625:(SILEX) is well developed and is licensed for commercial operation as of 2012. Separation of isotopes by laser excitation is a very effective and cheap method of uranium separation, able to be done in small facilities requiring much less energy and space than previous separation techniques. The cost of uranium enrichment using laser enrichment technologies is approximately $ 30 per SWU which is less than a third of the price of gas centrifuges, the current standard of enrichment. Separation of isotopes by laser excitation could be done in facilities virtually undetectable by satellites. More than 20 countries have worked with laser separation over the past two decades, the most notable of these countries being Iran and North Korea, though all countries have had very limited success up to this point.
961:
494:
395:. This multi-stage design enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of nuclear weapons, allowing for greater control over the release of energy during detonation. For the secondary of a large nuclear weapon, the higher critical mass of less-enriched uranium can be an advantage as it allows the core at explosion time to contain a larger amount of fuel. This design strategy optimizes the explosive yield and performance of advanced nuclear weapons systems. The U is not said to be fissile but still is fissionable by fast neutrons (>2 MeV) such as the ones produced during
696:(GEH) signed a commercialization agreement with Silex Systems in 2006. GEH has since built a demonstration test loop and announced plans to build an initial commercial facility. Details of the process are classified and restricted by intergovernmental agreements between United States, Australia, and the commercial entities. SILEX has been projected to be an order of magnitude more efficient than existing production techniques but again, the exact figure is classified. In August, 2011 Global Laser Enrichment, a subsidiary of GEH, applied to the U.S.
941:
and 4.5 SWU if the DU stream was allowed to have 0.3% U. On the other hand, if the depleted stream had only 0.2% U, then it would require just 6.7 kilograms of NU, but nearly 5.7 SWU of enrichment. Because the amount of NU required and the number of SWUs required during enrichment change in opposite directions, if NU is cheap and enrichment services are more expensive, then the operators will typically choose to allow more U to be left in the DU stream whereas if NU is more expensive and enrichment is less so, then they would choose the opposite.
68:
723:
797:
597:
1256:), which it intends to pursue through financial investment in a U.S. commercial venture by General Electric, Although SILEX has been granted a license to build a plant, the development is still in its early stages as laser enrichment has yet to be proven to be economically viable, and there is a petition being filed to review the license given to SILEX over nuclear proliferation concerns. It has also been claimed that Israel has a uranium enrichment program housed at the
731:
562:
4539:
4527:
4551:
1211:
nuclear warheads accounted for about 13% of total world requirement for enriched uranium leading up to 2008.This ambitious initiative not only addresses nuclear disarmament goals but also serves as a significant contributor to global energy security and environmental sustainability, effectively repurposing material once intended for destructive purposes into a resource for peaceful energy production.
704:. The fear of nuclear proliferation arose in part due to laser separation technology requiring less than 25% of the space of typical separation techniques, as well as requiring only the energy that would power 12 typical houses, putting a laser separation plant that works by means of laser excitation well below the detection threshold of existing surveillance technologies. Due to these concerns the
306:
901:"Separative work"—the amount of separation done by an enrichment process—is a function of the concentrations of the feedstock, the enriched output, and the depleted tailings; and is expressed in units that are so calculated as to be proportional to the total input (energy / machine operation time) and to the mass processed. Separative work is
774:(UCOR) developed and deployed the continuous Helikon vortex separation cascade for high production rate low-enrichment and the substantially different semi-batch Pelsakon low production rate high enrichment cascade both using a particular vortex tube separator design, and both embodied in industrial plant. A demonstration plant was built in
700:(NRC) for a permit to build a commercial plant. In September 2012, the NRC issued a license for GEH to build and operate a commercial SILEX enrichment plant, although the company had not yet decided whether the project would be profitable enough to begin construction, and despite concerns that the technology could contribute to
517:, gaseous diffusion played a major role as a uranium enrichment technique, and as of 2008 accounted for about 33% of enriched uranium production, but in 2011 was deemed an obsolete technology that is steadily being replaced by the later generations of technology as the diffusion plants reach their ends of life. In 2013, the
937:
on the level of enrichment desired and upon the amount of U that ends up in the depleted uranium. However, unlike the number of SWUs required during enrichment, which increases with decreasing levels of U in the depleted stream, the amount of NU needed will decrease with decreasing levels of U that end up in the DU.
936:
In addition to the separative work units provided by an enrichment facility, the other important parameter to be considered is the mass of natural uranium (NU) that is needed to yield a desired mass of enriched uranium. As with the number of SWUs, the amount of feed material required will also depend
573:
so that the heavier gas molecules containing U move tangentially toward the outside of the cylinder and the lighter gas molecules rich in U collect closer to the center. It requires much less energy to achieve the same separation than the older gaseous diffusion process, which it has largely replaced
1223:
to generate electricity.This innovative program not only facilitated the safe and secure elimination of excess weapons-grade uranium but also contributed to the sustainable operation of civilian nuclear power plants, reducing reliance on newly enriched uranium and promoting non-proliferation efforts
1198:
specifications for nuclear fuel if NU or DU were used. So, the HEU downblending generally cannot contribute to the waste management problem posed by the existing large stockpiles of depleted uranium. Effective management and disposition strategies for depleted uranium are crucial to ensure long-term
956:
The opposite of enriching is downblending; surplus HEU can be downblended to LEU to make it suitable for use in commercial nuclear fuel. Downblending is a key process in nuclear non-proliferation efforts, as it reduces the amount of highly enriched uranium available for potential weaponization while
754:
separation processes depend upon diffusion driven by pressure gradients, as does the gas centrifuge. They in general have the disadvantage of requiring complex systems of cascading of individual separating elements to minimize energy consumption. In effect, aerodynamic processes can be considered as
604:
The Zippe-type centrifuge is an improvement on the standard gas centrifuge, the primary difference being the use of heat. The bottom of the rotating cylinder is heated, producing convection currents that move the U up the cylinder, where it can be collected by scoops. This improved centrifuge design
578:. It has a separation factor per stage of 1.3 relative to gaseous diffusion of 1.005, which translates to about one-fiftieth of the energy requirements. Gas centrifuge techniques produce close to 100% of the world's enriched uranium. The cost per separative work unit is approximately 100 dollars per
940:
For example, in the enrichment of LEU for use in a light water reactor it is typical for the enriched stream to contain 3.6% U (as compared to 0.7% in NU) while the depleted stream contains 0.2% to 0.3% U. In order to produce one kilogram of this LEU it would require approximately 8 kilograms of NU
1210:
converts ex-Soviet weapons-grade HEU to fuel for U.S. commercial power reactors. From 1995 through mid-2005, 250 tonnes of high-enriched uranium (enough for 10,000 warheads) was recycled into low-enriched uranium. The goal is to recycle 500 tonnes by 2013. The decommissioning programme of
Russian
1190:) in special reactors. Understanding and managing the isotopic composition of uranium during downblending processes is essential to ensure the quality and safety of the resulting nuclear fuel, as well as to mitigate potential radiological and proliferation risks associated with unwanted isotopes.
437:
is difficult because two isotopes of the same element have nearly identical chemical properties, and can only be separated gradually using small mass differences. (U is only 1.26% lighter than U.) This problem is compounded because uranium is rarely separated in its atomic form, but instead as a
1238:
The following countries are known to operate enrichment facilities: Argentina, Brazil, China, France, Germany, India, Iran, Japan, the
Netherlands, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Belgium, Iran, Italy, and Spain hold an investment interest in the French
1218:
has been involved in the disposition of a portion of the 174.3 tonnes of highly enriched uranium (HEU) that the U.S. government declared as surplus military material in 1996. Through the U.S. HEU Downblending
Program, this HEU material, taken primarily from dismantled U.S. nuclear warheads, was
1289:
is still occasionally used to refer to enriched uranium. Its continued usage serves as a historical reminder of the pivotal role of enriched uranium in shaping the course of modern history and its ongoing significance in various nuclear applications, including energy production, medicine, and
1284:
alloy, after the location of the plants where the uranium was enriched. This covert terminology underscores the secrecy and sensitivity surrounding the production of highly enriched uranium during World War II, highlighting the strategic importance of the
Manhattan Project and its role in the
708:
filed a petition with the NRC, asking that before any laser excitation plants are built that they undergo a formal review of proliferation risks. The APS even went as far as calling the technology a "game changer" due to the ability for it to be hidden from any type of detection.
