2821:
2412:
2266:
1764:
1669:
1473:
1295:
1198:
1076:
2369:
1844:
2182:
2066:
1715:
1247:
1045:
2850:
2324:
1812:
2295:
1342:
1105:
2550:
1503:
2655:
2438:
1779:
2752:
1796:
3156:
3124:
3084:
3043:
3016:
2989:
2957:
2790:
2587:
2507:
2337:
2004:
1972:
1940:
1731:
1535:
2624:
1908:
982:
2223:
1442:
1410:
1310:
1230:
1167:
2880:
1827:
2894:
2521:
2688:
2245:
2109:
1893:
1699:
1631:
1378:
1279:
1213:
1013:
968:
2203:
1861:
400:
2925:
471:
2720:
2424:
2141:
1748:
1599:
1567:
1135:
2079:
313:– during the 19th and early 20th centuries. They were often signed following a military defeat suffered by the former party, or amid military threats made by the latter. Their terms specified obligations to be borne almost exclusively by the former party: provisions included the cession of territory, the payment of reparations, the opening of
3187:
in
Malaysia and urged the Chinese negotiators to reassess them through invoking the historical memory of China's unequal treaties. Stating that "they know that when they lend big sums of money to a poor country, in the end they may have to take the project for themselves". He appealed by stating that
713:
refused to sign the peace agreement, with China being the only conference member to boycott the signing ceremony. Widely perceived in China as a betrayal of the country's wartime contributions by the other conference members, the domestic backlash following the failure to restore
Shandong would cause
700:
As World War I commenced, these acts voided the unequal treaty of 1861, resulting in the reinstatement of
Chinese control on the concessions of Tianjin and Hankou to China. In 1919, the post-war peace negotiations failed to return the territories in Shandong, previously under German colonial control,
675:
declared a new national government in 1927, the
Western powers quickly offered diplomatic recognition, arousing anxiety in Japan. The new government declared to the Great Powers that China had been exploited for decades under unequal treaties, and that the time for such treaties was over, demanding
505:
In assessing the term's usage in rhetorical discourse since the early 20th century, American historian Dong Wang notes that "while the phrase has long been widely used, it nevertheless lacks a clear and unambiguous meaning" and that there is "no agreement about the actual number of treaties signed
692:
of 1902, Germany began to reassess its policy approach towards China. In 1907 Germany suggested a trilateral German-Chinese-American agreement that never materialised. Thus China entered the new era of ending unequal treaties on March 14, 1917, when it broke off diplomatic relations with
Germany,
825:
The enforcement of these unequal treaties were a tremendous national shock for Japan's leadership as they both curtailed
Japanese sovereignty for the first time in its history and also revealed the nation's growing weakness relative to the West through the latter's successful imposition of such
593:
states that the
Chinese viewed the treaties they signed with Western powers and Russia as unequal "because they were not negotiated by nations treating each other as equals but were imposed on China after a war, and because they encroached upon China's sovereign rights ... which reduced her to
506:
between China and foreign countries that should be counted as unequal." However, within the scope of
Chinese historiographical scholarship, the phrase has typically been defined to refer to the many cases in which China was effectively forced to pay large amounts of financial
906:
As
Japanese dominance over the Korean peninsula grew in the following decades, with respect to the unequal treaties imposed upon the kingdom by the West powers, Korea's diplomatic concessions with those states became largely null and void in 1910, when it was
2306:
724:
On May 20, 1921, China secured with the German-Chinese peace treaty (Deutsch-chinesischer
Vertrag zur Wiederherstellung des Friedenszustandes) a diplomatic accord which was considered the first equal treaty between China and a European nation.
2350:
2387:
826:
agreements upon the island nation. An objective towards the recovery of national status and strength would become an overarching priority for Japan, with the treaty's domestic consequences being the end of the
5201:
894:
with Korea stipulating that Korea was a dependency of China and granted the Chinese extraterritoriality and other privileges, and in subsequent treaties China also obtained concessions in Korea, such as the
4193:
was concluded between Korea and Japan. Korea paid compensation for Japanese losses. Japan and China worked out the Tien-Tsin Treaty, which ensured that both Japanese and Chinese troops withdraw from Korea
871:. After an armed clash ensued around Ganghwa Island where the Japanese force was sent, which resulted in its victory, the incident subsequently forced Korea to open its doors to Japan by signing the
4299:
Note that the Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament in Washington, D.C., 1921–1922 identified this as "Treaty of Alliance Between Japan and Korea, dated February 23, 1904"
664:
competed to convince the public that their approach would be more effective. Germany was forced to terminate its rights, the Soviet Union surrendered them, and the United States organized the
3188:"China knows very well that it had to deal with unequal treaties in the past imposed upon China by Western powers. So China should be sympathetic toward us. They know we cannot afford this."
5265:
818:
for foreign residents. This agreement would then serve as a model for similar treaties to be further signed by Japan with other foreign Western powers in the weeks to follow, such as the
2194:
5821:
371:
Japan and Korea also use the term to refer to several treaties that resulted in a reduction of their national sovereignty. Japan and China signed treaties with Korea such as the
837:
convinced many in the West that unequal treaties could no longer be enforced on Japan as it was a great power in its own right. This view gained more recognition following the
3270:
5099:
5860:
1323:
3222:
1644:
4485:
2161:
807:
2258:
5194:
624:, at least in theory, to reside within China. Foreign residents in the port cities were afforded trials by their own consular authorities rather than the
5865:
5701:
1612:
6165:
1580:
6180:
4064:; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between the United States and Korea. Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation dated May 22, 1882."
5540:
5280:
3295:
Fravel, M. Taylor (October 1, 2005). "Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China's Compromises in Territorial Disputes".
6155:
743:
in 1941, China became an ally with the United Kingdom and the United States, which then signed treaties with China to end British and American
5685:
5656:
5275:
4731:
3452:
490:
In China, the term "unequal treaties" first came into use in the early 1920s to describe the historical treaties, still imposed on the then-
5357:
4271:; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Denmark. Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation dated July 15, 1902."
4077:
6185:
4896:
4214:; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and France. Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation dated June 4, 1886."
3978:
2693:
2250:
2236:
2114:
1898:
1704:
1636:
1383:
1284:
1218:
1018:
973:
883:
610:
294:
5238:
5345:
5330:
799:
of 1633 under unilateral foreign pressure and consequentially, the convention has been seen in a similar light as an unequal treaty.
633:
6150:
5032:
3029:
2970:
756:
705:
After it was determined that the Japanese forces occupying those territories since 1914 would be allowed to retain them under the
3002:
2668:
6190:
6068:
5407:
2532:
752:
4075:"Korea-China Treaty System in the 1880s and the Opening of Seoul: Review of the Joseon-Qing Communication and Commerce Rules,"
6099:
5340:
4652:
4569:
4106:; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Germany and Korea. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated November 23, 1883."
4015:
3848:
3815:
3725:
3590:
3506:
3375:
3202:
1953:
4163:; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Italy. Treaty of Friendship and Commerce dated June 26, 1884."
5569:
5320:
5233:
4957:
4252:; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Belgium. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated March 23, 1901."
5142:
4972:
4233:; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Austria. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated July 23, 1892."
1649:
4144:; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Korea and Russia. Treaty of Amity and Commerce dated June 25, 1884."
620:
Following Qing China's defeat, treaties with Britain opened up five ports to foreign trade, while also allowing foreign
5785:
5154:
5027:
4851:
6074:
5915:
5790:
5147:
4724:
4635:
3988:
3766:
3745:
3667:
3544:
3349:
2392:
1423:
702:
656:, patriotic consciousness in China focused on the treaties, which now became widely known as "unequal treaties." The
641:
579:
491:
5885:
2906:
2861:
2832:
2636:
2090:
1484:
6160:
6002:
5245:
4932:
4818:
2803:
2701:
1109:
455:
787:
reached Japan in 1854 to force open the island nation for American trade, the country was compelled to sign the
6140:
6135:
6130:
5586:
5452:
5220:
4967:
4906:
4876:
4866:
3682:
Totman, Conrad (1966). "Political Succession in The Tokugawa Bakufu: Abe Masahiro's Rise to Power, 1843–1845".
3419:
3137:
3097:
3056:
2938:
2765:
2733:
2605:
2600:
2562:
2482:
891:
872:
376:
372:
194:
49:
17:
4661:
3585:. Michigan classics in Japanese studies. Ann Arbor, Mich: Center for Japanese Studies, the Univ. of Michigan.
