911:
3635:
924:
3659:
139:
20:
3671:
3647:
1908:
impinges on a target; the target nuclei absorb either the neutron or proton from the deuteron. The deuteron is so loosely bound that this is almost the same as proton or neutron capture. A compound nucleus may be formed, leading to additional neutrons being emitted more slowly. (d,n) reactions are
1328:
Instead of using the full equations in the style above, in many situations a compact notation is used to describe nuclear reactions. This style of the form A(b,c)D is equivalent to A + b producing c + D. Common light particles are often abbreviated in this shorthand, typically p for proton, n for
2198:
Either a low-energy projectile is absorbed or a higher energy particle transfers energy to the nucleus, leaving it with too much energy to be fully bound together. On a time scale of about 10 seconds, particles, usually neutrons, are "boiled" off. That is, it remains together until enough energy
1057:
was able to accomplish transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen at the
University of Manchester, using alpha particles directed at nitrogen N + α → O + p. This was the first observation of an induced nuclear reaction, that is, a reaction in which particles from one decay are used to transform
1810:
An intermediate energy projectile transfers energy or picks up or loses nucleons to the nucleus in a single quick (10 second) event. Energy and momentum transfer are relatively small. These are particularly useful in experimental nuclear physics, because the reaction mechanisms are often simple
1659:. On the one hand, it is the difference between the sums of kinetic energies on the final side and on the initial side. But on the other hand, it is also the difference between the nuclear rest masses on the initial side and on the final side (in this way, we have calculated the
1737:
Also, since the force of repulsion is proportional to the product of the two charges, reactions between heavy nuclei are rarer, and require higher initiating energy, than those between a heavy and light nucleus; while reactions between two light nuclei are the most common ones.
992:. Thus, a nuclear reaction must cause a transformation of at least one nuclide to another. If a nucleus interacts with another nucleus or particle, they then separate without changing the nature of any nuclide, the process is simply referred to as a type of nuclear
1170:
To balance the equation above for mass, charge and mass number, the second nucleus to the right must have atomic number 2 and mass number 4; it is therefore also helium-4. The complete equation therefore reads:
1744:, on the other hand, have no electric charge to cause repulsion, and are able to initiate a nuclear reaction at very low energies. In fact, at extremely low particle energies (corresponding, say, to
1098:
must balance for each side of the equation, and in which transformations of particles must follow certain conservation laws, such as conservation of charge and baryon number (total atomic
1793:
reactions – a very heavy nucleus, after absorbing additional light particles (usually neutrons), splits into two or sometimes three pieces. This is an induced nuclear reaction.
1843:(e,e') is useful for probing the interior structure. Since electrons interact less strongly than do protons and neutrons, they reach to the centers of the targets and their
1006:, but because the probability of three or more nuclei to meet at the same time at the same place is much less than for two nuclei, such an event is exceptionally rare (see
1058:
another atomic nucleus. Eventually, in 1932 at
Cambridge University, a fully artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear transmutation was achieved by Rutherford's colleagues
1484:". (The He-4 nucleus is unusually stable and tightly bound for the same reason that the helium atom is inert: each pair of protons and neutrons in He-4 occupies a filled
1505:
kinetic energy of the product particles (fraction of the kinetic energy of the charged nuclear reaction products can be directly converted into electrostatic energy);
2287:
1066:, who used artificially accelerated protons against lithium-7, to split the nucleus into two alpha particles. The feat was popularly known as "splitting the
1671:
If the reaction equation is balanced, that does not mean that the reaction really occurs. The rate at which reactions occur depends on the energy and the
1655:
The reaction energy (the "Q-value") is positive for exothermal reactions and negative for endothermal reactions, opposite to the similar expression in
1768:
While the number of possible nuclear reactions is immense, there are several types that are more common, or otherwise notable. Some examples include:
1707:
and closely approach the nucleus, which is positively charged. Thus, such particles must be first accelerated to high energy, for example by:
1872:
Usually at moderately low energy, one or more nucleons are transferred between the projectile and target. These are useful in studying outer
1368:). This can be calculated by reference to a table of very accurate particle rest masses, as follows: according to the reference tables, the
1549:
is wrong. As the electrons rearrange themselves and drop to lower energy levels, internal transition X-rays (X-rays with precisely defined
1781:– a nucleus is hit by a particle with sufficient energy and momentum to knock out several small fragments or smash it into many fragments.
2473:
1775:
reactions – two light nuclei join to form a heavier one, with additional particles (usually protons or neutrons) emitted subsequently.
955:
869:
1680:
1010:
for an example very close to a three-body nuclear reaction). The term "nuclear reaction" may refer either to a change in a nuclide
2748:
3368:
3412:
3087:
2442:
2207:
Low energy (e, e' xn), (γ, xn) (the xn indicating one or more neutrons), where the gamma or virtual gamma energy is near the
2346:
1025:
and matter, and nuclear reactions can be employed artificially to obtain nuclear energy, at an adjustable rate, on-demand.
3554:
218:
1720:(alpha particles are the main type of interest here since beta and gamma rays are rarely involved in nuclear reactions);
1417:. The "missing" rest mass must therefore reappear as kinetic energy released in the reaction; its source is the nuclear
2199:
happens to be concentrated in one neutron to escape the mutual attraction. The excited quasi-bound nucleus is called a
1691:
In the initial collision which begins the reaction, the particles must approach closely enough so that the short-range
2419:
2329:
1695:
can affect them. As most common nuclear particles are positively charged, this means they must overcome considerable
1797:, which occurs without assistance of a neutron, is usually not considered a nuclear reaction. At most, it is not an
3495:
2260:
522:
2284:
910:
2466:
1894:(α,n) and (α,p) reactions. Some of the earliest nuclear reactions studied involved an alpha particle produced by
714:
3505:
1832:(α,α') measures nuclear surface shapes and sizes. Since α particles that hit the nucleus react more violently,
1787:
belongs to a class in which only photons were involved in creating and destroying states of nuclear excitation.
