1159:(helium nuclei) directed at a thin sheet of metal foil. He reasoned that if J. J. Thomson's model were correct, the positively charged alpha particles would easily pass through the foil with very little deviation in their paths, as the foil should act as electrically neutral if the negative and positive charges are so intimately mixed as to make it appear neutral. To his surprise, many of the particles were deflected at very large angles. Because the mass of an alpha particle is about 8000 times that of an electron, it became apparent that a very strong force must be present if it could deflect the massive and fast moving alpha particles. He realized that the plum pudding model could not be accurate and that the deflections of the alpha particles could only be explained if the positive and negative charges were separated from each other and that the mass of the atom was a concentrated point of positive charge. This justified the idea of a nuclear atom with a dense center of positive charge and mass.
946:
1228:-4 atom with the electron cloud in shades of gray. In the nucleus, the two protons and two neutrons are depicted in red and blue. This depiction shows the particles as separate, whereas in an actual helium atom, the protons are superimposed in space and most likely found at the very center of the nucleus, and the same is true of the two neutrons. Thus, all four particles are most likely found in exactly the same space, at the central point. Classical images of separate particles fail to model known charge distributions in very small nuclei. A more accurate image is that the spatial distribution of nucleons in a helium nucleus is much closer to the helium
1256:. The nuclear strong force extends far enough from each baryon so as to bind the neutrons and protons together against the repulsive electrical force between the positively charged protons. The nuclear strong force has a very short range, and essentially drops to zero just beyond the edge of the nucleus. The collective action of the positively charged nucleus is to hold the electrically negative charged electrons in their orbits about the nucleus. The collection of negatively charged electrons orbiting the nucleus display an affinity for certain configurations and numbers of electrons that make their orbits stable. Which
6005:
959:
1721:
4180:
174:
135:
36:
1221:
5993:
6017:
1886:, atomic nuclei are an example of a state in which both (1) "ordinary" particle physical rules for volume and (2) non-intuitive quantum mechanical rules for a wave-like nature apply. In superfluid helium, the helium atoms have volume, and essentially "touch" each other, yet at the same time exhibit strange bulk properties, consistent with a
1147:. Knowing that atoms are electrically neutral, J. J. Thomson postulated that there must be a positive charge as well. In his plum pudding model, Thomson suggested that an atom consisted of negative electrons randomly scattered within a sphere of positive charge. Ernest Rutherford later devised an experiment with his research partner
1802:
well known from experiments. The exact nature and capacity of nuclear shells differs from those of electrons in atomic orbitals, primarily because the potential well in which the nucleons move (especially in larger nuclei) is quite different from the central electromagnetic potential well which binds
1370:
The nuclear force is highly attractive at the distance of typical nucleon separation, and this overwhelms the repulsion between protons due to the electromagnetic force, thus allowing nuclei to exist. However, the residual strong force has a limited range because it decays quickly with distance (see
1852:
distortions of the shape of the potential well to fit experimental data, but the question remains whether these mathematical manipulations actually correspond to the spatial deformations in real nuclei. Problems with the shell model have led some to propose realistic two-body and three-body nuclear
1715:
The terms in the semi-empirical mass formula, which can be used to approximate the binding energy of many nuclei, are considered as the sum of five types of energies (see below). Then the picture of a nucleus as a drop of incompressible liquid roughly accounts for the observed variation of binding
1469:
Halos in effect represent an excited state with nucleons in an outer quantum shell which has unfilled energy levels "below" it (both in terms of radius and energy). The halo may be made of either neutrons or protons . Nuclei which have a single neutron halo include Be and C. A two-neutron halo is
1264:
in the nucleus; the neutral atom will have an equal number of electrons orbiting that nucleus. Individual chemical elements can create more stable electron configurations by combining to share their electrons. It is that sharing of electrons to create stable electronic orbits about the nuclei that
1823:
with 6 nucleons is highly stable without a closed second 1p shell orbital. For light nuclei with total nucleon numbers 1 to 6 only those with 5 do not show some evidence of stability. Observations of beta-stability of light nuclei outside closed shells indicate that nuclear stability is much more
1703:
Early models of the nucleus viewed the nucleus as a rotating liquid drop. In this model, the trade-off of long-range electromagnetic forces and relatively short-range nuclear forces, together cause behavior which resembled surface tension forces in liquid drops of different sizes. This formula is
1476:
because of this behavior (referring to a system of three interlocked rings in which breaking any ring frees both of the others). He and Be both exhibit a four-neutron halo. Nuclei which have a proton halo include B and P. A two-proton halo is exhibited by Ne and S. Proton halos are expected to be
1758:. Were it not for the Coulomb energy, the most stable form of nuclear matter would have the same number of neutrons as protons, since unequal numbers of neutrons and protons imply filling higher energy levels for one type of particle, while leaving lower energy levels vacant for the other type.
1831:
For larger nuclei, the shells occupied by nucleons begin to differ significantly from electron shells, but nevertheless, present nuclear theory does predict the magic numbers of filled nuclear shells for both protons and neutrons. The closure of the stable shells predicts unusually stable
1898:, Bose-Einstein condensation does not occur, yet nevertheless, many nuclear properties can only be explained similarly by a combination of properties of particles with volume, in addition to the frictionless motion characteristic of the wave-like behavior of objects trapped in
1735:. A nucleon at the surface of a nucleus interacts with fewer other nucleons than one in the interior of the nucleus and hence its binding energy is less. This surface energy term takes that into account and is therefore negative and is proportional to the surface area.
1331:
The neutron has a positively charged core of radius ≈ 0.3 fm surrounded by a compensating negative charge of radius between 0.3 fm and 2 fm. The proton has an approximately exponentially decaying positive charge distribution with a mean square radius of about 0.8 fm.
1807:, in which the two protons and two neutrons separately occupy 1s orbitals analogous to the 1s orbital for the two electrons in the helium atom, and achieve unusual stability for the same reason. Nuclei with 5 nucleons are all extremely unstable and short-lived, yet,
1836:
to have 10 stable isotopes, more than any other element. Similarly, the distance from shell-closure explains the unusual instability of isotopes which have far from stable numbers of these particles, such as the radioactive elements 43
1366:
that act between two inert gas atoms) are much weaker than the electromagnetic forces that hold the parts of the atoms together internally (for example, the forces that hold the electrons in an inert gas atom bound to its nucleus).
1729:. When an assembly of nucleons of the same size is packed together into the smallest volume, each interior nucleon has a certain number of other nucleons in contact with it. So, this nuclear energy is proportional to the volume.
1191:
used the term to refer to the "central point of an atom". The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest
Rutherford in 1912. The adoption of the term "nucleus" to atomic theory, however, was not immediate. In 1916, for example,
1544:
have made this possible for many low mass and relatively stable nuclei, but further improvements in both computational power and mathematical approaches are required before heavy nuclei or highly unstable nuclei can be
1560:) is considered to be one of the basic quantities that any model must predict. For stable nuclei (not halo nuclei or other unstable distorted nuclei) the nuclear radius is roughly proportional to the cube root of the
1786:
theory. These wave models imagine nucleons to be either sizeless point particles in potential wells, or else probability waves as in the "optical model", frictionlessly orbiting at high speed in potential wells.
1819:, with only one nucleon in each of the proton and neutron potential wells. While each nucleon is a fermion, the {NP} deuteron is a boson and thus does not follow Pauli Exclusion for close packing within shells.
2643:
Gaffney, L. P.; Butler, P. A.; Scheck, M.; Hayes, A. B.; Wenander, F.; Albers, M.; Bastin, B.; Bauer, C.; Blazhev, A.; Bönig, S.; Bree, N.; Cederkäll, J.; Chupp, T.; Cline, D.; Cocolios, T. E. (May 2013).
2692:
1666:
the same total size result as packing hard spheres of a constant size (like marbles) into a tight spherical or almost spherical bag (some stable nuclei are not quite spherical, but are known to be
1387:
which contains a total of 208 nucleons (126 neutrons and 82 protons). Nuclei larger than this maximum are unstable and tend to be increasingly short-lived with larger numbers of nucleons. However,
2449:
1549:
Historically, experiments have been compared to relatively crude models that are necessarily imperfect. None of these models can completely explain experimental data on nuclear structure.
1495:
of physics is widely believed to completely describe the composition and behavior of the nucleus, generating predictions from theory is much more difficult than for most other areas of
4768:
1328:
and/or other unusual quark(s), can also share the wave function. However, this type of nucleus is extremely unstable and not found on Earth except in high-energy physics experiments.
1764:. An energy which is a correction term that arises from the tendency of proton pairs and neutron pairs to occur. An even number of particles is more stable than an odd number.
1507:(QCD). In practice however, current computational and mathematical approaches for solving QCD in low-energy systems such as the nuclei are extremely limited. This is due to the
5354:
1624:
1858:
1854:
1338:
can be spherical, rugby ball-shaped (prolate deformation), discus-shaped (oblate deformation), triaxial (a combination of oblate and prolate deformation) or pear-shaped.