72:
56:
6020:
5795:
5651:
5335:
5325:
5310:
5305:
5137:
5087:
5067:
5007:
4841:
896:
637:
65:
3831:
Paine, S. C. M. (November 18, 2002). "The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895: Perceptions, Power, and Primacy".
3486:
Deutsch-chinesische Beziehungen 1911-1927: Vom Kolonialismus zur „Gleichberechtigung“. Eine Quellensammlung.
833:
The unequal treaties ended at various times for the countries involved and Japan's victories in the 1894–95
5779:
5557:
5424:
5290:
5184:
4794:
4784:
4717:
3740:
Preston, Peter Wallace. (1998). Blackwell Publishing. Pacific Asia in the Global System: An Introduction.
3217:
3212:
531:
854:
5696:
5679:
5189:
5164:
5127:
5037:
4997:
4749:
4125:; excerpt, "Treaty and Diplomatic Relations Between Great Britain and Korea ... dated November 26, 1883."
3250:
760:
665:
4590:
Nish, I. H (1975). "Japan Reverses the Unequal Treaties: The Anglo-Japanese Commercial Treaty of 1894".
4411:
Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated November 17, 1905"
6170:
6079:
5525:
4684:
Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China's Compromises in Territorial Disputes
2770:
2567:
2487:
2208:
1866:
551:
348:
between roughly 1840 to 1950. The term "unequal treaty" became associated with the concept of China's "
4383:
Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated August 13, 1905"
4327:
Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated August 22, 1904"
6175:
6089:
5808:
5737:
5530:
5062:
4987:
4856:
4774:
4672:
Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament, Washington, D.C., 1921–1922. (1922).
4030:
Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament, Washington, D.C., 1921–1922. (1922).
3560:
3536:
1455:
908:
547:
4519:
4355:
Note that the Korean diplomats in 1921–1922 identified this as "Alleged Treaty, dated April 1, 1905"
6145:
6010:
5830:
5564:
5535:
5285:
3184:
736:
694:
254:
4683:
4460:
3460:
830:, the 700 years of shogunate rule over Japan, and the establishment of a new imperial government.
5606:
5072:
5057:
4891:
4789:
3863:
I. H. Nish, "Japan Reverses the Unequal Treaties: The Anglo-Japanese Commercial Treaty of 1894,"
3805:
900:
850:
834:
689:
661:
625:
559:
388:
365:
341:
361:
5987:
5875:
5756:
5581:
4799:
4699:
4074:
3197:
2048:
882:
During this period Korea also signed treaties with Qing China and the West powers (such as the
788:
740:
567:
436:
349:
3958:
3955:
3438:(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965; Reprinted: Chicago: Imprint Publications, 1990),
783:, Japan was also subject to numerous unequal treaties. When the US expeditionary fleet led by
6061:
5920:
5880:
5547:
5509:
5397:
5377:
5295:
5094:
5077:
4942:
4911:
4846:
4441:
4422:
4394:
4366:
4338:
4310:
4282:
4263:
4244:
4225:
4206:
4177:
4174:
4155:
4136:
4117:
4098:
4056:
4035:
4032:
4005:
3937:
3901:
3881:
3878:
3657:
2825:
2416:
1768:
1673:
1548:
1516:
1477:
841:
in 1905, whereby Japan most notably defeated Russia in a massive humiliation for the latter.
598:
515:
475:
298:
208:
3919:
498:
characterized as the "treaty century" which began in the 1840s. The term was popularized by
459:
5992:
5959:
5925:
5870:
5750:
5732:
5442:
5372:
5179:
4962:
3708:
Oye, David Schimmelpenninck van der (January 1, 2005). "The Immediate Origins of the War".
3227:
2277:
2270:
1352:
1299:
1260:
1202:
732:, the Republic of China unsuccessfully sought to negotiate an end to the unequal treaties.
706:
353:
3782:
575:
8:
6045:
5895:
5835:
5767:
5447:
5300:
5255:
5002:
4881:
4861:
4769:
4657:
4561:
Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy.
4559:
3980:
International Law and Japanese Sovereignty: The Emerging Global Order in the 19th Century
3959:
Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy,
3882:
Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy,
3367:
2383:
2374:
1849:
1508:
994:
815:
744:
719:
629:
583:
463:
329:
322:
3659:
Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy
5930:
5641:
5636:
5462:
5402:
5392:
5387:
5382:
5206:
5052:
4871:
4644:
Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Conflict in China's Territorial Disputes
3695:
3635:
3608:"Yokoi Shōnan's Response to the Foreign Intervention in Late Tokugawa Japan, 1853–1862"
3320:
3232:
2299:
2083:
1921:
1913:
1347:
1180:
838:
803:
495:
286:
4007:
Middle Kingdom and Empire of the Rising Sun: Sino-Japanese Relations, Past and Present
5940:
5935:
5910:
5855:
5850:
5773:
5721:
5626:
5457:
5362:
5260:
5159:
5122:
5047:
4977:
4947:
4901:
4648:
4631:
4565:
4527:
4493:
4011:
3984:
3844:
3811:
3762:
3741:
3721:
3663:
3639:
3627:
3586:
3540:
3502:
3415:
3371:
3345:
3312:
2122:
1391:
1359:
1058:
1026:
949:
792:
780:
614:
527:
416:
384:
3324:
462:," written on slices of the cake, represent those locations in China; a stereotyped
6094:
5977:
5900:
5646:
5367:
5228:
5174:
5017:
4982:
4886:
4811:
4779:
4695:
3836:
3713:
3691:
3619:
3304:
3245:
3180:
2757:
1874:
1801:
1087:
784:
768:
424:
333:
90:
4663:
International law: or, Rules regulating the intercourse of states in peace and war
6109:
6055:
5905:
5890:
5714:
5169:
5132:
5082:
5042:
4992:
4937:
4806:
4643:
4610:
Liberal Barbarism: The European Destruction of the Palace of the Emperor of China
4290:; excerpt, "Treaty of Alliance Between Japan and Korea, dated February 23, 1904."
4081:
3161:
3129:
3089:
3048:
3021:
2994:
2962:
2854:
2795:
2592:
2512:
2342:
2328:
2009:
1977:
1945:
1816:
1736:
1540:
1148:
1116:
811:
764:
747:
in January 1943. Significant examples outlasted World War II: treaties regarding
685:
672:
602:
555:
511:
507:
451:
440:
380:
4486:"Analysis | New Malaysian government steps back from spending, Chinese projects"
3183:
criticized the terms of the bilateral infrastructure projects under the Chinese
849:
Korea's first unequal treaty was not with the West, but instead with Japan. The
5972:
5845:
5611:
5574:
5022:
5012:
4952:
4555:
3653:
3607:
3308:
2725:
2525:
2429:
2228:
2154:
2146:
1753:
1680:
1604:
1572:
1447:
1415:
1315:
1235:
1172:
1140:
819:
729:
710:
535:
523:
483:
479:
428:
412:
408:
310:
111:
4603:
Japan Comes of Age: Mutsu Munemitsu & the Revision of the Unequal Treaties
3717:
3623:
6124:
6084:
6050:
6015:
5631:
5621:
5437:
4828:
4531:
4497:
3840:
3631:
3316:
2899:
2660:
2555:
2443:
2195:
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Kingdom of the Netherlands and Japan
2187:
2071:
1784:
1720:
1252:
1080:
1050:
887:
868:
860:
563:
443:
420:
387:
also began enforcing unequal treaties against China after its victory in the
306:
302:
494:, that were signed through the period of time which the American sinologist
399:
391:
for influence over Korea as well as China's coastal ports and territories.
6104:
5801:
5743:
5432:
5414:
5270:
4740:
4703:
4446:
4427:
4399:
4371:
4343:
4315:
4287:
4268:
4249:
4230:
4211:
4184:
4160:
4141:
4122:
4103:
4061:
4042:
3965:
3942:
3924:
3906:
3888:
3240:
3207:
2629:
1985:
987:
863:
with the implied threat of military action to coerce the Korean kingdom of
606:
590:
539:
314:
282:
97:
4585:
795:. This event abruptly terminated Japan's 220 years of seclusion under the
6040:
5761:
5482:
5477:
4677:
4573:
653:
499:
447:
345:
4615:
Wang, Dong (2003). "The Discourse of Unequal Treaties in Modern China".