419:
1856:
Energy and charge are transferred between projectile and target. Some examples of this kind of reactions are:
1476:
This is a large amount of energy for a nuclear reaction; the amount is so high because the binding energy per
1473:
Expressed differently: the mass is reduced by 0.3%, corresponding to 0.3% of 90 PJ/kg is 270 TJ/kg.
948:
2302:
3675:
3035:
1881:
1365:
1361:
3697:
3594:
2853:
2741:
1931:
The reaction N(α,p)O performed by
Rutherford in 1917 (reported 1919), is generally regarded as the first
732:
702:
203:
3702:
2459:
2434:
779:
329:
3500:
3358:
3020:
2965:
2945:
2940:
1660:
665:
3712:
3707:
3429:
2773:
1679:. An example of a large repository of reaction rates is the REACLIB database, as maintained by the
941:
928:
660:
364:
1752:
is greatly increased, possibly greatly increasing its capture cross-section, at energies close to
1545:. Generally, the product nucleus has a different atomic number, and thus the configuration of its
3717:
3651:
3589:
3574:
2970:
2950:
2625:
2590:
2570:
2525:
1676:
1422:
655:
552:
517:
213:
2364:
Shinn, E.; Et., al. (2013). "Nuclear energy conversion with stacks of graphene nanocapacitors".
1498:). Consequently, alpha particles appear frequently on the right-hand side of nuclear reactions.
3722:
3102:
2998:
2925:
2915:
2796:
2734:
2620:
2610:
2255:
2208:
1784:
1481:
1414:
1388:
1026:
709:
359:
324:
2315:
1836:
and shallow inelastic α scattering are sensitive to the shapes and sizes of the targets, like
1433:, the amount of energy released can be determined. We first need the energy equivalent of one
3042:
2833:
1932:
1749:
834:
719:
611:
1579:
For the particular case discussed above, the reaction energy has already been calculated as
1444: = (1.66054 × 10 kg) × (2.99792 × 10 m/s)
774:
3490:
3463:
3441:
3348:
3281:
3030:
2960:
2905:
2615:
2605:
2373:
2216:
1820:
1811:
enough to calculate with sufficient accuracy to probe the structure of the target nucleus.
1711:
1007:
844:
819:
636:
1778:
8:
3569:
3512:
3434:
3407:
3092:
2955:
2930:
2669:
2560:
2540:
2535:
2321:
2212:
1873:
1794:
739:
618:
512:
455:
448:
438:
379:
374:
208:
2377:
3549:
3527:
3517:
3353:
2094:
1833:
985:
682:
677:
492:
3658:
3451:
3276:
3137:
3097:
3067:
3052:
3025:
2935:
2838:
2778:
2768:
2550:
2520:
2490:
2438:
2415:
2404:
2325:
2151:
1562:
1054:
973:
854:
849:
809:
687:
426:
414:
397:
369:
339:
180:
3610:
3584:
3579:
3559:
3544:
3385:
3375:
3155:
3082:
2818:
2580:
2545:
2530:
2381:
2182:
2125:
1837:
1434:
1392:
1083:
874:
864:
794:
547:
465:
433:
253:
1501:
The energy released in a nuclear reaction can appear mainly in one of three ways:
1094:
Nuclear reactions may be shown in a form similar to chemical equations, for which
3639:
3620:
3534:
3301:
3216:
3072:
3062:
3047:
3005:
2910:
2860:
2811:
2690:
2585:
2555:
2291:
2110:
2102:
2098:
2086:
2047:
1790:
1745:
1488:
1071:
1034:
969:
859:
839:
814:
744:
631:
559:
505:
470:
130:
3615:
3564:
3539:
3343:
3308:
3241:
3231:
3147:
3127:
3122:
3107:
3077:
3057:
3015:
2993:
2975:
2875:
2865:
2801:
2711:
2695:
2411:
2240:
2155:
2106:
2090:
1772:
1704:
1699:
before the reaction can begin. Even if the target nucleus is part of a neutral
1696:
1546:
1495:
1418:
1357:
1334:
1095:
1074:
reaction later (in 1938) discovered in heavy elements by the German scientists
1059:
1038:
981:
915:
769:
764:
643:
576:
384:
319:
296:
283:
270:
170:
148:
89:
1491:
in the same way that the pair of electrons in the helium atom occupy a filled
3691:
3663:
3522:
3482:
3446:
3402:
3328:
3291:
3209:
3132:
2900:
2895:
2848:
2828:
2600:
2515:
2265:
2245:
2178:
2133:
2117:
1844:
1724:
1717:
1550:
1535:
1342:
1063:
894:
889:
884:
879:
829:
487:
460:
304:
243:
196:
175:
1534:("*") next to its atomic number. This energy is eventually released through
1403:
the sum of the rest mass of the individual nuclei = 6.015 + 2.014 = 8.029 u;
1364:) or kinetic energy may have to be supplied for the reaction to take place (
3419:
3363:
3313:
3296:
3117:
2890:
2823:
2674:
2230:
2186:
2174:
2170:
1925:
1692:
1649:
1523:
1399:), the deuterium has 2.014 u, and the helium-4 nucleus has 4.0026 u. Thus:
1346:
1079:
824:
799:
784:
529:
477:
334:
3424:
3390:
3264:
3254:
3197:
3180:
3165:
3112:
3010:
2500:
2235:
2129:
2033:
2018:
1913:
1895:
1099:
1030:
789:
482:
404:
257:
1530:
When the product nucleus is metastable, this is indicated by placing an
3458:
3380:
3318:
3286:
3226:
2920:
2651:
2505:
2385:
2285:
Cockcroft and Walton split lithium with high energy protons April 1932.
