Fast-neutron reactor

510:. Thus, in moderated reactors, plutonium isotopes in many instances do not fission (and so do not release new fast neutrons), but instead just absorb the thermal neutrons. Most moderated reactors use natural uranium or low enriched fuel. As power production continues, around 12–18 months of stable operation in all moderated reactors, the reactor both consumes more fissionable material than it breeds and accumulates neutron absorbing fission products which make it difficult to sustain the fission process. When too much fuel has been consumed the reactor has to be refueled. 619:. These become more efficient as the pressure (and thus the temperature) of the steam is higher. A water cooled and moderated nuclear reactor therefore needs to operate at high pressures to enable the efficient production of electricity. Thus, such reactors are constructed using very heavy steel vessels, for example 30 cm (12 inch) thick. This high pressure operation adds complexity to reactor design and requires extensive physical safety measures. The vast majority of nuclear reactors in the world are water cooled and moderated with water. Examples include the 1426:, fast reactor designs have been proposed with enrichment in the range of 20 percent for reasons including core lifetime: if a fast reactor were loaded with the minimal critical mass, then the reactor would become subcritical after the first fission. Rather, an excess of fuel is inserted with reactivity control mechanisms, such that the reactivity control is inserted fully at the beginning of life to bring the reactor from supercritical to critical; as the fuel is depleted, the reactivity control is withdrawn to support continuing fission. In a 1868:

United States of America and the only work being carried out is related to the decommissioning of fast reactors. Many specialists who were involved in the studies and development work in this area in these countries have already retired or are close to retirement. In countries such as France, Japan and the Russian Federation that are still actively pursuing the evolution of fast reactor technology, the situation is aggravated by the lack of young scientists and engineers moving into this branch of nuclear power.

4433: 4423: 4403: 1840: 4413: 31: 229:, which will undergo fission by both fast and slow (thermal) neutrons. When the uranium undergoes fission, it releases neutrons with a high energy ("fast"). However, these fast neutrons have a much lower probability of causing another fission than neutrons which are slowed down after they have been generated by the fission process. Slower neutrons have a much higher chance (about 585 times greater) of causing a fission in 278:. The elastic scattering of the neutrons can be likened to the collision of two ping pong balls; when a fast ping pong ball hits one that is stationary or moving slowly, they will both end up having about half of the original kinetic energy of the fast ball. This is in contrast to a fast ping pong ball hitting a bowling ball, where the ping pong ball keeps virtually all of its energy. 1132:, which has a half life of 30.1 years, the result is to reduce nuclear waste lifetimes from tens of millennia (from transuranic isotopes) to a few centuries. The processes are not perfect, but the remaining transuranics are reduced from a significant problem to a tiny percentage of the total waste, because most transuranics can be used as fuel. 1679:, which allow time for operators or computers to adjust reactivity. As delayed neutrons play virtually no role in fast reactors, other mechanisms are required for the very short term reactivity control (e.g. within one second) in fast reactors, which are thermal expansion and Doppler broadening. Longer term reactivity is obtained from 660:. When the reactor is in shutdown mode, the temperature and pressure are slowly reduced to atmospheric, and thus water will boil at 100 °C (210 °F). This relatively low temperature, combined with the thickness of the steel vessels used, could lead to problems in keeping the fuel cool, as was shown by the Fukushima accident. 1581:

stalled in the mid-1970s. The resulting oversupply caused fuel prices to decline from about US$ 40 per pound in 1980 to less than $ 20 by 1984. Breeders produced fuel that was much more expensive, on the order of $ 100 to $ 160, and the few units that reached commercial operation proved to be economically unfeasible.

2114:, was closed in 1995 following a serious sodium leak and fire. It was restarted on May 6, 2010, but in August 2010 another accident, involving dropped machinery, shut down the reactor again. As of June 2011, the reactor had generated electricity for only one hour since its first test two decades prior. 1690:

The fact that the entire reactor is filled with a metal that has a melting point much higher than room temperature, all the tubing, heat exchangers, and the entire reactor volume must be heated electrically, before any nuclear operation can take place. However, once the reactor produces heat, this is

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fuel, both for conventional slow-neutron reactors. Alternatively it can be mixed as in greater percentage of 17%-19.75% fissile fuel for fast reactor cores. A single fast reactor can thereby supply its own fuel indefinitely as well as feed several thermal ones, greatly increasing the amount of energy

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A third drawback is that when a (any) nuclear reactor is shut down after operation, the fuel in the reactor no longer undergoes fission processes. However, there is an inventory present of highly radioactive elements, some of which generate substantial amounts of heat. If the fuel elements were to be

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As the entire reactor is filled with large volumes of molten metal, refuelling is not trivial, as optical tools (cameras, etc.) are of no use. Costly, carefully calibrated and positioned robotic tools are needed for the operation of refueling. Also, completely removing fuel elements from the reactor

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in natural Gadolinium are typically used for this purpose. As these isotopes absorb excess neutrons they are transmuted into isotopes with low absorption cross sections so that over the life of the fuel cycle they are eliminated as more fission products with high capture cross section are generated.

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metal fuel. In addition to its toxicity to humans, mercury has a high capture cross section (thus, it readily absorbs the neutrons, which causes nuclear reactions) for the (n,gamma) reaction, causing activation in the coolant and losing neutrons that could otherwise be absorbed in the fuel, which is

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Fast reactors technically solve the "fuel shortage" argument against uranium-fueled reactors without assuming undiscovered reserves, or extraction from dilute sources such as granite or seawater. They permit nuclear fuels to be bred from almost all the actinides, including known, abundant sources of

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reactor. The French reactors also met with serious opposition of environmentalist groups, who regarded these as very dangerous. Despite such setbacks, a number of countries still invest in the fast reactor technology. Around 25 reactors have been built since the 1970s, accumulating over 400 reactor

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The entire vessel being at atmospheric pressure, and the sodium is very hot, and can be allowed to remain at these temperatures even in shutdown, passive cooling (i.e. no pumping requirements) with air is possible. Accidents such as the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident are impossible with such a

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As no water is present in the core at high temperatures, the reactor is essentially at atmospheric pressure. Most often, an inert gas blanket at a modest pressure (e.g. 0.5 atmospheres) is present to ensure that any leak results in mass transport to the outside of the reactor. This means that there

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atom fissioning upon absorbing a fast neutron is 70% while for a thermal neutron it is less than 20%. Fast neutrons have a smaller chance of being captured by the uranium and plutonium, but when they are captured, have a significantly higher probability of causing a fission. The inventory of spent

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Through the 1970s, experimental breeder designs were examined, especially in the US, France and the USSR. However, this coincided with a crash in uranium prices. The expected increased demand led mining companies to expand supply channels, which came online just as the rate of reactor construction

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have been the subject of research commonly using helium, which has small absorption and scattering cross sections, thus preserving the fast neutron spectrum without significant neutron absorption in the coolant. Purified nitrogen-15 has also been proposed as a coolant gas because it is more common

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during the past 15 years there has been stagnation in the development of fast reactors in the industrialized countries that were involved, earlier, in intensive development of this area. All studies on fast reactors have been stopped in countries such as Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom and the

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KNK-II, in Germany a 21 MWe experimental compact sodium-cooled fast reactor operated from Oct 1977-Aug 1991. The objective of the experiment was to eliminate nuclear waste while producing energy. There were minor sodium problems combined with public protests which resulted in the closure of the

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Sodium is often used as a coolant in fast reactors, because it does not moderate neutron speeds much and has a high heat capacity. However, it burns and foams in air, although the combustion reaction of sodium in air should not be confused with the extremely violent reaction of sodium and water.

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To date most fast reactor types have proven costly to build and operate, and are not very competitive with thermal-neutron reactors unless the price of uranium increased dramatically, or building costs decreased. It is thought that given the perception of problematic nuclear waste disposal, such

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Because sodium has a boiling point of 883 °C (1,600 °F), and lead has a boiling point of 1,749 °C (3,200 °F) but reactors operates typically around 500 °C (930 °F) to 550 °C (1,000 °F), there is a large margin where the metals will stay liquid, and thermal

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Doppler broadening from the molecular motion of the fuel, from its heat, can provide rapid negative feedback. The molecular movement of the fissionables themselves can tune the fuel's relative speed away from the optimal neutron speed. Thermal expansion of the fuel can provide negative feedback.