1193:
The blendstock can be NU or DU; however, depending on feedstock quality, SEU at typically 1.5 wt% U may be used as a blendstock to dilute the unwanted byproducts that may be contained in the HEU feed. Concentrations of these isotopes in the LEU product in some cases could exceed
529:
Thermal diffusion uses the transfer of heat across a thin liquid or gas to accomplish isotope separation. The process exploits the fact that the lighter U gas molecules will diffuse toward a hot surface, and the heavier U gas molecules will diffuse toward a cold surface. The
199:
367:(which is standard on all nuclear explosives) can dramatically reduce the critical mass. Because the core was surrounded by a good neutron reflector, at explosion it comprised almost 2.5 critical masses. Neutron reflectors, compressing the fissile core via implosion,
410:, where it often contains at least 50% U, but typically does not exceed 90%. These specialized reactor systems rely on highly enriched uranium for their unique operational requirements, including high neutron flux and precise control over reactor dynamics. The
332:, a minimum of 20% could be sufficient (called weapon-usable) although it would require hundreds of kilograms of material and "would not be practical to design"; even lower enrichment is hypothetically possible, but as the enrichment percentage decreases the
2248:
Becker, E. W.; Ehrfeld, W.; MĂĽnchmeyer, D.; Betz, H.; Heuberger, A.; Pongratz, S.; Glashauser, W.; Michel, H. J.; Siemens, R. (1982). "Production of
Separation-Nozzle Systems for Uranium Enrichment by a Combination of X-Ray Lithography and Galvanoplastics".
167:
while the remainder is U, but in nature, more than 99% of the extracted ore is U. Most nuclear reactors require enriched uranium, which is uranium with higher concentrations of U ranging between 3.5% and 4.5% (although a few reactor designs using a
813:
process (EMIS), metallic uranium is first vaporized, and then ionized to positively charged ions. The cations are then accelerated and subsequently deflected by magnetic fields onto their respective collection targets. A production-scale
1247:
entitling it to 10% of the enriched uranium output. Countries that had enrichment programs in the past include Libya and South Africa, although Libya's facility was never operational. The
Australian company Silex Systems has developed a
1096:
fuel. HEU reprocessed from nuclear weapons material production reactors (with an U assay of approximately 50%) may contain U concentrations as high as 25%, resulting in concentrations of approximately 1.5% in the blended LEU product.
1199:
safety and environmental protection. Innovative approaches such as reprocessing and recycling of depleted uranium could offer sustainable solutions to minimize waste and optimize resource utilization in the nuclear fuel cycle.
830:
in 1945. Properly the term 'Calutron' applies to a multistage device arranged in a large oval around a powerful electromagnet. Electromagnetic isotope separation has been largely abandoned in favour of more effective methods.
379:
that is responsible for the weapon's power. The critical mass for 85% highly enriched uranium is about 50 kilograms (110 lb), which at normal density would be a sphere about 17 centimetres (6.7 in) in diameter.
261:
disposal of nuclear waste. Reprocessed uranium often carries traces of other transuranic elements and fission products, necessitating careful monitoring and management during fuel fabrication and reactor operation.
450:
of identical stages produces successively higher concentrations of U. Each stage passes a slightly more concentrated product to the next stage and returns a slightly less concentrated residue to the previous stage.
887:. France developed its own version of PSP, which it called RCI. Funding for RCI was drastically reduced in 1986, and the program was suspended around 1990, although RCI is still used for stable isotope separation.
426:.The medical industry benefits from the unique properties of highly enriched uranium, which enable the efficient production of critical isotopes essential for diagnostic imaging and therapeutic applications
804:
shows how a strong magnetic field is used to redirect a stream of uranium ions to a target, resulting in a higher concentration of uranium-235 (represented here in dark blue) in the inner fringes of the
621:
Laser processes promise lower energy inputs, lower capital costs and lower tails assays, hence significant economic advantages. Several laser processes have been investigated or are under development.
1952:
839:
One chemical process has been demonstrated to pilot plant stage but not used for production. The French CHEMEX process exploited a very slight difference in the two isotopes' propensity to change
1564:
1894:
2176:
3302:
387:
in the primary stage, but the jacket or tamper secondary stage, which is compressed by the primary nuclear explosion often uses HEU with enrichment between 40% and 80% along with the
782:
that used the separation nozzle process. However, all methods have high energy consumption and substantial requirements for removal of waste heat; none is currently still in use.
779:
3888:
905:
energy. The same amount of separative work will require different amounts of energy depending on the efficiency of the separation technology. Separative work is measured in
320:(HEU) has a 20% or higher concentration of U. This high enrichment level is essential for nuclear weapons and certain specialized reactor designs. The fissile uranium in
4082:
542:
to prepare feed material for the
Electromagnetic isotope separation (EMIS) process, explained later in this article. It was abandoned in favor of gaseous diffusion.
1851:
Von Hippel, Frank N.; Kahn, Laura H. (December 2006). "Feasibility of
Eliminating the Use of Highly Enriched Uranium in the Production of Medical Radioisotopes".
273:(LEU) has a lower than 20% concentration of U; for instance, in commercial LWR, the most prevalent power reactors in the world, uranium is enriched to 3 to 5% U.
3490:
2445:
2230:
221:
Reprocessed uranium (RepU) undergoes a series of chemical and physical treatments to extract usable uranium from spent nuclear fuel. (RepU) is a product of
2315:
3017:
1724:
1553:
1173:, which is not usable in thermal neutron reactors but can be chemically separated from spent fuel to be disposed of as waste or to be transmutated into
3312:
1999:
Lei, Jia; Liu, Huanhuan; Zhou, Li; Wang, Yazhou; Yu, Kaifu; Zhu, Hui; Wang, Bo; Zang, Mengxuan; Zhou, Jian; He, Rong; Zhu, Wenkun (1 September 2023).
1812:
Lei, Jia; Liu, Huanhuan; Zhou, Li; Wang, Yazhou; Yu, Kaifu; Zhu, Hui; Wang, Bo; Zang, Mengxuan; Zhou, Jian; He, Rong; Zhu, Wenkun (1 September 2023).
644:
tuned to frequencies that ionize U atoms and no others. The positively charged U ions are then attracted to a negatively charged plate and collected.
159:, which can be enriched to produce fuel for the majority of types of reactors". Naturally occurring uranium is made of a mixture of U and U. The U is
129:
Uranium as it is taken directly from the Earth is not suitable as fuel for most nuclear reactors and requires additional processes to make it usable (
2496:
1956:
4193:
2613:
917:). Efficient utilization of separative work is crucial for optimizing the economic and operational performance of uranium enrichment facilities.
569:
The gas centrifuge process uses a large number of rotating cylinders in series and parallel formations. Each cylinder's rotation creates a strong
375:
that use less than what would be one bare-sphere critical mass at normal density. The presence of too much of the U isotope inhibits the runaway
4338:
1898:
1433:
2997:
133:
design is a notable exception). Uranium is mined either underground or in an open pit depending on the depth at which it is found. After the
2158:
3319:
2750:
1613:
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over long enough timescales); during the enrichment process, its concentration increases but remains well below 1%. High concentrations of
1934:
3085:
1253:
678:
622:
2363:
1410:
738:
manufacturing process was originally developed at the
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Germany, to produce nozzles for isotope enrichment.
140:
This is accomplished by a combination of chemical processes with the end product being concentrated uranium oxide, which is known as "
3588:
2668:, by Allan S. Krass, Peter Boskma, Boelie Elzen and Wim A. Smit, 296 pp., published for SIPRI by Taylor and Francis Ltd, London, 1983
1642:
3827:
2658:
2582:
2664:
1740:
The enrichment of the pin and of one of the hemispheres was 97.67 w/o, while the enrichment of the other hemisphere was 97.68 w/o.
4038:
3878:
3817:
3958:
1105:; therefore the actual U concentration in the LEU product must be raised accordingly to compensate for the presence of U. While
600:
Diagram of the principles of a Zippe-type gas centrifuge with U-238 represented in dark blue and U-235 represented in light blue
3783:
2409:
1015:, it is be produced and destroyed at the same rate in a constant steady state equilibrium, bringing any sample with sufficient
770:
as a carrier gas achieving a much higher flow velocity for the gas than could be obtained using pure uranium hexafluoride. The
3012:
1249:
742:
Aerodynamic enrichment processes include the Becker jet nozzle techniques developed by E. W. Becker and associates using the
633:
1978:
1244:
297:
is usually enriched between 12% and 19.75% U; the latter concentration is used to replace HEU fuels when converting to LEU.