1730:
1723:
very high temperatures, on the order of millions of degrees, producing
1607:
1520:
1480:
of the helium-4 nucleus is unusually high because the He-4 nucleus is "
1284:
1195:
1126:
1022:
993:
759:
749:
606:
586:
409:
279:
2347:"Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions with Relative Atomic Masses"
1455:= 931.49 MeV (1 MeV = 1.602176634×10 J),
3468:
3395:
3269:
3249:
3221:
3160:
2646:
2638:
2630:
2595:
2510:
2250:
2148:
2057:
1982:
1962:
1956:
1753:
1656:
1586:
1513:
1406:
the total rest mass on the two helium-nuclei = 2 × 4.0026 = 8.0052 u;
1263:
1174:
1105:
1075:
1003:
804:
754:
581:
569:
564:
443:
47:
24:
2451:
1565:, one may, in addition, give the reaction energy on the right side:
3204:
3185:
3170:
2870:
2137:
2024:
1991:
1905:
1902:
1531:
1338:
1330:
1000:
93:
138:
3338:
2880:
2162:
2082:
1950:
1741:
1477:
989:
266:
239:
231:
163:
153:
120:
19:
2885:
2806:
2757:
1628:
1561:
In writing down the reaction equation, in a way analogous to a
1509:
1305:
1237:
1216:
1147:
1041:
reactions of light elements power the energy production of the
158:
116:
1409:
missing rest mass = 8.029 – 8.0052 = 0.0238 atomic mass units.
1542:
1450:
3259:
3192:
3175:
2843:
1921:
1917:
1700:
1672:
1067:
1021:
Natural nuclear reactions occur in the interaction between
2303:
2726:
2136:
which is otherwise relatively free of highly radioactive
1572:
Target nucleus + projectile → Final nucleus + ejectile +
1467:
1042:
1541:
A small amount of energy may also emerge in the form of
1349:, etc. The reaction above would be written as Li(d,α)α.
69:) react to form the highly excited intermediate nucleus
1466:
Hence, the energy released is 0.0238 × 931 MeV = 22.2
2169:+ n unexpectedly contributed additional yield in the
1886:
from the target to the projectile - pick-up reactions
1396:
23:
In this symbolic representing of a nuclear reaction,
2147:+ 2n can contribute some additional neutrons in the
1703:, the other particle must penetrate well beyond the
1876:structure of nuclei. Transfer reactions can occur:
999:In principle, a reaction can involve more than two
2403:
1847:are less distorted by passing through the nucleus.
1686:
1760:be even more reactive than high-energy neutrons.
1756:of the nuclei involved. Thus low-energy neutrons
1360:may be released during the course of a reaction (
119:are symbolically represented by red spheres, and
3689:
1829:(p,p') tests differences between nuclear states.
1446:= 1.49242 × 10 kg (m/s)
2317:Understanding Solids: The Science of Materials
2742:
2467:
2193:
2093:. While the best-known neutron reactions are
1867:
1556:
1089:
949:
1851:
1675:of the incident particles, and the reaction
1519:some energy may remain in the nucleus, as a
1898:, knocking a nucleon from a target nucleus.
1014:by collision with another particle or to a
2749:
2735:
2474:
2460:
2124:(n,2n) reactions produce small amounts of
1939:
1825:Only energy and momentum are transferred.
956:
942:
2428:
2363:
1681:Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics
1102:). An example of this notation follows:
18:
2401:
1814:
1746:thermal equilibrium at room temperature
1018:change of a nuclide without collision.
88:which then decays immediately into two
3690:
3369:Integrated gasification combined cycle
2344:
2313:
2116:Some reactions are only possible with
1352:
16:Transformation of a nuclide to another
3413:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
3088:Quantum chromodynamics binding energy
2730:
2481:
2455:
988:, collide to produce one or more new
3646:
2109:) the most probable reaction with a
2105:, for some light nuclei (especially
1909:used to generate energetic neutrons.
1880:from the projectile to the target -
3670:
3555:World energy supply and consumption
1805:
1449:= 1.49242 × 10
13:
1415:(relativistic) energy is conserved
1070:", although it was not the modern
996:, rather than a nuclear reaction.
14:
3734:
2065:
1666:
1413:In a nuclear reaction, the total
3669:
3657:
3645:
3634:
3633:
1763:
923:
922:
909:
137:
2345:Suplee, Curt (23 August 2009).
1687:Charged vs. uncharged particles
984:, or a nucleus and an external
2357:
2338:
2307:
2296:
2278:
2211:. These increase the need for
1:
2431:Nuclear Physics in a Nutshell
2272:
1901:(d,n) and (d,p) reactions. A
1508:emission of very high energy
1463: = 931.49 MeV.
2261:Oppenheimer–Phillips process
7:
2223:
703:High-energy nuclear physics
10:
3739:
2756:
2435:Princeton University Press
2429:Bertulani, Carlos (2007).