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is the result. As new fuel is created during the operation, this process is called breeding. All fast reactors can be used for breeding, or by carefully selecting the materials in the core and eliminating the blanket they can be operated to maintain the same level of fissionable material without

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These two effects serve to reduce the reactivity because it allows more neutrons to escape the core, as was shown in a demonstration at EBR-II in 1986. In this test, the additional heat was readily absorbed by the large volume of liquid sodium, and the reactor shut itself down, without operator

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generation, through the 1960s and 1970s fast breeder reactors were considered to be the solution to the world's energy needs. Using twice-through processing, a fast breeder increases the energy capacity of known ore deposits, meaning that existing ore sources would last hundreds of years. The

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However, all large-scale fast reactors have used molten metal coolant. Advantages of molten metals are low cost, the small activation potential and the large liquid ranges. The latter means that the material has a low melting point, and a high boiling point. Examples of these reactors include

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Fast-neutron reactors can potentially reduce the radiotoxicity of nuclear waste. Each commercial scale reactor would have an annual waste output of a little more than a ton of fission products, plus trace amounts of transuranics if the most highly radioactive components could be recycled. The

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is often larger than when the neutrons are slower, at thermal or near-thermal "epithermal" speeds. Simply put, fast neutrons have a smaller chance of being absorbed by plutonium or uranium, but when they are, they almost always cause a fission. The transmuted even-numbered actinides (e.g.

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nuclei for every 10 (14:10) actinide nuclei consumed, however real world fast reactors have so far achieved a ratio of 12:10 ending the fuel cycle with 20% more fissile material than they held at the start of the cycle. Less than 1% of the total Uranium mined is consumed in a thermal

2033:, 1973, France, 233 MWe, restarted 2003 at 140 MWe for experiments on transmutation of nuclear waste for six years, ceased power generation in March 2009, though it will continue in test operation and to continue research programs by CEA until the end of 2009. Stopped in 2010. 1815:: boiling of the coolant in an accident would reduce coolant density and thus the absorption rate. No such designs are proposed for commercial service, as they are potentially dangerous and undesirable from a safety and accident standpoint. This can be avoided with a 634:

As the operational temperature and pressure of these reactors is dictated by engineering and safety constraints, both are limited. Thus, the temperatures and pressures that can be delivered to the steam turbine are also limited. Typical water temperatures of a modern

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disadvantage to this approach is that the breeder reactor has to be fed fuel that must be treated in a spent fuel treatment plant. It was widely expected that this would still be below the price of enriched uranium as demand increased and known resources dwindled.

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are around 350 °C (660 °F), with pressures of around 85 bar (1233 psi). Compared to for example modern coal fired steam circuits, where main steam temperatures in excess of 500 °C (930 °F) are obtained, this is low, leading to a relatively low

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which is also fissionable with thermal neutrons very close in probability to plutonium-239. In a fast spectrum reactor all three isotopes have a high probability of fission when absorbing a high energy neutron which limits their accumulation in the fuel.

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Given the current inventory of spent nuclear fuel (which contains reactor grade plutonium), it is possible to process this spent fuel material and reuse the actinide isotopes as fuel in a large number of fast reactors. This effectively consumes the

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The higher temperature of the liquid metal or salt, and therefore the higher temperature of the steam generated by this coolant, allows a considerable increase in the electric generating efficiency (around 40% thermal efficiency, as opposed to

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in operation since resp. 1980 and 2016, despite several minor leaks and fires. It is important to note that sodium leaks (and possibly fires) do not release radioactive elements, as the sodium fast reactors are always designed with a two loop

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As a result of running the reactors on fast neutrons, the reactivity of the core is determined by these neutrons, as opposed to moderated reactors. In the moderated reactors, a significant amount of control of the reactivity is obtained from

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sodium cooled fast reactor in France that was designed to deliver 1,242 MWe. Fast reactors have been studied since the 1950s, as they provide certain advantages over the existing fleet of water-cooled and water-moderated reactors. These are:

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There is a fine balance between the production of neutrons from fission on the one hand, and the many processes that remove them from the equation on the other. If the temperature increases in a fast reactor, this will have two effects:

1144:. This results in a larger surplus of neutrons beyond those required to sustain the chain reaction. These neutrons can be used to produce extra fuel, or to transmute long half-life waste to less troublesome isotopes, as was done at the 1807:

designs, only the liquid eutectic lead-bismuth will have activation. As pure lead will have virtually no activation, a pure lead reactor design could operate in a single loop, saving significant costs on heat exchanger and separate

2237:, 1977–1997 and 2004–2007, Japan, 140 MWt is an experimental reactor, operated as an irradiation test facility. After an incident in 2007, the reactor was suspended for repairing, recoworks were planned to be completed in 2014. 2262:

Multipurpose fast neutron research reactor. The Research Institute of Atomic Reactors (NIIAR) site at Dimitrovgrad in the Ulyanovsk region of western Russia, 150 MWt. Construction started in 2016 with completion scheduled for

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RORSATs - 33 space fast reactors were launched by the Soviet Union from 1989 to 1990 as part of a program known as the Radar Ocean Reconnaissance Satellite (RORSAT) in the US. Typically, the reactors produced approximately 3

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More neutrons are produced when fission occurs, resulting from the absorption of a fast neutron, than the comparable process with slow (thermal, or moderated) neutrons. Thus, criticality is easier to attain than with slower

2897: 1830:: >20% enrichment in a fast reactor compared to <5% enrichment in typical thermal reactors. Alternatively, a mixture of plutonium from nuclear waste, combined with natural or depleted uranium could be used. 1369:

at high (fast) energies, which means that fast neutrons are likelier to pass through fuel without interacting than thermal neutrons; thus, more fissile material is needed. Therefore, a fast reactor cannot run on

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increases can be easily absorbed, without any pressure increase. For the Chloride salts typically used in fast molten salt reactor designs the Sodium Chloride has a boiling point of 1,465 °C (2,700 °F)

2183:- a sodium-cooled fast breeder reactor at the Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station. It generates 880 MW of electrical power and started producing electricity in October, 2014. It reached full power in August, 2016. 2299:

KALIME is a 600 MWe project in South Korea, projected for 2030. KALIMER is a continuation of the sodium-cooled, metal-fueled, fast-neutron reactor in a pool represented by the Advanced Burner Reactor (2006),

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The proposed fast reactors solve all of these problems (next to the fundamental fission properties, where for example plutonium-239 is more likely to fission after absorbing a fast neutron, than a slow one.)

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Mars Atmospherically Cooled Reactor (MACR) is a 1 MWe project, planned to complete in 2033. MACR is a gas-cooled (carbon dioxide coolant) fast-neutron reactor intended to provide power to proposed Mars

2097:- was a series of lead-bismuth cooled fast reactors used aboard submarines. The submarines functioned as killer submarines, staying in harbor then attacking due to the high speeds achievable by the sub. 1695:

reactors will be necessary. As moderated reactor construction costs are rising (among other) due to ever more stringent safety mechanisms, this could mean a better economic viability of fast reactors.

1057:. Enormous amounts of energy are still present in the spent reactor fuel inventories; if fast reactor types were to be employed to use this material, that energy can be extracted for useful purposes. 866:

are far more likely to fission when they capture a fast neutron, it is possible to fuel such reactors with a mixture of plutonium and natural uranium, or with enriched material, containing around 20%

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Atoms heavier than uranium have a much greater chance of fission with a fast neutron, than with a thermal one. This means that the inventory of heavier atoms in the nuclear waste stream, for example

830:), the fast spectrum neutrons are capable of causing each of these to fission at significant rates. By the end of a fuel cycle of some 24 months, these ratios will have shifted with an increase of 3518:

seeks to establish a comprehensive, international inventory of fast reactor data and knowledge, which would be sufficient to form the basis for fast reactor development in 30 to 40 years from now.