3561:"FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES: DIPLOMATIC PAPERS, 1943, CHINA"
3436:
After Imperialism: The Search for a New Order in the Far East, 1921–1931
379:, with each granting privileges to the former parties concerning Korea.
281:
were a series of agreements made between Asian countries – most notably
5708:
5552:
5502:
5472:
5315:
4667:
715:
657:
621:
337:
4709:
4520:"'We Cannot Afford This': Malaysia Pushes Back Against China's Vision"
470:
5497:
5487:
4045:; excerpt, "Treaty Between Japan and Korea, dated February 26, 1876."
748:
127:
693:
thereby terminating the concessions it had given that country, with
582:
etc.), and make various other concessions of sovereignty to foreign
5982:
5727:
5674:
5616:
5492:
5467:
3176:
432:
134:
2307:
Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation between Austria and Japan
2216:
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Russian Empire and Japan
899:. However, Qing China lost its influence over Korea following the
763:, the People's Republic of China was forced to reconfirm the 1858
344:
used the concept to characterize the Chinese experience of losing
5967:
2930:
2885:
1832:
571:
2162:
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and Japan
735:
Many treaties China considered unequal were repealed during the
597:
The earliest treaty later referred to as "unequal" was the 1841
864:
827:
796:
543:
519:
357:
318:
290:
157:
3366:. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK:
510:, open up ports for trade, cede or lease territories (such as
5691:
5250:
2237:
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between British Empire and Japan
231:
171:
5861:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
5350:
4674:
Korea's Appeal to the Conference on Limitation of Armament.
4036:
Korea's Appeal to the Conference on Limitation of Armament,
3759:
The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea
4461:"Malaysian backlash tests China's Belt and Road ambitions"
2278:
Prussian-Japanese Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation
814:, which, among other concessions, established a system of
679:
2351:
Spanish-Japanese Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation
482:, during a celebration ceremony after the signing of the
139:
3761:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 54.
632:. Under the treaties, the UK and the US established the
3223:
List of treaties of China before the People's Republic
647:
259:
4402:; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated November 17, 1905."
2259:
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan
116:
102:
4628:
China's Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History
3480:
3478:
3399:
China's Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History
3342:
China's Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History
2388:
Convention of retrocession of the Liaodong Peninsula
914:
364:, and continues to serve as a major impetus for the
213:
199:
5866:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
4449:; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated August 20, 1910."
4374:; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated August 13, 1905."
4318:; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated August 22, 1904."
3364:
The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History
1613:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
3430:
3428:
1581:Convention for the Lease of the Liaotung Peninsula
4430:; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated July 24, 1907."
4346:; excerpt, "Alleged Treaty, dated April 1, 1905."
3652:
3475:
6122:
3393:
3391:
3389:
3387:
2684:
2241:
2105:
1889:
1695:
1627:
1374:
1275:
1209:
1009:
964:
810:of 1858, negotiated by the eponymous U.S. envoy
3581:Hall, John Whitney; Hall, John Whitney (1991).
3425:
1243:
1041:
5266:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
3344:. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. pp. 1–2.
2399:
2355:
2311:
2282:
2169:
2127:
2095:
2053:
236:
5686:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
5657:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
4725:
4676:Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.
4172:Yi, Kwang-gyu and Joseph P. Linskey. (2003).
3662:. Harvard University Press. pp. 17, 44.
3533:One and All: The Logic of Chinese Sovereignty
3414:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 239.
3384:
3275:Encyclopédie d’histoire numérique de l’Europe
2199:
1990:
1958:
1926:
1879:
1857:
1685:
1656:
1617:
1585:
1553:
1521:
1489:
1460:
1428:
1396:
1364:
1328:
1265:
1185:
1153:
1121:
1092:
1063:
1031:
999:
954:
676:they renegotiate all of them on equal terms.
317:, the relinquishment of the right to control
70:
54:
3710:The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective
3142:
3109:
3102:
3069:
3062:
2975:
2943:
2911:
2866:
2837:
2808:
2776:
2738:
2706:
2674:
2641:
2611:
2606:Joseon-Qing Communication and Commerce Rules
2573:
2537:
2493:
890:). In the case of Qing China, it signed the
176:
162:
793:threat of violence by the American warships
4732:
4718:
3488:Berlin, Akademie-Verlag 2006, S. 221.
3170:
1499:
27:Series of treaties imposed on Asian states
6166:History of the foreign relations of Japan
5346:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
2921:
2876:
2651:
2434:
1823:
1775:
1338:
634:British Supreme Court for China and Japan
293:and Western countries – most notably the
6181:Foreign relations of the Empire of Japan
5195:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
3605:
3580:
3524:
2716:
2420:
2219:
2137:
1744:
1595:
1563:
1517:Treaty of Shimonoseki (Treaty of Maguan)
1438:
1406:
1306:
1226:
1163:
1131:
478:inside the Chinese imperial palace, the
469:
398:
5802:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
4739:
4010:. Oxford University Press. p. 49.
3976:
3530:
3152:
3120:
3080:
3039:
3012:
2985:
2953:
2786:
2748:
2583:
2503:
2365:
2333:
2000:
1968:
1936:
1904:
1840:
1792:
1727:
1531:
680:Towards the end of the unequal treaties
14:
6123:
4003:
3583:Japan: from prehistory to modern times
3401:(Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2005).
3336:
3334:
3294:
761:military skirmishes along their border
405:China – the cake of Kings and Emperors
6156:Foreign relations of the Qing dynasty
6100:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
5341:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
4713:
4630:. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books.
4564:Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
4517:
4458:
4087:Vol. 5, No. 2 (Dec 2008), pp. 85–120.
3830:
3810:. V&R unipress GmbH. p. 97.
3803:
3361:
3203:China Centenary Missionary Conference
1954:Sino-Japanese Joint Defence Agreement
941: English name
802:Another significant incident was the
466:reacts with horror in the background.
5321:Ministry of Posts and Communications
4583:. New York: Oxford University Press.
3756:
3355:
3030:Japan–Korea Agreement of August 1905
2971:Japan–Korea Agreement of August 1904
403:A French political cartoon in 1898,
6069:History of Qing (People's Republic)
4578:
4085:Journal of Northeast Asian History,
3707:
3331:
3003:Japan–Korea Agreement of April 1905
2669:United Kingdom–Korea Treaty of 1883
2452:
2018:
919:
853:in 1875 saw Japan send the warship
714:the collapse of the cabinet of the
648:Chinese post-World War I resentment
24:
5786:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
5155:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
5148:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
5028:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
4852:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
3857:
3734:
3684:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
2533:United States–Korea Treaty of 1882
25:
6202:
6075:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
5916:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
5791:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
4943:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
4579:Hsü, Immanuel Chung-yueh (1970).
4518:Beech, Hannah (August 20, 2018).
3807:A New Modern History of East Asia
915:Selected list of unequal treaties
321:and imports, and the granting of
5886:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
5202:Articles of Favourable Treatment
4958:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
3154:
3122:
3082:
3041:
3014:
2987:
2955:
2923:
2892:
2878:
2848:
2819:
2788:
2750:
2718:
2686:
2653:
2622:
2585:
2548:
2519:
2505:
2436:
2422:
2410:
2367:
2335:
2322:
2293:
2264:
2243:
2221:
2201:
2180:
2139:
2107:
2091:Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty
2077:
2064:
2002:
1970:
1938:
1906:
1891:
1859:
1842:
1825:
1810:
1794:
1777:
1762:
1746:
1729:
1713:
1697:
1667:
1629:
1597:
1565:
1533:
1501:
1485:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
1471:
1440:
1408:
1376:
1340:
1308:
1293:
1277:
1245:
1228:
1211:
1196:
1165:
1133:
1103:
1074:
1043:
1011:
980:
966:
589:The Chinese-American sinologist
6151:History of European colonialism
4933:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
4819:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
4612:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
4549:
4511:
4478:
4452:
4433:
4414:
4405:
4386:
4377:
4358:
4349:
4330:
4321:
4302:
4293:
4274:
4255:
4236:
4217:
4198:
4166:
4147:
4128:
4109:
4090:
4067:
4048:
4024:
3997:
3970:
3947:
3929:
3911:
3893:
3870:
3824:
3797:
3775:
3750:
3701:
3676:
3646:
3599:
3574:
3553:
3511:
3491:
3459:. June 25, 1928. Archived from
741:Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor
605:. The first treaty between the
140:
6186:China–Russian Empire relations
5587:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
4877:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
4647:. Princeton University Press.