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2701:
1215:
2641:
4555:
3751:
3297:
3262:
2649:
726:
Schematic diagram of an aerodynamic nozzle. Many thousands of these small foils would be combined in an enrichment unit.
470:
generation), which consumes only 2% to 2.5% as much energy as gaseous diffusion. Some work is being done that would use
4449:
4033:
1052:
are a byproduct from irradiation in a reactor and may be contained in the HEU, depending on its manufacturing history.
810:
652:
2626:
3113:
2992:
2341:
1406:
1389:
414:
commercial fast reactor prototype used HEU with 26.5% U. Significant quantities of HEU are used in the production of
151:
production. After the milling process is complete, the uranium must next undergo a process of conversion, "to either
1612:. The 27th International Meeting on Reduced Enrichment for Research and Test Reactors (RERTR. Princeton University.
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2743:
2434:
1581:
960:
4286:
4120:
3722:
3600:
3257:
3118:
2308:
2177:"GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy Selects Wilmington, N.C. as Site for Potential Commercial Uranium Enrichment Facility"
518:
474:; however, there is no reliable evidence that any nuclear resonance processes have been scaled up to production.
1705:
4592:
4276:
4125:
3583:
2001:"Progress and perspective in enrichment and separation of radionuclide uranium by biomass functional materials"
1814:"Progress and perspective in enrichment and separation of radionuclide uranium by biomass functional materials"
447:
4050:
3883:
3307:
3235:
2697:"The Military Significance of Small Uranium Enrichment Facilities Fed with Low-Enrichment Uranium (Redacted)"
1257:
1207:
697:
964:
Enriched uranium produced at LLNL plant was collected as nuggets the size and thickness of several quarters.
4393:
4130:
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3593:
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2682:
396:
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facility in the U.S. ceased operating, it was the last commercial U gaseous diffusion plant in the world.
363:
in 1945, used 64 kilograms (141 lb) of 80% enriched uranium. Wrapping the weapon's fissile core in a
155:, which can be used as the fuel for those types of reactors that do not require enriched uranium, or into
4577:
4543:
4456:
4428:
4385:
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4188:
4015:
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3568:
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187:, are capable of operating with natural uranium as fuel). There are two commercial enrichment processes:
195:. Both enrichment processes involve the use of uranium hexafluoride and produce enriched uranium oxide.
4587:
4377:
4236:
3915:
3433:
3390:
3242:
471:
258:
144:", contains roughly 80% uranium whereas the original ore typically contains as little as 0.1% uranium.
118:
2677:
2000:
1813:
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4213:
3822:
3605:
1753:
1679:
1473:
705:
693:
407:
241:, and therefore could be used to fuel reactors that customarily use natural uranium as fuel, such as
95:
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4303:
4203:
4115:
3324:
3210:
3170:
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531:
423:
4366:
4333:
4308:
3922:
3699:
3505:
3428:
3385:
3368:
3329:
3252:
2162:
1706:"Detailed Reanalysis of a Benchmark Critical Experiment: Water-Reflected Enriched-Uranium Sphere"
1604:
876:
510:
333:
4291:
2202:
1680:"Nuclear Weapons FAQ, Section 4.1.7.1: Nuclear Design Principles – Highly Enriched Uranium"
4582:
4198:
3485:
3029:
1927:
1299:
868:
848:
376:
71:
Proportions of uranium-238 (blue) and uranium-235 (red) found naturally versus enriched grades
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4183:
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3500:
3495:
3460:
3247:
3215:
3002:
2929:
2159:"GE Signs Agreement With Silex Systems of Australia To Develop Uranium Enrichment Technology"
2124:
1379:
896:
701:
667:
637:
636:
employs specially tuned lasers to separate isotopes of uranium using selective ionization of
591:
579:
513:. This produces a slight separation between the molecules containing U and U. Throughout the
372:
329:
290:
2614:
Annotated bibliography on enriched uranium from the Alsos
Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
1864:
847:, using immiscible aqueous and organic phases. An ion-exchange process was developed by the
493:
454:
There are currently two generic commercial methods employed internationally for enrichment:
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3438:
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3180:
3108:
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2367:
2258:
2092:
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1220:
756:
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non-rotating centrifuges. Enhancement of the centrifugal forces is achieved by dilution of
682:
656:
535:
502:
403:
345:
226:
156:
16:
Uranium in which isotope separation has been used to increase its proportion of uranium-235
1653:
8:
4502:
4313:
4098:
3692:
3560:
3538:
3363:
3220:
2987:
2949:
2782:
1233:
840:
234:
216:
114:
2262:
2096:
147:
This yellowcake is further processed to obtain the desired form of uranium suitable for
4482:
4218:
4055:
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3793:
3443:
3413:
3397:
3380:
3024:
2914:
2862:
2812:
2759:
2541:
2444:(Report). The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia. November 2006. p. 730.
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2207:
2116:
2062:
1876:
1534:
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1132:
434:
310:
222:
192:
53:
33:
1513:"Integral molten salt reactor neutron physics study using Monte Carlo N-particle code"
1453:. U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine. June 1999. p. 27
501:
Gaseous diffusion is a technology used to produce enriched uranium by forcing gaseous
371:, and "tamping", which slows the expansion of the fissioning core with inertia, allow
3550:
3343:
3230:
3205:
3143:
3100:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2777:
2718:
2710:
2545:
2533:
2400:
2120:
2108:
2066:
2020:
1880:
1833:
1773:
1769:
1538:
1493:
1489:
1385:
1309:
1273:
815:
570:
488:
455:
392:
364:
188:
176:
137:
is mined, it must go through a milling process to extract the uranium from the ore.
41:
2515:
2278:
1529:
1512:
4597:
4398:
3453:
3418:
3175:
3165:
3053:
3041:
2882:
2867:
2857:
2852:
2706:
2673:
2523:
2266:
2100:
2052:
2012:
1868:
1825:
1765:
1716:
1524:
1485:
1360:
1117:
880:
415:
294:
106:
99:
2636:
113:
than even natural uranium, though still very dense. Depleted uranium is used as a
4296:
4256:
3710:
3524:
3448:
3423:
3269:
3062:
2964:
2954:
2919:
2797:
2787:
2653:
2630:
1187:
368:
250:
238:
152:
67:
61:
3788:
2721:
2696:
2128:
2083:
Slakey, Francis; Cohen, Linda R. (March 2010). "Stop laser uranium enrichment".
722:
289:
High-assay LEU (HALEU) is enriched between 5% and 20% and is called for in many
4251:
4246:
4241:
3991:
3898:
3867:
3849:
3373:
3279:
3225:
3190:
3123:
3070:
2924:
2817:
2802:
2792:
1416:. Proceedings of international forum on illegal nuclear traffic. Archived from
1364:
1324:
1319:
1102:
872:
582:(SWU), making it about 40% cheaper than standard gaseous diffusion techniques.
556:
463:
388:
321:
80:
4271:
2528:
2057:
2044:
2016:
1872:
1829:
4571:
4436:
3727:
3133:
2974:
2714:
2646:
2537:
2198:
2024:
1837:
1777:
1641:
Forsberg, C. W.; Hopper, C. M.; Richter, J. L.; Vantine, H. C. (March 1998).
1497:
1175:
1162:
855:
that applies similar chemistry but effects separation on a proprietary resin
796:
692:
acquiring and then relinquishing commercialization rights to the technology,
497:
Gaseous diffusion uses semi-permeable membranes to separate enriched uranium.
419:
384:
356:
325:
254:
242:
91:
76:
2659:
A busy year for SWU (a 2008 review of the commercial enrichment marketplace)
1953:"McConnell asks DOE to keep using 60-year-old enrichment plant to save jobs"
1450:
596:
4002:
3138:
3080:
3007:
2959:
2829:
2623:
2344:. Washington DC: Office of Technical Services, Dept of Commerce. p. 29
2314:. Bombay, India: Government of India, Atomic Energy Commission. p. 6.
2285:
2141:
2112:
1404:
1203:
972:
is a minor isotope contained in natural uranium (primarily as a product of
945:
856:
822:
was developed during World War II that provided some of the U used for the
688:. After a protracted development process involving U.S. enrichment company
606:
539:
406:, whose cores require about 20% or more of fissile material, as well as in
337:
148:
2559:
1606:
About the Enrichment Limit for Research Reactor Conversion : Why 20%?