2395:
2194:Compound nuclear reactions
2185:, the three highest-yield
1868:Nucleon transfer reactions
1840:from a small black object.
1818:
1557:Q-value and energy balance
1090:Nuclear reaction equations
1048:
1033:materials produce induced
980:is a process in which two
3629:
3603:
3479:
3359:Fossil fuel power station
3327:
3240:
3146:
3021:Electric potential energy
2986:
2966:Thermodynamic temperature
2946:Thermodynamic free energy
2941:Thermodynamic equilibrium
2787:
2764:
2704:
2683:
2660:
2569:
2489:
2314:Tilley, R. J. D. (2004).
1924:) has been used to study
1852:Charge-exchange reactions
3430:Concentrated solar power
2402:Schmitz, Taylor (1973).
2113:is a transfer reaction:
1583:= 22.2 MeV. Hence:
2971:Volume (thermodynamics)
2951:Thermodynamic potential
2854:Mass–energy equivalence
2526:Double electron capture
1940:Reactions with neutrons
1697:electrostatic repulsion
1648: + 22.2
1423:mass-energy equivalence
1027:Nuclear chain reactions
214:Interacting boson model
2926:Quantum thermodynamics
2916:Laws of thermodynamics
2797:Conservation of energy
2256:Nuclear chain reaction
2209:giant dipole resonance
1785:Induced gamma emission
1389:standard atomic weight
124:
3043:Interatomic potential
2834:Energy transformation
2217:electron accelerators
2189:conducted by the U.S.
1933:nuclear transmutation
1750:de Broglie wavelength
1712:particle accelerators
601:High-energy processes
299:– equal all the above
197:Models of the nucleus
22:
3491:Efficient energy use
3464:Airborne wind energy
3442:Solar thermal energy
3349:Electricity delivery
2961:Thermodynamic system
2906:Irreversible process
1821:Inelastic scattering
1815:Inelastic scattering
1627: → 2
1366:endothermic reaction
1333:, α representing an
1304: → 2
1008:triple alpha process
637:nuclear astrophysics
3513:Energy conservation
3435:Photovoltaic system
3408:Nuclear power plant
3093:Quantum fluctuation
2956:Thermodynamic state
2931:Thermal equilibrium
2670:Photodisintegration
2591:Proton–proton chain
2561:Spontaneous fission
2541:Isomeric transition
2536:Internal conversion
2378:2013Cmplx..18c..24S
2322:John Wiley and Sons
2213:radiation shielding
1916:exchange reaction (
1882:stripping reactions
1795:Spontaneous fission
1421:. Using Einstein's
1362:exothermic reaction
1353:Energy conservation
1345:or electron, γ for
619:Photodisintegration
542:Capturing processes
456:Spontaneous fission
449:Internal conversion
380:Valley of stability
375:Island of stability
209:Nuclear shell model
3698:Physical phenomena
3550:Sustainable energy
3528:Energy development
3518:Energy consumption
3354:Energy engineering
2386:10.1002/cplx.21427
2290:2012-09-02 at the
2095:neutron scattering
1553:) may be emitted.
986:subatomic particle
916:Physics portal
710:Quark–gluon plasma
493:Radiogenic nuclide
125:
3703:Nuclear chemistry
3685:
3684:
3452:Solar power tower
3098:Quantum potential
2936:Thermal reservoir
2839:Energy transition
2724:
2723:
2720:
2719:
2551:Positron emission
2521:Double beta decay
2483:Nuclear processes
2444:978-0-691-12505-3
2152:neutron reflector
2085:are important in
2079:
2078:
1801:nuclear reaction.
1748:), the neutron's
1563:chemical equation
1459:so 1 u
1393:atomic mass units
1055:Ernest Rutherford
974:nuclear chemistry
966:
965:
652:
398:Radioactive decay
354:Nuclear stability
181:Nuclear structure
3730:
3673:
3672:
3661:
3649:
3648:
3637:
3636:
3611:Carbon footprint
3545:Renewable energy
3386:Hydroelectricity
3376:Geothermal power
2819:Energy condition
2751:
2744:
2737:
2728:
2727:
2681:
2680:
2581:Deuterium fusion
2546:Neutron emission
2531:Electron capture
2476:
2469:
2462:
2453:
2452:
2448:
2425:
2409:
2390:
2389:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2342:
2336:
2335:
2311:
2305:
2300:
2294:
2282:
2201:compound nucleus
2183:Operation Castle
2126:protactinium-231
2087:nuclear reactors
1944:
1943:
1806:Direct reactions
1646:
1645:
1644:
1637:
1636:
1625:
1624:
1623:
1616:
1615:
1604:
1603:
1602:
1595:
1594:
1496:electron orbital
1435:atomic mass unit
1386:
1385:
1384:
1377:
1376:
1323:
1322:
1321:
1314:
1313:
1302:
1301:
1300:
1293:
1292:
1281:
1280:
1279:
1272:
1271:
1260:or more simply:
1255:
1254:
1253:
1246:
1245:
1234:
1233:
1232:
1225:
1224:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1204:
1203:
1192:
1191:
1190:
1183:
1182:
1165:
1164:
1163:
1156:
1155:
1144:
1143:
1142:
1135:
1134:
1123:
1122:
1121:
1114:
1113:
1084:Fritz Strassmann
978:nuclear reaction
958:
951:
944:
931:
926:
925:
918:
914:
913:
790:Skłodowska-Curie
650:
466:Neutron emission
234:' classification
186:Nuclear reaction
141:
127:
126:
123:by blue spheres.