3783:"Guide to Incheon's Chinatown"
3445:
3404:
3288:
3263:
1991:
1959:
1927:
1880:
1686:
1657:
1618:
1586:
1554:
1522:
1490:
1461:
1429:
1397:
1365:
1329:
1266:
1186:
1154:
1122:
1093:
1064:
1032:
1000:
955:
695:China declaring war on Germany
586:, following military threats.
260:
214:
200:
117:
103:
71:
55:
13:
1:
6191:Extraterritorial jurisdiction
6021:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
5796:Islam during the Qing dynasty
5652:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
5336:Provincial military commander
5326:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
5311:Imperial Household Department
5138:Preparative Constitutionalism
4842:Sino-Russian border conflicts
4666:. New York: D. Van Nostrand.
3271:"Unequal Treaties with China"
3256:
897:Chinese concession of Incheon
755:, though in 1969, to improve
638:United States Court for China
354:concessions to foreign powers
5780:Researches on Manchu Origins
5185:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
4795:Transition from Ming to Qing
4785:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
4459:Bland, Ben (June 24, 2018).
4004:Dreyer, June Teufel (2016).
3606:Miyauchi, D. Y. (May 1970).
3497:Dreyer, June Teufel (2015).
3410:Hsu, Immanuel C. Y. (1970).
3218:List of Chinese treaty ports
3213:Foreign concessions in China
2907:Denmark–Korea Treaty of 1902
2862:Belgium–Korea Treaty of 1901
2833:Austria–Korea Treaty of 1892
2637:Germany–Korea Treaty of 1883
566:and concession territory in
7:
5680:Changzhou School of Thought
5190:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
5165:Railway Protection Movement
5143:1909 Parliamentary election
5128:British expedition to Tibet
5038:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
4998:Self-Strengthening Movement
4973:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
4592:Journal of Oriental Studies
4178:Korean Traditional Culture,
3865:Journal of Oriental Studies
3251:Western imperialism in Asia
3191:
2804:France–Korea Treaty of 1886
2702:Russia–Korea Treaty of 1884
2382:Retrocession following the
718:government and lead to the
141:bat1 ping4 dang2 tiu4 joek3
10:
6207:
6080:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
4968:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
4907:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
4897:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
4867:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
4700:10.1162/016228805775124534
4682:Fravel, M. Taylor (2005).
4641:Fravel, M. Taylor (2008).
3953:Auslin, Michael R. (2004)
3876:Auslin, Michael R. (2004)
3833:Cambridge University Press
3453:"CHINA: Nationalist Notes"
3309:10.1162/016228805775124534
3138:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910
3098:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907
3057:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905
2939:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1904
2890:
2766:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1885
2734:Italy–Korea Treaty of 1884
2601:China–Korea Treaty of 1882
2563:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1882
2517:
2483:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876
2075:
1691:
1684:
1679:
1424:Treaty of Saint Petersburg
978:
892:China–Korea Treaty of 1882
877:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876
377:China–Korea Treaty of 1882
373:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876
6090:Names of the Qing dynasty
6033:
6001:
5958:
5951:
5820:
5738:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
5665:
5597:
5518:
5423:
5219:
5110:
5068:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
5063:Gongche Shangshu movement
5008:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
4920:
4857:Chinese Rites controversy
4827:
4757:
4748:
3977:Howland, Douglas (2016).
3718:10.1163/9789047407041_008
3624:10.1017/s0026749x00011938
3537:Stanford University Press
3143:
3110:
3103:
3070:
3063:
2976:
2944:
2912:
2867:
2838:
2809:
2777:
2739:
2707:
2675:
2671:
2642:
2612:
2574:
2538:
2494:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2400:
2381:
2356:
2349:
2332:
2312:
2305:
2283:
2276:
2175:
2170:
2168:
2153:
2128:
2121:
2096:
2089:
2054:
2047:
2039:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2025:
1903:
1456:Treaty of Tientsin (1885)
1324:Treaty of Tientsin (1861)
1271:
1264:
1259:
1191:
1184:
1181:Treaty of Tientsin (1858)
1179:
944: Chinese name
935:
932:
929:
926:
753:Hong Kong's 1997 handover
613:termed "unequal" was the
548:Kwantung Leased Territory
271:
253:
248:
244:
237:
230:
225:
207:
193:
188:
184:
177:
170:
163:
156:
151:
133:
126:
110:
96:
89:
84:
80:
64:
48:
43:
39:
34:
6011:Great Qing Treasure Note
5831:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
5541:Administrative divisions
5358:Administrative divisions
5286:Flag of the Qing dynasty
4581:The Rise of Modern China
4080:October 5, 2011, at the
3841:10.1017/CBO9780511550188
3804:Fuchs, Eckhardt (2017).
3499:China's Political System
3412:The Rise of Modern China
3185:Belt and Road Initiative
873:Treaty of Ganghwa Island
844:
774:
751:remained in place until
737:Second Sino-Japanese War
601:negotiations during the
394:
119:pu pʻing teng tʻiao yüeh
50:Traditional Chinese
5607:Chengde Mountain Resort
5408:Three Eastern Provinces
5058:First Sino-Japanese War
5033:Northern Chinese Famine
4892:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
4790:Qing invasion of Joseon
4601:Perez, Louis G (1999).
3867:(1975) 13#2 pp 137-146.
3519:Encyclopædia Britannica
3517:"May Fourth Movement".
3362:Crean, Jeffrey (2024).
3171:Modern rhetorical usage
2613:조청상민수륙무역장정 (朝淸商民水陸貿易章程)
1645:Treaty of Kwangchow Wan
901:First Sino-Japanese War
851:Ganghwa Island incident
835:First Sino-Japanese War
806:'s capitulation to the
739:(1937-1945). After the
709:, the Chinese delegate
690:Anglo-Japanese Alliance
688:and the signing of the
662:Chinese Communist Party
560:Jiaozhou Bay concession
389:First Sino-Japanese War
366:foreign policy of China
342:Chinese Communist Party
336:in the 1920s, both the
66:Simplified Chinese
6161:Free trade imperialism
5988:Great Qing Copper Coin
5876:Convention of Tientsin
5809:Annotated Bibliography
5757:Qing official headwear
4800:Battle of Shanhai Pass
4688:International Security
4608:Ringmar, Erik (2013).
3531:Laikwan, Pang (2024).
3297:International Security
3198:Century of humiliation
2049:Convention of Kanagawa
789:Convention of Kanagawa
594:semicolonial status".
487:
467:
350:century of humiliation
6141:19th century in Korea
6136:19th century in Japan
6131:19th century in China
6062:Draft History of Qing
5921:Treaty of Shimonoseki
5702:performance criticism
5306:Imperial Commissioner
5296:Great Qing Legal Code
5095:Eight-Nation Alliance
5078:Third plague pandemic
4988:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
4912:White Lotus Rebellion
4658:Halleck, Henry Wager.
4626:Wang, Dong. (2005).
757:Sino-Soviet relations
666:Washington Conference
599:Convention of Chuenpi
516:Outer Northwest China
476:Eight-Nation Alliance
473:
402:
325:to foreign citizens.
5993:Great Qing Gold Coin
5926:Treaty of Tarbagatai
5871:Convention of Peking
5751:Pentaglot Dictionary
5733:Literary inquisition
5443:Ever Victorious Army
5276:Deliberative Council
5180:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
5133:1905 Batang uprising
5073:Hundred Days' Reform
4963:Small Swords Society
3757:Duus, Peter (1998).
3612:Modern Asian Studies
3501:. Routledge. p. 60.
3463:on November 21, 2010
3340:Wang, Dong. (2005).
3228:Most favoured nation
1353:Deutscher Zollverein
1261:Convention of Peking
875:, also known as the
707:Treaty of Versailles
697:on August 17, 1917.
626:Chinese legal system
584:spheres of influence
215:pulp'yŏngdŭng choyak
201:bulpyeongdeung joyak
195:Revised Romanization
6046:Anti-Qing sentiment
5896:Treaty of the Bogue
5836:Treaty of Nerchinsk
5768:Complete Tang Poems
5448:Green Standard Army
5331:Provincial governor
5301:Imperial Clan Court
5281:Diplomatic missions
5256:Consultative Bureau
5003:Tongzhi Restoration
4882:Afaqi Khoja revolts
4862:Ten Great Campaigns
4770:Jurchen unification
4704:ISSN 0162-2889
3368:Bloomsbury Academic
2913:조덴수호통상조약 (朝丁修好通商條約)
2868:조벨수호통상조약 (朝白修好通商條約)
2839:조오수호통상조약 (朝奧修好通商條約)
2810:조불수호통상조약 (朝佛修好通商條約)
2740:조이수호통상조약 (朝伊修好通商條約)
2708:조로수호통상조약 (朝露修好通商條約)
2676:조영수호통상조약 (朝英修好通商條約)
2643:조독수호통상조약 (朝獨修好通商條約)
2539:조미수호통상조약 (朝美修好通商條約)
2384:Triple Intervention
995:Treaty of the Bogue
816:extraterritoriality
745:extraterritoriality
668:to negotiate them.
