 14304: 14300: 14292: 14284: 14280: 14276: 14272: 14268: 14264: 14260: 14256: 14253:: 2189–2193. 14252: 14248: 14247: 14239: 14231: 14227: 14223: 14219: 14214: 14209: 14205: 14201: 14197: 14193: 14189: 14182: 14173: 14168: 14165:(in German). 14164: 14156: 14148: 14144: 14140: 14136: 14132: 14128: 14124: 14120: 14119:Energy Policy 14113: 14111: 14094: 14090: 14084: 14082: 14073: 14069: 14065: 14061: 14057: 14053: 14049: 14045: 14038: 14030: 14026: 14022: 14016: 14012: 14008: 14004: 13997: 13989: 13985: 13980: 13975: 13971: 13967: 13963: 13959: 13955: 13951: 13947: 13943: 13939: 13932: 13924: 13920: 13916: 13912: 13908: 13904: 13900: 13896: 13895:Energy Policy 13888: 13880: 13876: 13872: 13868: 13863: 13858: 13853: 13848: 13844: 13840: 13836: 13832: 13828: 13821: 13813: 13809: 13805: 13801: 13796: 13791: 13787: 13783: 13780:(1): 130003. 13779: 13775: 13771: 13764: 13746: 13742: 13735: 13729: 13721: 13717: 13713: 13709: 13705: 13701: 13697: 13693: 13686: 13670: 13666: 13665:Common Dreams 13662: 13656: 13654: 13637: 13633: 13629: 13623: 13621: 13619: 13607: 13603: 13596: 13589: 13573: 13569: 13565: 13559: 13557: 13545: 13541: 13534: 13528: 13513: 13509: 13505: 13499: 13484: 13480: 13476: 13470: 13463: 13458: 13454: 13450: 13446: 13442: 13438: 13434: 13430: 13426: 13422: 13414: 13400:on 2010-08-23 13399: 13395: 13389: 13382: 13378: 13375: 13372:, 2007-4-20, 13371: 13367: 13364: 13359: 13351: 13347: 13343: 13339: 13335: 13331: 13327: 13323: 13316: 13308: 13304: 13300: 13296: 13292: 13288: 13284: 13280: 13273: 13271: 13269: 13260: 13256: 13252: 13248: 13244: 13240: 13236: 13232: 13225: 13217: 13213: 13209: 13205: 13201: 13197: 13193: 13189: 13182: 13174: 13168: 13164: 13163: 13155: 13147: 13143: 13139: 13135: 13131: 13127: 13126: 13125:Energy Policy 13121: 13115: 13100: 13096: 13090: 13086: 13085: 13077: 13063:on 2009-08-06 13059: 13052: 13046: 13032:on 2010-04-18 13031: 13027: 13023: 13016: 13008: 13004: 12998: 12982: 12978: 12972: 12956: 12952: 12946: 12938: 12934: 12929: 12924: 12919: 12914: 12910: 12906: 12905:PLOS Medicine 12902: 12895: 12881:on 2008-05-27 12877: 12873: 12866: 12859: 12844: 12840: 12834: 12818: 12814: 12808: 12794:on 2010-06-19 12793: 12789: 12783: 12768: 12764: 12760: 12753: 12738:on 2009-06-26 12737: 12733: 12729: 12723: 12715: 12711: 12707: 12703: 12699: 12695: 12688: 12680: 12676: 12669: 12653: 12649: 12643: 12625: 12618: 12612: 12610: 12595:on 2022-04-03 12594: 12590: 12584: 12566: 12559: 12553: 12551: 12536:on 2017-05-06 12535: 12531: 12525: 12518: 12508:on 2013-07-02 12507: 12503: 12499: 12493: 12475: 12468: 12462: 12460: 12458: 12441: 12437: 12431: 12429: 12420: 12416: 12412: 12408: 12404: 12400: 12396: 12392: 12388: 12384: 12380: 12376: 12375:Risk Analysis 12369: 12361: 12357: 12353: 12349: 12345: 12341: 12337: 12333: 12329: 12325: 12318: 12316: 12299: 12295: 12288: 12286: 12269: 12265: 12259: 12257: 12255: 12238: 12234: 12228: 12226: 12217: 12213: 12208: 12203: 12198: 12193: 12189: 12185: 12181: 12174: 12172: 12163: 12159: 12155: 12151: 12147: 12143: 12139: 12135: 12134:Energy Policy 12128: 12126: 12124: 12104: 12097: 12091: 12072: 12065: 12059: 12044: 12040: 12036: 12030: 12015: 12011: 12004: 11990:on 2017-05-04 11989: 11985: 11981: 11974: 11972: 11957:on 2013-04-26 11956: 11952: 11946: 11938: 11932: 11928: 11924: 11923: 11918: 11912: 11898:on 2013-07-01 11897: 11893: 11889: 11883: 11868: 11864: 11858: 11850: 11846: 11841: 11836: 11832: 11828: 11824: 11817: 11815: 11800:on 2013-06-21 11799: 11795: 11789: 11775:on 2011-07-08 11774: 11770: 11764: 11762: 11760: 11744: 11740: 11736: 11732: 11728: 11721: 11706: 11702: 11698: 11694: 11690: 11683: 11675: 11671: 11667: 11666:Bunn, Matthew 11661: 11645: 11641: 11635: 11617: 11613: 11606: 11599: 11597: 11582:on 2016-01-08 11578: 11571: 11565: 11547: 11543: 11536: 11530: 11514: 11510: 11506: 11500: 11482: 11478: 11471: 11465: 11447: 11443: 11436: 11430: 11422: 11418: 11414: 