114:
113:
112:
105:
104:
87:
86:
85:
78:
77:
68:
67:
66:
59:
58:
45:
44:
43:
36:
35:
3738:
3737:
3733:
3732:
3731:
3729:
3728:
3727:
3713:Nuclear fission
3708:Nuclear physics
3688:
3687:
3686:
3681:
3625:
3621:Waste-to-energy
3599:
3535:Energy security
3481:
3475:
3331:
3323:
3302:Natural uranium
3236:
3217:Mechanical wave
3148:Energy carriers
3142:
2982:
2911:Isolated system
2789:
2783:
2760:
2755:
2725:
2716:
2700:
2691:Neutron capture
2679:
2662:
2656:
2573:nucleosynthesis
2572:
2565:
2556:Proton emission
2511:Gamma radiation
2492:
2485:
2480:
2445:
2422:
2406:Nuclear Physics
2398:
2393:
2362:
2358:
2343:
2339:
2332:
2324:. p. 495.
2312:
2308:
2301:
2297:
2292:Wayback Machine
2283:
2279:
2275:
2270:
2226:
2196:
2111:thermal neutron
2103:nuclear fission
2099:neutron capture
2091:nuclear weapons
2081:Reactions with
2039:Na + n → Ne + p
2030:Be + n → Li + p
1942:
1870:
1854:
1838:light scattered
1823:
1817:
1808:
1766:
1689:
1669:
1653:
1643:
1641:
1640:
1639:
1635:
1632:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1622:
1620:
1619:
1618:
1614:
1611:
1610:
1609:
1608:
1601:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1577:
1559:
1547:electron shells
1489:nuclear orbital
1464:
1457:
1456:
1453:
1447:
1383:
1381:
1380:
1379:
1375:
1372:
1371:
1370:
1369:
1355:
1329:neutron, d for
1326:
1320:
1318:
1317:
1316:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1307:
1306:
1299:
1297:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1288:
1287:
1286:
1285:
1278:
1276:
1275:
1274:
1270:
1267:
1266:
1265:
1264:
1258:
1252:
1250:
1249:
1248:
1244:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1238:
1231:
1229:
1228:
1227:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1210:
1208:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1197:
1196:
1189:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1178:
1177:
1176:
1175:
1168:
1167: + ?.
1162:
1160:
1159:
1158:
1154:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1141:
1139:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1106:
1092:
1072:nuclear fission
1051:
1035:nuclear fission
970:nuclear physics
962:
921:
908:
907:
900:
899:
735:
725:
724:
705:
695:
694:
639:
635:
632:Nucleosynthesis
624:
623:
602:
594:
593:
543:
535:
534:
508:
506:Nuclear fission
498:
497:
471:Proton emission
400:
390:
389:
355:
347:
346:
248:
235:
224:
223:
199:
131:Nuclear physics
111:
109:
108:
107:
103:
100:
99:
98:
97:
90:alpha particles
84:
82:
81:
80:
76:
73:
72:
71:
70:
65:
63:
62:
61:
57:
54:
53:
52:
51:
42:
40:
39:
38:
34:
31:
30:
29:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3736:
3726:
3725:
3720:
3718:Nuclear fusion
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3679:
3667:
3655:
3643:
3630:
3627:
3626:
3624:
3623:
3618:
3616:Jevons paradox
3613:
3607:
3605:
3601:
3600:
3598:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3540:Energy storage
3537:
3532:
3531:
3530:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3509:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3487:
3485:
3477:
3476:
3474:
3473:
3472:
3471:
3466:
3456:
3455:
3454:
3449:
3439:
3438:
3437:
3432:
3422:
3417:
3416:
3415:
3410:
3400:
3399:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3378:
3373:
3372:
3371:
3366:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3344:Electric power
3341:
3335:
3333:
3325:
3324:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3305:
3304:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3252:
3246:
3244:
3242:Primary energy
3238:
3237:
3235:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3213:
3212:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3183:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3152:
3150:
3144:
3143:
3141:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3039:
3038:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2990:
2988:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2876:Entropic force
2873:
2866:Thermodynamics
2863:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2815:
2814:
2804:
2799:
2793:
2791:
2785:
2784:
2782:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2765:
2762:
2761:
2754:
2753:
2746:
2739:
2731:
2722:
2721:
2718:
2717:
2715:
2714:
2712:(n-p) reaction
2708:
2706:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2698:
2696:Proton capture
2693:
2687:
2685:
2678:
2677:
2672:
2666:
2664:
2658:
2657:
2655:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2636:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2577:
2575:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2497:
2495:
2487:
2486:
2479:
2478:
2471:
2464:
2456:
2450:
2449:
2443:
2426:
2420:
2412:Pergamon Press
2397:
2394:
2392:
2391:
2356:
2337:
2330:
2306:
2295:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2241:Atomic nucleus
2238:
2233:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2220:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2190:
2159:
2156:nuclear weapon
2141:
2107:odd-odd nuclei
2077:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2066:
2064:
2055:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2031:
2028:
2022:
2014:
2013:
2007:
2006:Ne + n → O + α
2004:
1998:
1989:
1980:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1959:
1953:
1947:
1941:
1938:
1937:
1936:
1929:
1910:
1899:
1888:
1887:
1884:
1869:
1866:
1865:
1864:
1861:
1853:
1850:
1849:
1848:
1845:wave functions
1841:
1830:
1819:Main article:
1816:
1813:
1807:
1804:
1803:
1802:
1788:
1782:
1776:
1765:
1762:
1735:
1734:
1728:
1721:
1715:
1705:electron cloud
1688:
1685:
1668:
1667:Reaction rates
1665:
1642:
1633:
1621:
1612:
1600:
1591:
1585:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1558:
1555:
1551:emission lines
1528:
1527:
1517:
1506:
1458:
1454:
1448:
1445:
1440:1 u
1439:
1419:binding energy
1411:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1387:nucleus has a
1382:
1373:
1358:Kinetic energy
1354:
1351:
1335:alpha particle
1319:
1310:
1298:
1289:
1277:
1268:
1262:
1251:
1242:
1230:
1221:
1209:
1200:
1188:
1179:
1173:
1161:
1152:
1140:
1131:
1119:
1110:
1104:
1096:invariant mass
1091:
1088:
1060:John Cockcroft
1050:
1047:
1039:nuclear fusion
964:
963:
961:
960:
953:
946:
938:
935:
934:
933:
932:
919:
902:
901:
898:
897:
892:
887:
882:
877:
872:
867:
862:
857:
852:
847:
842:
837:
832:
827:
822:
817:
812:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
782:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
752:
747:
742:
736:
731:
730:
727:
726:
723:
722:
717:
712:
706:
701:
700:
697:
696:
693:
692:
691:
690:
685:
680:
671:
670:
669:
668:
663:
658:
647:
646:
644:Nuclear fusion
640:
630:
629:
626:
625:
622:
621:
616:
615:
614:
603:
600:
599:
596:
595:
592:
591:
590:
589:
584:
574:
573:
572:
567:
557:
556:
555:
544:
541:
540:
537:
536:
533:
532:
527:
526:
525:
515:
509:
504:
503:
500:
499:
496:
495:
490:
485:
480:
474:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
452:
451:
446:
436:
431:
430:
429:
424:
423:
422:
407:
401:
396:
395:
392:
391:
388:
387:
385:Stable nuclide
382:
377:
372:
367:
362:
360:Binding energy
356:
353:
352:
349:
348:
345:
344:
343:
342:
332:
327:
322:
316:
315:
301:
300:
293:
292:
276:
275:
263:
262:
250:
249:
236:
230:
229:
226:
225:
222:
221:
216:
211:
206:
200:
195:
194:
191:
190:
189:
188:
183:
178:
173:
171:Nuclear matter
168:
167:
166:
161:
151:
143:
142:
134:
133:
110:
101:
83:
74:
64:
55:
41:
32:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3735:
3724:
3723:Radioactivity
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3678:
3677:
3668:
3666:
3665:
3660:
3656:
3654:
3653:
3644:
3642:
3641:
3632:
3631:
3628:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3602:
3596:
3595:United States
3593:
3591:
3590:South America
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3524:
3523:Energy policy
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3493:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3484:
3478:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3461:
3460:
3457:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3447:Solar furnace
3445:
3444:
3443:
3440:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3405:
3404:
3403:Nuclear power
3401:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3383:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3361:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3336:
3334:
3330:
3329:Energy system
3326:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3303:
3300:
3299:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3282:Gravitational
3280:
3278:
3275:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3257:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3243:
3239:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3211:
3210:Hydrogen fuel
3208:
3207:
3206:
3203:
3199:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3191:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3153:
3151:
3149:
3145:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3037:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3031:Gravitational
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2985:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2901:Heat transfer
2899:
2897:
2896:Heat capacity
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2868:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2849:Negative mass
2847:
2846:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2829:Energy system
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2786:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2766:
2763:
2759:
2752:
2747:
2745:
2740:
2738:
2733:
2732:
2729:
2713:
2710:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2682:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2659:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2516:Cluster decay
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2496:
2494:
2488:
2484:
2477:
2472:
2470:
2465:
2463:
2458:
2457:
2454:
2446:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2427:
2423:
2421:0-08-016983-X
2417:
2413:
2408:
2407:
2400:
2399:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2360:
2352:
2348:
2341:
2333:
2331:0-470-85275-5
2327:
2323:
2319:
2318:
2310:
2304:
2299:
2293:
2289:
2286:
2281:
2277:
2267:
2266:Nuclear Power
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2246:Atomic number
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2228:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2188:
2187:nuclear tests
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2157:
2153:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2139:
2135:
2134:thorium cycle
2131:
2127:
2123:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2118:fast neutrons
2114:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2075:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2020:
2016:
2015:
2012:
2009:Ar + n → S +
2008:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1972:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1964:
1960:
1958:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1946:
1945:
1934:
1930:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1904:
1900:
1897:
1893:
1892:
1891:
1885:
1883:
1879:
1878:
1877:
1875:
1862:
1859:
1858:
1857:
1846:
1842:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1826:
1822:
1812:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1770:
1769:
1764:Notable types
1761:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1729:
1726:
1725:thermonuclear
1722:
1719:
1718:nuclear decay
1716:
1713:
1710:
1709:
1708:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1684:
1682:
1678:
1677:cross section
1674:
1664:
1662:
1658:
1651:
1647:
1626:
1606: +
1605:
1584:
1582:
1575:
1568:
1567:
1566:
1564:
1554:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1539:
1537:
1536:nuclear decay
1533:
1525:
1522:
1518:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1504:
1503:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1490:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1462:
1452:
1443:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1429: =
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1401:
1400:
1398:
1395:(abbreviated
1394:
1390:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1350:
1348:
1344:
1343:beta particle
1340:
1336:
1332:
1324:
1303:
1283: +
1282:
1261:
1256:
1236: +
1235:
1215: →
1214:
1194: +
1193:
1172:
1166:
1146: →
1145:
1125: +
1124:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1087:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1064:Ernest Walton
1061:
1056:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1019:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1002:
997:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
959:
954:
952:
947:
945:
940:
939:
937:
936:
930:
920:
917:
912:
906:
905:
904:
903:
896:
893:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
873:
871:
868:
866:
863:
861:
858:
856:
853:
851:
848:
846:
843:
841:
838:
836:
833:
831:
828:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
791:
788:
786:
783:
781:
778:
776:
773:
771:
768:
766:
763:
761:
758:
756:
753:
751:
748:
746:
743:
741:
738:
737:
734:
729:
728:
721:
718:
716:
713:
711:
708:
707:
704:
699:
698:
689:
686:
684:
681:
679:
676:
675:
673:
672:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
653:
649:
648:
645:
642:
641:
638:
633:
628:
627:
620:
617:
613:
612:by cosmic ray
610:
609:
608:
605:
604:
598:
597:
588:
585:
583:
580:
579:
578:
575:
571:
568:
566:
563:
562:
561:
558:
554:
551:
550:
549:
546:
545:
539:
538:
531:
528:
524:
523:pair breaking
521:
520:
519:
516:
514:
511:
510:
507:
502:
501:
494:
491:
489:
488:Decay product
486:
484:
481:
479:
476:
475:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
461:Cluster decay
459:
457:
454:
450:
447:
445:
442:
441:
440:
437:
435:
432:
428:
425:
421:
418:
417:
416:
413:
412:
411:
408:
406:
403:
402:
399:
394:
393:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
357:
351:
350:
341:
338:
337:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
321:
318:
317:
314:
310:
306:
305:Mirror nuclei
303:
302:
298:
295:
294:
291:
290:
287: −
286:
281:
278:
277:
274:
273:
268:
265:
264:
261:
260:
255:
252:
251:
247:
246:
241:
238:
237:
233:
228:
227:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
201:
198:
193:
192:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
176:Nuclear force
174:
172:
169:
165:
162:
160:
157:
156:
155:
152:
150:
147:
146:
145:
144:
140:
136:
135:
132:
129:
128:
122:
118:
95:
91:
49:
26:
21:
3674:
3662:
3650:
3638:
3420:Oil refinery
3364:Cogeneration
3297:Nuclear fuel
3103:Quintessence
2891:Free entropy
2824:Energy level
2788:Fundamental
2675:Photofission
2639:
2631:
2482:
2430:
2405:
2372:(3): 24–27.
2369:
2365:
2359:
2350:
2340:
2316:
2309:
2298:
2280:
2231:Acoplanarity
2200:
2197:
2166:
2144:
2115:
2080:
2069:
2068:C + n → C +
2061:
2049:
2046:
2017:
2010:
2001:
2000:O + n → C +
1995:
1986:
1975:
1973:
1889:
1871:
1855:
1824:
1809:
1798:
1767:
1757:
1740:
1736:
1693:strong force
1690:
1670:
1654:
1580:
1578:
1573:
1560:
1540:
1529:
1524:energy level
1500:
1492:
1485:
1482:doubly magic
1475:
1472:
1465:
1460:
1441:
1430:
1426:
1412:
1356:
1347:gamma photon
1327:
1259:
1169:
1093:
1080:Lise Meitner
1052:
1020:
1015:
1011:
998:
977:
967:
530:Photofission
478:Decay energy
405:Alpha α
312:
308:
288:
284:
271:
258:
244:
185:
3676:WikiProject
3496:Agriculture
3425:Solar power
3391:Tidal power
3265:Natural gas
3255:Fossil fuel
3198:Latent heat
3166:Electricity
2501:Alpha decay
2491:Radioactive
2236:Atomic mass
2130:uranium-232
2036:+ n → C + p
2027:+ n → T + p
1994:+ n → Li +
1935:experiment.
1926:hypernuclei
1914:strangeness
1896:alpha decay
1731:cosmic rays
1100:mass number
1045:and stars.
1031:fissionable
1023:cosmic rays
1016:spontaneous
835:Oppenheimer
513:Spontaneous
483:Decay chain
434:K/L capture
410:Beta β
280:Isodiaphers
204:Liquid drop
3692:Categories
3459:Wind power
3381:Hydropower
3332:components
3287:Hydropower
3277:Geothermal
3227:Sound wave
3138:Zero-point
3068:Mechanical
3053:Ionization
3026:Electrical
2921:Negentropy
2802:Energetics
2652:rp-process
2626:Si burning
2616:Ne burning
2586:Li burning
2506:Beta decay
2366:Complexity
2273:References
2143:Be + n → 2
2060:+ n → T +
1985:+ n → T +
1890:Examples:
1779:Spallation
1754:resonances
1727:reactions;
1521:metastable
1514:gamma rays
1037:. Various
994:scattering
865:Strassmann
855:Rutherford
733:Scientists
688:Artificial
683:Cosmogenic
678:Primordial
674:Nuclides:
651:Processes:
607:Spallation
3570:Australia
3506:Transport
3501:Computing
3469:Wind farm
3396:Wave farm
3270:Petroleum
3250:Bioenergy
3222:Radiation
3161:Capacitor
3083:Potential
2663:processes
2647:p-process
2621:O burning
2611:C burning
2601:α process
2596:CNO cycle
2251:CNO cycle
2181:shots of
2161:Li + n →
2149:beryllium
2140:products.