5548:
2621:
2362:
2338:
1391:
is also stable to beta decay and has the longest half-life to alpha decay of any known isotope, estimated at a billion times longer than the age of the universe.
1117:
The branch of physics concerned with the study and understanding of the atomic nucleus, including its composition and the forces that bind it together, is called
2645:
1088:. These dimensions are much smaller than the diameter of the atom itself (nucleus + electron cloud), by a factor of about 26,634 (uranium atomic radius is about
142:: protons (red) and neutrons (blue). In this diagram, protons and neutrons look like little balls stuck together, but an actual nucleus (as understood by modern
1848:
There are however problems with the shell model when an attempt is made to account for nuclear properties well away from closed shells. This has led to complex
1272:. Neutrons are electrically neutral, but contribute to the mass of a nucleus to nearly the same extent as the protons. Neutrons can explain the phenomenon of
4956:
1832:
configurations, analogous to the noble group of nearly-inert gases in chemistry. An example is the stability of the closed shell of 50 protons, which allows
2917:
Li, Pengjie (2023). "Validation of the 10Be Ground-State
Molecular Structure Using 10Be(p,pα)6He Triple Differential Reaction Cross-Section Measurements".
4483:
4778:
1534:
Even if the nuclear force is well constrained, a significant amount of computational power is required to accurately compute the properties of nuclei
2426:
5659:
1862:
5804:
2485:
4103:
1815:
is unstable and will decay into helium-3 when isolated. Weak nuclear stability with 2 nucleons {NP} in the 1s orbital is found in the deuteron
4463:
1375:); thus only nuclei smaller than a certain size can be completely stable. The largest known completely stable nucleus (i.e. stable to alpha,
4785:
4216:
3070:
1890:. The nucleons in atomic nuclei also exhibit a wave-like nature and lack standard fluid properties, such as friction. For nuclei made of
1571:
The stable nucleus has approximately a constant density and therefore the nuclear radius R can be approximated by the following formula,
4551:
5054:
3853:
990:
904:
5293:
1276:(same atomic number with different atomic mass). The main role of neutrons is to reduce electrostatic repulsion inside the nucleus.
4091:
1299:
since they are not identical quantum entities. They are sometimes viewed as two different quantum states of the same particle, the
1240:
The nucleus of an atom consists of neutrons and protons, which in turn are the manifestation of more elementary particles, called
5504:
5344:
5283:
1520:
5424:
3101:
2387:
5249:
1712:), but it does not explain the special stability which occurs when nuclei have special "magic numbers" of protons or neutrons.
1027:. After the discovery of the neutron in 1932, models for a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons were quickly developed by
4478:
2840:
2807:
2774:
2578:
2543:
2510:
2231:
2202:
100:
5300:
1811:, with 3 nucleons, is very stable even with lack of a closed 1s orbital shell. Another nucleus with 3 nucleons, the triton
72:
1853:
force effects involving nucleon clusters and then build the nucleus on this basis. Three such cluster models are the 1936
1398:(fm); roughly one or two nucleon diameters) and causes an attraction between any pair of nucleons. For example, between a
1232:
shown here, although on a far smaller scale, than to the fanciful nucleus image. Both the helium atom and its nucleus are
6021:
5217:
4763:
4728:
3133:
1568:) of the nucleus, and particularly in nuclei containing many nucleons, as they arrange in more spherical configurations:
1535:
1477:
more rare and unstable than the neutron examples, because of the repulsive electromagnetic forces of the halo proton(s).
253:
5915:
5499:
2895:
2595:
2355:
2307:
79:
4579:
4458:
3989:
3092:
1744:. The electric repulsion between each pair of protons in a nucleus contributes toward decreasing its binding energy.
119:
1903:
5809:
5674:
4209:
4070:
1790:
In the above models, the nucleons may occupy orbitals in pairs, due to being fermions, which allows explanation of
557:
945:
5752:
5586:
5188:
5066:
4723:
4584:
1803:
electrons in atoms. Some resemblance to atomic orbital models may be seen in a small atomic nucleus like that of
1335:
749:
53:
2247:
Castelvecchi, Davide (November 2019). "How big is the proton? Particle-size puzzle leaps closer to resolution".
86:
5742:
5591:
5049:
1887:
1659:
varies by 0.2 fm, depending on the nucleus in question, but this is less than 20% change from a constant.
1470:
exhibited by He, Li, B, B and C. Two-neutron halo nuclei break into three fragments, never two, and are called
1358:
neutrons and protons because it is mostly neutralized within them, in the same way that electromagnetic forces
1024:
454:
57:
5516:
5349:
4773:
4701:
983:
17:
1778:
A number of models for the nucleus have also been proposed in which nucleons occupy orbitals, much like the
6058:
5859:
5596:
5305:
5059:
4556:
4086:
68:
6009:
5922:
5894:
5851:
5816:
5654:
5481:
5419:
5244:
5148:
5034:
4502:
4202:
2418:
1709:
1698:
767:
737:
238:
1527:. Current approaches are limited to either phenomenological models such as the Argonne v18 potential or
6048:
5843:
5702:
5381:
4899:
4856:
4708:
1791:
1528:
1305:. Two fermions, such as two protons, or two neutrons, or a proton + neutron (the deuteron) can exhibit
814:
364:
1685:
The cluster model describes the nucleus as a molecule-like collection of proton-neutron groups (e.g.,
1577:
5997:
5679:
5288:
5071:
4162:
1755:
700:
1458:—the neutron drip line and proton drip line—and are all unstable with short half-lives, measured in
6053:
5927:
5769:
5669:
5581:
4790:
4676:
4636:
4448:
3574:
2535:
1652: = 1.25 fm = 1.25 × 10 m. In this equation, the "constant"
976:
963:
695:
399:
6063:
5832:
5799:
5774:
5388:
5165:
4971:
4894:
4851:
4834:
4795:
4718:
4130:
3765:
3392:
3126:
2919:
2832:
1942:
690:
587:
552:
248:
46:
5757:
5664:
4951:
4495:
4065:
3402:
1825:
1704:
successful at explaining many important phenomena of nuclei, such as their changing amounts of
1504:
744:
394:
359:
3067:
2568:
2500:
2219:
5958:
5694:
5649:
5111:
5039:
4966:
4961:
4926:
4713:
4681:
4468:
4395:
4152:
1455:
869:
754:
646:
3087:
2824:
2527:
1183:('nut'), meaning 'the kernel' (i.e., the 'small nut') inside a watery type of fruit (like a
809:
93:
5869:
5644:
5629:
4946:
4904:
4740:
4646:
4574:
3093:
Article on the "nuclear shell model", giving nuclear shell filling for the various elements
3038:
2993:
2728:
2660:
2322:
2256:
2159:
2116:
2073:
2019:
1035:. An atom is composed of a positively charged nucleus, with a cloud of negatively charged
879:
854:
671:
1899:
8:
5968:
5779:
5564:
5158:
5026:
5004:
4829:
4686:
4453:
4415:
4248:
4167:
3150:
2528:
1773:
1363:
1040:
774:
653:
547:
490:
483:
473:
414:
409:
243:
3042:
2997:
2732:
2664:
2326:
2260:
2163:
2120:
2077:
2023:
5948:
5684:
5521:
5448:
5259:
4909:
4879:
4863:
4846:
4490:
4380:
4328:
4278:
4225:
4110:
3119:
2983:
2954:
2928:
2869:
2825:
2744:
2718:
2709:
Machleidt, R.; Entem, D.R. (2011). "Chiral effective field theory and nuclear forces".