11408: 11389: 11382: 11376: 11368: 11364: 11360: 11356: 11352: 11348: 11344: 11340: 11333: 11325: 11321: 11317: 11313: 11309: 11305: 11304:Energy Policy 11298: 11283: 11279: 11275: 11269: 11254: 11250: 11246: 11239: 11224: 11220: 11216: 11209: 11194: 11190: 11183: 11175: 11169: 11165: 11158: 11151: 11148: 11144: 11141: 11140: 11134: 11126: 11122: 11115: 11107: 11103: 11096: 11081: 11077: 11073: 11069: 11065: 11061: 11057: 11053: 11049: 11045: 11038: 11023: 11019: 11015: 11011: 11005: 10987: 10983: 10979: 10975: 10971: 10967: 10963: 10959: 10955: 10948: 10940: 10932: 10928: 10924: 10921:(6093): 395. 10920: 10916: 10912: 10905: 10897: 10893: 10888: 10883: 10878: 10873: 10869: 10865: 10861: 10857: 10853: 10846: 10844: 10842: 10826: 10822: 10816: 10809: 10804: 10800: 10796: 10792: 10788: 10784: 10780: 10776: 10769: 10767: 10751: 10748:. Melbourne. 10747: 10746: 10741: 10734: 10719: 10715: 10713: 10707: 10705: 10697: 10695: 10679: 10675: 10671: 10665: 10650: 10646: 10640: 10622: 10615: 10608: 10606: 10589: 10585: 10584:IEEE Spectrum 10581: 10574: 10558: 10554: 10550: 10544: 10542: 10540: 10532: 10528: 10525: 10520: 10501: 10494: 10488: 10472: 10468: 10464: 10457: 10441: 10437: 10431: 10429: 10412: 10408: 10404: 10397: 10381: 10377: 10373: 10366: 10364: 10347: 10343: 10339: 10333: 10317: 10313: 10309: 10303: 10285: 10278: 10271: 10257:on 2013-11-01 10256: 10252: 10246: 10238: 10234: 10230: 10226: 10222: 10218: 10214: 10210: 10206: 10202: 10201:Nature Energy 10195: 10179: 10175: 10171: 10165: 10149: 10145: 10144:The Economist 10141: 10135: 10116: 10109: 10108: 10101: 10085: 10081: 10075: 10073: 10071: 10055: 10051: 10045: 10041: 10037: 10036: 10029: 10015:on 2022-12-10 10013: 10008: 10004: 9997: 9988: 9983: 9979: 9975: 9971: 9967: 9966:Energy Policy 9963: 9956: 9941: 9937: 9933: 9927: 9920: 9916: 9913: 9912: 9906: 9890: 9886: 9880: 9876: 9875: 9868: 9853: 9849: 9843: 9836: 9826:on 2015-02-26 9822: 9815: 9808: 9794:on 2013-10-04 9793: 9789: 9783: 9769:on 2014-02-11 9765: 9758: 9752: 9744: 9740: 9733: 9718: 9714: 9708: 9704: 9703: 9696: 9681: 9677: 9671: 9656: 9652: 9648: 9642: 9627: 9623: 9617: 9601: 9597: 9592: 9584: 9566: 9559: 9553: 9545: 9541: 9537: 9533: 9529: 9525: 9524: 9519: 9515: 9509: 9494: 9490: 9484: 9468: 9464: 9458: 9443: 9439: 9433: 9426: 9413: 9409: 9403: 9385: 9381: 9377: 9373: 9369: 9365: 9361: 9354: 9347: 9331: 9327: 9323: 9317: 9309: 9305: 9300: 9299:11311/1204791 9295: 9290: 9285: 9281: 9277: 9273: 9269: 9268:Energy Policy 9265: 9258: 9244:on 2013-02-16 9243: 9239: 9235: 9229: 9227: 9225: 9210:on 2013-04-26 9209: 9205: 9201: 9195: 9179: 9175: 9171: 9165: 9149: 9145: 9141: 9135: 9133: 9117: 9113: 9106: 9092:on 2011-01-10 9088: 9084: 9077: 9071: 9057:on 2010-06-15 9056: 9052: 9048: 9042: 9034: 9030: 9026: 9022: 9018: 9014: 9010: 9006: 8992:on 2007-04-10 8991: 8987: 8983: 8979: 8978:John McCarthy 8973: 8966: 8953: 8949: 8945: 8938: 8930: 8926: 8922: 8918: 8914: 8910: 8903: 8887: 8883: 8879: 8872: 8864: 8858: 8854: 8853: 8845: 8831:on 2012-04-26 8830: 8826: 8822: 8815: 8813: 8804: 8800: 8796: 8792: 8788: 8784: 8777: 8768: 8763: 8759: 8755: 8751: 8747: 8743: 8736: 8728: 8724: 8720: 8716: 8712: 8711: 8703: 8688: 8684: 8678: 8676: 8661:on 2020-08-05 8660: 8656: 8655:IEEE Spectrum 8652: 8645: 8638: 8634: 8631: 8625: 8623: 8621: 8611: 8606: 8602: 8598: 8594: 8590: 8586: 8579: 8564: 8560: 8556: 8550: 8535: 8531: 8527: 8523: 8517: 8503:on 2017-05-25 8502: 8498: 8497: 8492: 8486: 8477: 8472: 8468: 8464: 8460: 8453: 8444: 8439: 8435: 8431: 8427: 8420: 8412: 8406: 8402: 8397: 8396: 8387: 8385: 8370:on 2009-08-25 8369: 8365: 8359: 8345:on 2013-04-26 8341: 8334: 8328: 8321: 8315: 8313: 8297: 8293: 8287: 8272: 8268: 8264: 8258: 8243: 8239: 8235: 8229: 8213: 8209: 8205: 8199: 8184: 8180: 8174: 8166: 8162: 8158: 8156: 8153:"Coal ash is 8148: 8133: 8129: 8122: 8107: 8103: 8099: 8093: 8079:on 2017-05-10 8078: 8074: 8068: 8052: 8048: 8044: 8038: 