1657:chemistry
1512:, called
1391:of 6.015
1076:Otto Hahn
1053:In 1919,
1004:colliding
1001:particles
870:Świątecki
785:Pi. Curie
780:Fr. Curie
775:Ir. Curie
770:Cockcroft
745:Becquerel
666:Supernova
370:Drip line
365:p–n ratio
340:Borromean
219:Ab initio
48:deuterium
25:lithium-6
3640:Category
3205:Hydrogen
3171:Enthalpy
3073:Negative
3063:Magnetic
3048:Internal
3006:Chemical
2871:Enthalpy
2790:concepts
2705:Exchange
2642:-process
2634:-process
2606:Triple-α
2288:Archived
2224:See also
2138:actinide
2083:neutrons
1903:deuteron
1742:Neutrons
1663:above).
1532:asterisk
1425:formula
1341:, β for
1339:helium-4
1331:deuteron
990:nuclides
929:Category
830:Oliphant
815:Lawrence
795:Davisson
765:Chadwick
661:Big Bang
548:electron
518:Products
439:Isomeric
330:Even/odd
307: –
282:– equal
269:– equal
267:Isotones
256:– equal
242:– equal
240:Isotopes
232:Nuclides
154:Nucleons
121:neutrons
94:helium-4
3652:Commons
3480:Use and
3339:Biomass
3309:Radiant
3156:Battery
3128:Thermal
3123:Surface
3108:Radiant
3078:Phantom
3058:Kinetic
3036:Binding
3016:Elastic
2999:Nuclear
2994:Binding
2881:Entropy
2779:Outline
2769:History
2684:Capture
2571:Stellar
2396:Sources
2374:Bibcode
2215:around
2132:in the
1834:elastic
1799:induced
1791:Fission
1661:Q-value
1510:photons
1478:nucleon
1049:History
1012:induced
885:Thomson
875:Szilárd
845:Purcell
825:Meitner
760:N. Bohr
755:A. Bohr
740:Alvarez
656:Stellar
560:neutron
444:Gamma γ
297:Isomers
254:Isobars
149:Nucleus
117:Protons
3664:Portal
3585:Mexico
3580:Europe
3575:Canada
3560:Africa
3483:supply
3292:Marine
3181:Fossil
3133:Vacuum
2886:Exergy
2807:Energy
2758:Energy
2441:
2418:
2328:
2179:Yankee
2101:, and
1863:(He,t)
1773:Fusion
1543:X-rays
1082:, and
982:nuclei
927:
895:Wigner
890:Walton
880:Teller
810:Jensen
577:proton
320:Stable
46:) and
3604:Misc.
3314:Solar
3118:Sound
2987:Types
2861:Power
2812:Units
2774:Index
2661:Other
2493:decay
2175:Romeo
2171:Bravo
2154:of a
2019:(n,p)
1874:shell
1860:(p,n)
860:Soddy
840:Proca
820:Mayer
800:Fermi
750:Bethe
325:Magic
3565:Asia
3319:Wind
3260:Coal
3232:Work
3193:Heat
3176:Fuel
3113:Rest
3011:Dark
2976:Work
2844:Mass
2439:ISBN
2416:ISBN
2351:NIST
2326:ISBN
2177:and
2128:and
2089:and
1912:The
1906:beam
1701:atom
1673:flux
1068:atom
1062:and
976:, a
972:and
850:Rabi
805:Hahn
715:RHIC
335:Halo
3186:Oil
2382:doi
2048:(n,
1974:(n,
1758:may
1650:MeV
1468:MeV
1337:or
1043:Sun
1029:in
968:In
720:LHC
634:and
115:).
92:of
3694::
2437:.
2433:.
2414:.
2410:.
2380:.
2370:18
2368:.
2349:.
2320:.
2203:.
2173:,
2165:+
2120::
2097:,
2025:He
1983:Li
1961:→
1957:Li
1955:→
1949:→
1920:,
1683:.
1638:He
1596:Li
1538:.
1493:1s
1486:1s
1470:.
1437::
1431:mc
1378:Li
1315:He
1273:Li
1247:He
1226:He
1184:Li
1157:He
1115:Li
1086:.
1078:,
587:rp
553:2×
420:0v
415:2β
311:↔
106:He
79:Be
37:Li
2750:e
2743:t
2736:v
2640:s
2632:r
2475:e
2468:t
2461:v
2447:.
2424:.
2388:.
2384::
2376::
2353:.
2334:.
2219:.
2167:α
2163:T
2158:.
2145:α
2070:γ
2062:γ
2058:H
2052:)
2050:γ
2034:N
2011:α
2002:α
1996:α
1992:B
1987:α
1978:)
1976:α
1963:C
1951:T
1928:.
1922:π
1918:K
1733:.
1714:;
1652:.
1634:2
1617:H
1613:1
1592:3
1581:Q
1576:.
1574:Q
1526:.
1516:;
1461:c
1451:J
1442:c
1427:E
1397:u
1374:3
1325:.
1311:2
1294:H
1290:1
1269:3
1257:.
1243:2
1222:2
1205:H
1201:1
1180:3
1153:2
1136:H
1132:1
1111:3
957:e
950:t
943:v
582:p
570:r
565:s
427:β
313:N
309:Z
289:Z
285:N
272:N
259:A
245:Z
164:n
159:p
102:2
96:(
75:4
60:H
56:1
50:(
33:3
27:(
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