2381:(Advanced Lead Fast Reactor European Demonstrator) is a lead cooled fast reactor demonstrator designed by Ansaldo Energia from Italy, it represents the last stage of the ELSY and LEADER projects. 98:

when compared to that required for a thermal-neutron reactor. Around 20 land based fast reactors have been built, accumulating over 400 reactor years of operation globally. The largest was the

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creating any excess material. This is a process called Conversion because it transmutes fertile materials into fissile fuels on a 1:1 basis. By surrounding the reactor core with a blanket of

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exposed (i.e. there is no water to cool the elements), this heat is no longer removed. The fuel will then start to heat up, and temperatures can then exceed the melting temperature of the

1291:, which are still being pursued worldwide. Russia currently operates two such reactors on a commercial scale. Additionally, Russia has around eighty reactor years of experience with the 3505: 2209:, a 60 MWth, 20 MWe, experimental reactor which went critical in 2011 and is currently operational. It is used for materials and component research for future Chinese fast reactors. 2369:. They expect to begin testing a loop facility in 2019 and is scaling up their salt manufacturing process. Data will be used to assess thermal hydraulics and safety analysis codes. 663:

Lastly, the fission of uranium and plutonium in a thermal spectrum yields a smaller number of neutrons than in the fast spectrum, so in a fast reactor, more losses are acceptable.

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is a 1-10 kWe research sodium fast reactor built at Los Alamos National Laboratory. It first reach criticality in 2015 and demonstrates an application of a Stirling power cycle.

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is sufficient, a threshold will be reached where there are enough fissile atoms in the fuel to maintain a chain reaction with fast neutrons. In fact, in the fast spectrum, when

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have low moderating ability, the primary interaction of neutrons with fast reactor coolant is the (n,gamma) reaction, which induces radioactivity in the coolant. Sodium-24 (

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captures a fast neutron it will also undergo fission around 11% of the time with the remainder of captures being "radiative" and entering the decay chain to plutonium-239.

3418: 1276:, in which the salt's moderating properties are insignificant. The particular salt formula used is crucial as some formulas are effective moderators while others are not. 521:

Although cheap, readily available and easily purified, light water can absorb a neutron and remove it from the reaction. It does this enough that the concentration of

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does not sustain a nuclear chain reaction. When hit by thermal neutrons (i.e. neutrons that have been slowed down by a moderator) the neutron can be captured by the

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Fast reactors are widely seen as an essential development because of several advantages over moderated designs. The most studied and built fast reactor type is the

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reactors. In Russia and the UK, reactors are operational that use graphite as moderator, and respectively water in Russian and gas in British reactors as coolant.

2756: 1485:, respectively. Some designs use Burnable Poisons also known as Burnable Absorbers which contain isotopes with high neutron capture cross sections. Concentrated 341:

undergoes fission by the fast neutrons released in fission about 11% of the time this can not sustain the chain reaction alone. Neutrons produced by fission of

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IBR was a research-focused pulsed fast-neutron reactor at the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research in Dubna (near Moscow) put into operation in 1984 till 2006.

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Such reactors have the potential to significantly reduce the waste streams from nuclear power, while at the same time increasing vastly the fuel utilization.

547:, along with those lost to the environment, results in too few left in the fuel. The most common solution to this problem is to concentrate the amount of 119:. As the boiling points of these metals are very high, the pressure in the reactor can be maintained at a low level, which improves safety considerably. 3567: 2167:. From 2006 to June 2011 it underwent modernization. The only nuclear reactor in the world with a movable reflector. Commissioned on February 10, 1984. 3135: 1619:

absorbing a fast neutron has an 11% probability of fissioning, a significant percentage of the fission events in the reactor occur with this isotope.

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created this way will undergo fission from capturing a thermal neutron while the remaining 27% absorbs a thermal neutron without undergoing fission,

4231: 3155: 1851:'s April 1977 decision to defer construction of breeders in the US due to proliferation concerns, and the suboptimal operating record of France's 4376: 2805: 2117: 744:

isotope is likely to fission 74% of the time instead of the 62% of fissions when it captures a thermal neutron. In addition the probability of a

1876:, an international working group on new reactor designs has proposed six new reactor types, three of which would operate with a fast spectrum. 2879: 1650:

is no pressure vessel with associated problems (high pressure systems are complex), nor will a leak from the reactor emit high pressure jets.

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As most fast reactors to date have been either sodium, lead or lead-bismuth cooled, the disadvantages of such systems are described here.

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The blanket material can then be processed to extract the new fissile material, which can then be mixed with depleted uranium to produce

1902:. It used plutonium metal fuel, mercury coolant, achieved 25 kW thermal and used for research, especially as a fast neutron source. 1572:

As the perception of the reserves of uranium ore in the 1960s was rather low, and the rate that nuclear power was expected to take over

1973: 1167:

In the spent fuel from water moderated reactors, several plutonium isotopes are present, along with the heavier, transuranic elements.

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also produce excess neutrons, fast reactors can produce enough of them to breed more fuel than they consume. Such designs are known as

3474: 3005: 1819:, since voids do not form in such a reactor during an accident; however, reactivity control in a gas cooled fast reactor is difficult. 697:

have a lower capture cross section with higher-energy neutrons, they still remain reactive well into the MeV range. If the density of

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A fission event creates more neutrons than in the thermal reactor. This gives flexibility and allows breeding of uranium or thorium.

2846: 2124:, was used for plutonium production, desalination, and electricity. It closed 4 years after the plant's operating license expired. 4076: 3916: 3855: 3348: 2532: 2143:, United States. Design emphasized fuel cycle based on on-site electrolytic reprocessing. Cancelled in 1994 without construction. 1800:

is left. Fast spectrum reactors that use sodium must remove this magnesium from the sodium, which is achieved with a 'cold' trap.

3996: 3821: 3560: 2978: 2662: 2088: 2784: 1976:

was a molten plutonium fueled 1 MWth reactor. It operated as a research reactor from 1961 to 1963 at Los Alamos national Lab.

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enriched) uranium fuel initially, then in 2022 switched to using MOX. The Indian prototype reactor uses uranium-carbide fuel.

2190: 1120:". These elements have less total radiotoxicity. Since disposal of the fission products is dominated by the most radiotoxic 844:

By removing the moderator, the size of the reactor core volume can be greatly reduced, and to some extent the complexity. As

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except for uranium and plutonium, which can be effectively recycled. Even when the core is initially loaded with 20% mass

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have lower energies than the original neutron, usually below 1 MeV, the fission threshold to cause subsequent fission of

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As temperatures in the core can also be substantially higher than in a water cooled design, such reactors have a greater

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BR-5 - was a research-focused fast-neutron reactor at the Institute of Physics and Energy in Obninsk from 1959 to 2002.

3308:"China 's first Experimental Fast Reactor (CEFR) Put into Operation in 2009 – Zoom China Energy Intelligence-New site" 3553: 3336: 2366: 518:

The following disadvantages of the use of a moderator have instigated the research and development of fast reactors.

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Mausolff, Zander; DeHart, Mark; Goluoglu, Sedat (2021). "Design and assessment of a molten chloride fast reactor".

153:. However, there are crucial differences, arising from the fact that by far most commercial nuclear reactors use a 1386:

can be replaced by adding natural or even depleted uranium without further enrichment. This is the concept of the

4324: 4158: 3760: 3638: 2644: 2556: 2545: 2309: 2206: 2174: 2008: 1986: 1929: 1717: 1013: 1000:

extracted from the natural uranium. The most effective breeder configuration theoretically is able to produce 14

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A second drawback of using water for cooling is that it has a relatively low boiling point. The vast majority of

3072: 1140:, and light-water reactor wastes. On average, more neutrons per fission are produced by fast neutrons than from 4457: 4314: 4163: 3621: 1905: 1899: 1347:

is ~100 in a thermal spectrum and 8 in a fast spectrum. Fission and absorption cross sections are low for both

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with the water (hence the term "thermal neutron"), at which point the neutrons become highly reactive with the

3495: 3251: 4088: 3921: 2354: 1319:. The reason for this is that fissile reactions are favored at thermal energies, since the ratio between the 247:, which interacts with the neutrons to slow them. The most common moderator is ordinary water, which acts by 2250:, Kalpakkam, India, 500 MWe reactor with criticality planned for 2021. It is a sodium fast breeder reactor. 4168: 3877: 3631: 2485: 2433: 2134: 1895: 1227: 17: 1179:, the plutonium, and the heavier elements. Such waste streams can be divided in categories; 1) unchanged 4426: 4388: 4226: 4053: 3991: 3816: 3720: 3606: 2574: 2225: 1826:

in a fast reactor is much higher than in a thermal reactor. In practice, this means significantly higher

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This makes it easier to maintain control of the reactivity rate in the core at start up with fresh fuel.