8031: 8010: 8003: 7997: 7982: 7978: 7972: 7957: 7953: 7946: 7931: 7927: 7923: 7916: 7907: 7900: 7886: 7879: 7873: 7855: 7848: 7842: 7827: 7823: 7817: 7809: 7803: 7799: 7798: 7790: 7782: 7776: 7772: 7765: 7750: 7746: 7742: 7738: 7732: 7728: 7724: 7720: 7716: 7709: 7701: 7700: 7692: 7676: 7672: 7668: 7662: 7654: 7648: 7644: 7637: 7623:on 2018-12-11 7622: 7618: 7614: 7608: 7600: 7594: 7578: 7574: 7570: 7566: 7560: 7558: 7546: 7539: 7532: 7530: 7528: 7526: 7516: 7511: 7507: 7503: 7499: 7492: 7483: 7478: 7474: 7470: 7466: 7459: 7443: 7439: 7432: 7430: 7421: 7417: 7413: 7409: 7402: 7395: 7381: 7374: 7368: 7360: 7354: 7350: 7349: 7341: 7333: 7329: 7324: 7319: 7315: 7311: 7307: 7300: 7298: 7289: 7285: 7281: 7277: 7273: 7269: 7266:: 1156–1164. 7265: 7261: 7254: 7252: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7191:Energy Policy 7185: 7178: 7176: 7167: 7163: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7130:Energy Policy 7127: 7120: 7112: 7108: 7104: 7100: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7077: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7047: 7031: 7027: 7026:pubs.usgs.gov 7023: 7017: 6998: 6991: 6985: 6983: 6981: 6979: 6969: 6964: 6961:(in German). 6960: 6952: 6950: 6948: 6946: 6944: 6942: 6940: 6938: 6929: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6913: 6909: 6905: 6901: 6897: 6893: 6885: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6841: 6822: 6818: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6802: 6798: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6782: 6775: 6768: 6760: 6756: 6752: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6726: 6722: 6721:Energy Policy 6718: 6711: 6709: 6707: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6675: 6668: 6652: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6620: 6613: 6606: 6599: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6573: 6572:1721.1/105171 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6533: 6531: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6499: 6497: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6453: 6451: 6431: 6424: 6418: 6416: 6399: 6395: 6389: 6387: 6385: 6383: 6381: 6368: 6361: 6355: 6341:on 2010-06-11 6340: 6336: 6332: 6326: 6324: 6322: 6309: 6302: 6296: 6288: 6284: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6265: 6258: 6244:on 2008-12-05 6243: 6239: 6235: 6229: 6218:September 11, 6210: 6206: 6199: 6193: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6164: 6148: 6144: 6140: 6134: 6132: 6130: 6128: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6099: 6093: 6091: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6060: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6030: 6028: 6008: 6001: 5995: 5979: 5975: 5969: 5954: 5950: 5944: 5929: 5925: 5919: 5904: 5900: 5893: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5863: 5861: 5844: 5840: 5836: 5829: 5827: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5796: 5780: 5776: 5775:The Economist 5772: 5766: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5737: 5721: 5717: 5711: 5696: 5692: 5688: 5682: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5653: 5637: 5633: 5627: 5625: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5594: 5580:on 2017-05-25 5579: 5575: 5571: 5565: 5550: 5546: 5545:xinhuanet.com 5542: 5536: 5522:on 2019-09-30 5521: 5517: 5513: 5506: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5476: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5443: 5429:on 2011-06-25 5428: 5424: 5420: 5413: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5383: 5368: 5364: 5358: 5356: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5326: 5324: 5315: 5309: 5306:. Routledge. 5305: 5304: 5296: 5280: 5276: 5275: 5267: 5248: 5241: 5235: 5233: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5202: 5196: 5195:1-4380-6728-3 5192: 5187: 5181: 5177: 5170: 5162: 5155: 5137: 5134:. p. 3. 