2613:
2477:
2391:
2288:
2175:
2132:
2089:
2045:
1351:
1245:
1233:
1140:
717:
712:
527:
1454:). These nuclei are not maximally dense. Halo nuclei form at the extreme edges of the
6073:
5016:
4809:
4696:
4671:
4609:
4566:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4243:
4179:
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3211:
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2958:
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2574:
2549:
2539:
2506:
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2395:
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2227:
2198:
2179:
2136:
2093:
2037:
1921:
1874:
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1136:
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1020:
889:
884:
844:
722:
461:
449:
432:
404:
374:
215:
147:
2481:
1354:
which binds quarks together to form protons and neutrons. This force is much weaker
5864:
4919:
4884:
4641:
4631:
4519:
4507:
4348:
4343:
4333:
4323:
4318:
4157:
3928:
3703:
3564:
3549:
3231:
3142:
3046:
3001:
2974:
2942:
2938:
2883:
2879:
2736:
2668:
2603:
2461:
2330:
2264:
2167:
2124:
2081:
2049:
2027:
1932:
1739:
1541:
1508:
1496:
1394:
The residual strong force is effective over a very short range (usually only a few
1372:
1269:
1257:
1193:
1130:
909:
899:
829:
582:
500:
468:
288:
220:
2740:
6068:
5762:
5722:
5176:
4990:
4914:
4889:
4735:
4528:
4430:
4420:
4385:
4263:
4253:
4125:
4050:
4034:
3974:
3384:
3309:
3299:
3289:
3201:
3105:
3074:
3029:
1926:
1916:
1686:
1188:
1118:
1028:
894:
874:
849:
779:
666:
594:
540:
505:
165:
143:
138:
A model of the atomic nucleus showing it as a compact bundle of the two types of
5254:
1523:
unusable, making it difficult to construct an accurate QCD-derived model of the
6043:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5457:
5364:
5333:
5315:
4839:
4745:
4691:
4656:
4589:
4536:
4390:
4283:
4268:
4184:
4098:
4055:
3579:
3352:
3274:
3269:
3191:
2268:
1783:
1779:
1751:
1705:
1492:
1292:
1289:
1156:
1152:
1048:
950:
804:
799:
678:
611:
419:
354:
331:
318:
305:
205:
5737:
2608:
2334:
2224:
Unravelling the mystery of the atomic nucleus: a sixty year journey, 1896-1956
1047:
of an atom is located in the nucleus, with a very small contribution from the
6037:
5902:
5193:
4599:
4440:
4142:
3994:
3961:
3753:
3723:
3655:
3514:
3294:
3221:
3206:
2784:
2680:
2473:
2276:
2041:
1937:
1883:
1524:
1419:
1347:
1296:
1144:
1052:
929:
924:
919:
914:
864:
522:
495:
339:
278:
231:
210:
2857:
2553:
5468:
4604:
4546:
4473:
4425:
4295:
4120:
3670:
3660:
3650:
3411:
3362:
3304:
3226:
3181:
3013:
2950:
2891:
2688:
2284:
2197:(1. paperback ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 84–88.
1553:
1427:
1423:
1313:
1309:
behavior when they become loosely bound in pairs, which have integer spin.
859:
834:
819:
564:
512:
369:
155:
151:
5879:
5526:
5116:
4623:
4594:
4135:
3903:
3806:
3801:
3718:
3713:
3643:
3597:
3554:
3519:
3478:
3370:
3334:
3196:
1845:), each of which is preceded and followed by 17 or more stable elements.
1634:
1561:
1459:
1451:
1388:
1380:
1325:
1148:
1104:
824:
517:
439:
292:
3005:
2769:(2nd ed.). Berlin ; New York: Springer Verlag. p. 57 ff.
2672:
2465:
1503:
In principle, the physics within a nucleus can be derived entirely from
1179:
5232:
3877:
3771:
3761:
3743:
3633:
3534:
3469:
3186:
3111:
2767:
Models of the Atomic
Nucleus: unification through a lattice of nucleons
2171:
2128:
2085:
1880:
1842:
1838:
1816:
1812:
1431:
1395:
1376:
1080:
1061:
794:
784:
641:
621:
444:
314:
2499:
Sytenko, Oleksij H. & Tartakovskij, Viktor
Konstantinovič (1997).
5874:
5237:
5227:
4355:
4308:
4273:
4194:
4019:
4009:
3979:
3872:
3838:
3831:
3708:
3698:
3693:
3665:
3433:
3216:
2032:
2007:
1820:
1439:
1110:
1091:
839:
789:
616:
604:
599:
478:
5732:
3083:
3079:
2831:(8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. p.
2570:
Fundamentals in nuclear physics: from nuclear structure to cosmology
2308:"Table of experimental nuclear ground state charge radii: An update"
2218:
Fernandez, Bernard; Ripka, Georges & Fernandez, Bernard (2012).
1720:
35:
5963:
5606:
5601:
5541:
5210:
5138:
5121:
5106:
5081:
4824:
4313:
4115:
3943:
3898:
3882:
3843:
3816:
3529:
3524:
3504:
3474:
3464:
3459:
3279:
3254:
3249:
3176:
3027:
Wildermuth, K. (1958). "The "cluster model" of the atomic nuclei".
2933:
2874:
2646:"Studies of pear-shaped nuclei using accelerated radioactive beams"
2505:. Fundamental theories of physics. Dordrecht: Kluwer. p. 464.
2065:
1808:
1804:
1435:
1410:, and also between protons and protons, and neutrons and neutrons.
1407:
1384:
1074:
1051:. Protons and neutrons are bound together to form a nucleus by the
1036:
2988:
2723:
2534:. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp.
2299:
1929:, Aage N Bohr and Ben R. Mottelson modelled non-spherical nuclei
1689:) with one or more valence neutrons occupying molecular orbitals.
1662:
In other words, packing protons and neutrons in the nucleus gives
173:
134:
5932:
5884:
5747:
5727:
5126:
5101:
4541:
4372:
4360:
4338:
4303:
4024:
4014:
3984:
3938:
3933:
3908:
3826:
3811:
3738:
3733:
3638:
3623:
3569:
3544:
3509:
3438:
3420:
3159:
1895:
1667:
1403:
1321:
1301:
1285:
1273:
1220:
1085:
1012:
301:
274:
266:
198:
188:
139:
1442:, or other collections of neutrons, orbit at distances of about
5536:
5531:
5511:
5491:
5476:
5359:
5096:
5076:
5044:
4004:
3999:
3628:
3615:
3606:
3428:
3342:
3241:
1891:
1516:
1399:
1317:
1261:
1253:
1249:
1241:
1225:
1008:
193:
3099:
Timeline: Subatomic
Concepts, Nuclear Science & Technology
5953:
5910:
5573:
5429:
5222:
5086:
4029:
3969:
3821:
3680:
3559:
3499:
3454:
3347:
3325:
3168:
1512:
1413:
1306:
1268:
Protons define the entire charge of a nucleus, and hence its
1184:
2502:
Theory of nucleus: nuclear structure and nuclear interaction
1143:" of the atom. The electron had already been discovered by
27:
Core of an atom; composed of nucleons (protons and neutrons)
5434:
5323:
5133:
5091:
3796:
3728:
3688:
3264:
3259:
1295:, so two protons and two neutrons can share the same space
1044:
1016:
158:), each nucleon can be said to occupy a range of locations.
2567:
Basdevant, J. L.; Rich, James & Spiro, Michel (2005).
2150:
Heisenberg, W. (1933). "Über den Bau der
Atomkerne. III".
5407:
5271:
2107:
Heisenberg, W. (1932). "Über den Bau der
Atomkerne. II".
1833:
2642:
2063:
Heisenberg, W. (1932). "Über den Bau der
Atomkerne. I".
1767:
1350:). The residual strong force is a minor residuum of the
1346:
Nuclei are bound together by the residual strong force (
1212:
meaning kernel is used for nucleus in German and Dutch.
2217:
2823:
Serway, Raymond; Vuille, Chris; Faughn, Jerry (2009).
1580:
2596:"Pear-shaped nucleus boosts search for new physics"
2498:
2220:"Nuclear Theory After the Discovery of the Neutron"
1824:complex than simple closure of shell orbitals with
1265:appears to us as the chemistry of our macro world.
1135:The nucleus was discovered in 1911, as a result of
146:) cannot be explained like this, but only by using
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
4957:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
2858:"Nuclear Ground State Has Molecule-Like Structure"
2822:
2566:
1618:
1260:an atom represents is determined by the number of
2972:Ebran, J.P. (2012). "How atomic nuclei cluster".
1418:The effective absolute limit of the range of the
6035:
3068:The Nucleus – a chapter from an online textbook
1058:The diameter of the nucleus is in the range of
2708:
2305:
5660:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
4210:
3127:
1868:
1462:; for example, lithium-11 has a half-life of
984:
2246:
2195:Early quantum electrodynamics: a source book
2636:
2306:Angeli, I.; Marinova, K.P. (January 2013).
1708:as their size and composition changes (see
1172:
1077:(the diameter of a single proton) to about
4217:
4203:
3134:
3120:
3026:
2855:
2560:
2149:
2106:
2062:
1414:Halo nuclei and nuclear force range limits
991:
977:
2987:
2932:
2873:
2722:
2702:
2607:
2593:
2525:
2519:
2031:
1615:
1007:is the small, dense region consisting of
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
5572:
3141:
2454:Journal of the American Chemical Society
2005:
1754:Energy). An energy associated with the
1279:
1219:
133:
2856:Ehrenstein, David (November 21, 2023).
2760:
2758:
2624:from the original on September 17, 2016
2492:
2226:. New York, NY: Springer. p. 263.
150:. In a nucleus that occupies a certain
14:
6036:
5587:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
4224:
3605:
2898:from the original on November 23, 2023
2429:from the original on December 13, 2007
2344:from the original on December 3, 2021.
2192:
1244:, that are held in association by the
5829:
5592:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
5001:
4988:
4198:
3115:
2971:
2802:(Rev. ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
2797:
2698:from the original on August 30, 2017.
2447:
1768:Shell models and other quantum models
6016:
4989:
2764:
2755:
1692:
1200:, that "the atom is composed of the
58:adding citations to reliable sources
29:
5597:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
2573:. New York: Springer. p. 155.