730:
4413:
4060:
3650:
3157:
3128:
2435:
Australia's uranium - Greenhouse friendly fuel for an energy hungry world
1098:
1049:
978:
973:
969:
751:
747:
561:
257:, which would be one of the more mobile and troublesome radionuclides in
246:
173:
134:
110:
49:
45:
37:
29:
867:
Plasma separation process (PSP) describes a technique that makes use of
3766:
2270:
1157:
823:
352:
230:
203:
141:
348:
experiments, enrichment of uranium to over 97% has been accomplished.
4408:
3771:
3761:
2889:
2842:
2807:
2728:
1720:
990:
827:
673:
360:
4266:
2104:
253:, wasting neutrons (and requiring higher U enrichment) and creating
36:. Naturally occurring uranium is composed of three major isotopes:
4497:
4140:
4135:
4075:
3744:
3672:
3655:
3640:
3615:
3358:
2847:
2583:"Strategic Air Command Declassifies Nuclear Target List from 1950s"
1344:
Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021).
1304:
819:
801:
791:
763:
663:
662:, exciting molecules that contain a U atom. A second laser frees a
610:
514:
341:
169:
2399:
Makhijani, Arjun; Chalmers, Lois; Smith, Brice (15 October 2004).
4466:
4418:
4281:
4261:
3660:
3635:
3075:
2906:
2894:
2872:
2837:
2294:
South African Institution of Chemical Engineers – Conference 2000
1451:"Radiological Sources of Potential Exposure and/or Contamination"
1240:
411:
164:
160:
57:
25:
628:
4070:
4065:
4045:
4025:
4010:
3893:
3630:
3610:
3578:
1276:, weapons-grade highly enriched uranium was given the codename
1261:
775:
767:
948:, hex for short) to metal, 0.3% is lost during manufacturing.
4487:
4444:
4107:
3963:
3756:
3620:
1314:
852:
844:
771:
641:
305:
184:
130:
90:
of highly enriched uranium in the world, produced mostly for
87:
1979:"Paducah enrichment plant to be closed - World Nuclear News"
1640:
647:
198:
3968:
3857:
3667:
3625:
2339:
2247:
1195:
743:
735:
689:
180:
2618:
2078:
2076:
1377:
1074:
absorbs a neutron and does not fission. The production of
3941:
3805:
2231:"Uranium Plant Using Laser Technology Wins U.S. Approval"
968:
The HEU feedstock can contain unwanted uranium isotopes:
884:
237:(LWR) spent fuel typically contains slightly more U than
1754:"The theory of uranium enrichment by the gas centrifuge"
1474:"The theory of uranium enrichment by the gas centrifuge"
1411:"Safeguarding Nuclear Weapon-Usable Materials in Russia"
1085:
is thus unavoidable in any thermal neutron reactor with
75:
Enriched uranium is a critical component for both civil
2598:
Oralloy was a term of art for highly enriched uranium.
2364:"Status Report: USEC-DOE Megatons to Megawatts Program"
2161:(Press release). GE Energy. 22 May 2006. Archived from
2073:
1219:
recycled into low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuel, used by
565:
A cascade of gas centrifuges at a U.S. enrichment plant
2398:
1928:"Lodge Partners Mid-Cap Conference 11 April 2008"
32:(written U) has been increased through the process of
2661:, Nuclear Engineering International, 1 September 2008
1994:
1992:
800:
Schematic diagram of uranium isotope separation in a
785:
574:
and so is the current method of choice and is termed
324:
primaries usually contains 85% or more of U known as
1343:
2666:
Uranium Enrichment and Nuclear Weapon Proliferation
2408:. Institute for Energy and Environmental Research.
879:is used to selectively energize the U isotope in a
3491:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
2497:"Laser enrichment could cut cost of nuclear power"
2291:
1989:
674:Separation of isotopes by laser excitation (SILEX)
2203:"Laser Advances in Nuclear Fuel Stir Terror Fear"
2038:
2036:
2034:
1652:. Oak Ridge National Laboratories. Archived from
1584:. Nuclear Engineering International. 30 June 2024
1346:"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties"
4569:
2516:"US grants licence for uranium laser enrichment"
2228:
2045:"US grants licence for uranium laser enrichment"
1636:
1634:
300:
1511:Carter, John P.; Borrelli, R.A. (August 2020).
1227:
2031:
1998:
1850:
1811:
1510:
1440:. World Nuclear Association, update April 2021
772:Uranium Enrichment Corporation of South Africa
4194:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
2744:
2694:
1631:
1146:absorbs a neutron, the resulting short-lived
629:Atomic vapor laser isotope separation (AVLIS)
265:
210:
105:The U remaining after enrichment is known as
2552:
2442:Standing Committee on Industry and Resources
2340:US Atomic Energy Commission (January 1961).
2306:
2292:Smith, Michael; Jackson A G M (2000). "Dr".
681:is an Australian development that also uses
2637:Overview and history of U.S. HEU production
2241:
2082:
1574:
245:. It also contains the undesirable isotope
2751:
2737:
2562:. Nuclear Weapon Archive. 10 December 1997
2513:
2042:
1643:"Definition of Weapons-Usable Uranium-233"
1254:separation of isotopes by laser excitation
679:Separation of isotopes by laser excitation
670:, which then precipitates out of the gas.
623:Separation of isotopes by laser excitation
2695:Gilinsky, V.; Hoehn, W. (December 1969).
2672:
2527:
2392:
2056:
1703:
1528:
1337:
1285:development of nuclear weapons. The term
648:Molecular laser isotope separation (MLIS)
284:
4106:
2514:Weinberger, Sharon (28 September 2012).
2043:Weinberger, Sharon (28 September 2012).
1922:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1677:
959:
795:
729:
721:
717:
609:to produce nuclear fuel and was used by
595:
560:
545:
492:
340:rapidly increases, with for example, an
304:
197:
66:
1751:
1551:
1471:
909:SWU, kg SW, or kg UTA (from the German
890:
477:
383:Later U.S. nuclear weapons usually use
4570:
4121:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
2758:
2366:. USEC.com. 1 May 2000. Archived from
2229:Associated Press (27 September 2012).
1602:
957:repurposing it for peaceful purposes.
4363:
4126:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
3535:
3522:
2732:
2309:"Economics of blending, a case study"
2197:
2148:(Academic, New York, 1990) Chapter 9.
1950:
1913:
1752:Olander, Donald R. (1 January 1981).
1671:
1603:Glaser, Alexander (6 November 2005).
1472:Olander, Donald R. (1 January 1981).
826:nuclear bomb, which was dropped over
634:Atomic vapor laser isotope separation
429:
281:) has a concentration of under 2% U.
4550:
3523:
2702:Defense Technical Information Center
2647:Nuclear Chemistry-Uranium Enrichment
2580:
1940:from the original on 9 October 2022.
1582:"HALEU UF6 and SMR fuel fabrication"
1570:from the original on 9 October 2022.
1216:United States Enrichment Corporation
921:1 SWU = 1 kg SW = 1 kg UTA
875:. In this process, the principle of
862:
524:
482:
56:(in any appreciable amount) that is
28:in which the percent composition of
4131:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
2642:News Resource on Uranium Enrichment
2451:from the original on 9 October 2022
2415:from the original on 9 October 2022
2321:from the original on 9 October 2022
1897:. world-nuclear.org. Archived from
1730:from the original on 9 October 2022
1619:from the original on 9 October 2022
1378:OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (2003).
834:
712:
655:uses an infrared laser directed at
616:
585:
344:mass of 5.4% U being required. For
206:(a mixture of uranium precipitates)
52:(U, 0.0049–0.0059%). U is the only
13:
3940:
3091:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
2581:Burr, William (22 December 2015).
2560:"Israel's Nuclear Weapons Program"
2507:
1678:Sublette, Carey (4 October 1996).
1552:Herczeg, John W. (28 March 2019).
811:electromagnetic isotope separation
786:Electromagnetic isotope separation
653:Molecular laser isotope separation
613:in their nuclear weapons program.