5130: 5124: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5093: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5064: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5015: 5008: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4959: 4952: 4950: 4942: 4941: 4937: 4934: 4927: 4925: 4916: 4910: 4906: 4901: 4900: 4891: 4884: 4878: 4870: 4864: 4860: 4859: 4851: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4819:Martin, Brian 4814: 4806: 4800: 4796: 4795: 4787: 4785: 4783: 4768:on 2018-06-01 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4748: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4719: 4717: 4700: 4696: 4689: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4664: 4659: 4652: 4637: 4633: 4626: 4618: 4612: 4607: 4606: 4597: 4595: 4586: 4580: 4576: 4569: 4554: 4550: 4549: 4544: 4538: 4530: 4524: 4520: 4513: 4498: 4494: 4488: 4470: 4463: 4457: 4455: 4446: 4442: 4436: 4421: 4417: 4411: 4397:on 2016-03-28 4396: 4392: 4391: 4383: 4375: 4369: 4354: 4350: 4344: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4301: 4286: 4282: 4276: 4261: 4257: 4256:pris.iaea.org 4253: 4252:"PRIS - Home" 4247: 4245: 4240: 4229: 4226: 4224: 4221: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4195: 4190: 4189:Energy portal 4184: 4179: 4176: 4165: 4158: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4143: 4141: 4137: 4132: 4130: 4126: 4121: 4117: 4112: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4096: 4088: 4085: 4080: 4071: 4068: 4062: 4052: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4035: 4020: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 3991: 3989: 3981: 3980:carbon budget 3976: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3956:global energy 3952: 3942: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3914: 3912: 3902: 3858: 3856: 3852: 3844: 3842: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3820: 3810: 3808: 3803: 3799: 3794: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3771:energy system 3763: 3759: 3754: 3750: 3748: 3744: 3738: 3735: 3731: 3725: 3721: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3677: 3669: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3645: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3626: 3616: 3601: 3595: 3583: 3571: 3567: 3557: 3551: 3547: 3543: 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3066: 3060: 3059: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3026:Nuclear power 3024: 3022: 3019: 3017: 3014: 3012: 3009: 3007: 3004: 3002: 2999: 2997: 2994: 2992: 2989: 2988: 2985: 2980: 2979: 2974: 2971: 2969: 2966: 2964: 2961: 2960: 2959: 2958: 2955: 2952: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2942: 2938: 2932: 2922: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2884: 2882: 2877: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2852: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2816: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2793: 2791: 2782: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2751: 2744:Proliferation 2741: 2739: 2733: 2729: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2691: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2667: 2662: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2639: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2624: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2613: 2608:on board the 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2574: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2553:Some serious 2550: 2546: 2542: 2534: 2529: 2524: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2504: 2495: 2493: 2489: 2483: 2481: 2477: 2476:air pollution 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982: 978: 974: 969: 968: 961: 959: 958:Fumio Kishida 953: 946: 942: 938: 928: 926: 925:Fumio Kishida 921: 918: 914: 909: 907: 903: 899: 882: 881:MediaWiki.org 878: 873: 864: 863: 854: 853:MediaWiki.org 