630:extraterritoriality
628:, a concept termed
330:Chinese nationalism
323:extraterritoriality
104:bù-píngděng tiáoyuē
5931:Treaty of Tientsin
5642:Western Qing tombs
5637:Eastern Qing tombs
5463:Peking Field Force
5207:Manchu Restoration
5100:Declaration of war
5053:Jindandao incident
4872:Lhasa riot of 1750
4556:Auslin, Michael R.
4524:The New York Times
3694::10.2307/2718461.
3104:제3차 한일협약 (第三次韓日協約)
3064:제2차 한일협약 (第二次韓日協約)
2977:제1차 한일협약 (第一次韓日協約)
2771:Treaty of Hanseong
2568:Treaty of Chemulpo
2084:Tokugawa shogunate
1922:Twenty-One Demands
839:Russo-Japanese War
804:Tokugawa Shogunate
703:Republic of China.
488:
468:
352:", especially the
6171:Lists of treaties
6118:
6117:
6029:
6028:
5941:Treaty of Whampoa
5936:Treaty of Wanghia
5911:Treaty of Nanking
5881:Li–Lobanov Treaty
5856:Chefoo Convention
5851:Burlingame Treaty
5722:Kangxi Dictionary
5627:Old Summer Palace
5458:Firearm Battalion
5261:Cup of Solid Gold
5215:
5214:
5160:Manchurian plague
5123:Late Qing reforms
5114:(1901–1912)
5048:Sikkim expedition
4978:Panthay Rebellion
4948:Taiping Rebellion
4924:(1801–1900)
4902:Sino-Nepalese War
4847:Dzungar–Qing Wars
4833:(1683–1799)
4761:(1616–1683)
4653:978-1-4008-2887-6
4570:978-0-674-01521-0
4017:978-0-19-537566-4
3850:978-0-521-81714-1
3817:978-3-7370-0708-5
3727:978-90-474-0704-1
3654:Michael R. Auslin
3592:978-0-939512-54-6
3507:978-1-317-34964-8
3377:978-1-350-23394-2
3168:
3167:
2488:Treaty of Ganghwa
2450:
2449:
2123:Treaty of Shimoda
2016:
2015:
1914:Republic of China
1549:Li–Lobanov Treaty
1392:Treaty of Livadia
1360:Chefoo Convention
1059:Treaty of Whampoa
1027:Treaty of Wanghia
950:Treaty of Nanking
781:Meiji Restoration
720:May 4th movement.
658:Nationalist Party
615:Treaty of Nanjing
492:Republic of China
417:Kaiser Wilhelm II
385:Meiji Restoration
360:autonomy through
328:With the rise of
275:
274:
267:
266:
221:
220:
209:McCune–Reischauer
147:
146:
91:Standard Mandarin
16:(Redirected from
6198:
6176:Unequal treaties
6095:New Qing History
5978:Qianlong Tongbao
5956:
5955:
5901:Treaty of Canton
5841:Unequal treaties
5647:Fuling Mausoleum
5246:Advisory Council
5175:Wuchang Uprising
5115:
5018:Tianjin Massacre
4983:Second Opium War
4925:
4887:Sino-Burmese War
4834:
4812:Battle of Penghu
4780:Seven Grievances
4762:
4755:
4754:
4734:
4727:
4720:
4711:
4710:
4584:
4543:
4542:
4540:
4538:
4515:
4509:
4508:
4506:
4504:
4482:
4476:
4475:
4473:
4471:
4456:
4450:
4439:Korean Mission,
4437:
4431:
4420:Korean Mission,
4418:
4412:
4409:
4403:
4392:Korean Mission,
4390:
4384:
4381:
4375:
4364:Korean Mission,
4362:
4356:
4353:
4347:
4336:Korean Mission,
4334:
4328:
4325:
4319:
4308:Korean Mission,
4306:
4300:
4297:
4291:
4280:Korean Mission,
4278:
4272:
4261:Korean Mission,
4259:
4253:
4242:Korean Mission,
4240:
4234:
4223:Korean Mission,
4221:
4215:
4204:Korean Mission,
4202:
4196:
4170:
4164:
4153:Korean Mission,
4151:
4145:
4134:Korean Mission,
4132:
4126:
4115:Korean Mission,
4113:
4107:
4096:Korean Mission,
4094:
4088:
4071:
4065:
4054:Korean Mission,
4052:
4046:
4028:
4022:
4021:
4001:
3995:
3994:
3974:
3968:
3951:
3945:
3933:
3927:
3915:
3909:
3897:
3891:
3874:
3868:
3861:
3855:
3854:
3828:
3822:
3821:
3801:
3795:
3794:
3792:
3790:
3779:
3773:
3772:
3754:
3748:
3738:
3732:
3731:
3705:
3699:
3680:
3674:
3673:
3650:
3644:
3643:
3603:
3597:
3596:
3578:
3572:
3571:
3569:
3567:
3557:
3551:
3550:
3535:. Stanford, CA:
3528:
3522:
3515:
3509:
3495:
3489:
3482:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3449:
3443:
3432:
3423:
3408:
3402:
3395:
3382:
3381:
3359:
3353:
3338:
3329:
3328:
3292:
3286:
3285:
3283:
3281:
3267:
3246:Sick man of Asia
3181:Mahathir Mohamad
3164:
3160:
3158:
3157:
3146:
3145:
3132:
3128:
3126:
3125:
3113:
3112:
3106:
3105:
3092:
3088:
3086:
3085:
3073:
3072:
3066:
3065:
3051:
3047:
3045:
3044:
3024:
3020:
3018:
3017:
2997:
2993:
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2990:
2979:
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2965:
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2947:
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2870:
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2812:
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2798:
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2540:
2524:
2523:
2522:
2515:
2511:
2509:
2508:
2497:
2496:
2457:
2456:
2453:Imposed on Korea
2446:
2442:
2440:
2439:
2432:
2428:
2426:
2425:
2415:
2414:
2413:
2403:
2402:
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2186:
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2117:
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2111:
2110:
2099:
2098:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2070:
2068:
2067:
2057:
2056:
2023:
2022:
2019:Imposed on Japan
2012:
2008:
2006:
2005:
1994:
1993:
1980:
1976:
1974:
1973:
1962:
1961:
1948:
1944:
1942:
1941:
1930:
1929:
1916:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1901:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1883:
1882:
1875:Simla Convention
1869:
1865:
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1862:
1852:
1848:
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1156:
1143:
1139:
1137:
1136:
1125:
1124:
1108:
1107:
1106:
1096:
1095:
1088:Treaty of Canton
1079:
1078:
1077:
1067:
1066:
1053:
1049:
1047:
1046:
1035:
1034:
1021:
1017:
1015:
1014:
1003:
1002:
986:
984:
983:
976:
972:
970:
969:
958:
957:
924:
923:
920:Imposed on China
909:annexed by Japan
769:Treaty of Peking
496:John K. Fairbank
425:Tsar Nicholas II
356:and the loss of
334:anti-imperialism
279:unequal treaties
263:
262:
246:
245:
240:
239:
217:
216:
203:
202:
186:
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166:
165:
143:
142:
122:
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120:
106:
105:
82:
81:
76:
75:
60:
59:
35:Unequal treaties
32:
31:
21:
6206:
6205:
6201:
6200:
6199:
6197:
6196:
6195:
6146:Boxer Rebellion
6121:
6120:
6119:
6114:
6110:Willow Palisade
6056:Chuang Guandong
6025:
5997:
5947:
5906:Treaty of Kulja
5891:Treaty of Aigun
5824:
5816:
5715:History of Ming
5667:
5661:
5599:
5593:
5519:Special regions
5514:
5453:Imperial Guards
5419:
5211:
5170:1911 Revolution
5116:
5113:
5106:
5083:Boxer Rebellion
5043:Sino-French War
4993:Amur Annexation
4938:First Opium War
4926:
4923:
4916:
4835:
4832:
4823:
4807:Great Clearance
4763:
4760:
4744:
4738:
4617:Pacific Affairs
4552:
4547:
4546:
4536:
4534:
4516:
4512:
4502:
4500:
4490:Washington Post
4484:
4483:
4479:
4469:
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4465:Financial Times
4457:
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4294:
4279:
4275:
4260:
4256:
4241:
4237:
4222:
4218:
4203:
4199:
4191:Hanseong Treaty
4171:
4167:
4152:
4148:
4133:
4129:
4114:
4110:
4095:
4091:
4082:Wayback Machine
4073:Moon, Myungki.