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fuel by producing more than it consumes. After the initial fuel charge such a reactor can be refueled by

1219: 2869:, by William H. Hannum, Gerald E. Marsh and George S. Stanford, Copyright Scientific American, Dec 2005. 2822: 4462: 4274: 3953: 3152: 2710: 2623: 2323: 2293: 1590: 1564:

Small reactors as in submarines may use Doppler broadening or thermal expansion of neutron reflectors.

1288: 657: 112: 1430:, the above applies, though the reactivity from fuel depletion is also compensated by breeding either 4251: 3860: 3643: 2518: 2358: 2048: 1963: 1933: 1909: 1704: 636: 620: 2203:- a 40MWt,13.2MWe experimental reactor in India which focused on reaching significant burnup levels. 1916:, in 1951 became the first reactor to generate significant amounts of power. Decommissioned in 1964. 4416: 4341: 4241: 4153: 3536: 3006:

https://www.nuclear-power.com/nuclear-power-plant/nuclear-fuel/burnable-absorbers-burnable-poisons/

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Alsayyari, Fahad; Tiberga, Marco; Perkó, Zoltán; Kloosterman, Jan Leen; Lathouwers, Danny (2021).

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alloys, which have been used on a larger scale in naval propulsion units, particularly the Soviet

141:, about two thirds of the proposed reactors for the future use a fast spectrum for these reasons. 4371: 4346: 3960: 3737: 2715: 2690: 2619: 2449: 2319: 2163:

in Dubna. Located at the Laboratory of Neutron Physics (FLNP) named after. I.M. Frank as part of

1998: 1953: 1816: 1415:

While criticality at fast energies may be achieved with uranium enriched to 5.5 (weight) percent

1383: 1279: 1204: 1121: 1117: 1032: 761: 83: 4329: 3232: 2085:- was a sodium cooled space reactor launched as part of the RORSAT program which produced 5 kWe. 1016:, while up to 60% of the natural uranium is fissioned in the best existing fast reactor cycles. 592:

that are much less likely to absorb neutrons, allowing them to run on natural uranium fuel. See

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is too low to sustain the chain reaction; the neutrons lost through absorption in the water and

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These effects combined have the result of creating, in a moderated reactor, the presence of the

4236: 3515: 3456: 3419:"Southern Company partnering with Bill Gates backed Terrapower on molten chloride fast reactor" 3264: 2639: 2384: 2091:- was a 5 MWt sodium fast reactor operated by the USSR in 1961 primarily for materials testing. 1990: 1304: 1262: 612: 67: 3349:

https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Pilot-fuel-produced-for-MBIR-fast-neutron-research

2866: 1753:) is created in the reactor loop of the sodium cooled fast reactor, from natural sodium-23 by 1183:, which is the vast bulk of the material and has a very low radioactivity, 2) a collection of 4266: 4221: 3683: 3611: 3475:"Overview of Indian Fast Breeder Nuclear Reactor Programme - Nuclear Power - Nuclear Reactor" 2993:"Beloyarsk BN-800 fast reactor running on MOX : Uranium & Fuel - World Nuclear News" 2695: 2615: 2489: 2362: 2315: 2305: 2140: 1804: 1770: 1700: 1330: 1223: 1078: 1070: 624: 597: 513: 436: 3202: 1544:

They cannot, however, rely on changes to their moderators because there is no moderator. So

4216: 3198: 3101: 3044: 2685: 2194: 1427: 1387: 1379: 1258: 1168: 1161: 1112:) split nearly as easily as odd-numbered actinides in fast reactors. After they split, the 644:. In a modern PWR, around 30–33 % of the nuclear heat is converted into electricity. 8: 4351: 4136: 3730: 3598: 3577: 3361:"Russia starts building lead-cooled fast reactor : New Nuclear - World Nuclear News" 3315: 2649: 1960:

Washington. It used liquid sodium drained with argon backfill under care and maintenance.

1754: 1598: 1557: 1273: 1188: 252: 3105: 3048: 4256: 4093: 4020: 3831: 3214: 3117: 2705: 2372: 1626: 1593:. Some of the advantages of this design are discussed below; other designs such as the 1545: 641: 281:

Such thermal neutrons are more likely to be absorbed by another heavy element, such as

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All fast reactor designs built to this date use liquid metals as coolants, such as the

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Article on recent work on fast-neutron reactors in Scientific American, December, 2005

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to over 80% while all the other plutonium isotopes will have decreased in proportion.

3588: 3218: 3121: 2979:"Will heavy nitrogen become a widely used fission reactor coolant? - Atomic Insights" 2799: 1873: 1231: 1212: 244: 154: 138: 87: 3337:

Endeavor to improve in-pile testing techniques in the experimental fast reactor Joyo

3113: 1712:

Some sodium-cooled fast reactors have operated safely for long periods (notably the

133:, is greatly reduced, leading to a substantially lower waste management requirement. 3545: 3206: 3109: 3052: 2958: 2680: 2500: 2350: 2336: 1926:

was a prototype fast breeder reactor that powered up in 1957 and shut down in 1972.

1827: 1812: 1553: 1312: 1184: 653: 589: 574: 559: 275: 95: 3057: 3032: 1789:. As the half life of this isotope is very short, after e.g. two weeks, almost no 149:

Fast reactors operate by the fission of uranium and other heavy atoms, similar to

4334: 4294: 3748: 3540: 3528: 3159: 2333:

JSFR, Japan, a project for a 1500 MWe reactor began in 1998, but without success.

2279: 2027:, in France, 1200 MWe, closed in 1997 due to a political decision and high costs. 1699:

Sodium leaks can ignite with air, causing difficulties in reactors such as (e.g.

1676: 1549: 1538: 1375: 1371: 1208: 1176: 1157: 1141: 1074: 605: 601: 581: 533: 165: 150: 79: 63: 3826: 1211:, is generally not feasible for a fast reactor, because it acts as an effective 4289: 4284: 4279: 4029: 3936: 3905: 3887: 3521: 2289: 2180: 2170: 1199:

All nuclear reactors produce heat which must be removed from the reactor core.

1086: 35: 4309: 3442: 3210: 3017: 2467: 2177:. It provides 560 MWe to the Middle Urals power grid. In operation since 1980. 2024: 1852: 1839: 126:; a larger percentage of the heat generated is turned into usable electricity. 99: 4451: 3765: 3233:"Fast Reactor Knowledge Preservation System: Taxonomy and Basic Requirements" 2107: 1823: 1534: 1266: 616: 476: 412: 399: 3186: 2922:"Moltex Energy | Safer Cheaper Cleaner Nuclear | Stable Salt Reactors | SSR" 2735: 4040: 3496:

https://www.amazon.com/Concepts-Behind-Breeder-Reactor-Design/dp/3659180009

3172:"Process Banned by President Carter Could Solve U.S. Nuclear Waste Problem" 2011:(PFR), 1975–1994, was a 600 MWt, 234 MWe which used mixed oxide (MOX) fuel. 1957: 1848: 1533:

Like thermal reactors, fast-neutron reactors are controlled by keeping the

1308: 1125: 218:

undergoes fission only by fast neutrons. About 0.7% of natural uranium is

91: 75: 71: 2963: 2946: 1822:

Due to the low cross sections of most materials at high neutron energies,

514:

Drawbacks of light water as the moderator in conventional nuclear reactors

4098: 3688: 2069: 2052: 1937: 1913: 1872:

As of 2021, Russia operates two fast reactors on a commercial scale. The

1680: 1180: 1171:, a complex series of chemical extraction processes, mostly based on the 1129: 585: 495: 386: 294: 267: 243:

The common solution to this problem is to slow the neutrons down using a

192: 177: 3379:"Russia progresses with BN-1200M sodium-cooled fast reactor development" 2823:"How do fast breeder reactors differ from regular nuclear power plants?" 3804: 2658: 2635: 2346: 2285: 2121: 1520: 1507: 1398: 996: 499: 2197:. In operation since 1968. It produces 60MW for experimental purposes. 1863:

proposal for a Fast Reactor Knowledge Preservation System noted that:

1283:

than Helium and also has a very low neutron absorption cross section.