850: 845: 836: 835: 817: 812: 808: 801: 796: 786: nuclear 768: 762: 757: 753: 746: 741: 740: 739: 737: 733: 729: 725: 720: 718: 710: 698: 694: 690: 685: 671: 667: 663: 656: 652: 647: 638: 636: 632: 628: 624: 619: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 592: 590: 586: 582: 577: 575: 571: 562: 552: 550: 546: 545:plutonium-239 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 517: 515: 511: 510: 504: 500: 496: 492: 482: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 457: 453: 444: 439: 432: 428: 427: 420: 416: 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 369: 367: 363: 359: 355: 351: 350:radioactivity 343: 339: 334: 324: 314: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 283:air pollution 280: 276: 272: 268: 263: 261: 257: 237: 233: 230:source after 229: 225: 221: 212: 209:and the 1986 208: 207:United States 204: 192: 187: 185: 181: 177: 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Retrieved 4255: 4144: 4133: 4113: 4102: 4099:Fusion power 4064: 4037: 4004:square miles 3997: 3977: 3948: 3923:power plants 3915: 3908: 3848: 3822: 3800:in favor of 3795: 3767: 3743:reprocessing 3739: 3726: 3722: 3678: 3675: 3653: 3649: 3602: 3576:mSv/a and 13 3570:millisievert 3563: 3493: 3442: 3430: 3267:Carbon sinks 3084:Climate debt 3025: 2919: 2854: 2849: 2845: 2831: 2824:nuclear fuel 2817: 2794: 2787: 2734: 2730: 2711: 2683:dam failures 2663: 2640: 2625: 2615:underwent a 2611: 2575: 2552: 2484: 2465: 2453:control rods 2446: 2423: 2385: 2366: 2357:, which use 2352: 2339: 2325:Use in space 2315: 2296: 2285: 2274: 2264:, such as a 2260:Measures to 2259: 2197: 2182: 2174: 2170: 2143:desalinating 2132: 2121: 2097: 2066: 2038: 1982: 1940: 1914: 1894: 1883: 1864:Nuclear fuel 1845: 1828: 1812: 1789: 1774:Reprocessing 1761: 1721: 1710: 1650: 1629: 1611: 1589: 1585:fast fission 1558: 1547: 1528: 1494: 1449: 1399: 1382:fast reactor 1375: 1337: 1290: 1224: 1185:control rods 1165: 1134: 1018:in operation 995:Power plants 967:Energiewende 962: 954: 934: 922: 910: 895: 721: 686: 684:GW in 2005. 675: 649:The town of 623:anti-nuclear 620: 596:anti-nuclear 593: 578: 558: 518: 508: 488: 448: 425: 409:Trinity test 397:atomic bombs 370: 362:World War II 347: 264: 188: 117: 110: 103: 95: 79: 55: 54: 32: 21271:Nationalism 21243:Common-pool 20884:Hydrosphere 20877:remediation 20862:Groundwater 20457:Degradation 20130:Load factor 19985:Black start 19953:Transformer 19654:Natural gas 19605:Variability 19580:Peak demand 19570:Merit order 19500:Backfeeding 19296:Stellarator 19260:confinement 19154:Superphénix 18981:Molten-salt 18933:VHTR (HTGR) 18710:HW BLWR 250 18676:R4 Marviken 18605:Pressurized 18575:Heavy water 18559:many others 18488:Pressurized 18443:Light water 18145:underground 18103:Disarmament 18011:Tomotherapy 18006:Proton-beam 17870:Power plant 17832:Temperature 17665:Engineering 17562:(gradually) 17559:Switzerland 17525:Phasing-out 17382:Philippines 17377:North Korea 17286:Netherlands 17186:Switzerland 17094:South Korea 16879:, Palgrave. 16799:M.V. Ramana 16560:: 489–497. 16533:25 November 16163:: 489–497. 16133:26 November 16104:25 November 16040:24 November 15959:24 November 15929:25 November 15895:24 November 15869:24 November 15839:24 November 15784:26 November 15503:28 November 15493:cen.acs.org 15442:24 November 15348:: 162–168. 15324:24 November 15173:28 November 15089:28 November 15059:28 November 14864:January 30, 14413:: 185–196. 14305:: 856–870. 14125:: 740–750. 14099:25 November 14050:: 447–456. 13948:(1): 3413. 13901:: 282–290. 13675:24 November 13642:24 November 13578:24 November 13462:considered. 13285:: 115–124. 13237:: 372–381. 12987:18 February 12961:18 February 12823:18 February 12650:. Nsc.org. 12446:24 November 12304:24 November 12140:: 236–245. 12112:24 November 12080:24 November 11519:8 September 10509:28 November 10477:28 November 10446:24 November 10417:28 November 10275:A. Lokhov. 