163:, meaning it is easily split with
14:
4609:
3114:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
3013:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
2607:
1955:. Atomic Insights. Archived from
1554:"High-assay low enriched uranium"
1407:Natural Resources Defense Council
550:
293:(SMR) designs. Fresh LEU used in
4549:
4538:
4537:
4525:
4214:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
313:of highly enriched uranium metal
3303:Historical stockpiles and tests
2574:
2489:
2463:
2427:
2374:
2356:
2333:
2300:
2222:
2191:
2169:
2151:
2135:
1971:
1944:
1887:
1844:
1805:
1784:
1745:
1697:
1596:
1530:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2020.110718
1384:. OECD Publishing. p. 25.
1116:also absorbs neutrons, it is a
951:
778:by NUCLEI, a consortium led by
109:(DU), and is considerably less
4204:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
3086:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
2179:. Business Wire. 30 April 2008
1545:
1517:Nuclear Engineering and Design
1504:
1465:
1443:
1427:
1398:
1371:
931:
780:Industrias Nucleares do Brasil
442:is only 0.852% lighter than UF
328:, though theoretically for an
1:
4532:Nuclear technology portal
2471:"Q&A: Uranium enrichment"
1853:Science & Global Security
1409:), Thomas B. (12 June 1997).
1330:
1258:Negev Nuclear Research Center
1208:Megatons to Megawatts Program
1026:content to a stable ratio of
698:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
301:Highly enriched uranium (HEU)
98:, and smaller quantities for
4394:Field-reversed configuration
4004:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
2683:The Periodic Table of Videos
2678:"How do you enrich Uranium?"
2307:Balakrishnan, M. R. (1971).
2005:Chemical Engineering Journal
1933:. Silex Ltd. 11 April 2008.
1818:Chemical Engineering Journal
1770:10.1016/0149-1970(81)90026-3
1490:10.1016/0149-1970(81)90026-3
1228:Global enrichment facilities
1120:that is turned into fissile
1004:is much larger than that of
7:
4351:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
3536:
3298:States with nuclear weapons
2633:, World Nuclear Association
1434:Nuclear Fuel Cycle Overview
1293:
1267:
1063:is produced primarily when
86:There are about 2,000
10:
4614:
4364:
4189:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
3313:Tests in the United States
2144:and L. W. Hillman (Eds.),
1983:www.world-nuclear-news.org
1951:Adams, Rod (24 May 2011).
1758:Progress in Nuclear Energy
1713:Los Alamos Technical Paper
1478:Progress in Nuclear Energy
1231:
927:1 MSWU = 1 ktSW = 1 kt UTA
894:
789:
750:separation process. These
589:
554:
486:
266:Low-enriched uranium (LEU)
259:deep geological repository
214:
211:Reprocessed uranium (RepU)
54:nuclide existing in nature
4519:
4475:
4427:
4384:
4374:
4326:
4314:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
4227:
4209:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
4174:
4157:
4097:
4024:
4016:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
3990:
3981:
3933:
3913:
3866:
3848:
3804:
3709:
3691:
3559:
3546:
3531:
3518:
3473:
3406:
3351:
3342:
3290:
3198:
3189:
3156:
3099:
3061:
3052:
2973:
2905:
2828:
2770:
2766:
2529:10.1038/nature.2012.11502
2501:The Sydney Morning Herald
2058:10.1038/nature.2012.11502
2017:10.1016/j.cej.2023.144586
1873:10.1080/08929880600993071
1830:10.1016/j.cej.2023.144586
1280:, a shortened version of
944:When converting uranium (
706:American Physical Society
694:GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy
424:technetium-99m generators
275:Slightly enriched uranium
124:
119:armor-penetrating weapons
48:(U, 0.7198–0.7210%), and
40:(U with 99.2732–99.2752%
4219:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
3835:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
3171:Electron-beam processing
2688:University of Nottingham
2342:"Costs of nuclear power"
1704:Mosteller, R.D. (1994).
1365:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae
1252:process known as SILEX (
924:1 kSWU = 1 tSW = 1 t UTA
605:is used commercially by
511:semi-permeable membranes
351:The first uranium bomb,
79:generation and military
4334:Organic nuclear reactor
3506:Nuclear power phase-out
3429:Nuclear decommissioning
3369:Reactor-grade plutonium
3119:Targeted alpha-particle
2998:Accidents and incidents
2652:15 October 2008 at the
2629:2 December 2010 at the
2477:. BBC. 1 September 2006
2382:"Megatons to Megawatts"
1865:2006S&GS...14..151V
1243:enrichment plant, with
1206:undertaking called the
915:uranium separation work
877:ion cyclotron resonance
869:superconducting magnets
318:Highly enriched uranium
1859:(2 & 3): 151–162.
1300:List of laser articles
965:
849:Asahi Chemical Company
806:
739:
727:
601:
566:
498:
377:nuclear chain reaction
373:nuclear weapon designs
314:
285:High-assay LEU (HALEU)
233:. RepU recovered from
207:
72:
4593:Nuclear weapon design
3496:Anti-nuclear movement
2051:: nature.2012.11502.
1792:"Nuclear Weapons FAQ"
1290:scientific research.
963:
907:Separative work units
897:Separative work units
895:Further information:
799:
733:
725:
718:Aerodynamic processes
702:nuclear proliferation
668:uranium pentafluoride
640:. The technique uses
638:hyperfine transitions
599:
592:Zippe-type centrifuge
580:Separative Work Units
564:
546:Centrifuge techniques
496:
404:fast neutron reactors
308:
291:small modular reactor
201:
70:
4404:Reversed field pinch
4199:Traveling-wave (TWR)
3683:Supercritical (SCWR)
3181:Gemstone irradiation
2146:Dye Laser Principles
1895:"Uranium Enrichment"
1715:(LA–UR–93–4097): 2.
1381:Nuclear Energy Today
1221:nuclear power plants
891:Separative work unit
883:containing a mix of
536:Oak Ridge, Tennessee
503:uranium hexafluoride
478:Diffusion techniques
402:HEU is also used in
271:Low-enriched uranium
227:nuclear reprocessing
157:uranium hexafluoride
3569:Aqueous homogeneous
3364:Reprocessed uranium
3037:Safety and security
2263:1982NW.....69..520B
2251:Naturwissenschaften
2097:2010Natur.464...32S
1684:Nuclear Weapons FAQ
1234:Georges-Besse plant
845:oxidation/reduction
235:light water reactor
223:nuclear fuel cycles
217:Reprocessed uranium
115:radiation shielding
94:, nuclear weapons,
4578:Isotope separation
4483:Dense plasma focus
3398:Actinide chemistry
2863:Isotope separation
2760:Nuclear technology
2624:Uranium Enrichment
2587:nsarchive2.gwu.edu
2402:Uranium enrichment
2271:10.1007/BF00463495
2235:The New York Times
2208:The New York Times
2201:(20 August 2011).
1959:on 28 January 2013
1659:on 2 November 2013
1133:neutron absorption
966:
807:
740:
728:
602:
567:
538:, was used during
499:
435:Isotope separation
430:Enrichment methods
315:
249:, which undergoes
208:
193:gas centrifugation
73:
34:isotope separation
4588:Nuclear materials
4565:
4564:
4515:
4514:
4511:
4510:
4462:Magnetized-target
4359:
4358:
4322:
4321:
4153:
4152:
4149:
4148:
4093:
4092:
3977:
3976:
3909:
3908:
3514:
3513:
3469:
3468:
3338:
3337:
3325:Weapon-free zones
3152:
3151:
3144:Radiopharmacology
2674:Poliakoff, Martyn
2619:Silex Systems Ltd
2386:centrusenergy.com
2199:Broad, William J.
1353:Chinese Physics C
1310:Nuclear fuel bank
1274:Manhattan Project
1188:nuclear batteries
863:Plasma separation
816:mass spectrometer
576:second generation
571:centripetal force
525:Thermal diffusion
489:Gaseous diffusion
483:Gaseous diffusion
472:nuclear resonance
456:gaseous diffusion
393:lithium deuteride
365:neutron reflector
355:, dropped by the
295:research reactors
189:gaseous diffusion
117:material and for
100:research reactors
42:natural abundance
4605:
4553:
4552:
4541:
4540:
4530:
4529:
4528:
4440:
4399:Levitated dipole
4369:
4361:
4360:
4309:Helium gas (GFR)
4172:
4171:
4167:
4104:
4103:
3988:
3987:
3938:
3937:
3931:
3930:
3926:
3925:
3707:
3706:
3703:
3702:
3541:
3533:
3532:
3525:Nuclear reactors
3520:
3519:
3419:High-level (HLW)
3349:
3348:
3196:
3195:
3176:Food irradiation
3166:Atomic gardening
3059:
3058:
3042:Nuclear meltdown
2868:Nuclear material
2858:Fissile material
2853:Fertile material
2768:
2767:
2753:
2746:
2739:
2730:
2729:
2725:
2707:RAND Corporation
2691:
2601:
2600:
2595:
2593:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2556:
2550:
2549:
2531:
2511:
2505:
2504:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2482:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2450:
2439:
2431:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2420:
2414:
2407:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2388:. December 2013.