4072:
4068:
4053:
4049:
4029:
4025:
4018:
4002:
3998:
3991:
3975:
3971:
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3875:
3871:
3862:
3858:
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3825:
3818:
3802:
3798:
3788:
3786:
3785:. March 3, 2022
3781:
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3565:
3563:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3547:
3529:
3525:
3516:
3512:
3496:
3492:
3484:Andreas Steen:
3483:
3476:
3466:
3464:
3451:
3450:
3446:
3433:
3426:
3409:
3405:
3396:
3385:
3378:
3360:
3356:
3339:
3332:
3293:
3289:
3279:
3277:
3269:
3268:
3264:
3259:
3194:
3179:prime minister
3173:
3155:
3153:
3144:한일병합조약 (韓日倂合條約)
3123:
3121:
3107:
3083:
3081:
3067:
3059:
3042:
3040:
3015:
3013:
2988:
2986:
2956:
2954:
2924:
2922:
2893:
2891:
2879:
2877:
2855:Austria-Hungary
2849:
2847:
2820:
2818:
2789:
2787:
2768:
2751:
2749:
2719:
2717:
2687:
2685:
2654:
2652:
2623:
2621:
2603:
2586:
2584:
2565:
2549:
2547:
2520:
2518:
2506:
2504:
2485:
2455:
2437:
2435:
2433:
2423:
2421:
2419:
2411:
2409:
2390:
2386:
2368:
2366:
2336:
2334:
2329:Austria-Hungary
2323:
2321:
2294:
2292:
2265:
2263:
2244:
2242:
2222:
2220:
2202:
2200:
2181:
2179:
2165:(Harris Treaty)
2140:
2138:
2108:
2106:
2078:
2076:
2065:
2063:
2021:
2003:
2001:
1971:
1969:
1939:
1937:
1907:
1905:
1892:
1890:
1860:
1858:
1843:
1841:
1826:
1824:
1817:Austria-Hungary
1811:
1809:
1795:
1793:
1778:
1776:
1763:
1761:
1747:
1745:
1730:
1728:
1714:
1712:
1698:
1696:
1668:
1666:
1647:
1630:
1628:
1598:
1596:
1566:
1564:
1534:
1532:
1502:
1500:
1472:
1470:
1441:
1439:
1409:
1407:
1377:
1375:
1341:
1339:
1309:
1307:
1294:
1292:
1278:
1276:
1246:
1244:
1229:
1227:
1212:
1210:
1197:
1195:
1166:
1164:
1149:Treaty of Aigun
1134:
1132:
1117:Treaty of Kulja
1104:
1102:
1075:
1073:
1044:
1042:
1012:
1010:
981:
979:
967:
965:
922:
917:
859:led by Captain
847:
812:Townsend Harris
777:
765:Treaty of Aigun
759:in the wake of
686:Boxer Rebellion
682:
673:Chiang Kai-shek
650:
603:First Opium War
556:Empire of Japan
512:Outer Manchuria
452:Emperor Guangxu
397:
261:fu byōdō jōyaku
118:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6204:
6194:
6193:
6188:
6183:
6178:
6173:
6168:
6163:
6158:
6153:
6148:
6143:
6138:
6133:
6116:
6115:
6113:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6065:
6058:
6053:
6048:
6043:
6037:
6035:
6031:
6030:
6027:
6026:
6024:
6023:
6018:
6013:
6007:
6005:
5999:
5998:
5996:
5995:
5990:
5985:
5980:
5975:
5973:Kangxi Tongbao
5970:
5964:
5962:
5953:
5949:
5948:
5946:
5945:
5944:
5943:
5938:
5933:
5928:
5923:
5918:
5913:
5908:
5903:
5898:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5878:
5873:
5868:
5863:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5846:Boxer Protocol
5838:
5833:
5827:
5825:
5818:
5817:
5815:
5814:
5813:
5812:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5783:
5776:
5771:
5764:
5759:
5754:
5747:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5718:
5711:
5706:
5705:
5704:
5694:
5689:
5682:
5677:
5671:
5669:
5663:
5662:
5660:
5659:
5654:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5624:
5619:
5614:
5612:Forbidden City
5609:
5603:
5601:
5595:
5594:
5592:
5591:
5590:
5589:
5579:
5578:
5577:
5575:General of Ili
5572:
5562:
5561:
5560:
5558:List of ambans
5555:
5545:
5544:
5543:
5533:
5528:
5522:
5520:
5516:
5515:
5513:
5512:
5507:
5506:
5505:
5500:
5495:
5485:
5480:
5475:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5429:
5427:
5421:
5420:
5418:
5417:
5412:
5411:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5360:
5355:
5354:
5353:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5323:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5303:
5298:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5258:
5253:
5248:
5243:
5242:
5241:
5236:
5225:
5223:
5217:
5216:
5213:
5212:
5210:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5198:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5177:
5167:
5162:
5157:
5152:
5151:
5150:
5145:
5135:
5130:
5125:
5119:
5117:
5112:
5108:
5107:
5105:
5104:
5103:
5102:
5092:
5091:
5090:
5080:
5075:
5070:
5065:
5060:
5055:
5050:
5045:
5040:
5035:
5030:
5025:
5023:Margary Affair
5020:
5015:
5013:Mudan incident
5010:
5005:
5000:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4955:
4953:Nian Rebellion
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4929:
4927:
4922:
4918:
4917:
4915:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4838:
4836:
4831:
4825:
4824:
4822:
4821:
4816:
4815:
4814:
4804:
4803:
4802:
4792:
4787:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4766:
4764:
4759:
4752:
4746:
4745:
4737:
4736:
4729:
4722:
4714:
4708:
4707:
4680:
4670:
4655:
4639:
4624:
4613:
4606:
4605:. p. 244.
4599:
4588:
4586:OCLC 300287988
4576:
4551:
4548:
4545:
4544:
4510:
4477:
4451:
4432:
4413:
4404:
4385:
4376:
4357:
4348:
4329:
4320:
4301:
4292:
4273:
4254:
4235:
4216:
4197:
4189:The so-called
4165:
4146:
4127:
4108:
4089:
4066:
4047:
4023:
4016:
3996:
3989:
3969:
3946:
3928:
3910:
3892:
3869:
3856:
3849:
3823:
3816:
3796:
3774:
3767:
3749:
3733:
3726:
3700:
3698: 2718461.
3675:
3668:
3645:
3618:(3): 269–290.