3809: 3799: 3282: 3033:"Analysis of the Molten Salt Fast Reactor using reduced-order models" 2592: 2266: 2212: 2018: 1994: 1786: 1739: 1573: 1316: 1235: 1082: 757: 503: 271: 27:

Nuclear reactor where fast neutrons maintain a fission chain reaction

4304: 3153:

https://factsheets.inl.gov/FactSheets/sodium-cooled-fast-reactor.pdf

2782: 2471: 2030: 1713: 1541:, with gross control from neutron-absorbing control rods or blades. 1145: 4178: 4173: 4113: 3782: 3710: 3693: 3678: 3653: 2947:"Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor: A Historical Overview and Future Outlook" 2463: 2459: 2014: 2002: 1782: 1394: 1254: 1149: 1113: 992: 649: 30: 4319: 4299: 3698: 3673: 3077: 2603: 2496: 2301: 2253: 2146: 1923: 1919: 1735: 1251: 1137: 169: 3030: 4108: 4103: 4083: 4063: 4048: 3931: 3668: 3648: 3616: 2921: 2540: 2536: 2454: 2441: 2339:, France, canceled project for a 600 MWe sodium-cooled reactor. 2186: 2061: 1843:

The BN-350 reactor was also used for desalination of sea water.

1725: 1721: 1632:

a very small increase in the physical size of the reactor core.

1153: 507: 130: 2880:"Fast Neutron Reactors | FBR - World Nuclear Association" 2072:, It produced 130 MWe plus 80,000 tons of fresh water per day. 966:

which captures excess neutrons, the extra neutrons breed more

479:

in turn absorbs a thermal neutron to become a heavier isotope

475:

is created, which rarely fissions with thermal neutrons. When

160: 4145: 4001: 3794: 3658: 2445: 2437: 2111: 2082: 2065: 1943: 1494: 1200: 1172: 628: 593: 498:

elements. Such isotopes are themselves unstable, and undergo

39: 3510: 1175:

process, can be used to extract the unchanged uranium, the

1156:, or some can be used for each purpose. Though conventional 877:. Test runs at various facilities have also been done using 656:

occurs, such as the multiple meltdowns that occurred in the

4006: 3895: 3705: 3663: 2599: 2588: 2552: 2259: 2247: 2200: 2164: 2064:

was constructed by the Soviet Union in Shevchenko (today's

1956:(FFTF), 400 MWt, operated flawlessly from 1982 to 1992, at 1940:, was a prototype for the Integral Fast Reactor, 1965–1994. 1860: 1374:

fuel. However, it is possible to build a fast reactor that

1247: 1243: 3979: 3843: 2898:"Fast Neutron Reactors | FBR - World Nuclear Association" 2778: 2776: 2021:, France, (20 then 40 MW) operated between 1967 and 1982. 1967: 1947: 1556:

of the moderator. Both techniques are common in ordinary

652:

cladding. When this occurs the fuel elements melt, and a

3533: 3136:"Fukushima Daiichi Accident - World Nuclear Association" 2173:- a pool type sodium-cooled fast breeder reactor at the 1970:, 6.5 MWe commercial reactor operated from 1957 to 1964. 2349:

is designing a molten salt reactor in partnership with

3516:

Fast Reactor Data Retrieval and Knowledge Preservation

3091: 2773: 2269:, Seversk, Russia. Construction started at 8 June 2021 1683:, which are filled with a neutron absorption material. 1066:

remaining waste should be stored for about 500 years.

2785:"Difference Between Thermal Reactor and Fast Reactor" 2330:

cooled) US-proposed international effort, after 2030.

733:

Crucially, when a reactor runs on fast neutrons, the

3575: 1811:

A defective fast reactor design could have positive

1393:

So far, most fast-neutron reactors have used either

1239:

why it is no longer considered useful as a coolant.