2378:
2372:
2371:
2370:on 6 April 2001.
2360:
2354:
2353:
2351:
2349:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2320:
2313:
2304:
2298:
2297:
2289:
2283:
2282:
2245:
2239:
2238:
2226:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2195:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2165:on 14 June 2006.
2155:
2149:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2080:
2071:
2070:
2060:
2040:
2029:
2028:
1996:
1987:
1986:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1964:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1939:
1932:
1924:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1891:
1885:
1884:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1737:
1735:
1729:
1721:10.2172/10120434
1710:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1658:
1647:
1638:
1629:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1618:
1611:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1558:
1549:
1543:
1542:
1532:
1508:
1502:
1501:
1469:
1463:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1447:
1441:
1431:
1425:
1424:
1423:on 22 July 2012.
1422:
1415:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1350:
1341:
1250:laser enrichment
1185:
1182:
1181:
1172:
1169:
1168:
1156:
1154:
1153:
1145:
1143:
1142:
1130:
1128:
1127:
1118:fertile material
1115:
1113:
1112:
1095:
1093:
1092:
1084:
1082:
1081:
1073:
1071:
1070:
1062:
1060:
1059:
1047:
1045:
1044:
1036:
1034:
1033:
1025:
1023:
1022:
1014:
1012:
1011:
1003:
1001:
1000:
988:
985:
984:
835:Chemical methods
746:process and the
734:The X-ray-based
713:Other techniques
617:Laser techniques
586:Zippe centrifuge
462:generation) and
458:(referred to as
416:medical isotopes
336:for unmoderated
330:implosion design
107:depleted uranium
96:naval propulsion
62:thermal neutrons
22:Enriched uranium
4613:
4612:
4608:
4607:
4606:
4604:
4603:
4602:
4568:
4567:
4566:
4561:
4526:
4524:
4507:
4471:
4438:
4423:
4380:
4370:
4365:
4355:
4318:
4223:
4168:
4161:
4160:
4145:
4089:
4020:
3995:
3973:
3945:
3927:
3920:
3919:
3918:
3905:
3871:
3862:
3844:
3809:
3800:
3714:
3697:
3696:
3695:
3687:
3601:Natural fission
3555:
3554:
3542:
3537:
3527:
3510:
3486:Nuclear weapons
3465:
3424:Low-level (LLW)
3402:
3334:
3286:
3185:
3148:
3095:
3048:
2969:
2901:
2824:
2762:
2757:
2654:Wayback Machine
2631:Wayback Machine
2610:
2605:
2604:
2591:
2589:
2579:
2575:
2565:
2563:
2558:
2557:
2553:
2512:
2508:
2495:
2494:
2490:
2480:
2478:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2454:
2452:
2448:
2437:
2433:
2432:
2428:
2418:
2416:
2412:
2405:
2397:
2393:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2362:
2361:
2357:
2347:
2345:
2338:
2334:
2324:
2322:
2318:
2311:
2305:
2301:
2290:
2286:
2257:(11): 520–523.
2246:
2242:
2227:
2223:
2213:
2211:
2196:
2192:
2182:
2180:
2175:
2174:
2170:
2157:
2156:
2152:
2140:
2136:
2105:10.1038/464032a
2091:(7285): 32–33.
2081:
2074:
2041:
2032:
1997:
1990:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1962:
1960:
1949:
1945:
1937:
1930:
1926:
1925:
1914:
1904:
1902:
1893:
1892:
1888:
1849:
1845:
1810:
1806:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1750:
1746:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1708:
1702:
1698:
1688:
1686:
1676:
1672:
1662:
1660:
1656:
1645:
1639:
1632:
1622:
1620:
1616:
1609:
1601:
1597:
1587:
1585:
1580:
1579:
1575:
1567:
1556:
1550:
1546:
1509:
1505:
1470:
1466:
1456:
1454:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1438:Uranium milling
1432:
1428:
1420:
1413:
1403:
1399:
1392:
1376:
1372:
1348:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1296:
1270:
1236:
1230:
1180:
1178:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1167:
1165:
1164:
1163:
1161:
1152:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1147:
1141:
1139:
1138:
1137:
1136:
1126:
1124:
1123:
1122:
1121:
1111:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1106:
1091:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1080:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1069:
1067:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1058:
1056:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1043:
1041:
1040:
1039:
1038:
1032:
1030:
1029:
1028:
1027:
1021:
1019:
1018:
1017:
1016:
1010:
1008:
1007:
1006:
1005:
999:
997:
996:
995:
994:
983:
981:
980:
979:
977:
954:
934:
911:Urantrennarbeit
899:
893:
865:
837:
794:
788:
760:
720:
715:
686:
676:
660:
650:
631:
619:
594:
588:
559:
553:
548:
527:
491:
485:
480:
445:
441:
432:
369:fusion boosting
303:
287:
268:
251:neutron capture
239:natural uranium
219:
213:
153:uranium dioxide
127:
81:nuclear weapons
17:
12:
11:
5:
4611:
4601:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4563:
4562:
4560:
4559:
4547:
4535:
4520:
4517:
4516:
4513:
4512:
4509:
4508:
4506:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4493:Muon-catalyzed
4490:
4485:
4479:
4477:
4473:
4472:
4470:
4469:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4453:
4452:
4442:
4433:
4431:
4425:
4424:
4422:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4390:
4388:
4382:
4381:
4375:
4372:
4371:
4357:
4356:
4354:
4353:
4348:
4347:
4346:
4341:
4330:
4328:
4324:
4323:
4320:
4319:
4317:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4300:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4233:
4231:
4225:
4224:
4222:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4184:Integral (IFR)
4181:
4175:
4169:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4151:
4150:
4147:
4146:
4144:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4112:
4110:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4091:
4090:
4088:
4087:
4086:
4085:
4080:
4079:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4048:
4043:
4042:
4041:
4030:
4028:
4022:
4021:
4019:
4018:
4013:
4008:
3999:
3997:
3993:
3985:
3979:
3978:
3975:
3974:
3972:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3950:
3948:
3943:
3935:
3928:
3914:
3911:
3910:
3907:
3906:
3904:
3903:
3902:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3875:
3873:
3869:
3864:
3863:
3861:
3860:
3854:
3852:
3846:
3845:
3843:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3831:
3830:
3825:
3814:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3801:
3799:
3798:
3797:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3775:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3754:
3749:
3748:
3747:
3742:
3739:
3736:
3733:
3719:
3717:
3712:
3704:
3689:
3688:
3686:
3685:
3680:
3679:
3678:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3664:
3663:
3658:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3603:
3598:
3597:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3571:
3565:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3548:
3547:
3544:
3543:
3529:
3528:
3516:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3509:
3508:
3503:
3501:Uranium mining
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3477:
3475:
3471:
3470:
3467:
3466:
3464:
3463:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3451:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3410:
3408:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3400:
3395:
3394:
3393:
3383:
3378:
3377:
3376:
3374:Minor actinide
3371:
3366:
3355:
3353:
3346:
3340:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3316:
3315:
3310:
3300:
3294:
3292:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3284:
3283:
3282:
3272:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3260:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3202:
3200:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3184:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3162:
3160:
3154:
3153:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3105:
3103:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3071:Autoradiograph
3067:
3065:
3056:
3050:
3049:
3047:
3046:
3045:
3044:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3022:
3021:
3020:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2979:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2911:
2909:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2899:
2898:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2886:
2885:
2880:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2834:
2832:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2815:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2793:Atomic nucleus
2790:
2785:
2780:
2774:
2772:
2764:
2763:
2756:
2755:
2748:
2741:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2692:
2670:
2662:
2656:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2621:
2616:
2609:
2608:External links
2606:
2603:
2602:
2573:
2551:
2506:
2503:. 26 May 2006.