10184:24 November 10090:12 December 9972:: 371–382. 9606:9 September 9366:: 155–164. 8915:: 429–441. 8789:: 297–302. 8595:: 199–211. 8218:22 December 8047:www.nrc.gov 7197:: 838–852. 7136:: 250–258. 7036:28 November 7006:24 November 6854:: 213–220. 6695:28 November 6625:: 394–407. 6591:26 November 6519:26 November 6439:25 November 5882:25 November 5849:25 November 5815:25 November 5662:www.iea.org 3853:(or 13,792 3833:fossil fuel 3791:smart grids 3787:super grids 3550:natural gas 3500:electricity 3377:Sustainable 3274:Blue carbon 3179:Agriculture 3036:Solar power 2687:Banqiao Dam 2492:radiophobia 1509:transuranic 1478:uranium ore 1324:uranium-238 1266:heavy water 1251:uranium-235 1231:uranium ore 1172:uranium-235 1040:Phabricator 877:Phabricator 849:Phabricator 666:Olkiluoto 3 541:electricity 533:Calder Hall 495:S1W reactor 493:, with the 456:Arco, Idaho 411:, with the 385:criticality 379:stadium at 377:Stagg Field 279:natural gas 64:electricity 62:to produce 21317:Categories 21266:Extraction 21225:Wilderness 21186:accounting 21169:Management 21135:ecological 21123:tragedy of 21042:Peak water 21027:Efficiency 21000:Sanitation 20942:Stormwater 20935:harvesting 20911:Irrigation 20813:management 20771:gene banks 20712:management 20690:management 20606:resilience 20572:phosphorus 20528:industrial 20506:Management 20482:soundscape 20388:Geothermal 20172:production 20017:Protective 19948:Super grid 19943:Smart grid 19770:Generation 19704:Geothermal 19595:Repowering 19321:(acoustic) 18938:PBR (PBMR) 18326:Spent fuel 18316:Repository 18296:Fuel cycle 18263:Activation 18040:Processing 17907:Propulsion 17865:by country 17797:Activation 17440:Azerbaijan 17352:Kazakhstan 17317:Bangladesh 16772:See also: 16730:2006-11-11 16508:2010-09-16 16451:2013-06-19 16383:2014-01-24 16358:2019-01-12 16327:2022-06-07 16286:January 6, 16075:2011-02-05 15919:ucsusa.org 15729:9 November 15699:2019-12-01 15592:2019-01-31 15474:2021-11-27 15026:1 December 14962:2013-01-04 14927:2014-01-24 14897:2012-09-08 14834:2018-12-13 14805:2016-12-12 14755:2019-07-14 14745:DailySabah 14692:2019-01-05 14663:2019-01-16 14630:13 January 14569:(1): 101. 14467:25 October 14457:ucsusa.org 14355:2001.03679 14348:: 117015. 14198:: 116948. 13862:2299/21546 13754:2019-01-05 13518:2020-12-12 13489:2022-04-19 13427:: 110836. 13404:2015-11-01 13105:2015-10-18 13067:2010-02-28 13036:2010-08-24 12885:2008-04-18 12849:2022-02-18 12798:2010-07-04 12773:2013-11-05 12742:2017-03-10 12633:2012-05-17 12599:2022-04-19 12574:2019-01-19 12540:2016-09-08 12512:2013-06-22 12483:2019-01-19 12274:25 October 12243:1 February 12190:(7): 700. 12049:2013-06-22 12020:2015-08-11 11994:2015-08-11 11961:2013-06-22 11902:2015-08-12 11873:2013-06-22 11804:2013-06-14 11779:2012-09-15 11749:2020-01-15 11711:2020-01-15 11625:2016-07-07 11586:2016-09-08 11555:2016-09-08 11490:2012-05-17 11455:2018-12-15 11288:2013-06-22 11259:2017-02-25 11229:2016-12-12 11199:2011-03-14 11086:2013-07-08 11028:2013-07-08 10995:2021-08-05 10954:The Lancet 10831:2014-01-24 10756:2008-01-18 10724:2012-09-15 10684:2023-11-15 10655:2018-12-10 10630:2018-11-18 10386:3 February 10293:2016-03-12 10261:2019-08-05 10060:2006-11-10 10019:2010-09-12 9946:2020-12-29 9858:2007-11-01 9830:2015-06-04 9798:2013-06-14 9773:2015-08-17 9723:2021-01-09 9686:2019-12-15 9661:2020-06-09 9651:Energy.gov 9632:2022-04-18 9574:2015-08-10 9499:2019-07-08 9393:2021-04-19 9274:: 111677. 9248:2006-11-09 9214:2013-06-14 9122:2013-06-14 9096:2013-02-03 9061:2006-11-09 8996:2006-11-09 8835:2016-07-18 8693:2018-12-26 8665:2020-02-02 8569:2018-11-18 8540:2008-05-15 8507:2008-05-15 8469:(4): 833. 8374:2009-09-15 8349:2013-06-22 8302:2013-06-22 8277:2018-12-22 8248:2018-12-22 8189:2013-06-22 8161:CE Journal 8138:2008-01-31 8112:2012-09-11 8083:2013-01-04 7987:2013-06-14 7962:2013-06-14 7936:2013-06-14 7894:2018-12-22 7863:2008-06-06 7832:2008-06-06 7755:2021-09-20 7627:2018-12-23 7448:October 9, 7389:2018-10-09 7067:2021-11-28 6898:: 110740. 