2315:Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables
1025:Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment
24:
5406:
4557:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
2916:
2416:
1248:in certain stable combinations of
1155:, that involved the deflection of
1039:surrounding it, bound together by
25:
6085:
4580:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
4479:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
3061:
1480:
6015:
6004:
6003:
5991:
5680:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
4178:
4071:Timeline of particle discoveries
3080:The LIVEChart of Nuclides – IAEA
2368:from the original on May 7, 2018
1719:
1680:
1619:{\displaystyle R=r_{0}A^{1/3}\,}
1511:that occurs between high-energy
958:
957:
944:
172:
34:
4769:Historical stockpiles and tests
3020:
2965:
2910:
2849:
2816:
2791:
2587:
2441:
2410:
2380:
2193:Miller, Arthur I., ed. (1995).
1956:
1499:. This is due to two reasons:
1336:The shape of the atomic nucleus
1288:, with different values of the
45:needs additional citations for
5670:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
4552:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
3095:. Accessed September 16, 2009.
2943:10.1103/PhysRevLett.131.212501
2884:10.1103/PhysRevLett.131.212501
2526:Srednicki, Mark Allen (2007).
2348:
2240:
2211:
2186:
2143:
2100:
2056:
1999:
1641:, plus the number of neutrons
1224:A figurative depiction of the
1196:stated, in his famous article
1139:'s efforts to test Thomson's "
13:
1:
5998:Nuclear technology portal
2741:10.1016/j.physrep.2011.02.001
1992:
1529:chiral effective field theory
1215:
5860:Field-reversed configuration
5470:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
4087:History of subatomic physics
3051:10.1016/0029-5582(58)90245-1
2800:Introductory nuclear physics
2356:""Uranium" IDC Technologies"
1162:
7:
5817:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
5002:
4764:States with nuclear weapons
2594:Battersby, Stephen (2013).
2450:"The Atom and the Molecule"
2423:Online Etymology Dictionary
2388:"The Rutherford Experiment"
1909:
1710:semi-empirical mass formula
1699:Semi-empirical mass formula
738:High-energy nuclear physics
10:
6090:
5830:
5655:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
4779:Tests in the United States
3073:December 14, 2010, at the
2798:Krane, Kenneth S. (1987).
2448:Lewis, Gilbert N. (1916).
2269:10.1038/d41586-019-03432-4
1888:Bose–Einstein condensation
1872:
1869:Consistency between models
1859:Close-Packed Spheron Model
1855:Resonating Group Structure
1771:
1696:
1484:
1128:
1124:
5985:
5941:
5893:
5850:
5840:
5792:
5780:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
5693:
5675:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
5640:
5623:
5563:
5490:
5482:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
5456:
5447:
5399:
5379:
5332:
5314:
5270:
5175:
5157:
5025:
5012:
4997:
4984:
4939:
4872:
4817:
4808:
4756:
4664:
4655:
4622:
4565:
4527:
4518:
4439:
4371:
4294:
4236:
4232:
4176:
4079:
4043:
3960:
3921:
3891:
3865:
3861:
3852:
3784:
3752:
3679:
3614:
3596:
3492:
3447:
3419:
3410:
3401:
3383:
3361:
3333:
3324:
3240:
3167:
3158:
3149:
3104:February 5, 2021, at the
2609:10.1038/nature.2013.12952
2335:10.1016/j.adt.2011.12.006
1861:of Linus Pauling and the
1828:of protons and neutrons.
1756:Pauli exclusion principle
1450:radius of the nucleus of
1341:
1324:, containing one or more
1284:Protons and neutrons are
1198:The Atom and the Molecule
5685:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
5301:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
4637:Electron-beam processing
4104:mathematical formulation
3699:Eta and eta prime mesons
2765:Cook, Norman D. (2010).
2008:"The Neutron Hypothesis"
1949:
1446:(roughly similar to the
1422:(also known as residual
1019:, discovered in 1911 by
5800:Organic nuclear reactor
4972:Nuclear power phase-out
4895:Nuclear decommissioning
4835:Reactor-grade plutonium
4585:Targeted alpha-particle
4464:Accidents and incidents
3766:Double-charm tetraquark
2920:Physical Review Letters
1943:Interacting boson model
1857:model of John Wheeler,
1716:energy of the nucleus:
1637:(the number of protons
1525:forces between nucleons
1521:perturbative techniques
1362:neutral atoms (such as
1171:is from the Latin word
249:Interacting boson model
1974:; 60,250 derives from
1620:
1519:matter, which renders
1515:matter and low-energy
1505:quantum chromodynamics
1312:In the rare case of a
1237:
1208:" Similarly, the term
1178:
1173:
1105:hydrogen atomic radius
159:
4962:Anti-nuclear movement
4163:Wave–particle duality
4153:Relativistic particle
3290:Electron antineutrino
2488:on November 25, 2013.
2006:Iwanenko, D. (1932).
1621:
1456:chart of the nuclides
1280:Composition and shape
1234:spherically symmetric
1223:
1204:and an outer atom or
636:High-energy processes
334:– equal all the above
232:Models of the nucleus
137:
5870:Reversed field pinch
5665:Traveling-wave (TWR)
5149:Supercritical (SCWR)
4647:Gemstone irradiation
3393:Faddeev–Popov ghosts
3143:Particles in physics
2530:Quantum field theory
2398:on November 14, 2001
1962:26,634 derives from
1879:As with the case of
1578:
1426:) is represented by
1364:van der Waals forces
1246:nuclear strong force
1103:)) to about 60,250 (
1043:. Almost all of the
1015:at the center of an
672:nuclear astrophysics
54:improve this article
6059:Subatomic particles
5035:Aqueous homogeneous
4830:Reprocessed uranium
4503:Safety and security
4168:Particle chauvinism
4111:Subatomic particles
3043:1958NucPh...7..150W
3006:10.1038/nature11246
2998:2012Natur.487..341E
2733:2011PhR...503....1M
2673:10.1038/nature12073
2665:2013Natur.497..199G
2466:10.1021/ja02261a002
2327:2013ADNDT..99...69A
2261:2019Natur.575..269C
2164:1933ZPhy...80..587H
2121:1932ZPhy...78..156H
2078:1932ZPhy...77....1H
2024:1932Natur.129..798I
1774:Nuclear shell model
1041:electrostatic force
654:Photodisintegration
577:Capturing processes
491:Spontaneous fission
484:Internal conversion
415:Valley of stability
410:Island of stability
244:Nuclear shell model
5949:Dense plasma focus
4864:Actinide chemistry
4329:Isotope separation
4226:Nuclear technology
2392:Rutgers University
2172:10.1007/BF01335696
2129:10.1007/BF01337585
2086:10.1007/BF01342433
1616:
1540:. Developments in
1352:strong interaction
1238:
1177:, a diminutive of
1141:plum pudding model
1023:based on the 1909
951:Physics portal
745:Quark–gluon plasma
528:Radiogenic nuclide
160:
154:(for example, the
6049:Nuclear chemistry
6031:
6030:
5981:
5980:
5977:
5976:
5928:Magnetized-target
5825:
5824:
5788:
5787:
5619:
5618:
5615:
5614:
5559:
5558:
5443:
5442:
5375:
5374:
4980:
4979:
4935:
4934:
4804:
4803:
4791:Weapon-free zones
4618:
4617:
4610:Radiopharmacology
4192:
4191:
4148:Massless particle
3956:
3955:
3952:
3951:
3917:
3916:
3780:
3779:
3592:
3591:
3588:
3587:
3540:Magnetic monopole
3488:
3487:
3379:
3378:
3320:
3319:
3300:Muon antineutrino
3285:Electron neutrino
2982:(7407): 341–344.
2842:978-0-495-38693-3
2809:978-0-471-80553-3
2776:978-3-642-14736-4
2659:(7448): 199–204.
2580:978-0-387-01672-6
2545:978-0-521-86449-7
2512:978-0-7923-4423-0
2255:(7782): 269–270.
2233:978-1-4614-4180-9
2204:978-0-521-56891-3
2158:(9–10): 587–596.