2783:Pintu 14/10/2019 Nuclear Power Plant (2019-10-14). 995:, mixed with lightly enriched Uranium fuel to form 756:fast reactor fuel therefore contains virtually no 3275: 2375:is designing a fast spectrum molten salt reactor. 1950:research reactor that operated from 1969 to 1972. 1265:(NaK) is popular in test reactors due to its low 4449: 3522:World Nuclear Association: Fast-Neutron Reactors 1401:fuel. Soviet fast-neutron reactors used (highly 42:, Kazakhstan. It operated between 1973 and 1994. 2951:Science and Technology of Nuclear Installations 3247: 3245: 2736:"Fast-neutron reactors, Fast nuclear reactors" 2230: 2047:Small lead-cooled fast reactors were used for 1847:US interest in breeder reactors were muted by 1242:Russia has developed reactors that use molten 4232:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 3561: 1898:was the first fast reactor, built in 1946 at 3371: 2282:, construction is expected to start in 2027. 670: 3242: 2944: 2804:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 1128:, which has a half life of 28.8 years, and 161:Moderators in conventional nuclear reactors 4412: 3568: 3554: 3342: 3335:T. SOGA, W. ITAGAKI, Y. KIHARA, Y. MAEDA. 1884: 3534:International Thorium Energy Organisation 3184: 3056: 2962: 2159:IBR-2 - a pulsed fast-neutron reactor at 502:to create ever heavier elements, such as 4144: 3501:ANL report on EARLY SOVIET FAST REACTORS 2862: 2860: 1879: 1838: 29: 1261:, as well as some prototype reactors. 584:designs use different moderators, like 14: 4450: 4159:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 2757:"What is Neutron - Neutron Definition" 2397:Future FBR, India, 600 MWe, after 2025 1069:With fast neutrons, the ratio between 385:nucleus to transmute the uranium into 4164:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 3549: 2857: 2241: 2191:Research Institute of Atomic Reactors 1552:, does not work, nor does a negative 3416: 3221:– via Taylor and Francis+NEJM. 2847:"Conversion Factor - Breeding Ratio" 2817: 2815: 2161:Joint Institute for Nuclear Research 144: 4169:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 1989:(DFR), 1959–1977, was a 14 MWe and 1295:which is rapidly gaining interest. 1272:Another proposed fast reactor is a 327:has a high probability of fission. 24: 3978: 3185:SCHNEIDER, MYCLE (June 26, 2009). 1303:In practice, sustaining a fission 1060: 78:, on average), as opposed to slow 25: 4474: 3489: 3187:"Fast Breeder Reactors in France" 2812: 2367:Electric Power Research Institute 2189:- a sodium-cooled reactor at the 2128: 4432: 4431: 4422: 4421: 4411: 4402: 4401: 4252:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 2292:(USA) but progress stalled (see 1889: 1665: 1548:in the moderator, which affects 1218:All operating fast reactors are 600:. In either case, the reactor's 86:. Such a fast reactor needs no 3467: 3449: 3435: 3417:Wang, Brian (August 24, 2018). 3410: 3392: 3353: 3329: 3300: 3257: 3225: 3178: 3164: 3146: 3128: 3114:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2021.111181 3085: 3065: 3024: 3010: 2999: 2985: 2971: 2938: 2219: 2207:China Experimental Fast Reactor 2175:Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station 2009:Dounreay Pool type Fast Reactor 1987:Dounreay Loop type Fast Reactor 1930:Experimental Breeder Reactor II 1734:Since liquid metals other than 4242:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 3265:"Home - Generation IV Systems" 3094:Nuclear Engineering and Design 2945:Van Rooijen, W. F. G. (2009). 2914: 2890: 2872: 2839: 2749: 2728: 2041: 1993:(PFR), 1974–1994, 250 MWe, in 1906:Experimental Breeder Reactor I 1900:Los Alamos National Laboratory 899:. The natural uranium (mostly 13: 1: 3191:Science & Global Security 3058:10.1016/j.pnucene.2021.103909 2721: 2355:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 2288:was planned to be shipped to 1908:(EBR-I) at Argonne West, now 1584: 1222:, which use sodium, lead, or 4042:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 2867:Smarter use of Nuclear Waste 2273: 2135:Clinch River Breeder Reactor 1757:. With a 15-hour half-life, 1629:of the neutron spectrum, and 1567: 1220:liquid metal cooled reactors 157:, and fast reactors do not. 7: 4389:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 3073:"The Integral Fast Reactor" 2674: 266:. Other moderators include 94:that is relatively rich in 74:(carrying energies above 1 10: 4479: 4227:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 3511:IAEA Fast Reactor Database 3037:Progress in Nuclear Energy 2711:Sodium-cooled fast reactor 2391: 2294:Galena Nuclear Power Plant 1834: 1591:sodium-cooled fast reactor 1537:of the reactor reliant on 1528: 1289:Sodium cooled fast reactor 1194: 764:(containing on average 2% 411:which in turn decays into 398:which rapidly decays into 113:sodium-cooled fast reactor 4397: 4364: 4352:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 4265: 4247:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 4212: 4195: 4135: 4062: 4054:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 4028: 4019: 3971: 3951: 3904: 3886: 3842: 3747: 3729: 3597: 3584: 3457:"Generation IV & SMR" 3211:10.1080/08929880902953013 3018:"What is a fast reactor?" 2787:. Difference.minaprem.com 2359:Idaho National Laboratory 2231: 2153: 1980: 1934:Idaho National Laboratory 1910:Idaho National Laboratory 1691:no longer of any concern. 1601:have similar advantages. 671:Fast fission and breeding 637:pressurized water reactor 316:. In this case, only the 251:until the neutrons reach 4417:List of nuclear reactors 4257:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 3873:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 2701:Lead-cooled fast reactor 2472:Phénix (stopped in 2010) 2401: 1966:in California, was a 20 1803:From the liquid lead or 1595:lead-cooled fast reactor 1345:absorption cross section 1293:Lead-cooled fast reactor 1280:Gas-cooled fast reactors 240:than the fast neutrons. 124:thermodynamic efficiency 117:lead-cooled fast reactor 84:thermal-neutron reactors 38:fast-neutron reactor at 4407:Nuclear fusion reactors 4372:Organic nuclear reactor 3578:nuclear fission reactor 3203:2009S&GS...17...36S 2716:Thermal-neutron reactor 2691:Gas-cooled fast reactor 2101: 1954:Fast Flux Test Facility 1885:Decommissioned reactors 1311:means using relatively 1298: 1226:as coolants. The early 1033:reactor-grade plutonium 921:, while in the case of 762:reactor-grade plutonium 558:in the fuel to produce 168:consists mostly of two 3461:www.ansaldoenergia.com 3365:world-nuclear-news.org 2509:Under decommissioning 2385:Aurora nuclear reactor 2051:, particularly by the 1991:Prototype Fast Reactor 1946:in Arkansas, was a 20 1870: 1844: 1263:Sodium-potassium alloy 910:) will be turned into 613:electricity production 43: 4458:Fast-neutron reactors 3423:www.nextbigfuture.com 2884:www.world-nuclear.org 2761:www.nuclear-power.net 2738:. IAEA. 13 April 2016 2696:Generation IV reactor 2363:Vanderbilt University 2316:Generation IV reactor 2306:Integral Fast Reactor 2141:Integral Fast Reactor 1880:List of fast reactors 1865: 1856:years of experience. 1842: 1805:Lead-bismuth eutectic 1720:for 30 years, or the 1701:USS Seawolf (SSN-575) 1331:fission cross section 1224:lead-bismuth eutectic 1162:fast breeder reactors 1136:depleted uranium and 598:X-10 Graphite Reactor 437:neutron cross section 66:in which the fission 56:fast-spectrum reactor 33: 4237:Traveling-wave (TWR) 3721:Supercritical (SCWR) 2926:www.moltexenergy.com 2686:Fast breeder reactor 2195:Dimitrovgrad, Russia 2095:Russian Alpha 8 PbBi 1558:light-water reactors 1428:fast breeder reactor 1388:fast breeder reactor 1259:Alfa-class submarine 1189:transuranic elements 1169:Nuclear reprocessing 562:, with the leftover 439:larger than that of 48:fast-neutron reactor 3607:Aqueous homogeneous 3106:2021NuEnD.37911181M 3049:2021PNuE..14003909A 2981:. 17 November 2020. 