6830:1 December 6727:: 112363. 6660:1 December 6404:26 January 6345:2006-11-09 6248:2008-06-16 6183:2013-06-14 6080:2018-11-18 6016:26 October 5959:2022-09-12 5934:2022-09-12 5909:2022-09-12 5785:25 January 5756:2018-09-29 5701:2016-01-05 5672:2016-04-18 5584:2015-08-12 5555:2011-03-17 5526:2011-03-17 5496:2017-02-25 5466:2020-02-20 5433:2011-06-25 5373:2021-01-09 5345:2011-03-14 5285:2021-03-23 5145:2015-10-18 5113:January 6, 5083:2007-12-04 5054:2010-02-28 4998:2010-02-28 4841:2011-03-14 4772:2011-03-14 4738:2021-01-09 4642:2009-05-15 4559:2006-06-27 4503:2012-07-25 4478:2006-11-09 4426:2012-07-25 4401:2017-11-03 4359:2013-06-22 4266:2023-08-22 4235:References 4118:, a large 4067:Hans Bethe 4006:(3.4 3901:Renewables 3817:See also: 3671:longevity. 3629:See also: 3189:Capitalism 3149:Green home 3079:Carbon tax 3046:Wind power 2929:See also: 2754:See also: 2645:, fission 2539:See also: 2528:decay heat 2472:hydropower 2434:decay heat 2406:See also: 2342:Mars rover 2266:carbon tax 1950:Production 1784:See also: 1705:New Mexico 1703:(WIPP) in 1686:See also: 1624:See also: 1402:micrograms 1239:yellowcake 1195:Fuel cycle 1125:See also: 985:TerraPower 529:power grid 499:submarines 469:gave his " 431:North Pole 375:under the 94:. Nuclear 21276:Renewable 21261:Depletion 21248:Conflict 21130:Economics 21108:enclosure 21067:Resources 21047:Pollution 20964:Watershed 20867:pollution 20798:Seed bank 20793:Rangeland 20675:Fisheries 20660:Biosphere 20653:biopiracy 20596:fertility 20472:cityscape 20467:Landscape 20374:peak coal 20361:Resources 20312:Emissions 20080:Economics 19803:Micro CHP 19681:Renewable 19664:Petroleum 19659:Oil shale 19545:Grid code 19505:Base load 19291:Spheromak 18990:Fluorides 18654:IPHWR-700 18649:IPHWR-540 18644:IPHWR-220 18433:Moderator 18113:Explosion 18088:Arms race 17875:Economics 17827:Reflector 17822:Radiation 17817:Generator 17772:Plutonium 17725:Deuterium 17690:Radiation 17660:Chemistry 17549:(already) 17536:(delayed) 17510:Venezuela 17495:Singapore 17470:Lithuania 17430:Australia 17397:Sri Lanka 17337:Indonesia 17216:Argentina 16649:228937388 16641:1099-114X 16592:115968344 16584:0360-5442 16438:205047403 16255:228937388 16247:1099-114X 16195:115968344 16187:0360-5442 16012:236163222 16004:0096-3402 15902:reactors. 15771:240490309 15755:: 1–191. 15582:Discovery 15409:130354940 15401:1476-4687 15362:1878-562X 15253:1471-5546 15218:0022-3115 15134:0169-7722 15013:1811-5209 14544:116855350 14536:0306-2619 14435:0360-5442 14388:213083726 14380:0360-5442 14327:0360-5442 14283:133216477 14275:0920-3796 14230:214336333 14222:0360-5442 14147:0301-4215 14072:1364-0321 13970:2041-1723 13923:0301-4215 13879:169342098 13871:2211-467X 13812:201317957 13804:0094-243X 13720:154617833 13712:1863-9038 13692:ERA Forum 13457:233564525 13449:1364-0321 13350:169975439 13342:2399-6544 13307:2214-6296 13259:0360-5442 13216:0029-5493 12977:"Climate" 12813:"Climate" 12732:Bloomberg 12403:1539-6924 12352:1095-8630 12330:: 81–92. 12162:0301-4215 11739:0362-4331 11701:0362-4331 11367:110522982 11106:Bloomberg 11076:218769799 10237:237818619 10229:2058-7546 10154:21 August 10124:21 August 9895:21 August 9447:15 August 9418:27 August 9308:0301-4215 9234:"Thorium" 9184:28 August 9154:7 October 9033:119587950 8057:28 August 7745:216544356 7681:April 19, 7475:: 81–92. 7332:2194-4296 7288:0306-4549 7227:159233075 7219:0301-4215 7166:158066671 7158:0301-4215 7111:0149-1970 7089:: 81–85. 6928:233577205 6920:1364-0321 6876:0306-4549 6817:126267852 6809:0149-1970 6787:: 81–90. 6759:236254316 6751:0301-4215 6647:0301-4207 6581:0084-6597 6487:145763632 6479:0096-3402 6049:24 August 5726:17 August 5041:154479502 5027:(1): 71. 4985:154479502 4971:(1): 57. 4705:25 August 4678:25 August 4663:Frontline 4335:0096-3402 3927:plutonium 3560:Radiation 3194:Transport 3063:Economics 2768:/Russian 2666:insurance 2590:U.S. Army 2516:radiation 2498:Accidents 2368:Voyager 2 2340:Curiosity 2303:base-load 2257:USD/MWh. 2185:regulated 2153:Economics 2149:systems. 