1922:List of particles
1900:Erwin Schrödinger
1875:Nuclear structure
1693:Liquid drop model
1675:nuclear structure
1487:Nuclear structure
1270:chemical identity
1151:and with help of
1137:Ernest Rutherford
1033:Werner Heisenberg
1021:Ernest Rutherford
1001:
1000:
687:
433:Radioactive decay
389:Nuclear stability
216:Nuclear structure
148:quantum mechanics
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
6081:
6019:
6018:
6007:
6006:
5996:
5995:
5994:
5906:
5865:Levitated dipole
5835:
5827:
5826:
5775:Helium gas (GFR)
5638:
5637:
5633:
5570:
5569:
5454:
5453:
5404:
5403:
5397:
5396:
5392:
5391:
5173:
5172:
5169:
5168:
5007:
4999:
4998:
4991:Nuclear reactors
4986:
4985:
4885:High-level (HLW)
4815:
4814:
4662:
4661:
4642:Food irradiation
4632:Atomic gardening
4525:
4524:
4508:Nuclear meltdown
4334:Nuclear material
4324:Fissile material
4319:Fertile material
4234:
4233:
4219:
4212:
4205:
4196:
4195:
4182:
4158:Virtual particle
3929:Mesonic molecule
3863:
3862:
3859:
3858:
3704:Bottom eta meson
3612:
3611:
3603:
3602:
3575:W′ and Z′ bosons
3565:Sterile neutrino
3550:Majorana fermion
3417:
3416:
3408:
3407:
3331:
3330:
3310:Tau antineutrino
3165:
3164:
3156:
3155:
3136:
3129:
3122:
3113:
3112:
3055:
3054:
3024:
3018:
3017:
2991:
2969:
2963:
2962:
2936:
2914:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2903:
2877:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2830:
2820:
2814:
2813:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2762:
2753:
2752:
2726:
2706:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2650:
2640:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2611:
2591:
2585:
2584:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2533:
2523:
2517:
2516:
2496:
2490:
2489:
2484:. Archived from
2445:
2439:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2405:
2403:
2394:. Archived from
2384:
2378:
2377:
2375:
2373:
2367:
2360:
2352:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2312:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2244:
2238:
2237:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2115:(3–4): 156–164.
2104:
2098:
2097:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2035:
2033:10.1038/129798d0
2003:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1960:
1933:Nuclear medicine
1904:quantum orbitals
1748:Asymmetry energy
1723:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1609:
1596:
1595:
1542:many-body theory
1509:phase transition
1497:particle physics
1473:Borromean nuclei
1465:
1449:
1445:
1373:Yukawa potential
1258:chemical element
1194:Gilbert N. Lewis
1176:
1131:Rutherford model
1113:
1102:
1100:
1094:
1083:
1072:
1070:
1064:
993:
986:
979:
966:
961:
960:
953:
949:
948:
825:Skłodowska-Curie
685:
501:Neutron emission
269:' classification
221:Nuclear reaction
176:
162:
161:
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
69:"Atomic nucleus"
62:
38:
30:
21:
6089:
6088:
6084:
6083:
6082:
6080:
6079:
6078:
6054:Nuclear physics
6034:
6033:
6032:
6027:
5992:
5990:
5973:
5937:
5904:
5889:
5846:
5836:
5831:
5821:
5784:
5689:
5634:
5627:
5626:
5611:
5555:
5486:
5461:
5439:
5411:
5393:
5386:
5385:
5384:
5371:
5337:
5328:
5310:
5275:
5266:
5180:
5163:
5162:
5161:
5153:
5067:Natural fission
5021:
5020:
5008:
5003:
4993:
4976:
4952:Nuclear weapons
4931:
4890:Low-level (LLW)
4868:
4800:
4752:
4651:
4614:
4561:
4514:
4435:
4367:
4290:
4228:
4223:
4193:
4188:
4172:
4126:Nuclear physics
4075:
4039:
3975:Davydov soliton
3948:
3913:
3887:
3848:
3776:
3748:
3675:
3584:
3484:
3443:
3397:
3375:
3357:
3316:
3236:
3145:
3140:
3106:Wayback Machine
3075:Wayback Machine
3064:
3059:
3058:
3030:Nuclear Physics
3025:
3021:
2970:
2966:
2915:
2911:
2901:
2899:
2854:
2850:
2843:
2827:College Physics
2821:
2817:
2810:
2796:
2792:
2777:
2763:
2756:
2711:Physics Reports
2707:
2703:
2695:
2648:
2641:
2637:
2627:
2625:
2592:
2588:
2581:
2565:
2561:
2546:
2524:
2520:
2513:
2497:
2493:
2446:
2442:
2432:
2430:
2415:
2411:
2401:
2399:
2386:
2385:
2381:
2371:
2369:
2365:
2358:
2354:
2353:
2349:
2341:
2310:
2304:
2300:
2245:
2241:
2234:
2216:
2212:
2205:
2191:
2187:
2148:
2144:
2105:
2101:
2061:
2057:
2004:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1989:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1972:11.7142 fm
1971:
1967:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1927:James Rainwater
1917:Giant resonance
1912:
1877:
1871:
1780:atomic orbitals
1776:
1770:
1701:
1695:
1687:alpha particles
1683:
1658:
1651:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1591:
1587:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1489:
1483:
1463:
1447:
1443:
1416:
1344:
1282:
1218:
1189:Michael Faraday
1165:
1157:alpha particles
1133:
1127:
1119:nuclear physics
1108:
1098:
1096:
1089:
1078:
1068:
1066:
1059:
1029:Dmitri Ivanenko
997:
956:
943:
942:
935:
934:
770:
760:
759:
740:
730:
729:
674:
670:
667:Nucleosynthesis
659:
658:
637:
629:
628:
578:
570:
569:
543:
541:Nuclear fission
533:
532:
506:Proton emission
435:
425:
424:
390:
382:
381:
283:
270:
259:
258:
234:
166:Nuclear physics
144:nuclear physics
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6087:
6077:
6076:
6071:
6066:
6064:Radiochemistry
6061:
6056:
6051:
6046:
6029:
6028:
6026:
6025:
6013:
6001:
5986:
5983:
5982:
5979:
5978:
5975:
5974:
5972:
5971:
5966:
5961:
5959:Muon-catalyzed
5956:
5951:
5945:
5943:
5939:
5938:
5936:
5935:
5930:
5925:
5920:
5919:
5918:
5908:
5899:
5897:
5891:
5890:
5888:
5887:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5867:
5862:
5856:
5854:
5848:
5847:
5841:
5838:
5837:
5823:
5822:
5820:
5819:
5814:
5813:
5812:
5807:
5796:
5794:
5790:
5789:
5786:
5785:
5783:
5782:
5777:
5772:
5767:
5766:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5699:
5697:
5691:
5690:
5688:
5687:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5652:
5650:Integral (IFR)
5647:
5641:
5635:
5624:
5621:
5620:
5617:
5616:
5613:
5612:
5610:
5609:
5604:
5599:
5594:
5589:
5584:
5578:
5576:
5567:
5561:
5560:
5557:
5556:
5554:
5553:
5552:
5551:
5546:
5545:
5544:
5539:
5534:
5529:
5514:
5509:
5508:
5507:
5496:
5494:
5488:
5487:
5485:
5484:
5479:
5474:
5465:
5463:
5459:
5451:
5445:
5444:
5441:
5440:
5438:
5437:
5432:
5427:
5422:
5416:
5414:
5409:
5401:
5394:
5380:
5377:
5376:
5373:
5372:
5370:
5369:
5368:
5367:
5362:
5357:
5352:
5341:
5339:
5335:
5330:
5329:
5327:
5326:
5320:
5318:
5312:
5311:
5309:
5308:
5303:
5298:
5297:
5296:
5291:
5280:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5267:
5265:
5264:
5263:
5262:
5257:
5252:
5247:
5242:
5241:
5240:
5235:
5230:
5220:
5215:
5214:
5213:
5208:
5205:
5202:
5199:
5185:
5183:
5178:
5170:
5155:
5154:
5152:
5151:
5146:
5145:
5144:
5141:
5136:
5131:
5130:
5129:
5124:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5069:
5064:
5063:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5037:
5031:
5029:
5023:
5022:
5014:
5013:
5010:
5009:
4995:
4994:
4982:
4981:
4978:
4977:
4975:
4974:
4969:
4967:Uranium mining
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4943:
4941:
4937:
4936:
4933:
4932:
4930:
4929:
4924:
4923:
4922:
4917:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4876:
4874:
4870:
4869:
4867:
4866:
4861:
4860:
4859:
4849:
4844:
4843:
4842:
4840:Minor actinide
4837:
4832:
4821:
4819:
4812:
4806:
4805:
4802:
4801:
4799:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4783:
4782:
4781:
4776:
4766:
4760:
4758:
4754:
4753:
4751:
4750:
4749:
4748:
4738:
4733:
4732:
4731:
4726:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4705:
4704:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4668:
4666:
4659:
4653:
4652:
4650:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4628:
4626:
4620:
4619:
4616:
4615:
4613:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4592:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4571:
4569:
4563:
4562:
4560:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4537:Autoradiograph
4533:
4531:
4522:
4516:
4515:
4513:
4512:
4511:
4510:
4500:
4499:
4498:
4488:
4487:
4486:
4476:
4471:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4445:
4443:
4437:
4436:
4434:
4433:
4428:
4423:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4377:
4375:
4369:
4368:
4366:
4365:
4364:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4352:
4351:
4346:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4300:
4298:
4292:
4291:
4289:
4288:
4287:
4286:
4281:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4259:Atomic nucleus
4256:
4251:
4246:
4240:
4238:
4230:
4229:
4222:
4221:
4214:
4207:
4199:
4190:
4189:
4185:Physics portal
4177:
4174:
4173:
4171:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4139:
4138:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4107:
4106:
4099:Standard Model
4096:
4095:
4094:
4083:
4081:
4077:
4076:
4074:
4073:
4068:
4066:Quasiparticles
4063:
4058:
4053:
4047:
4045:
4041:
4040:
4038:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3966:
3964:
3962:Quasiparticles
3958:
3957:
3954:
3953:
3950:
3949:
3947:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3925:
3923:
3919:
3918:
3915:
3914:
3912:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3895:
3893:
3889:
3888:
3886:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3869:
3867:
3856:
3850:
3849:
3847:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3835:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3799:
3794:
3788:
3786:
3782:
3781:
3778:
3777:
3775:
3774:
3769:
3758:
3756:
3754:Exotic hadrons
3750:
3749:
3747:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3685:
3683:
3677:
3676:
3674:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3647:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3620:
3618:
3609:
3600:
3594:
3593:
3590:
3589:
3586:
3585:
3583:
3582:
3580:X and Y bosons
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3496:
3494:
3490:
3489:
3486:
3485:
3483:
3482:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3451:
3449:
3445:
3444:
3442:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3425:
3423:
3414:
3405:
3399:
3398:
3396:
3395:
3389:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3377:
3376:
3374:
3373:
3367:
3365:
3359:
3358:
3356:
3355:
3353:W and Z bosons
3350:
3345:
3339:
3337:
3328:
3322:
3321:
3318:
3317:
3315:
3314:
3313:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3246:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3235:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3207:Strange (quark
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3173:
3171:
3162:
3153:
3147:
3146:
3139:
3138:
3131:
3124:
3116:
3110:
3109:
3096:
3090:
3077:
3063:
3062:External links
3060:
3057:
3056:
3019:
2964:
2927:(21): 212501.