2964:10.1155/2009/965757 2827:Scientific American 2408: 1755:neutron bombardment 1599:Molten Salt Reactor 1274:molten salt reactor 253:thermal equilibrium 4427:Nuclear technology 3539:2016-03-06 at the 3527:2013-02-24 at the 3400:"***지속가능원자력시스템***" 3158:2021-11-25 at the 2706:Nuclear fuel cycle 2582:Under construction 2406: 2373:Elysium Industries 2242:Under construction 1845: 1817:gas-cooled reactor 1781:by emission of an 1627:Doppler broadening 1546:Doppler broadening 1228:Clementine reactor 1203:, the most common 1116:become a pair of " 1014:once-through cycle 658:Fukushima disaster 642:thermal efficiency 249:elastic scattering 44: 4463:Soviet inventions 4445: 4444: 4437:Nuclear accidents 4360: 4359: 4191: 4190: 4187: 4186: 4131: 4130: 4015: 4014: 3947: 3946: 3140:world-nuclear.org 2902:world-nuclear.org 2672: 2671: 2638:, Elysium MCSFR, 2308:(1984-1994), and 2256:, China, 600 MWe. 1874:GEN IV initiative 1397:(mixed oxide) or 1213:neutron moderator 855:and particularly 453:About 73% of the 245:neutron moderator 145:Fission processes 139:GEN IV initiative 88:neutron moderator 62:is a category of 16:(Redirected from 4470: 4435: 4434: 4425: 4424: 4415: 4414: 4405: 4404: 4347:Helium gas (GFR) 4210: 4209: 4205: 4142: 4141: 4026: 4025: 3976: 3975: 3969: 3968: 3964: 3963: 3745: 3744: 3741: 3740: 3570: 3563: 3556: 3547: 3546: 3483: 3482: 3471: 3465: 3464: 3453: 3447: 3446: 3439: 3433: 3432: 3430: 3429: 3414: 3408: 3407: 3396: 3390: 3389: 3387: 3385: 3375: 3369: 3368: 3357: 3351: 3346: 3340: 3333: 3327: 3326: 3324: 3323: 3314:. Archived from 3312:zoomchina.com.cn 3304: 3298: 3297: 3295: 3293: 3279: 3273: 3272: 3261: 3255: 3249: 3240: 3239: 3237: 3229: 3223: 3222: 3182: 3176: 3175: 3168: 3162: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3132: 3126: 3125: 3089: 3083: 3082: 3069: 3063: 3062: 3060: 3028: 3022: 3021: 3014: 3008: 3003: 2997: 2996: 2989: 2983: 2982: 2975: 2969: 2968: 2966: 2942: 2936: 2935: 2933: 2932: 2918: 2912: 2911: 2909: 2908: 2894: 2888: 2887: 2876: 2870: 2864: 2855: 2854: 2843: 2837: 2836: 2834: 2833: 2819: 2810: 2809: 2803: 2795: 2793: 2792: 2780: 2771: 2770: 2768: 2767: 2753: 2747: 2746: 2744: 2743: 2732: 2681:Energy amplifier 2409: 2405: 2351:Southern Company 2304:(1998-present), 2236: 2234: 2233: 2213:KiloPower/KRUSTY 2049:naval propulsion 1813:void coefficient 1799: 1797: 1796: 1780: 1777: 1776: 1767: 1765: 1764: 1752: 1750: 1749: 1677:delayed neutrons 1618: 1616: 1615: 1554:void coefficient 1550:thermal neutrons 1539:delayed neutrons 1523: 1519: 1518: 1510: 1506: 1505: 1497: 1493: 1492: 1484: 1482: 1481: 1473: 1471: 1470: 1462: 1460: 1459: 1451: 1449: 1448: 1440: 1438: 1437: 1425: 1423: 1422: 1411: 1409: 1408: 1384:Fission products 1368: 1366: 1365: 1357: 1355: 1354: 1343: 1341: 1340: 1329: 1327: 1326: 1313:enriched uranium 1209:thermal reactors 1185:fission products 1177:fission products 1158:thermal reactors 1142:thermal neutrons 1122:fission products 1118:fission products 1111: 1109: 1108: 1100: 1098: 1097: 1056: 1054: 1053: 1045: 1043: 1042: 1030: 1028: 1027: 1010: 1008: 1007: 987: 985: 984: 976: 974: 973: 965: 963: 962: 954: 952: 951: 942: 940: 939: 931: 929: 928: 920: 918: 917: 909: 907: 906: 898: 896: 895: 887: 885: 884: 876: 874: 873: 865: 863: 862: 854: 852: 851: 840: 838: 837: 829: 827: 826: 818: 816: 815: 807: 805: 804: 796: 794: 793: 785: 783: 782: 774: 772: 771: 754: 752: 751: 743: 741: 740: 729: 727: 726: 718: 716: 715: 707: 705: 704: 696: 694: 693: 685: 683: 682: 606:thermal neutrons 575:depleted uranium 572: 570: 569: 560:enriched uranium 557: 555: 554: 546: 544: 543: 531: 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but requires 64:nuclear reactor 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4476: 4466: 4465: 4460: 4443: 4442: 4440: 4439: 4429: 4419: 4409: 4398: 4395: 4394: 4392: 4391: 4386: 4385: 4384: 4379: 4368: 4366: 4362: 4361: 4358: 4357: 4355: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4338: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4271: 4269: 4263: 4262: 4260: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4239: 4234: 4229: 4224: 4222:Integral (IFR) 4219: 4213: 4207: 4196: 4193: 4192: 4189: 4188: 4185: 4184: 4182: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4150: 4148: 4139: 4133: 4132: 4129: 4128: 4126: 4125: 4124: 4123: 4118: 4117: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4086: 4081: 4080: 4079: 4068: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4057: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4037: 4035: 4031: 4023: 4017: 4016: 4013: 4012: 4010: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3988: 3986: 3981: 3973: 3966: 3952: 3949: 3948: 3945: 3944: 3942: 3941: 3940: 3939: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3913: 3911: 3907: 3902: 3901: 3899: 3898: 3892: 3890: 3884: 3883: 3881: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3869: 3868: 3863: 3852: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3839: 3837: 3836: 3835: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3814: 3813: 3812: 3807: 3802: 3792: 3787: 3786: 3785: 3780: 3777: 3774: 3771: 3757: 3755: 3750: 3742: 3727: 3726: 3724: 3723: 3718: 3717: 3716: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3702: 3701: 3696: 3686: 3681: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3641: 3636: 3635: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3609: 3603: 3601: 3595: 3594: 3586: 3585: 3582: 3581: 3573: 3572: 3565: 3558: 3550: 3544: 3543: 3531: 3519: 3513: 3508: 3503: 3498: 3491: 3490:External links 3488: 3485: 3484: 3466: 3448: 3434: 3409: 3391: 3370: 3352: 3341: 3328: 3299: 3274: 3256: 3252:PRIS data base 3241: 3224: 3177: 3163: 3145: 3127: 3084: 3064: 3023: 3009: 2998: 2984: 2970: 2937: 2913: 2889: 2871: 2856: 2838: 2811: 2772: 2748: 2726: 2725: 2723: 2720: 2719: 2718: 2713: 2708: 2703: 2698: 2693: 2688: 2683: 2676: 2673: 2670: 2669: 2656: 2647: 2642: 2613: 2607: 2606: 2597: 2595: 2586: 2584: 2578: 2577: 2572: 2570: 2568: 2566: 2560: 2559: 2550: 2548: 2530: 2528: 2522: 2521: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2506: 2505: 2503: 2494: 2492: 2483: 2477: 2476: 2474: 2457: 2452: 2431: 2425: 2424: 2421: 2418: 2415: 2412: 2407:Fast reactors 2403: 2400: 2399: 2398: 2393: 2390: 2389: 2388: 2382: 2376: 2370: 2344: 2340: 2334: 2331: 2313: 2297: 2290:Galena, Alaska 2283: 2275: 2272: 2271: 2270: 2264: 2257: 2251: 2243: 2240: 2239: 2238: 2221: 2218: 2217: 2216: 2210: 2204: 2198: 2184: 2178: 2168: 2155: 2152: 2151: 2150: 2144: 2138: 2130: 2129:Never operated 2127: 2126: 2125: 2120:, 150 MWe, in 2115: 2110:, 300 MWe, in 2103: 2100: 2099: 2098: 2092: 2086: 2080: 2076: 2073: 2059: 2056: 2043: 2040: 2039: 2038: 2034: 2028: 2022: 2012: 2006: 1982: 1979: 1978: 1977: 1971: 1961: 1951: 1941: 1927: 1917: 1903: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1836: 1833: 1832: 1831: 1820: 1809: 1801: 1794: 1774: 1762: 1747: 1731: 1730: 1709: 1708: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1667: 1664: 1663: 1662: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1642: 1641: 1636: 1635: 1634: 1633: 1630: 1620: 1613: 1606: 1586: 1583: 1569: 1566: 1530: 1527: 1516: 1503: 1490: 1479: 1468: 1457: 1446: 1435: 1420: 1406: 1363: 1352: 1338: 1324: 1305:chain reaction 1300: 1297: 1196: 1193: 1106: 1095: 1062: 1059: 1051: 1040: 1025: 1005: 988:respectively. 982: 971: 960: 949: 937: 926: 915: 904: 893: 882: 871: 860: 849: 835: 824: 819:and traces of 813: 802: 791: 780: 769: 749: 738: 724: 713: 702: 691: 680: 672: 669: 617:steam turbines 567: 552: 541: 526: 515: 512: 484: 469: 458: 444: 435:has a thermal 429: 417: 404: 391: 379: 368: 357: 346: 335: 321: 310: 298: 286: 260: 234: 223: 212: 207:Of these two, 205: 204: 197: 189: 182: 162: 159: 146: 143: 135: 134: 127: 120: 109: 68:chain reaction 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4475: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4455: 4453: 4438: 4430: 4428: 4420: 4418: 4410: 4408: 4400: 4399: 4396: 4390: 4387: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4374: 4373: 4370: 4369: 4367: 4363: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4277: 4276: 4273: 4272: 4270: 4268: 4267:Generation IV 4264: 4258: 4255: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4243: 4240: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4217:Breeder (FBR) 4215: 4214: 4211: 4208: 4203: 4194: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4151: 4149: 4147: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4134: 4122: 4119: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4096: 4095: 4092: 4091: 4090: 4087: 4085: 4082: 4078: 4075: 4074: 4073: 4070: 4069: 4067: 4065: 4061: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4043: 4039: 4038: 4036: 4034: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4018: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3989: 3987: 3985: 3977: 3974: 3970: 3967: 3962: 3955: 3950: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3919: 3918: 3915: 3914: 3912: 3910: 3903: 3897: 3894: 3893: 3891: 3889: 3885: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3858: 3857: 3854: 3853: 3851: 3849: 3841: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3825: 3823: 3820: 3818: 3815: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3797: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3784: 3781: 3778: 3775: 3772: 3769: 3768: 3767: 3764: 3763: 3762: 3759: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3746: 3743: 3739: 3732: 3728: 3722: 3719: 3714: 3712: 3709: 3707: 3704: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3692: 