2488:
2462:
2426:
2391:
2373:
2355:
2332:
2299:
2284:
2240:
2221:
2190:
2168:
2150:
2134:
2072:
2030:
1988:
1970:
1943:
1912:
1901:on 1 July 2013
1886:
1843:
1804:
1783:
1744:
1696:
1670:
1630:
1595:
1573:
1544:
1503:
1464:
1442:
1426:
1397:
1390:
1370:
1335:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1328:
1327:
1325:Uranium mining
1322:
1320:Uranium market
1317:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1295:
1292:
1269:
1266:
1245:Iran's holding
1229:
1226:
1179:
1166:
1151:
1140:
1125:
1110:
1103:neutron poison
1090:
1079:
1068:
1057:
1042:
1031:
1020:
1009:
998:
982:
953:
950:
933:
930:
929:
928:
925:
922:
892:
889:
873:plasma physics
864:
861:
836:
833:
790:Main article:
787:
784:
758:
719:
716:
714:
711:
684:
675:
672:
666:atom, leaving
658:
649:
646:
630:
627:
618:
615:
590:Main article:
587:
584:
557:Gas centrifuge
555:Main article:
552:
551:Gas centrifuge
549:
547:
544:
526:
523:
487:Main article:
484:
481:
479:
476:
464:gas centrifuge
443:
439:
431:
428:
418:, for example
408:naval reactors
322:nuclear weapon
302:
299:
286:
283:
267:
264:
243:CANDU reactors
215:Main article:
212:
209:
179:, such as the
126:
123:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4610:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4583:Nuclear fuels
4581:
4579:
4576:
4575:
4573:
4558:
4557:
4548:
4546:
4545:
4536:
4534:
4533:
4522:
4521:
4518:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4480:
4478:
4474:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4451:
4450:electrostatic
4448:
4447:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4435:
4434:
4432:
4430:
4426:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4391:
4389:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4373:
4368:
4362:
4352:
4349:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4336:
4335:
4332:
4331:
4329:
4325:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4239:
4238:
4235:
4234:
4232:
4230:
4229:Generation IV
4226:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4179:Breeder (FBR)
4177:
4176:
4173:
4170:
4165:
4156:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4113:
4111:
4109:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4096:
4084:
4081:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4058:
4057:
4054:
4053:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4040:
4037:
4036:
4035:
4032:
4031:
4029:
4027:
4023:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4005:
4001:
4000:
3998:
3996:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3980:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3951:
3949:
3947:
3939:
3936:
3932:
3929:
3924:
3917:
3912:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3881:
3880:
3877:
3876:
3874:
3872:
3865:
3859:
3856:
3855:
3853:
3851:
3847:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3820:
3819:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3811:
3803:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3759:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3746:
3743:
3740:
3737:
3734:
3731:
3730:
3729:
3726:
3725:
3724:
3721:
3720:
3718:
3716:
3708:
3705:
3701:
3694:
3690:
3684:
3681:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3576:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3564:
3562:
3558:
3553:
3552:
3545:
3540:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3521:
3517:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3481:Nuclear power
3479:
3478:
3476:
3472:
3462:
3461:Transmutation
3459:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3446:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3409:
3405:
3399:
3396:
3392:
3389:
3388:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3361:
3360:
3357:
3356:
3354:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3341:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3305:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3289:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3258:high-altitude
3256:
3255:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3248:Proliferation
3246:
3244:
3241:
3237:
3234:
3233:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3188:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3163:
3161:
3159:
3155:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3134:Brachytherapy
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3098:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3068:
3066:
3064:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3051:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3038:
3035:
3031:
3028:
3027:
3026:
3023:
3019:
3016:
3015:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2978:
2976:
2972:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2930:Cross section
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2904:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2875:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2831:
2827:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2754:
2749:
2747:
2742:
2740:
2735:
2734:
2731:
2723:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2684:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2651:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2632:
2628:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2611:
2599:
2588:
2584:
2577:
2561:
2555:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2510:
2502:
2498:
2492:
2476:
2472:
2466:
2447:
2443:
2436:
2430:
2411:
2404:
2403:
2395:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2369:
2365:
2359:
2343:
2336:
2317:
2310:
2303:
2295:
2288:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2244:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2210:
2209:
2204:
2200:
2194:
2178:
2172:
2164:
2160:
2154:
2147:
2143:
2138:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
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2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1995:
1993:
1984:
1980:
1974:
1958:
1954:
1947:
1936:
1929:
1923:
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1726:
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1685:
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1651:
1650:ORNL/TM-13517
1644:
1637:
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1391:9789264103283
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1359:(3): 030001.
1358:
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1134:
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1104:
1100:
1051:
992:
989:—because the
987:
975:
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949:
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938:
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749:
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737:
732:
724:
710:
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436:
427:
425:
421:
420:molybdenum-99
417:
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400:
398:
394:
390:
386:
385:plutonium-239
381:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
357:United States
354:
349:
347:
343:
339:
338:fast neutrons
335:
334:critical mass
331:
327:
326:weapons grade
323:
319:
312:
307:
298:
296:
292:
282:
280:
276:
272:
263:
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255:neptunium-237
252:
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224:
218:
205:
200:
196:
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101:
97:
93:
92:nuclear power
89:
84:
82:
78:
77:nuclear power
69:
65:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
27:
24:is a type of
23:
19:
4554:
4542:
4523:
4503:Pyroelectric
4457:Laser-driven
4237:Sodium (SFR)
4164:fast-neutron
4003:
3549:
3439:Reprocessing
3320:WMD treaties
3139:Radiosurgery
3109:Fast-neutron
3081:Scintigraphy
2877:
2700:
2681:
2665:
2597:
2590:. Retrieved
2586:
2576:
2564:. Retrieved
2554:
2519:
2509:
2500:
2491:
2479:. Retrieved
2474:
2465:
2453:. Retrieved
2441:
2429:
2417:. Retrieved
2401:
2394:
2385:
2376:
2368:the original
2358:
2346:. Retrieved
2335:
2323:. Retrieved
2302:
2293:
2287:
2254:
2250:
2243:
2234:
2224:
2212:. Retrieved
2206:
2193:
2183:30 September
2181:. Retrieved
2171:
2163:the original
2153:
2145:
2142:F. J. Duarte
2137:
2088:
2084:
2048:
2008:
2004:
1982:
1973:
1961:. Retrieved
1957:the original
1946:
1903:. Retrieved
1899:the original
1889:
1856:
1852:
1846:
1821:
1817:
1807:
1795:. Retrieved
1786:
1761:
1757:
1747:
1739:
1732:. Retrieved
1712:
1699:
1687:. Retrieved
1683:
1673:
1661:. Retrieved
1654:the original
1649:
1621:. Retrieved
1605:
1598:
1586:. Retrieved
1576:
1560:
1547:
1520:
1516:
1506:
1481:
1477:
1467:
1455:. Retrieved
1445:
1437:
1429:
1418:the original
1400:
1380:
1373:
1356:
1352:
1339:
1286:
1277:
1271:
1237:
1213:
1204:downblending
1201:
1192:
1186:(for use in
967:
955:
952:Downblending
946:hexafluoride
943:
939:
935:
914:
913:– literally
910:
906:
902:
900:
866:
857:ion-exchange
838:
808:
741:
677:
651:
632:
620:
603:
575:
568:
540:World War II
528:
506:
500:
467:
459:
453:
438:compound (UF
433:
401:
382:
350:
317:
316:
288:
278:
274:
270:
269:
220:
149:nuclear fuel
146:
139:
128:
104:
85:
74:
21:
20:
18:
4414:Stellarator
4378:confinement
4272:Superphénix
4099:Molten-salt
4051:VHTR (HTGR)
3828:HW BLWR 250
3794:R4 Marviken
3723:Pressurized
3693:Heavy water
3677:many others
3606:Pressurized
3561:Light water
3263:underground
3221:Disarmament
3129:Tomotherapy
3124:Proton-beam
2988:Power plant
2950:Temperature
2783:Engineering
2592:27 November
2419:21 November
1764:(1): 1–33.
1734:19 December
1484:(1): 1–33.
1272:During the
1158:beta decays
974:alpha decay
932:Cost issues
752:aerodynamic
748:vortex tube
346:criticality
247:uranium-236
174:heavy water
135:uranium ore
111:radioactive
50:uranium-234
46:uranium-235
38:uranium-238
30:uranium-235
4572:Categories
4439:(acoustic)
4056:PBR (PBMR)
3444:Spent fuel
3434:Repository
3414:Fuel cycle
3381:Activation
3158:Processing
3025:Propulsion
2983:by country
2915:Activation
2348:7 November
2325:7 November
2296:: 280–289.