2909:
2848:
2841:
2815:
2808:
2790:
2775:
2754:
2701:
2635:
2586:
2579:
2559:
2544:
2518:
2511:
2491:
2460:(4): 762–785.
2440:
2409:
2379:
2347:
2298:
2239:
2232:
2210:
2203:
2185:
2142:
2099:
2055:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1984:1.7166 fm
1954:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1924:
1919:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1873:Main article:
1870:
1867:
1865:of MacGregor.
1863:2D Ising Model
1784:atomic physics
1772:Main article:
1769:
1766:
1762:Pairing energy
1733:Surface energy
1706:binding energy
1697:Main article:
1694:
1691:
1682:
1679:
1656:
1649:
1627:
1626:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1583:
1554:nuclear radius
1547:
1546:
1532:
1493:standard model
1485:Main article:
1482:
1481:Nuclear models
1479:
1415:
1412:
1343:
1340:
1326:strange quarks
1293:quantum number
1290:strong isospin
1281:
1278:
1230:electron cloud
1217:
1214:
1164:
1161:
1153:Ernest Marsden
1129:Main article:
1126:
1123:
1049:electron cloud
1005:atomic nucleus
999:
998:
996:
995:
988:
981:
973:
970:
969:
968:
967:
954:
937:
936:
933:
932:
927:
922:
917:
912:
907:
902:
897:
892:
887:
882:
877:
872:
867:
862:
857:
852:
847:
842:
837:
832:
827:
822:
817:
812:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
782:
777:
771:
766:
765:
762:
761:
758:
757:
752:
747:
741:
736:
735:
732:
731:
728:
727:
726:
725:
720:
715:
706:
705:
704:
703:
698:
693:
682:
681:
679:Nuclear fusion
675:
665:
664:
661:
660:
657:
656:
651:
650:
649:
638:
635:
634:
631:
630:
627:
626:
625:
624:
619:
609:
608:
607:
602:
592:
591:
590:
579:
576:
575:
572:
571:
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567:
562:
561:
560:
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531:
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515:
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493:
488:
487:
486:
481:
471:
466:
465:
464:
459:
458:
457:
442:
436:
431:
430:
427:
426:
423:
422:
420:Stable nuclide
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
395:Binding energy
391:
388:
387:
384:
383:
380:
379:
378:
377:
367:
362:
357:
351:
350:
336:
335:
328:
327:
311:
310:
298:
297:
285:
284:
271:
265:
264:
261:
260:
257:
256:
251:
246:
241:
235:
230:
229:
226:
225:
224:
223:
218:
213:
208:
206:Nuclear matter
203:
202:
201:
196:
186:
178:
177:
169:
168:
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6086:
6075:
6072:
6070:
6067:
6065:
6062:
6060:
6057:
6055:
6052:
6050:
6047:
6045:
6042:
6041:
6039:
6024:
6023:
6014:
6012:
6011:
6002:
6000:
5999:
5988:
5987:
5984:
5970:
5967:
5965:
5962:
5960:
5957:
5955:
5952:
5950:
5947:
5946:
5944:
5940:
5934:
5931:
5929:
5926:
5924:
5921:
5917:
5916:electrostatic
5914:
5913:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5901:
5900:
5898:
5896:
5892:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5857:
5855:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5839:
5834:
5828:
5818:
5815:
5811:
5808:
5806:
5803:
5802:
5801:
5798:
5797:
5795:
5791:
5781:
5778:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5768:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5705:
5704:
5701:
5700:
5698:
5696:
5695:Generation IV
5692:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5661:
5658:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5645:Breeder (FBR)
5643:
5642:
5639:
5636:
5631:
5622:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5579:
5577:
5575:
5571:
5568:
5566:
5562:
5550:
5547:
5543:
5540:
5538:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5524:
5523:
5520:
5519:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5506:
5503:
5502:
5501:
5498:
5497:
5495:
5493:
5489:
5483:
5480:
5478:
5475:
5473:
5471:
5467:
5466:
5464:
5462:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5446:
5436:
5433:
5431:
5428:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5417:
5415:
5413:
5405:
5402:
5398:
5395:
5390:
5383:
5378:
5366:
5363:
5361:
5358:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5348:
5347:
5346:
5343:
5342:
5340:
5338:
5331:
5325:
5322:
5321:
5319:
5317:
5313:
5307:
5304:
5302:
5299:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5286:
5285:
5282:
5281:
5279:
5277:
5269:
5261:
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5243:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5225:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5212:
5209:
5206:
5203:
5200:
5197:
5196:
5195:
5192:
5191:
5190:
5187:
5186:
5184:
5182:
5174:
5171:
5167:
5160:
5156:
5150:
5147:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5119:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5074:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5042:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5032:
5030:
5028:
5024:
5019:
5018:
5011:
5006:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4987:
4983:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4947:Nuclear power
4945:
4944:
4942:
4938:
4928:
4927:Transmutation
4925:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4912:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4877:
4875:
4871:
4865:
4862:
4858:
4855:
4854:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4827:
4826:
4823:
4822:
4820:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4807:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4771:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4761:
4759:
4755:
4747:
4744:
4743:
4742:
4739:
4737:
4734:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4724:high-altitude
4722:
4721:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4714:Proliferation
4712:
4710:
4707:
4703:
4700:
4699:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4669:
4667:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4654:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4629:
4627:
4625:
4621:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4600:Brachytherapy
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4572:
4570:
4568:
4564:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4534:
4532:
4530:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4517:
4509:
4506:
4505:
4504:
4501:
4497:
4494:
4493:
4492:
4489:
4485:
4482:
4481:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4446:
4444:
4442:
4438:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4396:Cross section
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4378:
4376:
4374:
4370:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4341:
4340:
4337:
4336:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4301:
4299:
4297:
4293:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4276:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4241:
4239:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4220:
4215:
4213:
4208:
4206:
4201:
4200:
4197:
4187:
4186:
4181:
4175:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4143:Exotic matter
4141:
4137:
4134:
4133:
4132:
4131:Eightfold way
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4121:Antiparticles
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4105:
4102:
4101:
4100:
4097:
4093:
4090:
4089:
4088:
4085:
4084:
4082:
4078:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4048:
4046:
4042:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3967:
3965:
3963:
3959:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3926:
3924:
3920:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3894:
3890:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3870:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3851:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3804:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3792:Atomic nuclei
3790:
3789:
3787:
3783:
3773:
3770:
3767:
3763:
3760:
3759:
3757:
3755:
3751:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3724:Upsilon meson
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3682:
3678:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3656:Lambda baryon
3654:
3652:
3649:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3626:
3625:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3617:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3595:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3515:Dual graviton
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3497:
3495:
3491:
3480:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3452:
3450:
3446:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3422:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3412:Superpartners
3409:
3406:
3404:
3400:
3394:
3391:
3390:
3388:
3386:
3382:
3372:
3369:
3368:
3366:
3364:
3360:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3336:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3323:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3295:Muon neutrino
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3282:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3243:
3239:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3227:Bottom (quark
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3172:
3170:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3137:
3132:
3130:
3125:
3123:
3118:
3117:
3114:
3107:
3103:
3100:
3097:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3072:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3031:
3023:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2976:
2968:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2921:
2913:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2852:
2844:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2828:
2819:
2811:
2805:
2801:
2794:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2772:
2768:
2761:
2759:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2705:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2647:
2639:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2590:
2582:
2576:
2572:
2571:
2563:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2541:
2537:
2532:
2531:
2522:
2514:
2508:
2504:
2503:
2495:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2444:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2413:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2383:
2364:
2357:
2351:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2309:
2302:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2243:
2235:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2214:
2206:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2146:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2072:(1–2): 1–11.