3691: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3660: 3657: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3647: 3646: 3645: 3642: 3640: 3637: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3614: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3604: 3602: 3600: 3596: 3591: 3590: 3583: 3579: 3571: 3566: 3564: 3559: 3557: 3552: 3551: 3548: 3542: 3538: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3526: 3523: 3520: 3517: 3514: 3512: 3509: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3494: 3493: 3480: 3476: 3470: 3462: 3458: 3452: 3444: 3438: 3424: 3420: 3413: 3405: 3401: 3395: 3380: 3374: 3366: 3362: 3356: 3350: 3345: 3338: 3332: 3318:on 2011-07-07 3317: 3313: 3309: 3303: 3288: 3284: 3278: 3270: 3266: 3260: 3253: 3248: 3246: 3234: 3228: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3181: 3173: 3167: 3161: 3157: 3154: 3149: 3141: 3137: 3131: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3088: 3080: 3079: 3074: 3068: 3059: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3027: 3019: 3013: 3007: 3002: 2994: 2988: 2980: 2974: 2965: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2941: 2927: 2923: 2917: 2903: 2899: 2893: 2885: 2881: 2875: 2868: 2863: 2861: 2852: 2851:Nuclear Power 2848: 2842: 2828: 2824: 2818: 2816: 2807: 2801: 2786: 2779: 2777: 2762: 2758: 2752: 2737: 2731: 2727: 2717: 2714: 2712: 2709: 2707: 2704: 2702: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2692: 2689: 2687: 2684: 2682: 2679: 2678: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2657: 2655: 2651: 2648: 2646: 2643: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2614: 2612: 2609: 2608: 2605: 2601: 2598: 2596: 2594: 2590: 2587: 2585: 2583: 2580: 2579: 2576: 2573: 2571: 2569: 2567: 2565: 2562: 2561: 2558: 2554: 2551: 2549: 2547: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2524: 2523: 2520: 2517: 2515: 2513: 2511: 2508: 2507: 2504: 2502: 2498: 2495: 2493: 2491: 2487: 2484: 2482: 2479: 2478: 2475: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2458: 2456: 2453: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2432: 2430: 2427: 2426: 2422: 2419: 2416: 2413: 2411: 2410: 2396: 2395: 2386: 2383: 2380: 2377: 2374: 2371: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2345: 2341: 2338: 2335: 2332: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2314: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2298: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2284: 2281: 2278: 2277: 2268: 2265: 2261: 2258: 2255: 2252: 2249: 2246: 2245: 2227: 2224: 2223: 2214: 2211: 2208: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2176: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2157: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2139: 2136: 2133: 2132: 2123: 2119: 2118:Aktau Reactor 2116: 2113: 2109: 2108:Monju reactor 2106: 2105: 2096: 2093: 2090: 2087: 2084: 2081: 2077: 2074: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2060: 2057: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2045: 2035: 2032: 2029: 2026: 2023: 2020: 2016: 2013: 2010: 2007: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1985: 1984: 1975: 1972: 1969: 1965: 1962: 1959: 1955: 1952: 1949: 1945: 1942: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1928: 1925: 1921: 1918: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1904: 1901: 1897: 1894: 1893: 1890:United States 1877: 1875: 1869: 1864: 1862: 1857: 1854: 1850: 1841: 1829: 1825: 1824:critical mass 1821: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1788: 1784: 1779: 1756: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1732: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1682: 1678: 1673: 1672: 1671: 1666:Disadvantages 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1643: 1640:intervention. 1638: 1637: 1631: 1628: 1625: 1624: 1621: 1607: 1604: 1603: 1602: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1582: 1578: 1575: 1565: 1561: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1542: 1540: 1536: 1526: 1522: 1509: 1496: 1429: 1413: 1400: 1396: 1391: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1346: 1332: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1309:fast neutrons 1306: 1296: 1294: 1290: 1284: 1281: 1277: 1275: 1270: 1268: 1267:melting point 1264: 1260: 1256: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1240: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1165: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1067: 1058: 1034: 1017: 1015: 998: 994: 989: 842: 763: 759: 731: 668: 664: 661: 659: 655: 651: 645: 643: 638: 632: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 609: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 578: 576: 561: 535: 519: 511: 509: 505: 501: 497: 492: 478: 477:plutonium-240 451: 438: 423: 410: 397: 328: 303: 279: 277: 273: 269: 254: 250: 246: 241: 203: 190: 188: 175: 174: 173: 171: 167: 158: 156: 152: 142: 140: 132: 128: 125: 121: 118: 114: 110: 106: 105: 104: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 72:fast neutrons 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 41: 37: 32: 19: 4275:Sodium (SFR) 4202:fast-neutron 4201: 4041: 3587: 3478: 3469: 3460: 3451: 3443:"Technology" 3437: 3426:. Retrieved 3422: 3412: 3403: 3394: 3384:14 September 3382:. Retrieved 3373: 3364: 3355: 3344: 3331: 3320:. Retrieved 3316:the original 3311: 3302: 3292:14 September 3290:. Retrieved 3286: 3283:"Parameters" 3277: 3268: 3259: 3227: 3197:(1): 36–53. 3194: 3190: 3180: 3166: 3148: 3139: 3130: 3097: 3093: 3087: 3076: 3067: 3040: 3036: 3026: 3012: 3001: 2987: 2973: 2954: 2950: 2940: 2929:. Retrieved 2925: 2916: 2905:. Retrieved 2901: 2892: 2883: 2874: 2850: 2841: 2830:. Retrieved 2826: 2789:. Retrieved 2764:. Retrieved 2760: 2751: 2740:. Retrieved 2730: 2610: 2581: 2564:Under repair 2563: 2525: 2486:Clinch River 2480: 2428: 2312:(1965-1995). 2220:Under repair 1932:(EBR-II) at 1871: 1866: 1858: 1849:Jimmy Carter 1846: 1687:is not easy. 1681:control rods 1669: 1588: 1579: 1571: 1562: 1543: 1532: 1414: 1392: 1380:reprocessing 1302: 1285: 1278: 1271: 1241: 1234:coolant and 1217: 1198: 1187:and 3) the 1166: 1134: 1126:strontium-90 1068: 1064: 1018: 990: 843: 732: 674: 665: 662: 646: 633: 610: 604:is based on 579: 520: 517: 493: 452: 329: 280: 242: 206: 164: 148: 136: 60:fast reactor 59: 58:or simply a 55: 51: 47: 45: 18:Fast reactor 4310:Superphénix 4137:Molten-salt 4089:VHTR (HTGR) 3866:HW BLWR 250 3832:R4 Marviken 3761:Pressurized 3731:Heavy water 3715:many others 3644:Pressurized 3599:Light water 3404:kaeri.re.kr 2468:Superphénix 2070:Caspian Sea 2053:Soviet Navy 2042:USSR/Russia 2025:Superphénix 1938:Arco, Idaho 1914:Arco, Idaho 1853:Superphénix 1535:criticality 1399:metal alloy 1181:uranium-238 1148:reactor in 1130:caesium-137 586:heavy water 496:transuranic 268:heavy water 100:Superphénix 4452:Categories 4094:PBR (PBMR) 3428:2018-08-25 3322:2008-06-01 3269:GIF Portal 3100:: 111181. 3043:: 103909. 2931:2016-10-20 2907:2023-12-05 2832:2023-12-05 2791:2022-04-13 2766:2017-09-19 2742:2022-04-13 2722:References 2636:TerraPower 2434:Clementine 2347:TerraPower 2286:Toshiba 4S 2122:Kazakhstan 1896:Clementine 1828:enrichment 1787:gamma rays 1768:decays to 1585:Advantages 1521:Gadolinium 1508:Gadolinium 500:beta decay 4146:Fluorides 3810:IPHWR-700 3805:IPHWR-540 3800:IPHWR-220 3589:Moderator 3576:Types of 3219:122789053 3122:234814975 2593:BREST-300 2526:Operating 2481:Cancelled 2343:colonies. 2274:In design 2267:BREST-300 2149:, Germany 2068:) on the 2037:facility. 2019:Cadarache 1997:, in the 1995:Caithness 1740:beryllium 1568:Resources 1317:plutonium 1236:plutonium 1114:actinides 1083:plutonium 1071:splitting 758:actinides 675:Although 573:known as 504:americium 330:Although 272:beryllium 155:moderator 108:neutrons. 4179:TMSR-LF1 4174:TMSR-500 4154:Fuji MSR 4114:THTR-300 3954:Graphite 3817:PHWR KWU 3783:ACR-1000 3711:IPWR-900 3694:ACPR1000 3689:HPR-1000 3679:CPR-1000 3654:APR-1400 3537:Archived 3525:Archived 3287:niiar.ru 3156:Archived 2957:: 1–11. 2800:cite web 2675:See also 2464:Rapsodie 2460:Dounreay 2365:and the 2015:Rapsodie 2003:Scotland 2001:area of 1999:Highland 1974:LAMPRE-1 1808:systems. 1785:and two 1783:electron 1574:baseload 1390:or FBR. 1255:eutectic 1150:Marcoule 1085:and the 1079:neutrons 1073:and the 993:MOX fuel 654:meltdown 650:zircaloy 627:and the 590:graphite 276:graphite 170:isotopes 115:and the 82:used in 4320:FBR-600 4300:CFR-600 4295:BN-1200 3961:coolant 3888:Organic 3773:CANDU 9 3770:CANDU 6 3738:coolant 3699:ACP1000 3674:CAP1400 3612:Boiling 3339:. 2013. 3199:Bibcode 3102:Bibcode 3078:YouTube 3045:Bibcode 2667:KALIMER 2645:BN-1200 2640:DoE VTR 2611:Planned 2604:CFR-600 2497:SNR-300 2392:Planned 2387:, Idaho 2302:S-PRISM 2280:BN-1200 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