3598:
3591:
3573:
3552:
3545:
3523:
3510:
3490:
3474:
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3424:
3403:
3383:
3376:
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3330:
3287:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3248:
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3205:
3200:
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3190:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3165:
3150:
3147:
3140:
3134:
3133:
3118:
3115:
3100:
3094:
3093:
3078:
3075:
3060:
3053:
3052:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3010:
3007:
3005:
2999:
2998:
2983:
2980:
2973:
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2966:
2951:
2948:
2941:
2935:
2934:
2919:
2916:
2909:
2903:
2902:
2889:
2874:
2871:
2864:
2858:
2857:
2845:
2842:
2835:
2829:
2828:
2816:
2813:
2806:
2800:
2799:
2784:
2781:
2774:
2762:
2761:
2746:
2743:
2736:
2730:
2729:
2714:
2711:
2704:
2698:
2697:
2694:United Kingdom
2682:
2679:
2672:
2665:
2664:
2649:
2646:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2619:
2616:
2609:
2597:
2596:
2581:
2578:
2575:제물포 조약 (濟物浦條約)
2571:
2559:
2558:
2545:
2542:
2535:
2529:
2528:
2526:Joseon dynasty
2516:
2501:
2498:
2495:강화도 조약 (江華島條約)
2491:
2479:
2478:
2475:
2471:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2454:
2451:
2448:
2447:
2407:
2404:
2397:
2379:
2378:
2363:
2360:
2353:
2347:
2346:
2331:
2319:
2316:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2290:
2287:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2261:
2255:
2254:
2251:United Kingdom
2239:
2233:
2232:
2217:
2213:
2212:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2177:
2174:
2167:
2158:
2157:
2155:Ansei Treaties
2151:
2150:
2135:
2132:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2115:United Kingdom
2103:
2100:
2093:
2087:
2086:
2074:
2061:
2058:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2043:Japanese name
2041:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2013:
1998:
1995:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1966:
1963:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1934:
1931:
1924:
1918:
1917:
1902:
1899:United Kingdom
1887:
1884:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1854:
1853:
1837:
1836:
1820:
1819:
1806:
1805:
1789:
1788:
1772:
1771:
1758:
1757:
1741:
1740:
1724:
1723:
1709:
1708:
1705:United Kingdom
1693:
1690:
1683:
1681:Boxer Protocol
1677:
1676:
1664:
1661:
1654:
1641:
1640:
1637:United Kingdom
1625:
1622:
1615:
1609:
1608:
1593:
1590:
1583:
1577:
1576:
1561:
1558:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1529:
1526:
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1513:
1512:
1497:
1494:
1487:
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1480:
1468:
1465:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1436:
1433:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1404:
1401:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1384:United Kingdom
1372:
1369:
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1356:
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1336:
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1303:
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1289:
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1285:United Kingdom
1273:
1270:
1263:
1257:
1256:
1240:
1239:
1223:
1222:
1219:United Kingdom
1206:
1205:
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1190:
1183:
1177:
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1084:
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1039:
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1029:
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1019:United Kingdom
1007:
1004:
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991:
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977:
974:United Kingdom
962:
959:
952:
946:
945:
942:
938:
937:
934:
931:
928:
921:
918:
916:
913:
884:United Kingdom
846:
843:
820:Ansei Treaties
776:
773:
730:Nanjing period
711:Wellington Koo
681:
678:
649:
646:
611:United Kingdom
536:United Kingdom
524:Russian Empire
484:Boxer Protocol
480:Forbidden City
409:Queen Victoria
396:
393:
295:United Kingdom
287:Tokugawa Japan
273:
272:
269:
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249:Transcriptions
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189:Transcriptions
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174:
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137:
131:
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128:Yue: Cantonese
124:
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114:
108:
107:
100:
94:
93:
87:
86:
85:Transcriptions
78:
77:
68:
62:
61:
52:
46:
45:
41:
40:
37:
36:
26:
18:Unequal treaty
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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6111:
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6098:
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6088:
6086:
6085:Manchu people
6083:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6070:
6066:
6064:
6063:
6059:
6057:
6054:
6052:
6051:Canton System
6049:
6047:
6044:
6042:
6039:
6038:
6036:
6032:
6022:
6019:
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6016:Hubu Guanpiao
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5666:Society &
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5632:Summer Palace
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5622:Mukden Palace
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5598:Palaces &
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5438:Eight Banners
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5291:Grand Council
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5111:20th century
5109:
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4921:19th century
4919:
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4678:OCLC 12923609
4675:
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4646:
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4640:
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4636:9780739112083
4633:
4629:
4625:
4623:(3): 399–425.
4622:
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4611:
4607:
4604:
4600:
4598:(2): 137–146.
4597:
4593:
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4587:
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4577:
4575:
4574:OCLC 56493769
4571:
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3990:9781137567772
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3964:, p. 154, at
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3827:
3819:
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3809:
3808:
3800:
3789:September 30,
3784:
3778:
3770:
3768:0-52092-090-2
3764:
3760:
3753:
3747:
3746:0-631-20238-2
3743:
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3669:9780674020313
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3434:Akira Iriye,
3431:
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3407:
3400:
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2945:한일의정서 (韓日議定書)
2942:
2940:
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2920:
2917:
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2900:Korean Empire
2887:
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2556:United States
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2188:United States
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2072:United States
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2040:English name
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2011:
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1123:中俄伊犁塔爾巴哈臺通商章程
1120:
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1115:
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1110:Sweden-Norway
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888:United States
885:
880:
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869:show of force
866:
862:
861:Inoue Yoshika
858:
857:
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842:
840:
836:
831:
829:
823:
821:
817:
813:
809:
808:Harris Treaty
805:
800:
798:
797:Sakoku policy
794:
790:
786:
785:Matthew Perry
782:
779:Prior to the
772:
770:
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569:
565:
564:German Empire
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
503:
501:
497:
493:
485:
481:
477:
472:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
444:Emperor Meiji
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
401:
392:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
369:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
326:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
307:United States
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
270:
258:
256:
252:
247:
243:
235:
233:
229:
226:Japanese name
224:
212:
210:
206:
198:
196:
192:
187:
183:
175:
173:
169:
161:
159:
155:
150:
138:
136:
132:
129:
125:
115:
113:
109:
101:
99:
95:
92:
88:
83:
79:
74:
69:
67:
63:
58:
53:
51:
47:
42:
38:
33:
30:
19:
6105:Treaty ports
6067:
6060:
6034:Other topics
5840:
5807:
5800:
5778:
5766:
5749:
5744:Peiwen Yunfu
5742:
5720:
5713:
5684:
5433:Beiyang Army
5415:Zongli Yamen
5271:Da-Qing Bank
5088:Red Lanterns
4741:Qing dynasty
4694:(2): 46–83.
4691:
4687:
4673:
4662:
4642:
4627:
4620:
4616:
4609:
4602:
4595:
4591:
4580:
4560:
4550:Bibliography
4535:. Retrieved
4523:
4513:
4501:. Retrieved
4489:
4480:
4468:. Retrieved
4464:
4454:
4447:Google Books
4445:, p. 36, at
4440:
4435:
4428:Google Books
4426:, p. 35, at
4421:
4416:
4407:
4400:Google Books
4398:, p. 35, at
4393:
4388:
4379:
4372:Google Books
4370:, p. 35, at
4365:
4360:
4351:
4344:Google Books
4342:, p. 35, at
4337:
4332:
4323:
4316:Google Books
4314:, p. 35, at
4309:
4304:
4295:
4288:Google Books
4286:, p. 34, at
4281:
4276:
4269:Google Books
4267:, p. 32, at
4262:
4257:
4250:Google Books
4248:, p. 32, at
4243:
4238:
4231:Google Books
4229:, p. 32, at
4224:
4219:
4212:Google Books
4210:, p. 32, at
4205:
4200:
4192:
4188:
4187:; excerpt, "
4185:Google Books
4183:, p. 63, at
4179:
4173:
4168:
4161:Google Books
4159:, p. 32, at
4154:
4149:
4142:Google Books
4140:, p. 32, at
4135:
4130:
4123:Google Books
4121:, p. 32, at
4116:
4111:
4104:Google Books
4102:, p. 32, at
4097:
4092:
4084:
4069:
4062:Google Books
4060:, p. 29, at
4055:
4050:
4043:Google Books
4041:, p. 33, at
4037:
4031:
4026:
4006:
3999:
3983:. Springer.
3979:
3972:
3966:Google Books
3960:
3954:
3949:
3943:Google Books
3941:, p. 71, at
3936:
3931:
3925:Google Books
3918:
3913:
3907:Google Books
3905:, p. 30, at
3900:
3895:
3889:Google Books
3887:, p. 17, at
3883:
3877:
3872:
3864:
3859:
3832:
3826:
3806:
3799:
3787:. Retrieved
3777:
3758:
3752:
3736:
3709:
3703:
3687:
3683:
3678:
3658:
3648:
3615:
3611:
3601:
3582:
3576:
3564:. Retrieved
3555:
3532:
3526:
3518:
3513:
3498:
3493:
3485:
3465:. Retrieved
3461:the original
3456:
3447:
3439:
3435:
3411:
3406:
3398:
3363:
3357:
3341:
3303:(2): 46–83.
3300:
3296:
3290:
3278:. Retrieved
3274:
3265:
3241:Puppet state
3233:
3208:Client state
3174:
2630:Qing dynasty
2477:Korean name
2164:
1986:Tanggu Truce
988:Qing dynasty
905:
881:
876:
867:through the
855:
848:
832:
824:
801:
778:
734:
727:
723:
701:back to the
699:
683:
670:
651:
622:missionaries
619:
607:Qing dynasty
596:
591:Immanuel Hsu
588:
540:Guangzhouwan
504:
489:
404:
370:
362:treaty ports
327:
315:treaty ports
291:Joseon Korea
278:
276:
255:Romanization
98:Hanyu Pinyin
44:Chinese name
29:
6041:Aisin Gioro
6003:Paper money
5762:Qing poetry
5483:Wuwei Corps
5478:Shuishiying
5239:Family tree
4668:OCLC 852699
3923:, p. 1, at
3690:: 102–124.