2071:
2068:
2067:
2059:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2018:(3265): 798.
2017:
2013:
2009:
2002:
1998:
1980:52.92 pm
1959:
1955:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1938:Radioactivity
1936:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1884:liquid helium
1882:
1876:
1866:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1844:
1840:
1835:
1829:
1827:
1826:magic numbers
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1799:
1795:
1788:
1785:
1781:
1775:
1765:
1763:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1750:(also called
1749:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1728:
1727:Volume energy
1724:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1700:
1690:
1688:
1681:Cluster model
1678:
1676:
1671:
1669:
1665:
1664:approximately
1660:
1655:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1581:
1574:
1573:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1550:
1543:
1539:
1538:
1533:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1501:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1491:Although the
1488:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1467:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1420:nuclear force
1411:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1368:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1348:nuclear force
1339:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1303:
1298:
1297:wave function
1294:
1291:
1287:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1266:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1222:
1213:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1181:
1175:
1170:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1145:J. J. Thomson
1142:
1138:
1132:
1122:
1120:
1115:
1112:
1106:
1093:
1087:
1082:
1076:
1063:
1056:
1054:
1053:nuclear force
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
994:
989:
987:
982:
980:
975:
974:
972:
971:
965:
955:
952:
947:
941:
940:
939:
938:
931:
928:
926:
923:
921:
918:
916:
913:
911:
908:
906:
903:
901:
898:
896:
893:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
873:
871:
868:
866:
863:
861:
858:
856:
853:
851:
848:
846:
843:
841:
838:
836:
833:
831:
828:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
791:
788:
786:
783:
781:
778:
776:
773:
772:
769:
764:
763:
756:
753:
751:
748:
746:
743:
742:
739:
734:
733:
724:
721:
719:
716:
714:
711:
710:
708:
707:
702:
699:
697:
694:
692:
689:
688:
684:
683:
680:
677:
676:
673:
668:
663:
662:
655:
652:
648:
647:by cosmic ray
645:
644:
643:
640:
639:
633:
632:
623:
620:
618:
615:
614:
613:
610:
606:
603:
601:
598:
597:
596:
593:
589:
586:
585:
584:
581:
580:
574:
573:
566:
563:
559:
558:pair breaking
556:
555:
554:
551:
549:
546:
545:
542:
537:
536:
529:
526:
524:
523:Decay product
521:
519:
516:
514:
511:
510:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
496:Cluster decay
494:
492:
489:
485:
482:
480:
477:
476:
475:
472:
470:
467:
463:
460:
456:
453:
452:
451:
448:
447:
446:
443:
441:
438:
437:
434:
429:
428:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
392:
386:
385:
376:
373:
372:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
352:
349:
345:
341:
340:Mirror nuclei
338:
337:
333:
330:
329:
326:
325:
322: −
321:
316:
313:
312:
309:
308:
303:
300:
299:
296:
295:
290:
287:
286:
282:
281:
276:
273:
272:
268:
263:
262:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
236:
233:
228:
227:
222:
219:
217:
214:
212:
211:Nuclear force
209:
207:
204:
200:
197:
195:
192:
191:
190:
187:
185:
182:
181:
180:
179:
175:
171:
170:
167:
164:
163:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
136:
132:
124:
121:
113:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
18:Nuclear model
6020:
6008:
5989:
5969:Pyroelectric
5923:Laser-driven
5703:Sodium (SFR)
5630:fast-neutron
5469:
5015:
4905:Reprocessing
4786:WMD treaties
4605:Radiosurgery
4575:Fast-neutron
4547:Scintigraphy
4258:
4183:
3854:Hypothetical
3802:Exotic atoms
3791:
3671:Omega baryon
3661:Sigma baryon
3651:Delta baryon
3403:Hypothetical
3385:Ghost fields
3371:Higgs boson
3305:Tau neutrino
3197:Charm (quark
3034:
3028:
3022:
2979:
2973:
2967:
2924:
2918:
2912:
2902:November 23,
2900:. Retrieved
2868:(21): s167.
2865:
2861:
2851:
2826:
2818:
2799:
2793:
2766:
2714:
2710:
2704:
2656:
2652:
2638:
2628:November 23,
2626:. Retrieved
2599:
2589:
2569:
2562:
2529:
2521:
2501:
2494:
2486:the original
2457:
2453:
2443:
2431:. Retrieved
2422:
2412:
2402:February 26,
2400:. Retrieved
2396:the original
2382:
2370:. Retrieved
2350:
2321:(1): 69–95.
2318:
2314:
2301:
2252:
2248:
2242:
2223:
2213:
2194:
2188:
2155:
2151:
2145:
2112:
2108:
2102:
2069:
2064:
2058:
2015:
2011:
2001:
1958:
1878:
1849:
1847:
1830:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1777:
1761:
1760:
1747:
1746:
1738:
1737:
1732:
1731:
1726:
1725:
1718:
1714:
1702:
1684:
1672:
1663:
1661:
1653:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1630:
1628:
1570:
1565:
1557:
1551:
1548:
1536:
1490:
1471:
1468:
1460:milliseconds
1424:strong force
1417:
1393:
1369:
1359:
1355:
1345:
1334:
1330:
1314:hypernucleus
1311:
1300:
1283:
1267:
1239:
1229:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1187:). In 1844,
1168:
1166:
1134:
1116:
1057:
1004:
1002:
565:Photofission
513:Decay energy
440:Alpha α
347:
343:
323:
319:
306:
293:
279:
183:
156:ground state
152:energy level
131:
116:
110:October 2022
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
5880:Stellarator
5844:confinement
5738:Superphénix
5565:Molten-salt
5517:VHTR (HTGR)
5294:HW BLWR 250
5260:R4 Marviken
5189:Pressurized
5159:Heavy water
5143:many others
5072:Pressurized
5027:Light water
4729:underground
4687:Disarmament
4595:Tomotherapy
4590:Proton-beam
4454:Power plant
4416:Temperature
4249:Engineering
4136:Quark model
3904:Theta meson
3807:Positronium
3719:Omega meson
3714:J/psi meson
3644:Antineutron
3555:Dark photon
3520:Graviphoton
3479:Stop squark
3187:Down (quark
3037:: 150–162.
2717:(1): 1–75.
2417:Harper, D.
1968:156 pm
1635:mass number
1562:mass number
1464:8.8 ms
1452:uranium-238
1438:, in which
1428:halo nuclei
1396:femtometres
1389:bismuth-209
1381:gamma decay
1149:Hans Geiger
1109:52.92
870:Oppenheimer
548:Spontaneous
518:Decay chain
469:K/L capture
445:Beta β
315:Isodiaphers
239:Liquid drop
6038:Categories
5905:(acoustic)
5522:PBR (PBMR)
4910:Spent fuel
4900:Repository
4880:Fuel cycle
4847:Activation
4624:Processing
4491:Propulsion
4449:by country
4381:Activation
3878:Heptaquark
3839:Superatoms
3772:Pentaquark
3762:Tetraquark
3744:Quarkonium
3634:Antiproton
3535:Leptoquark
3470:Neutralino
3232:antiquark)
3222:antiquark)
3217:Top (quark
3212:antiquark)
3202:antiquark)
3192:antiquark)
3182:antiquark)
3151:Elementary
2934:2311.13129
2875:2311.13129
1993:References
1894:which are
1881:superfluid
1843:promethium
1841:) and 61 (
1839:technetium
1817:hydrogen-2
1813:hydrogen-3
1673:Models of
1444:10 fm
1440:dineutrons
1432:lithium-11
1406:to form a
1316:, a third
1216:Principles
1079:11.7
1060:1.70
900:Strassmann
890:Rutherford
768:Scientists
723:Artificial
718:Cosmogenic
713:Primordial
709:Nuclides:
686:Processes:
642:Spallation
80:newspapers
5875:Spheromak
5574:Fluorides
5238:IPHWR-700
5233:IPHWR-540
5228:IPHWR-220
5017:Moderator
4697:Explosion
4672:Arms race
4459:Economics
4411:Reflector
4406:Radiation
4401:Generator
4356:Plutonium
4309:Deuterium
4274:Radiation
4244:Chemistry
4116:Particles
4061:Particles
4020:Polariton
4010:Plasmaron
3980:Dropleton
3873:Hexaquark
3844:Molecules
3832:Protonium
3709:Phi meson
3694:Rho meson
3666:Xi baryon
3598:Composite
3434:Gravitino
3177:Up (quark
2989:1203.1244
2959:265351452
2785:648933232
2749:118434586
2724:1105.2919
2681:0028-0836
2618:124188454
2474:0002-7863
2419:"Nucleus"
2293:207938065
2277:0028-0836
2180:126422047
2137:186221789
2094:186218053
2042:0028-0836
1821:Lithium-6
1792:even/odd
1677:include:
1633:= Atomic
1537:ab initio
1448:8 fm
1320:called a
1252:, called
1167:The term
1163:Etymology
1107:is about
1101:10 m
1090:156
1071:10 m
1037:electrons
905:Świątecki
820:Pi. Curie
815:Fr. Curie
810:Ir. Curie
805:Cockcroft
780:Becquerel
701:Supernova
405:Drip line
400:p–n ratio
375:Borromean
254:Ab initio
6074:Electron
6010:Category
5964:Polywell
5895:Inertial
5852:Magnetic
5607:TMSR-LF1
5602:TMSR-500
5582:Fuji MSR
5542:THTR-300
5382:Graphite
5245:PHWR KWU
5211:ACR-1000
5139:IPWR-900
5122:ACPR1000
5117:HPR-1000
5107:CPR-1000
5082:APR-1400
4873:Disposal
4825:Actinide
4818:Products
4677:Delivery
4520:Medicine
4349:depleted
4344:enriched
4314:Helium-3
4279:ionizing
4092:timeline
3944:R-hadron
3899:Glueball
3883:Skyrmion
3817:Tauonium
3530:Inflaton
3525:Graviton
3505:Curvaton
3475:Sfermion
3465:Higgsino
3460:Chargino
3421:Gauginos
3280:Neutrino
3265:Antimuon
3255:Positron
3250:Electron
3160:Fermions
3102:Archived
3071:Archived
3014:22810698
2951:38072612
2896:Archived
2892:38072612
2693:Archived
2689:23657348
2622:Archived
2554:71808151
2482:95865413
2433:March 6,
2427:Archived
2363:Archived
2339:Archived
2285:31719693
2066:Z. Phys.