2095:in Asia. 2079:GW and 96 1794:run on a 1756:hot cells 1531:biosphere 1524:americium 1520:neptunium 1516:plutonium 1512:actinides 1480:over time 1407:dissolved 1386:actinides 1371:phosphate 1351:germanium 1286:fuel rods 1176:plutonium 956:Minister 687:The 1986 507:USS 491:U.S. Navy 424:USS 301:like the 299:accidents 287:accidents 275:petroleum 262:in Asia. 246:GW and 96 160:reprocess 105:Voyager 2 88:plutonium 21302:Category 21235:Resource 21174:adaptive 21072:improved 21032:Conflict 21017:Security 21012:Scarcity 21005:improved 20995:Leaching 20872:recharge 20852:Drinking 20803:Wildlife 20670:Bushmeat 20665:Bushfood 20618:planning 20523:gemstone 20518:Minerals 20499:property 20487:viewshed 20477:seascape 20408:sunlight 20382:peak oil 20378:peak gas 20203:Category 19990:Brownout 19778:AC power 19488:Concepts 19426:Category 19380:Polywell 19311:Inertial 19268:Magnetic 19023:TMSR-LF1 19018:TMSR-500 18998:Fuji MSR 18958:THTR-300 18798:Graphite 18661:PHWR KWU 18627:ACR-1000 18555:IPWR-900 18538:ACPR1000 18533:HPR-1000 18523:CPR-1000 18498:APR-1400 18289:Disposal 18241:Actinide 18234:Products 18093:Delivery 17936:Medicine 17765:depleted 17760:enriched 17730:Helium-3 17695:ionizing 17490:Portugal 17475:Malaysia 17402:Thailand 17291:Slovenia 17251:Slovakia 17231:Bulgaria 17181:Pakistan 17009:Archived 16997:Archived 16903:, Wiley. 16873:(2007). 16838:(2009). 16806:Archived 16788:Archived 16749:Archived 16698:24380935 16442:Archived 16430:19571861 16349:Archived 16318:Archived 16280:Archived 16034:Archived 15953:Archived 15923:Archived 15863:Archived 15723:Archived 15586:Archived 15564:25970621 15524:PLOS ONE 15497:Archived 15465:Archived 15433:Archived 15370:24177136 15318:Archived 15269:43721467 15261:16279752 15167:Archived 15142:19008015 15083:Archived 15053:Archived 15017:Archived 14985:Elements 14921:Archived 14858:Archived 14828:Archived 14799:Archived 14749:Archived 14719:Archived 14686:Archived 14657:Archived 14624:Archived 14601:30647408 14461:Archived 14029:25157226 13988:31363084 13837:: 1–13. 13745:Archived 13743:. 2018. 13669:Archived 13636:Archived 13572:Archived 13512:Archived 13483:Archived 13377:Archived 13366:Archived 13099:Archived 13005:(2012). 12981:Archived 12955:Archived 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10316:Archived 10284:Archived 10178:Archived 10148:Archived 10115:Archived 10084:Archived 10054:Archived 10042:. 2003. 9940:Archived 9915:Archived 9889:Archived 9717:Archived 9680:Archived 9655:Archived 9626:Archived 9600:Archived 9565:Archived 9493:Archived 9425:facility 9412:Archived 9384:Archived 9336:19 April 9330:Archived 9178:Archived 9148:Archived 9116:Archived 9001:Citing: 8980:(2006). 8958:27 March 8952:Archived 8950:. Oslo. 8882:Moneyweb 8687:Archived 8633:Archived 8563:Archived 8534:Archived 8463:Energies 8430:Energies 8296:Archived 8271:Archived 8242:Archived 8212:Archived 8183:Archived 8106:Archived 8051:Archived 8030:barrier. 8009:Archived 7981:Archived 7956:Archived 7930:Archived 7926:Guardian 7885:Archived 7854:Archived 7826:Archived 7749:Archived 7583:20 April 7577:Archived 7442:Archived 7380:Archived 7231:Archived 7061:Archived 7030:Archived 6997:Archived 6821:Archived 6689:Archived 6651:Archived 6585:Archived 6513:Archived 6430:Archived 6398:Archived 6275:. 2008. 6177:Archived 6153:17 April 6147:Archived 6116:17 April 6110:Archived 6074:Archived 6007:Archived 5978:Archived 5953:Archived 5928:Archived 5903:Archived 5876:Archived 5843:Archived 5809:Archived 5779:Archived 5750:Archived 5720:Archived 5695:Archived 5666:Archived 5636:Archived 5607:Archived 5490:Archived 5460:Archived 5402:24 March 5396:Archived 5367:Archived 5339:Archived 5279:Archived 5247:Archived 5221:23 March 5215:Archived 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