2011:: 144586.
1963:26 January
1824:: 144586.
1797:26 January
1663:30 October
1561:energy.gov
1523:: 110718.
1331:References
1260:site near
1232:See also:
824:Little Boy
818:named the
509:) through
397:D–T fusion
353:Little Boy
231:spent fuel
225:involving
204:yellowcake
202:A drum of
142:yellowcake
4409:Spheromak
4108:Fluorides
3772:IPHWR-700
3767:IPHWR-540
3762:IPHWR-220
3551:Moderator
3231:Explosion
3206:Arms race
2993:Economics
2945:Reflector
2940:Radiation
2935:Generator
2890:Plutonium
2843:Deuterium
2808:Radiation
2778:Chemistry
2722:ADA613260
2715:913595660
2566:7 October
2546:100862135
2538:1476-4687
2481:3 January
2214:21 August
2129:204555310
2121:205053626
2067:100862135
2025:1385-8947
1881:122507063
1838:1385-8947
1778:0149-1970
1689:2 October
1539:225435681
1498:0149-1970
1405:Cochran (
1282:Oak Ridge
1224:globally
991:half-life
828:Hiroshima
534:plant at
361:Hiroshima
177:moderator
4544:Category
4498:Polywell
4429:Inertial
4386:Magnetic
4141:TMSR-LF1
4136:TMSR-500
4116:Fuji MSR
4076:THTR-300
3916:Graphite
3779:PHWR KWU
3745:ACR-1000
3673:IPWR-900
3656:ACPR1000
3651:HPR-1000
3641:CPR-1000
3616:APR-1400
3407:Disposal
3359:Actinide
3352:Products
3211:Delivery
3054:Medicine
2883:depleted
2878:enriched
2848:Helium-3
2813:ionizing
2676:(2009).
2650:Archived
2627:Archived
2475:BBC News
2446:Archived
2410:Archived
2316:Archived
2279:44245091
2125:ProQuest
2113:20203589
1935:Archived
1905:14 April
1725:Archived
1623:18 April
1614:Archived
1565:Archived
1305:MOX fuel
1294:See also
1268:Codename
1202:A major
859:column.
820:Calutron
802:calutron
792:Calutron
764:hydrogen
664:fluorine
611:Pakistan
515:Cold War
342:infinite
170:graphite
165:neutrons
4598:Uranium
4556:Commons
4467:Z-pinch
4437:Bubble
4419:Tokamak
4282:FBR-600
4262:CFR-600
4257:BN-1200
3923:coolant
3850:Organic
3735:CANDU 9
3732:CANDU 6
3700:coolant
3661:ACP1000
3636:CAP1400
3574:Boiling
3539:Fission
3386:Fission
3330:Weapons
3270:Warfare
3253:Testing
3243:History
3236:effects
3191:Weapons
3101:Therapy
3076:RadBall
3063:Imaging
2955:Thermal
2920:Capture
2907:Neutron
2895:Thorium
2873:Uranium
2838:Tritium
2818:braking
2798:Fission
2788:Physics
2771:Science
2455:3 April
2259:Bibcode
2093:Bibcode
1861:Bibcode
1588:16 July
1287:oralloy
1278:oralloy
1241:Eurodif
841:valency
809:In the
805:stream.
519:Paducah
448:cascade
412:Fermi-1
161:fissile
58:fissile
26:uranium
4367:Fusion
4327:Others
4267:Phénix
4252:BN-800
4247:BN-600
4242:BN-350
4071:HTR-PM
4066:HTR-10
4046:UHTREX
4011:Magnox
4006:(UNGG)
3899:Lucens
3894:KS 150
3631:ATMEA1
3611:AP1000
3594:Kerena
3474:Debate
3226:Ethics
3216:Design
3199:Topics
3030:rocket
3008:Fusion
3003:Policy
2965:Fusion
2925:Poison
2803:Fusion
2713:
2544:
2536:
2520:Nature
2277:
2127:
2119:
2111:
2085:Nature
2065:
2049:Nature
2023:
1879:
1836:
1776:
1537:
1496:
1457:1 July
1388:
1262:Dimona
881:plasma
776:Brazil
768:helium
642:lasers
607:Urenco
468:second
389:fusion
311:billet
125:Grades
88:tonnes
4488:Migma
4476:Other
4445:Fusor
4344:Piqua
4339:Arbus
4297:PRISM
4039:MHR-T
4034:GTMHR
3964:EGP-6
3959:AMB-X
3934:Water
3879:HWGCR
3818:HWLWR
3757:IPHWR
3728:CANDU
3589:ESBWR
3344:Waste
3308:Tests
3291:Lists
3275:Yield
3018:MMRTG
2975:Power
2542:S2CID
2449:(PDF)
2438:(PDF)
2413:(PDF)
2406:(PDF)
2319:(PDF)
2312:(PDF)
2275:S2CID
2117:S2CID
2063:S2CID
1938:(PDF)
1931:(PDF)
1877:S2CID
1728:(PDF)
1709:(PDF)
1657:(PDF)
1646:(PDF)
1617:(PDF)
1610:(PDF)
1568:(PDF)
1557:(PDF)
1535:S2CID
1421:(PDF)
1414:(PDF)
1349:(PDF)
1315:Orano
1135:. If
1131:upon
1101:is a
853:Japan
762:with
460:first
446:). A
391:fuel
185:CANDU
131:CANDU
60:with
4304:Lead
4287:CEFR
4277:PFBR
4159:None
3969:RBMK
3954:AM-1
3884:EL-4
3858:WR-1
3840:AHWR
3784:MZFR
3752:CVTR
3741:AFCR
3668:VVER
3626:APWR
3621:APR+
3584:ABWR
3454:cask
3449:pool
3391:LLFP
3280:TNTe
2960:Fast
2830:Fuel
2719:DTIC
2711:OCLC
2594:2020
2568:2007
2534:ISSN
2483:2010
2457:2015
2421:2009
2350:2021
2327:2021
2216:2011
2185:2012
2109:PMID
2021:ISSN
1965:2013
1907:2013
1834:ISSN
1799:2013
1774:ISSN
1736:2007
1691:2010
1665:2013
1625:2014
1590:2024
1494:ISSN
1459:2019
1386:ISBN
1214:The
1196:ASTM
885:ions
871:and
744:LIGA
736:LIGA
690:USEC
532:S-50
422:for
191:and
183:and
181:RBMK
4376:by
4292:PFR
4083:PMR
4061:AVR
3983:Gas
3921:by
3889:KKN
3823:ATR
3738:EC6
3698:by
3646:EPR
3579:BWR
2524:doi
2267:doi
2101:doi
2089:464
2053:doi
2013:doi
2009:471
1869:doi
1826:doi
1822:471
1766:doi
1717:doi
1525:doi
1521:365
1486:doi
1361:doi
1160:to
1037:to
993:of
976:of
903:not
851:in
843:in
766:or
507:hex
359:on
279:SEU
229:of
172:or
44:),
4574::
4026:He
3992:CO
3868:CO
3789:R3
2717:.
2709:.
2705:.
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2680:.
2596:.
2585:.
2540:.
2532:.
2522:.
2518:.
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2273:.
2265:.
2255:69
2253:.
2233:.
2205:.
2123:.
2115:.
2107:.
2099:.
2087:.
2075:^
2061:.
2047:.
2033:^
2019:.
2007:.
2003:.
1991:^
1981:.
1915:^
1875:.
1867:.
1857:14
1855:.
1832:.
1820:.
1816:.
1772:.
1760:.
1756:.
1738:.
1723:.
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1682:.
1648:.
1633:^
1563:.
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1519:.
1515:.
1492:.
1480:.
1476:.
1436:,
1357:45
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1351:.
1264:.
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1170:Np
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683:UF
657:UF
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309:A
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102:.
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4166:)
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3806:H
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2103::
2095::
2069:.
2055::
2027:.
2015::
1985:.
1967:.
1909:.
1883:.
1871::
1863::
1840:.
1828::
1801:.
1780:.
1768::
1762:8
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1667:.
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1500:.
1488::
1482:8
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1367:.
1363::
1155:U
1144:U
1129:U
1114:U
1099:U
1094:U
1083:U
1072:U
1061:U
1050:U
1046:U
1035:U
1024:U
1013:U
1002:U
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