1910:See also
1896:fermions
1850:post hoc
1809:helium-3
1805:helium-4
1545:tackled.
1517:hadronic
1436:boron-14
1430:such as
1408:deuteron
1385:lead-208
1286:fermions
1274:isotopes
1075:hydrogen
1013:neutrons
964:Category
865:Oliphant
850:Lawrence
830:Davisson
800:Chadwick
696:Big Bang
583:electron
553:Products
474:Isomeric
365:Even/odd
342: –
317:– equal
304:– equal
302:Isotones
291:– equal
277:– equal
275:Isotopes
267:Nuclides
189:Nucleons
140:nucleons
6022:Commons
5933:Z-pinch
5903:Bubble
5885:Tokamak
5748:FBR-600
5728:CFR-600
5723:BN-1200
5389:coolant
5316:Organic
5201:CANDU 9
5198:CANDU 6
5166:coolant
5127:ACP1000
5102:CAP1400
5040:Boiling
5005:Fission
4852:Fission
4796:Weapons
4736:Warfare
4719:Testing
4709:History
4702:effects
4657:Weapons
4567:Therapy
4542:RadBall
4529:Imaging
4421:Thermal
4386:Capture
4373:Neutron
4361:Thorium
4339:Uranium
4304:Tritium
4284:braking
4264:Fission
4254:Physics
4237:Science
4080:Related
4051:Baryons
4025:Polaron
4015:Plasmon
3990:Fracton
3985:Exciton
3939:Diquark
3934:Pomeron
3909:T meson
3866:Baryons
3827:Pionium
3812:Muonium
3739:D meson
3734:B meson
3639:Neutron
3624:Nucleon
3616:Baryons
3607:Hadrons
3570:Tachyon
3545:Majoron
3510:Dilaton
3439:Photino
3275:Antitau
3242:Leptons
3039:Bibcode
2994:Bibcode
2862:Physics
2729:Bibcode
2661:Bibcode
2323:Bibcode
2257:Bibcode
2160:Bibcode
2152:Z. Phys
2117:Bibcode
2109:Z. Phys
2074:Bibcode
2050:4096734
2020:Bibcode
1892:hadrons
1800:effects
1740:Coulomb
1668:prolate
1404:neutron
1360:between
1356:between
1322:hyperon
1307:bosonic
1302:nucleon
1262:protons
1254:baryons
1250:hadrons
1174:nucleus
1169:nucleus
1125:History
1086:uranium
1009:protons
920:Thomson
910:Szilárd
880:Purcell
860:Meitner
795:N. Bohr
790:A. Bohr
775:Alvarez
691:Stellar
595:neutron
479:Gamma γ
332:Isomers
289:Isobars
184:Nucleus
94:scholar
6069:Proton
5833:Fusion
5793:Others
5733:Phénix
5718:BN-800
5713:BN-600
5708:BN-350
5537:HTR-PM
5532:HTR-10
5512:UHTREX
5477:Magnox
5472:(UNGG)
5365:Lucens
5360:KS 150
5097:ATMEA1
5077:AP1000
5060:Kerena
4940:Debate
4692:Ethics
4682:Design
4665:Topics
4496:rocket
4474:Fusion
4469:Policy
4431:Fusion
4391:Poison
4269:Fusion
4056:Mesons
4005:Phonon
4000:Magnon
3922:Others
3892:Mesons
3785:Others
3681:Mesons
3629:Proton
3493:Others
3448:Others
3429:Gluino
3363:Scalar
3343:Photon
3326:Bosons
3169:Quarks
3012:
2975:Nature
2957:
2949:
2890:
2839:
2806:
2783:
2773:
2747:
2687:
2679:
2653:Nature
2616:
2600:Nature
2577:
2552:
2542:
2538:–523.
2509:
2480:
2472:
2372:May 7,
2291:
2283:
2275:
2249:Nature
2230:
2201:
2178:
2135:
2092:
2048:
2040:
2012:Nature
1742:energy
1645:) and
1629:where
1402:and a
1400:proton
1379:, and
1342:Forces
1318:baryon
1242:quarks
1226:helium
1206:shell.
1202:kernel
1073:) for
962:
930:Wigner
925:Walton
915:Teller
845:Jensen
612:proton
355:Stable
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
6044:Atoms
5954:Migma
5942:Other
5911:Fusor
5810:Piqua
5805:Arbus
5763:PRISM
5505:MHR-T
5500:GTMHR
5430:EGP-6
5425:AMB-X
5400:Water
5345:HWGCR
5284:HWLWR
5223:IPHWR
5194:CANDU
5055:ESBWR
4810:Waste
4774:Tests
4757:Lists
4741:Yield
4484:MMRTG
4441:Power
4044:Lists
4035:Trion
4030:Roton
3970:Anyon
3797:Atoms
3560:Preon
3500:Axion
3455:Axino
3348:Gluon
3335:Gauge
3084:Java
2984:arXiv
2955:S2CID
2929:arXiv
2870:arXiv
2745:S2CID
2719:arXiv
2696:(PDF)
2649:(PDF)
2614:S2CID
2478:S2CID
2366:(PDF)
2359:(PDF)
2342:(PDF)
2311:(PDF)
2289:S2CID
2176:S2CID
2133:S2CID
2090:S2CID
2046:S2CID
1950:Notes
1752:Pauli
1513:quark
1383:) is
1185:peach
895:Soddy
875:Proca
855:Mayer
835:Fermi
785:Bethe
360:Magic
101:JSTOR
87:books
5770:Lead
5753:CEFR
5743:PFBR
5625:None
5435:RBMK
5420:AM-1
5350:EL-4
5324:WR-1
5306:AHWR
5250:MZFR
5218:CVTR
5207:AFCR
5134:VVER
5092:APWR
5087:APR+
5050:ABWR
4920:cask
4915:pool
4857:LLFP
4746:TNTe
4426:Fast
4296:Fuel
3995:Hole
3822:Onia
3729:Kaon
3689:Pion
3260:Muon
3088:HTML
3010:PMID
2947:PMID
2904:2023
2888:PMID
2837:ISBN
2804:ISBN
2781:OCLC
2771:ISBN
2685:PMID
2677:ISSN
2630:2017
2575:ISBN
2550:OCLC
2540:ISBN
2507:ISBN
2470:ISSN
2435:2010
2404:2013
2374:2018
2281:PMID
2273:ISSN
2228:ISBN
2199:ISBN
2038:ISSN
1796:and
1552:The
1377:beta
1210:kern
1084:for
1067:1.70
1045:mass
1031:and
1017:atom
1011:and
1003:The
885:Rabi
840:Hahn
750:RHIC
370:Halo
73:news
5842:by
5758:PFR
5549:PMR
5527:AVR
5449:Gas
5387:by
5355:KKN
5289:ATR
5204:EC6
5164:by
5112:EPR
5045:BWR
3270:Tau
3086:or
3082:in
3047:doi
3002:doi
2980:487
2939:doi
2925:131
2880:doi
2833:915
2737:doi
2715:503
2669:doi
2657:497
2604:doi
2536:522
2462:doi
2331:doi
2265:doi
2253:575
2168:doi
2125:doi
2082:doi
2028:doi
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1180:nux
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3008:.
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