3397:Dong Wang,
3111:정미조약 (丁未條約)
3071:을사조약 (乙巳條約)
2778:한성조약 (漢城條約)
2469:Imposed on
2391: [
2209:Netherlands
2035:Imposed on
1867:Netherlands
1648: [
1351:, also for
936:Imposed on
728:During the
654:World War I
518:(including
508:reparations
500:Sun Yat-sen
460:Port-Arthur
456:Kiao-Tchéou
346:sovereignty
152:Korean name
6125:Categories
5709:Four Wangs
5600:mausoleums
5553:Golden Urn
5526:Inner Asia
5503:Xiang Army
5473:Hushenying
5398:Liangguang
5378:Liangjiang
5316:Lifan Yuan
5221:Government
3420:0195012402
3257:References
2357:日西修好通商航海条約
2313:日墺修好通商航海条約
1960:中日共同防敵軍事協定
791:under the
716:Duan Qirui
684:After the
407:, showing
383:after the
338:Kuomintang
283:Qing China
112:Wade–Giles
5531:Manchuria
5498:Huai Army
5488:Yong Ying
5373:Shaan-Gan
4829:High Qing
4775:Later Jin
4537:March 22,
4532:0362-4331
4503:March 22,
4498:0190-8286
4470:March 22,
3920:pp. 1, 7.
3712:: 23–44.
3640:145055046
3632:0026-749X
3467:April 11,
3317:0162-2889
3234:Normanton
3177:Malaysian
3175:In 2018,
903:in 1895.
767:and 1860
749:Hong Kong
617:in 1842.
609:and the
532:Weihaiwei
528:Hong Kong
522:) to the
450:ruled by
446:dividing
5983:Hongqian
5952:Currency
5822:Treaties
5728:Kaozheng
5675:Booi Aha
5617:Hetu Ala
5570:Timeline
5565:Xinjiang
5536:Mongolia
5493:Chu Army
5468:New Army
5425:Military
5363:Viceroys
4660:(1861).
4558:(2004).
4078:Archived
3935:Auslin,
3917:Auslin,
3899:Auslin,
3656:(2006).
3325:56347789
3236:incident
3192:See also
2466:Imposer
2284:日普修好通商条約
2032:Imposer
1619:展拓香港界址專條
1509:Portugal
933:Imposer
886:and the
660:and the
642:Shanghai
580:Shanghai
568:Tientsin
464:mandarin
441:Japanese
433:Marianne
340:and the
135:Jyutping
5968:Zhiqian
5960:Coinage
5697:Economy
5668:culture
5403:Yun-Gui
5393:Min-Zhe
5388:Sichuan
5383:Huguang
5229:Emperor
4750:History
3961:p. 154.
3566:July 7,
3280:May 22,
2931:Denmark
2886:Belgium
2661:Germany
2460:Treaty
2444:Germany
2300:Prussia
2026:Treaty
1833:Belgium
1785:Germany
1658:廣州灣租界條約
1348:Prussia
927:Treaty
572:Shamian
562:to the
554:to the
534:to the
520:Zhetysu
458:" and "
421:Germany
413:Britain
368:today.
319:tariffs
303:Germany
5582:Taiwan
4758:Early
4743:topics
4651:
4634:
4568:
4530:
4496:
4442:p. 36.
4423:p. 35.
4395:p. 35.
4367:p. 35.
4339:p. 35.
4311:p. 35.
4283:p. 34.
4264:p. 32.
4245:p. 32.
4226:p. 32.
4207:p. 32.
4180:p. 63.
4156:p. 32.
4137:p. 32.
4118:p. 32.
4099:p. 32.
4057:p. 29.
4038:p. 33.
4014:
3987:
3938:p. 71.
3902:p. 30.
3884:p. 17.
3847:
3814:
3765:
3744:
3724:
3666:
3638:
3630:
3589:
3543:
3505:
3440:passim
3418:
3374:
3348:
3323:
3315:
3159:
3127:
3087:
3046:
3019:
2992:
2960:
2928:
2897:
2883:
2826:France
2793:
2755:
2726:Russia
2723:
2691:
2658:
2627:
2590:
2553:
2510:
2441:
2430:Russia
2427:
2417:France
2401:遼東還付条約
2372:
2340:
2271:France
2248:
2229:Russia
2226:
2206:
2185:
2147:Russia
2144:
2112:
2097:日英和親条約
2069:
2055:日米和親条約
2007:
1975:
1943:
1911:
1896:
1864:
1847:
1830:
1799:
1782:
1769:France
1754:Russia
1751:
1734:
1718:
1702:
1674:France
1634:
1605:Russia
1602:
1587:旅大租地条约
1573:Russia
1570:
1538:
1506:
1491:中葡北京條約
1478:France
1448:Russia
1445:
1416:Russia
1413:
1398:里瓦幾亞條約
1381:
1345:
1330:中德通商条约
1316:Russia
1313:
1300:France
1282:
1250:
1236:Russia
1233:
1216:
1203:France
1173:Russia
1170:
1141:Russia
1138:
1094:中瑞廣州條約
1081:France
1048:
1033:中美望廈條約
1016:
985:
971:
865:Joseon
828:Bakufu
671:After
652:After
576:Hankou
558:, the
552:Taiwan
544:France
486:, 1901
437:France
429:Russia
358:tariff
311:Russia
305:, the
299:France
164:불평등 조약
158:Hangul
5774:Queue
5692:Dibao
5548:Tibet
5368:Zhili
5251:Amban
3696:JSTOR
3636:S2CID
3321:S2CID
3162:Japan
3149:1910
3130:Japan
3117:1907
3090:Japan
3077:1905
3049:Japan
3036:1905
3022:Japan
3009:1905
2995:Japan
2982:1904
2963:Japan
2950:1904
2918:1902
2873:1901
2844:1892
2815:1886
2796:Japan
2783:1885
2758:Italy
2745:1884
2713:1884
2681:1883
2648:1883
2618:1882
2593:Japan
2580:1882
2544:1882
2513:Japan
2500:1876
2463:Year
2406:1895
2395:]
2375:Spain
2362:1868
2343:Japan
2318:1868
2289:1861
2176:1858
2134:1855
2102:1854
2060:1854
2029:Year
2010:Japan
1997:1933
1978:Japan
1965:1918
1946:Japan
1933:1915
1886:1914
1881:西姆拉條約
1850:Spain
1802:Italy
1737:Japan
1692:1901
1663:1899
1652:]
1624:1898
1592:1898
1560:1896
1541:Japan
1528:1895
1496:1887
1467:1885
1435:1881
1403:1879
1371:1876
1335:1861
1272:1860
1192:1858
1160:1858
1128:1851
1099:1847
1070:1844
1038:1844
1006:1843
961:1842
930:Year
856:Un'yō
845:Korea
775:Japan
448:China
395:China
381:Japan
238:不平等条約
232:Kanji
178:不平等條約
172:Hanja
73:不平等条约
57:不平等條約
5510:Navy
5351:Ejen
5234:List
4649:ISBN
4632:ISBN
4566:ISBN
4539:2022
4528:ISSN
4505:2022
4494:ISSN
4472:2022
4012:ISBN
3985:ISBN
3845:ISBN
3812:ISBN
3791:2023
3763:ISBN
3742:ISBN
3722:ISBN
3664:ISBN
3628:ISSN
3587:ISBN
3568:2024
3541:ISBN
3503:ISBN
3469:2011
3457:TIME
3416:ISBN
3372:ISBN
3346:ISBN
3313:ISSN
3282:2022
2171:安政条約
2129:下田条約
1992:塘沽協定
1928:二十一條
1687:辛丑條約
1555:中俄密約
1523:馬關條約
1462:中法新約
1430:伊犁條約
1366:煙臺條約
1267:北京條約
1187:天津條約
1155:璦琿條約
1065:黃埔條約
1001:虎門條約
956:南京條約
636:and
550:and
530:and
514:and
474:The
439:and
375:and
332:and
309:and
289:and
277:The
4696:doi
3837:doi
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